Enabling the Internet of Things:

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Muhammad Azhar Iqbal
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Enabling the Internet of Things:
Fundamentals, Design, and Applications
Enabling the Internet of Things:
Fundamentals, Design, and Applications

Muhammad Azhar Iqbal

Southwest Jiaotong University, China

Sajjad Hussain
University of Glasgow, UK

Huanlai Xing
Southwest Jiaotong University, China

Muhammad Ali Imran

University of Glasgow, UK


This edition first published 2021
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Iqbal, Muhammad Azhar, author. | Hussain, Sajjad,
author. | Huanlai, Xing, author. | Imran, Muhammad Ali, author.
Title: Enabling the internet of things : fundamentals, design, and
applications / Muhammad Azhar Iqbal, Sajjad Hussain, Huanlai Xing,
Muhammad Ali Imran.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2021. | Series: Wiley ‐
IEEE | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020040726 (print) | LCCN 2020040727 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119701255 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119701477 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119701484 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Internet of things.
Classification: LCC TK5105.8857 .I77 2021 (print) | LCC TK5105.8857
(ebook) | DDC 004.67/8‐‐dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020040726
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020040727

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: © ivanastar/Getty Images

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Chennai, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 v

­Contents

About the Authors xiii

Preface xv
Acknowledgments xix

1 Internet of Things (IoT) Fundamentals 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Evolution of IoT Concept 2
1.3 ­IoT Vision 3
1.4 ­IoT Definition 5
1.5 ­IoT Basic Characteristics 6
1.6 ­IoT Distinction 7
1.6.1 IoT Versus Embedded Systems 7
1.6.2 IoT Versus M2M 7
1.6.3 IoT Versus CPS 7
1.6.4 IoT Versus WSN 8
1.6.5 IoT Versus WoT 8
1.7 ­IoT General Enablers 9
1.7.1 Identification and Sensing Technologies 10
1.7.2 Wireless Communication and Networking 11
1.7.3 Aggregation Standardization 14
1.7.4 Augmented Intelligence 14
1.7.5 Augmented Behavior 15
1.8 ­IoT Architectures 16
1.8.1 Three-layer IoT Architecture 17
1.8.1.1 Perception Layer 17
1.8.1.2 Network Layer 18
1.8.1.3 Application Layer 18
1.8.2 Five-Layer IoT Architecture 19
1.8.2.1 Object (Perception) Layer 19
1.8.2.2 Object Abstraction (Network) Layer 19
1.8.2.3 Service Management (Middleware) Layer 19
1.8.2.4 Application Layer 19
vi Contents

1.8.2.5 Business Layer 19

1.8.3 Six-layer Architecture 20
1.8.3.1 Focus Layer 21
1.8.3.2 Cognizance Layer 21
1.8.3.3 Transmission Layer 21
1.8.3.4 Application Layer 21
1.8.3.5 Infrastructure Layer 21
1.8.3.6 Competence Business Layer 21
1.8.4 Seven-layer Architecture 21
1.8.4.1 Layer 1: Things Layer 21
1.8.4.2 Layer 2: Connectivity 21
1.8.4.3 Layer 3: Edge/Fog Computing 22
1.8.4.4 Layer 4: Data Accumulation 23
1.8.4.5 Layer 5: Data Abstraction Layer 23
1.8.4.6 Level 6: Application Layer 23
1.8.4.7 Layer 7: Collaboration and Processes 23
1.9 ­Advantages and Disadvantages of IoT 23
Review Questions 23
­References 25

2 IoT Building Blocks – Hardware and Software 29

2.1 ­IoT Building Blocks 29
2.2 ­The Smart Things 29
2.2.1 Smart Thing Sensor 30
2.2.2 Smart Thing Communicator 31
2.2.3 Smart Thing Actuator 31
2.2.4 Smart Thing Controller 32
2.2.4.1 Microcontroller (MCU) 32
2.2.4.2 Development Boards 32
2.2.4.3 Packet Tracer and MCUs 33
2.2.5 Smart Thing Capabilities 36
2.3 ­The IoT Gateway 38
2.4 ­Network Infrastructure 39
2.5 ­IoT Cloud 39
2.5.1 Virtual Resource Pool 39
2.5.2 Application Server 39
2.5.3 Database Servers 40
2.5.4 Load-balancing Servers 41
2.6 ­IoT Analytics 41
2.6.1 IoT Analytics – Tools and Techniques 42
2.6.2 IoT Analytics Life Cycle 43
2.7 ­IoT Applications 43
Review Questions 43
­References 45
 Contents vii

3 Sensing Principles and Wireless Sensor Network 49

3.1 ­Sensor Fundamentals 49
3.2 ­Sensor Classification 51
3.2.1 Simple (Direct) Sensor Versus Complex Sensor 51
3.2.2 Active Sensors Versus Passive Sensors 51
3.2.3 Contact Sensors Versus Noncontact Sensors 52
3.2.4 Absolute Sensors and Relative Sensors 52
3.2.5 Digital Sensors Versus Analog Sensors (Based on Output) 52
3.2.6 Scalar Sensor Versus Vector Sensors (Based on Data Types) 52
3.3 ­Anatomy of Sensors 52
3.4 ­Physical Principles of Sensing 53
3.4.1 Capacitance 53
3.4.1.1 Examples of Capacitive Sensors 55
3.4.2 Magnetism and Induction 57
3.4.2.1 Magnetic Sensing Examples 59
3.4.3 Electric Resistance and Resistivity 60
3.4.3.1 Resistive Sensor Applications 61
3.4.4 Piezoelectric Effect 61
3.5 ­Use of Basic Sensing Principles in RFID Technology 61
3.6 ­Actuators 62
3.7 ­Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) 63
3.7.1 WSN Architecture 63
3.7.2 Types of WSNs 64
3.7.3 General Characteristics of WSNs 64
3.7.4 Protocol Stack of WSNs 65
3.7.4.1 Physical Layer 65
3.7.4.2 Data Link Layer (DLL) 66
3.7.4.3 Network Layer 68
3.7.4.4 Transport Layer 68
3.7.4.5 Application Layer 69
3.7.4.6 Cross-layer WSN Protocols 69
3.7.5 WSN Operating Systems 69
3.7.5.1 WSN OS Design Issues 71
Review Questions 72
­References 72

4 IoT Gateway 75
4.1 ­The IoT Gateway 75
4.2 ­Sensing Domain and IoT Gateways 77
4.3 ­The Architecture of IoT Gateway 79
4.3.1 Hardware Layer of IoT Gateway 79
4.3.2 OS Layer of IoT Gateway 80
4.3.3 Hardware Abstraction Layer 80
4.3.4 Data Forwarding Layer 80
viii Contents

4.3.5 Service Abstraction Layer 81

4.3.6 Manageability Layer 81
4.3.7 Security Layer 81
4.3.8 Application Layer 81
4.4 ­Selection of IoT Gateway 81
4.4.1 Nature of IoT System Architecture 81
4.4.2 Multiple Network Connectivity Support 82
4.4.3 Data Storage Capacity 82
4.4.4 Development Environment 82
4.4.5 Robust Security Mechanism 82
4.4.6 External Hardware Watchdog Timer 83
4.4.7 Time Synchronization 83
4.4.8 Firmware Update 83
4.4.9 LED Indication and Remote Reboot 83
4.4.10 Support for Legacy Equipment 83
4.4.11 Standard Protocol Support 83
4.4.12 Gateway Certification 83
4.4.13 Control of Low Power Footprint 84
4.4.14 Support for Edge Computing 84
4.5 ­IoT Gateways and Edge Computing 84
4.5.1 Benefits of Edge Computing 84
4.5.2 Use Cases of Edge Computing 85
4.5.2.1 Smart Home 85
4.5.2.2 Cooperative Safety Smart Vehicles 86
4.5.2.3 Provisioning of Infotainment Services for Smart Vehicles 86
4.5.2.4 Online Shopping Service 86
4.5.2.5 Healthcare and Collaborative Edge 86
4.5.2.6 Video Monitoring and Analysis 87
4.5.2.7 Smart City 87
4.5.2.8 Security Surveillance 87
4.5.2.9 Retail Advertising 87
4.5.3 Challenges of Edge Computing-based IoT Systems 87
4.5.3.1 System Integration 88
4.5.3.2 Resource Management 88
4.5.3.3 Security and Privacy 88
4.5.3.4 Heterogenous Communication 88
4.5.3.5 Data Analysis Support for Smart Systems 88
4.6 ­IoT Gateway Providers 89
Review Questions 89
­References 90

5 IoT Protocol Stack 93

5.1 ­IoT Protocol Stack 93
5.2 ­IoT Protocols 95
 Contents ix

5.2.1
Infrastructure Protocols 95
5.2.1.1
EPCglobal 95
5.2.1.2
Z-wave 96
5.2.1.3
Long-term Evolution – Advanced (LTE-A) 97
5.2.1.4
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) 97
5.2.1.5
IEEE 802.15.4 97
5.2.1.6
IEEE 802.11ah 98
5.2.1.7
ZigBee 100
6LoWPAN 102
5.2.1.8
Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) 102
5.2.1.9
Service Discovery Protocols 104
5.2.2
Multicast Domain Name System (mDNS) 104
5.2.2.1
DNS Service Discovery (DNS-SD) 104
5.2.2.2
Application Layer Protocols 105
5.2.3
Data Distribution Service (DDS) 105
5.2.3.1
Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT) 105
5.2.3.2
Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) 111
5.2.3.3
Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP) 116
5.2.3.4
eXtensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) 119
5.2.3.5
Review Questions 123
­References 124

6 IoT Cloud and Fog Computing 127

6.1 ­IoT Cloud 127
6.1.1 Cloud Computing for IoT 129
6.1.2 IoT Cloud Architecture 129
6.1.2.1 Virtual Resource Pool 130
6.1.2.2 Application Server 130
6.1.2.3 Database Servers 131
6.1.2.4 Load-balancing Servers 131
6.1.3 Application Domains of IoT Cloud Platforms 134
6.2 ­Fog Computing for IoT 135
6.2.1 Difference from Related Computing Paradigms 136
6.2.1.1 Edge Computing 136
6.2.1.2 Mobile Edge Computing (MEC) 136
6.2.2 Architecture of Fog Computing 137
6.2.2.1 Physical and Virtualization Layer 137
6.2.2.2 Monitoring Layer 137
6.2.2.3 Preprocessing Layer 137
6.2.2.4 Temporary Storage Layer 137
6.2.2.5 Security Layer 137
6.2.2.6 Transport Layer 139
6.2.3 Fog Deployment Models 139
6.2.4 Fog Service Models 140
x Contents

6.3 ­Case Study – Vehicles with Fog Computing 140

6.3.1 VANETs and Fog Computing 140
6.3.2 Dynamic Traffic Light Signal Management 141
6.3.3 Parking System 142
6.3.4 Content Distribution 143
6.3.5 Decision Support System 143
Review Questions 143
­References 144

7 IoT Applications 147

7.1 ­Application Domains of IoT 147
7.2 ­IoT and Smart Home 147
7.2.1 IoT-based Smart Home Framework 148
7.3 ­IoT and Healthcare 150
7.4 ­IoT and Smart Mobility 153
7.4.1 Car Parking System 156
7.5 ­IoT and Agriculture 159
7.5.1 Major Instances of Crop Growth and IoT 159
7.5.2 IoT Architecture of Smart Agriculture 160
7.6 ­Smart Grid 162
7.7 ­IoT-based Smart Cities 164
7.8 ­IoT and Smart Education 167
7.9 ­Industrial IoT 168
Review Questions 168
­References 170

8 IoT Security 173

8.1 ­IoT Systems and Security Constraints 173
8.1.1 IoT Security Constraints Based on Hardware Limitations 175
8.1.2 IoT Security Constraints Based on Software Limitations 176
8.1.3 IoT Security Constraints Based on Communication Limitations 176
8.2 ­IoT Security Requirements 176
8.2.1 Information-level Security Requirements 176
8.2.2 Access-level Security Requirements 177
8.2.3 Functional Security Requirements 177
8.3 ­Security Challenges 177
8.4 ­Taxonomy of IoT Security Threats/Attacks 178
8.4.1 IoT Security Attacks Based on Device Category 178
8.4.2 Attacks Based on Access Level 178
8.4.3 Attacks Based on Attacker’s Location 178
8.4.4 Attacks Based on Attack Strategy 178
8.4.5 Attacks Based on Information Damage Level 180
8.4.6 Host-based IoT Attacks 180
8.4.7 Protocol-based Attacks 180
 Contents xi

8.5 ­IoT Architecture and IoT Security 180

8.5.1 Perception Layer Security 180
8.5.2 Network Layer Security 183
8.5.3 IoT Application Layer Security 185
8.5.3.1 Security Threats at Support Layer of IoT Applications 185
8.5.3.2 Security Threats at Service Layer of IoT Applications 185
8.6 ­Multilayer Security Attacks 186
8.7 ­IoT Application Scenarios and IoT Security 186
8.7.1 Smart Home Security 186
8.7.2 Smart Healthcare Security 187
8.7.3 Smart Vehicle Security 189
8.7.4 Smart City Security/Privacy Concerns 190
Review Questions 190
References 192

9 Social IoT 195

9.1 ­Smart Things to Social Things 195
9.2 ­The Epitome of SIoT 196
9.3 ­Smart Thing Relationships in SIoT 197
9.4 ­SIoT Architecture 198
9.4.1 SIoT Server 198
9.4.1.1 The Network Layer of SIoT Server 199
9.4.1.2 The Application Layer of SIoT Server 199
9.4.1.3 The Interface Sublayer 200
9.4.2 The SIoT Gateway and Social Things 200
9.5 ­Features of SIoT System 200
9.6 ­Social Internet of Vehicles (SIoV) – An Example Use Case of SIoT 201
9.6.1 Reference Architecture of VANETs 201
9.6.2 Reference Architecture of IoV 203
9.6.2.1 Differences in Communication Standards 203
9.6.3 Reference Architecture of SIoV 205
9.6.3.1 Vehicle-Object Perception Layer (VOPL) 205
9.6.3.2 The IoV Gateway Layer 208
9.6.3.3 The Fog Layer 209
9.6.3.4 The Vehicular Cloud Layer 209
9.7 ­SIoV Application Services 209
Review Questions 210
­References 210

10 Packet Tracer and IoT 213

10.1 ­IoT and Packet Tracer 213
10.2 ­Packet Tracer Programming Environment 214
10.3 ­Visual (Blockly) Programming Language 216
10.3.1 Hello World Program 217
xii Contents

10.4 ­Simple Smart Light Project 219

10.4.1 Adding Devices to Workspace 222
10.4.2 Connecting Devices 224
10.4.3 Using Program Blocks and Pin Access 227
­References 234

11 IoT Projects in Packet Tracer 235

11.1 ­IoT Projects in Packet Tracer 235
11.2 ­Smart Things Directly Connected with Gateways 235
11.3 ­Smart Things and Sensors Directly Connected with MCUs (Without
Gateways) 237
11.3.1 Adding Devices to Workspace 240
11.3.2 Connecting Devices Together 241
11.3.3 Blockly Programming for Smart Room 242
Review Questions 255

Index 259
 xiii

About the Authors

Muhammad Azhar Iqbal received his MS degree in Computer

Software Engineering from the National University of Sciences
and Technology, Pakistan, in 2007 and completed his PhD in
Communication and Information Systems from Huazhong
University of Science and Technology, China, in 2012. Currently,
he is working as Lecturer in School of Information Science and
Technology at Southwest Jiaotong University, China. Previously,
he has served as Associate Professor in Computer Science
department at Capital University of Science and Technology,
Pakistan. He has experience of teaching various basic and
advanced courses related to the domain of computing and
mobile/wireless communication and networks. His research interests include wireless ad
hoc networks, Internet of Things (IoT), and large-scale simulation modeling and analysis
of computer networks in Cloud.

Sajjad Hussain is a Senior Lecturer in Electronics and

Electrical Engineering at the University of Glasgow, UK. He has
served previously at Electrical Engineering Department, Capital
University of Science and Technology (CUST), Islamabad,
Pakistan as Associate Professor. Sajjad Hussain did his masters
in Wireless Communications in 2006 from Supelec, Gif-sur-
Yvette and PhD in Signal Processing and Communications in
2009 from University of Rennes 1, Rennes, France. His research
interests include 5G self-organizing networks, industrial wire-
less sensor networks and machine learning for wireless com-
munications. Sajjad Hussain is a senior member IEEE and
fellow Higher Education Academy.
xiv About the Authors

Huanlai Xing, received his B.Eng. degree in communica-

tions engineering from Southwest Jiaotong University,
Chengdu, China, in 2006; his M.Eng. degree in electromag-
netic fields and wavelength technology from Beijing University
of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing, China, in 2009; and
his PhD degree in computer science from University of
Nottingham, Nottingham, UK, in 2013. He is an Associate
Professor with School of Information Science and Technology,
Southwest Jiaotong University. His research interests include
edge and cloud computing, network function virtualization,
software defined networking, and evolutionary computation.

Muhammad Ali Imran Fellow IET, Senior Member

IEEE, Senior Fellow HEA is Dean University of
Glasgow UESTC and a Professor of Wireless
Communication Systems with research interests in
self organised networks, wireless networked control
systems and the wireless sensor systems. He heads
the Communications, Sensing and Imaging CSI
research group at University of Glasgow and is the
Director of Glasgow-UESTC Centre for Educational
Development and Innovation. He is an Affiliate
Professor at the University of Oklahoma, USA and a
visiting Professor at 5G Innovation Centre, University of Surrey, UK. He has over 20
years of combined academic and industry experience with several leading roles in
multi-million pounds funded projects. He has filed 15 patents; has authored/co-
authored over 400 journal and conference publications; has edited 7 books and authored
more than 30 book chapters; has successfully supervised over 40 postgraduate students
at Doctoral level. He has been a consultant to international projects and local compa-
nies in the area of self-organised networks.
 xv

­Preface

Objectives

The emerging paradigm of Internet‐of‐Things (IoT) plays a consequential role to improve

almost all aspects of human life, i.e. domestic automation, transportation, education,
health, agriculture, industry, etc. The simple conception of IoT as a network of identifiable
connected smart things is fundamentally based on the integration of various diversified
technologies including pervasive computing, sensor technology, embedded system, com-
munication technologies, sensor networking, Internet protocols, etc. for the provisioning
of intelligent computing services. In our experience we have noticed that although the
simple idea of IoT is easy to comprehend, at the undergraduate level, students are unable
to describe the importance and placement of IoT components in an IoT system. This book
tries to provide the basic, precise, and accurate demonstration of IoT building blocks as
well as their role in various IoT systems. The objective of this book is to provide a good
starting point for undergraduate students who have basic prior knowledge of Internet
architecture. At an abstract level, this book is an effort to partially fill the gap associated
with the understanding of IoT concepts through the designing of the IoT system prototypes
in Packet Tracer. We believe that after implementing IoT system prototypes in Packet
Tracer, students will find it easier to grasp complete details of IoT systems.

Key Feature

Concerning the building of IoT foundations, this book can be used as a textbook at the
undergraduate level. The key feature of this book is that it targets core aspects of IoT and
provides its readership a better perspective both in terms of basic understanding of IoT
technologies as well as the designing of IoT systems in Packet Tracer. To the best of our
knowledge, this book can be considered as the first attempt to design simple IoT systems
using Blockly programming language.
xvi ­Prefac

Audience

This book is suitable for undergraduate students enrolled in the IoT course. This book
assumes that the reader has a good understanding of Computer Networks and basic pro-
gramming concepts. Students are comprehensively facilitated in this book to explain IoT
essentials besides the guidance of designing IoT systems in Packet Tracer.

Approach

At the end of each chapter, review questions in the form of case studies have been asked to
explore students’ clarity about IoT concepts discussed in that particular chapter. In this
book, the design and implementation of IoT systems at an abstract level are presented in
Blockly language.

Organization of the Book

To address the issues related to the understanding of IoT fundamentals at the undergradu-
ate level, this book is structured as follows:
Chapter 1 is exclusively written to introduce the evolution, vision, definition, characteris-
tics, enablers, architectures of the IoT paradigm, and its distinction from other related
technologies. This chapter builds the foundation for the understanding of IoT systems
and is considered a prerequisite for the following chapters.
The primary focus of Chapter 2 is to establish an understanding of the IoT building blocks
along with the necessary details related to various IoT hardware and software technolo-
gies. Besides, this chapter also provides a concise design and implementation perspective
of IoT systems in Packet Tracer.
The contents of Chapter 3 are oriented along the lines of sensing principles and under-
standing of various aspects related to the design and implementation of wireless sensors
and sensor networks. The layer‐level functionality of wireless sensor networks in this
chapter explains the effective communication requirements of sensors in IoT systems.
Chapter 4 describes the basics of IoT gateways in terms of its architecture and functionali-
ties. In addition, this chapter also elaborates how IoT gateways having advanced features
of data filtering and analytics support Edge computing and how Edge computing‐based
solutions provide benefits to specific IoT‐based real‐life applications.
Chapter 5 discusses the mapping of IoT protocols to layered IoT architecture and provides
in‐depth details of various infrastructure, service discovery, and application layer proto-
cols of IoT protocol stack in terms of their functionality and usage in a real‐life scenario.
Chapter 6 focuses on the description and explanation of components and employment of
Cloud and Fog architectures in different IoT systems.
Chapter 7 introduces real‐life application domains (i.e. domestic automation, smart trans-
portation, smart agriculture and farming, smart manufacturing and industry
 ­Prefac xvii

automation, energy conservation, etc.) where the IoT technologies play a vital role to
improve the standard of human life through the automation of these systems.
In Chapter 8, the classification of IoT attacks, as well as constraints and requirements of
IoT systems, are discussed. Moreover, the discussion about security threats at each layer
of IoT architecture is also the part of this chapter.
Chapter 9 illustrates the nature of social relationships between IoT devices, explains the
functionality of the components of social IoT architecture, and provides an understand-
ing of the applicability of social aspects of smart devices in IoT applications.
Chapters 10 and 11 are devoted to the design and implementation details of IoT projects in
Packet Tracer exploiting constructs of Blockly programming language.
 xix

Acknowledgments

We want to appreciate the efforts of the reviewing team at Wiley publishers for providing
us the feedback and opportunity to publish this book. We would like to acknowledge the
cooperation extended by our colleagues at Southwest Jiaotong University, China and the
University of Glasgow, United Kingdom. We would also like to thank our students Sana
Aurengzeb and Muhammad Talha (at Capital University of Science and Technology,
Pakistan) for providing their support for the implementation of IoT system prototypes in
Packet Tracer, which are part of Chapters 10 and 11 of this book. Finally, we want to
acknowledge the most important contribution of our families for showing patience and
understanding for the time we spent away from them while writing this book.
 1

Internet of Things (IoT) Fundamentals

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, students will be able to:
• describe the evolution of the IoT concept.
• state the vision and definition of IoT.
• explain the basic characteristics of IoT.
• distinguish the IoT from other related technologies.
• elaborate the IoT enablers.
• explain the IoT architectures.
• articulate the pros and cons of IoT.
• apply the IoT architecture concepts for specific IoT applications.
• understand the implementation aspect of IoT architecture.

1.1 ­Introduction

In our daily lives, the augmented practice of Information and Communication Technologies
(ICT) plays a paramount role in the development of emerging information societies. In
developed countries, ICT is being employed to develop various innovative applications and
services to address the challenges of sustainable societies, thus improving the quality of
human lives. In the modern era, a plethora of things are being connected to each other
using underlying network technologies with an aim to promote the paradigm of the
Internet of Things (IoT). IoT is a network of uniquely identifiable connected things (also
known as devices, objects, and items) offering intelligent computing services [1]. Things in
IoT are also known as Smart Things that provide feasibility in performing the execution of
daily life operations in a rational way. Moreover, IoT also positively assists the communica-
tion process among human beings. IoT comprises diversified technologies including perva-
sive computing, sensor technology, embedded system, communication technologies,
sensor networking, Internet protocols, etc. which eventually underpin the economic
growth of modern societies. The fundamental notion behind IoT is the provision of seam-
less ubiquitous connectivity among things and human beings. The basic idea of IoT

Enabling the Internet of Things: Fundamentals, Design, and Applications, First Edition.
Muhammad Azhar Iqbal, Sajjad Hussain, Huanlai Xing, and Muhammad Ali Imran.
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
2 1 Internet of Things (IoT) Fundamentals

Any Thing
i ce

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y
D

W
y Co
An

he
g n
tin ne

re
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e
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lle
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ct
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n
s An
es yC
sin u on
yB tex
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Figure 1.1 The concept of As and Cs in the IoT.

can be conceived as a representation of various As and Cs, as shown in Figure 1.1 [2]. In
Figure 1.1, the As reflect the concept of ubiquity or globalization (i.e. any device, anywhere,
anytime, any network etc.) and the Cs mirror the main characteristics of IoT (i.e. connec-
tivity, computing, convergence, etc.). IoT, in essence, can be seen as an addition of the third
dimension named “Thing” to the plane of ICT world, which is fundamentally based on two
dimensions of Place and Time as shown in Figure 1.2. This “anything” dimension ulti-
mately boosts the ubiquity by enabling new forms of communication of humans and things
and between things themselves [3].

1.2 ­Evolution of IoT Concept

The concept of ubiquitous computing through smart devices dates back to the early 1980s
when a Coke machine at Carnegie Mellon University was connected to the Internet and
able to report its inventory of cold drinks [4, 5]. Similarly, Mark Weiser in 1991 [6] provided
the contemporary vision of IoT through the terminologies of ubiquitous computing and
pervasive computing. Raji in 1994 elaborated the concept of home appliance automation to
entire factories [7]. In 1999, Bill Joy presented six web frameworks wherein device‐to‐device
communication could be formed [8]. Neil Gershenfeld in 1999 used a similar notion in his
popular book When Things Start to Think [9]. In the same year, the term “Internet of
Things” was promoted by Kevin Ashton during his work on Radio Frequency Identification
(RFID) infrastructure at the Auto‐ID Center of Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) [10]. In 2002, Kevin was quoted in Forbes Magazine with his saying “We need an
Internet for things, a standardized way for computers to understand the real world” [11].
The article was entitled as The Internet of Things, which was the first‐ever official docu-
ment with the use of this term in a literal sense.
The evolution of IoT with reference to the technological progress in Internet concep-
tion is shown in Figure 1.3. The typical Internet introduced in the early 1990s was
only concerned with the generation of static and dynamic contents on the World
Wide Web (WWW). Later on, large‐scale production and enterprise‐level business
 1.3 ­IoT Vision 3

Any Thing
Connection

– Day
– Human to Human – Night
– Things to Things – 24/7
– Human to Things
– Things to Human Any Time
Connection

– Outdoor
– Indoor
– On Move
Any Place
Connection

Figure 1.2 Thing as a new dimension to endorse IoT. Source: Peña-López [3].

Pre-Internet Internet of Contents Internet of Services Internet of People IoT

M2M
Telephone WWW Web 2.0 Social Web WSN
SMS WoT

Figure 1.3 Technological progression in IoT.

collaborations initiated the creation of web services which laid the foundation of Web
2.0. Nevertheless, with the proliferation of affordable smartphones and tablets, social
network apps become dominant on the Internet. In current situation, advancements in
embedded system, Machine‐to‐Machine (M2M) communication, Cyber Physical Systems
(CPS), Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), and Web of Things (WoT) technology enabled
the communication of things over the Internet. The overall technological progression
related to IoT is shown in Figure 1.3.

1.3 ­IoT Vision

The conventional WWW offers the convenience of information searching, e‐mail conversa-
tion, and social networking. The emerging trend of IoT comes up with a vision of expand-
ing these abilities through interactions with a wide spectrum of electronic appliances. In
general, the IoT vision can be seen in terms of things centric and Internet centric. The
things‐centric vision encompasses the advancements of all technologies related to
the notion of “Smart Things.” On the other hand, the Internet‐centric vision involves the
advancement of network technologies to establish the connection of interactive smart
things with the storage, integration, and management of generated data. Based on these
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