OF aT=Tanl 140) Detailed contents Sub-topic 1 Characteristic properties of acids and bases.... Sub-topic 2 Preparation of salts. Sub-topic 3. Types of oxides Sub-topic 4 Qualitative analysis. Summary ca Revision exercises Assessment exercises ... Sub-topic 1 Relative masses... Sub-topic 2 The mole Summary Revision exercises Assessment exercises Sub-topic 1 Rates of chemical reactions Summary ; Revision exercises Assessment exercises The Periodic Table Sub-topic 1 Groups and periods... Sub-topic 2 Groups and periodic trends.... Sub-topic 3 Transition metal elements.. Summary Revision exercises Assessment exer 102Chemistry: Acids, bases and salts _ Characteris! Describe acids and bases (or alkalis) in terms of the ions they properties of | contain or produce in aqueous solution. acids and | + Describe the meaning of weak, strong, dilute and concentrated bases acids and alkalis. * Describe the pH scale. » * Describe neutrality, acidity and alkalinity in terms of pH value. + Determine the pH value of a solution. + Demonstrate the characteristic properties of acids. * Demonstrate the characteristic properties of bases. llustrate the importance of acid-base reactions. State the uses of acids and bases. } Preparation Describe a salt. of salts * Classify salts according to their nature and solubility in water. * Demonstrate the preparation of an insoluble satt. * Demonstrate the preparation of a soluble salt. * Demonstrate the preparation of ammonium, potassium and ‘sodium salts, * Demonstrate the existence of hydrated salts and differentiate from anhydrous salts. Describe the behaviour of salts with reference to the atmosphere. Types of * Describe the various types of oxides. oxides: Qualitative * Demonstrate the identity of aqueous cations and anions. analysis * Demonstrate the identity of gases. (for sub-topics 1 and 2) Answer the following questions in pairs: 1. Vinegar and lemon juice are examples of acids we find in our homes. a) List some of the characteristics that these acids have in common. b) Name some other acids that we use in everyday life. 103 ‘Topic 6 Chemistry: Acids, bases and salts2. The soaps that we use to wash ourselves, our clothes and our dishes are all examples of bases that we find in our homes. a) Describe the taste, smell and feel that these bases have in common. b) Name some other bases that we use in everyday life. 3. Look at some labels of soaps and foodstuff in your home. Write down the names of substances that you think are acids and those that you think are bases. Give the chemical name of the everyday salt that we use to cook with. Identify at least five common foodstuffs that have a sour taste. Explain how these acids are used and in which substances they are found. (for sub-topics 3 and 4) Answer the following questions in pairs: 1. Look at the picture of the rusted metal Jocks and chains. Some metals rust when they are exposed to the oxygen in air. a) Make a list of a few items that you know carvand do rust. b) How do you know when something has rusted? (What colour Is it?) ©) Can a rusted object be restored? (In. other words, can the rust be removed?) d) Think of two ways in which we can protect metals from rust. 2. Name the greenhouse gas that is released from the exhaust systems of cars and through the burning of fossil fuels. 3. When table salt is placed in water, it is called a salt solution. When sand is placed in water, it is called a mixture. a) Describe the differences between a mixture and a solution. b) Describe a method to separate: i) the salt from the water ii) the sand from the water. 4. A solution is composed of two substances, a solvent and a solute. In a sugar-water solution: a) Which substance is the solvent? b) Which substance is the solute? Pp 104 topic 6 Chemistry: Acids, bases and saltsnF Characteristic properties Of acids and bases Acids Acids are not always dangerous substances that must be handled with care. In fact, we regularly eat different acids: ethanoic acid gives vinegar its sour taste; citrus fruits, such as lemons, grapefruit and oranges, have citric acid in the juice; and dairy products such as sour milk and yogurt contain lactic acid. The general characteristics (or properties) of acids are as follow: * Acids have a sour taste. * Acids are corrosive (strong acids are dangerous and can burn the skin). * Acids are neutralized by bases. acid: a substance that forms a hydrogen ion when itis dissolved in water hydrogen ion: H (aq) is the positively charged ion of hydrogen (H) that is formed when one electron is removed from a hydrogen atom; it is found in all aqueous solutions of acids ‘aqueous solution: a solution in which a substance is dissolved in water ‘ ionizes: becomes an ion Figure 1 Sour milk, yogurt and cottage cheese contain lactic acid. An acid is a substance that forms a hydrogen Some common acids found in jon (H" (aq)) when it dissolves in water. This the laboratory forms an aqueous solution of hydrogen ions. ‘The acids that we use in the laboratory are all queous solutions of acids. rhen an acid is dissolved in water, it ionizes to form a positively charged hydrogen ion and a ratte acid HNO, ‘negatively charged ion. We can write a = generalized equation of an acid that ionises in _| ethanoic acid CH,COOH water, like th HX ~ H" (aq) + X" (aq) me acid | HCI sulphuric acid | H,SO, Sub-topic 1 Characteristic properties of acids and bases. 105We can apply this generalized equation to real examples: * HCl (aq) > H* (aq) + CI" (aq) (hydrogen ions and chloride ions) * HNO, (aq) > H* (aq) + NO* (aq) (hydrogen ions and nitrate ions) * H,SO, (aq) > 2H" (aq) + SO? (aq) (hydrogen ions and sulphate ions) But, the hydrogen ion does not stay like this in the solution. It quickly bonds with the water to form a hydronium ion (H,0'). This is the ion that gives an acid all of its properties. HX + H,0 (1) > H,0* (aq) + X" (aq) We can apply this to the real examples above: * HCl @q) + H,0 () + H,0° aq) + Cr (aq) (hydronium ions and chloride ions) * HNO, (aq) + H,0 () + H,0° (aq) + NO; (aq) __(hydronium ions and nitrate ions) * H,SO, (aq) + 2H,0 @ - 2H,0* (aq) + S02 (aq) (hydronium ions and sulphate iors) Bases (and alkalis) Bases are the opposite of acids. Many of them Rua are useful, too. Washing soda (sodium carbonate) is found in various soaps; quick lime _hydronium ion: the ion that forms (calcium hydroxide) is used to make cement; when a hydrogen ion bonds to a and baking soda (bicarbonate of soda) is-used in __Water molecule; this is the common baking. A base that is soluble in water is called fom ot he pa oa an alkali Sapo een base: a substance that forms a The general characteristics (or properties) of —_yydroxide ion when itis dissolved alkalis are as follows: in water ¢ Alkalis have a bitter taste. alkali; a base that is dissolved in * Alkalis have a soapy or slippery feel. water, and that forms a hydroxide * Alkalis are corrosive (strong alkalis are very ae reall Wee ra wk tt ot dangerous and can burn the skin). Ghent tee ieee * Alkalis are neutralized by acids. hae Some common alkalis een frouucl ammonia NH, sodium hydroxide (soda ash) | NaOH potassium hydroxide (pot ash) | KOH magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH), calcium hydroxide Ca(OH), Figure 2 Washing powder barium hydroxide Ba(OH), contains the base, sodium carbonate. 106 Topic 6 chemistry: Acids, bases and satsale) A base is a substance that forms a hydroxide ion (OH™ (aq)) when it dissolves in water. Sometimes, the hydroxide ion is formed because the base is an ionic substance that already contains a hydroxide ion, such as NaOH: NaOH (aq) > Na’ (aq) + OH" (aq) Sometimes, the hydroxide ion is produced because of © the reaction between the base and water: NHs(eq) + = HO) —>» NHi(@q) + =O faq) ‘We can use examples from the table on the previous page to show the relationship between bases and alkalis. A metal oxide (a base) reacts with water to produce a hydroxide (an alkali), which then releases a hydroxide ion in solution: CaO (s) + H,0 (l) > Ca(OH), (aq) id Ca(OH), (aq) > Ca* (aq) + 20H" (aq) jut, only the oxides of metals from Groups 1 \d 2 of the Periodic Table are soluble in water. opper is a transition metal, and it can form an Figure 3 The base, calcium ‘de, but copper oxide is not soluble in water. oxide, is a key ingredient in erefore, it cannot form an alkali. cement. Acid and base reactions omplete the following on your own. Identify the highlighted substance as an id or a base and complete the reaction in each case. 1, HCI+H,O>.. 2, HS+H,O>...+ 3. Mg(@OH), = Me es 4. HClO, +H,O >... + 5, AIOH), >... +. 6. MgO+H,0 >.. he strength of acids and bases rong and weak acids trong acids are acids that completely ionize in water to form hydronium ions. This ans that every acid particle forms the hydronium ion and its corresponding iegative ion. Examples of strong acids are sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid and nitric acid: H,SO, (aq) — 2H,0* (aq) + SOF (aq) HCl (aq) > Hy of (aq) + CI (aq) HNO, (aq) > H. 30" (aq) + NO* (aq) Sub-topic 1 Characteristic properties of acids and bases 107‘Weak acids are acids that partially ionize in water. The remaining unionized acid particles remain unchanged. The double arrow indicates that the reaction is reversible. Those ions that did ionize can also recombine to form acid molecules. Examples of weak acids are phosphoric acid, carbonic acid and ethanoic acid: * H,PO, (aq) = 3H’ (aq) + POF (aq) * HCO, (aq) = 2H" (aq) + CO} (aq) * CH,COOH (aq) = H’ (aq) + CH,COO” (aq) Strong and weak alkalis A strong alkali dissociates completely in water. When we dissolve solid sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in water, it dissociates completely into its Na* and OH" ions. The solution contains positive and negative ions, but no NaOH molecules remain. ‘These dissociation reactions are irreversible. Therefore, we write the reaction using a single (forwards) arrow, as we have seen before: = NaOH (aq) - Na* (aq) + OH (aq) A weak alkali partially dissociates in water. The remaining base molecules remain unchanged. But, the reaction is reversible. Ammonia is a weak base, and although we have seen this equation before, the correct way to write it is with a double arrow: NH, (aq) + H,0 (1) =* NH (aq) + OH" (aq) Concentration versus strength New word ‘The strength of an acid or alkali is not the same —__gggoclates: when an lonic as its concentration. Strong and weak acids can be substance breaks down into its concentrated or diluted, ‘component ions A comparison of concentration and strength in terms of acids and alkalis Det The number of molecules that can dissolved in 1 dm’ of a solution. _| disassociate or ionize to form ions. Yes. It can be diluted by adding _| No. The strength is a characteristic changed? | more water, or concentrated by _| of that acid or alkali. adding more of the acid or alkali. [ Activity2 | Acids and bases Complete the following table on your own: eo ica Soa aa) Pale Concentrated ek uace ce strong? Crag 1 | HCI 0.001 dm® 2 [NaOH 0.1 dm? 3 __|CH,COOH 0.1 dm 4 |NH, 0.1 dm* 5 |LIOH 0.001 dm? 108 topic 6 chemistry: Acids, bases and saltshe pH scale The pH scale is a scale that gives a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. This scale ranges between 0 and 14. * ApH of 7 indicates a neutral solution (such as pure, distilled water). * Solutions that have a pH of less than 7 are acidic. The solution contains hydrogen ions. The lower the pH, the more acidic the solution is (and the more hydrogen ions it contains). Solutions that have a pH of more than 7 are alkaline. The solution contains hydroxide ions. The higher the pH, the more alkaline the solution is (and the more hydroxide ions it contains), . acid solutions neutral alkaline solutions L { | 1 1 1 1 i 1 { i i | r T T T T T T T T T T T T T 1 Oo 1 2 3 4 5&5 6 7 8 9 0 4 12 13 «14 TGC ed Figure 4 The pH scale The pt of some common substances Cee HCI 1.0 of 7.4. This is regulated = Very accurately by the stomach acid rahe 2.0 body. If the pH of the lemon juice 24 blood gets outside the ji range of 7.35 to 7.45, poronge ee | 8 ee rainwater 62 ‘Serious and even fatal. milk 65 a | distilled water 7.0 ere caes jegss_ |= 78 | it you measure the pH seawater 85 of tap water with a pH meter, you may be soap 9.0 surprised to see a NH, 114 reading that is greater than 7. This is because KOH : 18.0 of dissolved NaOH 14.0 substances in the water, Distilled water has a pH of 7. Sub-topic 1 Characteristic properties of acids and bases 109Measuring pH levels The pH level of a solution can be measured using a pH meter or acid-base indicators. Digital pH meters can give precise numerical values, but approximate values can be obtained using the various acid- base indicators. pH meters A hand-held pH meter consists of a probe and a display unit. The probe is dipped into the solution and the display shows the pH reading (digitally or on a scale). It is useful for measuring the pH levels in lakes, dams and rivers. Acid-base indicators Acid-base indicators are coloured chemicals (called dyes) that change colour depending on whether they are in an acidic or an alkaline solution. The table lists some of the common indicators found in a school laboratory. These indicators show if solution is acid or alkaline with their colour change in the solution, but they do not indicate the strength of an acid or alkali Universal indicators A universal indicator is a mixture of several indicators. It gives a different colour for each pH unit. It can be in paper or liquid form. Universal indicator paper can be dipped into a solution and the resulting colour can be matched with pH values given on the colour chart. 110 topic 6 Chemistry: Acids, bases and salts Figure 5 A pH meter measures accurate values. ‘Common indicators and their colours in acids and alkalis Indicator Colour in | Colour in Litmus Methyl orange Bromothymol blue Phenolphthalein Figure 6 Universal indicators give approximate pH values.Using acid-base indicators a) form this activity in groups of three. 1. Bring some substances that are acids or bases from home and test their pH, using the indicators available to you in your class. 2. Measure the pH of the following solutions found in the laboratory: a) HCl b) H,SO, ©) NaOH d) NH,OH eactions between acids and bases hen an acid combines with a base, they jeutralize each other. This means that the acid ‘ounteracts the properties of the base, and the neutralization reaction: a reaction base counteracts the properties of the acid. between an acid and a base that Therefore, reactions between acids and bases Produces water are often called neutralization reactions. The SSH Y lon compound thats neutralization reaction results in water forming ang the cation of a base as a product. Neutralisation reactions can include the following: New words Acid + base An acid reacts with a base to form a salt and water only. The hydrogen ion of the acid and the hydroxide ion of the base combine to form water. acid + base salt + water Example: H,SO, (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) > Na,SO, (aq) + 2H,0 () Tonically: 2H" (aq) + 20H” (aq) —> 2H,0 () Acid + metal oxide An acid reacts with a metal oxide to form a salt and water. acid + metal oxide — salt + water Example: H,SO, (aq) + CuO (s) - CuSO, (aq) + H,0 () Tonically: 2H* (aq) + CuO (6) £+ Cu2* (aq) +H 00) Acid + metal carbonate An acid reacts with metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to produce salt, water and carbon dioxide. acid + metal carbonate — salt + water + carbon dioxide Example: H,SO, (aq) + CuCO, (s) > CuSO, (aq) + H,0 (I) + CO, (g) lonically: 2H" (aq) + CuCco, (8) Ss cu (aq) + H,0 () +CO, , @) An acid can also undergo a reaction with a metal But, this is not a neutralization reaction: acid + metal — salt + hydrogen gas Example: H,SO, (aq) + Fe (5) —> FeSO, (aq) + H, (g) Tonically: 2H" (aq) + SO{* (aq) + Fe** (aq) > Cu (aq) + H, (8) Sub-topic 1 Characteristic properties of acids and bases 111Reactions of bases with ammonium salts Bases react with ammonium compounds when heated to produce ammonia gas (the only common alkaline gas). Example 1: (NH,),SO, (s) + Ca(OH), (aq) — CaSO, (aq) + 2NH, (g) + 21,0 () Example 2: 2NH,Cl (3) + Mg(OH), (aq) > MgCl, (aq) + 2NH, (g) + 2H,0 (1) | Activity4 — | Acid and base reaction equations Answer the following questions on your own: 1. Write balanced chemical equations for the following reactions: a) hydrochloric acid and copper oxide b) sulphuric acid and lithium hydroxide ©) nitric acid and potassium hydrogen carbonate d) H,PO, (phosphoric acid) and magnesium carbonate. 2. Write down the name and formula of the salts produced when HCl reacts with: a) Cao b) Caco, The importance of acid-base reactions Acids play an important role in our everyday lives. They have an impact on us personally and on our environment. Control of soil acidity The quality of a crop depends on the quality of the soil. Acidity in soils comes from the build-up of H’* in the soil solution. This acid comes from: © air pollution that mixes with water vapour and eventually comes back down to earth in the form of rain (in particular, acidic gases from mines and other industrial activities) * fertilizers because they produce nitrous acid and nitric acid, Did you know? In the Luapula Province, soils are sandy and acidic (the pH usually varies between 4 and 5). These soils allow very few crops to grow and this impacts on the livelihood of subsistence farmers of the region. Further south, soils become less acidic and better for crops, ‘such as on this potato farm near Lusaka. Most plant nutrients dissolve easily when the pH of the soil solution is between 6.0 and 7.5. Below 6.0, some nutrients (such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) are less available. Above 7.5, iron, manganese, and phosphorus are absorbed less easily. 112 Topic 6 Chemistry: Acids, bases and saltsTreatment of indigestion Some cells in your stomach produce an acid to help with the digestion of food, while others produce a base to neutralize the acid. Sometimes there is too much acid in the stomach. This acid travels up the oesophagus (food pipe), causing heartburn. The symptoms of heartburn can be relieved by taking antacids (bases or basic salts). Baking soda can also be used to neutralize the excess acid in the stomach. Dental protection Tooth decay is usually caused by the bacteria in our mouths which convert sugars into lactic acid. It is the build-up of this acid that dissolves the enamel, or outer surface of our teeth. Toothpaste contains sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), which removes stains, provides the foaming action and neutralizes acids. Figure 7 Antacids come in different forms. The uses of a Controlling soil pH Is and bases au ee eas enn) Rc from too acidic | quicklime limestone (a (CaO) or slaked | commonly found lime (Ca(OH),) | type of rock) fertilizers such | ammonia (which | _} as (NH,),SO, | reacts with an _ | Figure 8 Farmers regularly test OrNHNO. * [acid to create | their soils to check whether the 18 the salts) PH level is correct. too alkaline Making soap Your outer layer of skin has a pH of about 5.5. This acidic layer helps to keep the skin moist and keep germs out. The pH of the soap should be slightly higher than the pH of your skin, so that the soap can break down dirt and oil on your skin, but maintain the moisture level of the skin. Many soaps are made with the addition of lye. This has a pH of 14 and can cause damage to the skin. Soaps made from. glycerin are neutral and are able to maintain the skin’s pH. Car batteries Car batteries are known as lead acid batteries. The acid inside them is the strong and corrosive sulphuric acid. The use of batteries has increased in recent times and the disposal of these batteries has started to impact on the environment. The sulphuric acid must be neutralized before the battery can be disposed of or recycled. Sub-topic 1 Characteristic properties of acids and bases 113[ Activity5 | The pH level of soil Carry out this experiment in groups of four. Each learner must collect a soil sample (about 2 tablespoons of soil) from a different location and bring it to class. EE=a oa ete etUg Materials Aim You will need: * a magnifying glass © 1x 50 ml measuring To determine the pH of local soils. Procedure cylinder . Draw up a suitable table to record your results. * test tubes Fi Study the soil using the magnifying glass, and then * yoursoil samples | describe each of the samples. * pH indicator paper | 3. Place 1 teaspoon of the soil in the mortar and * apestle and mortar : grind it. Put the ground material into a test tube. * water Add 5 ml of water and mix thoroughly. * limewater { 4. Put the indicator paper into the mixture, let the colour develop and then compare the colour with = the range on the colour chart. 5. Add 2 ml of limewater to each of the test tubes and mix thoroughly. Test the pH of the solution with pH indicator paper and record the results. Observations 1. You will notice that the soil samples consist of a mixture of materials. 2. The pH levels of the soils vary. | 3. The addition of limewater increases the pH of the soil samples. ~ Conclusion | 1. For each soil sample tested, indicate in your table if it is acidic or alkaline. 2. Indicate which of the plants in the table would grow best in each of the soil samples tested Plant | Hubbard squash potato [ pumpkin [asparagus Figure 9 Take a soil sample from your school, from near your home and from some public area. Are there any visible differences between them? 114 topic 6 Chemistry: Acids, bases and saltsPreparation of salts Formation of salts A salt generally forms in two ways: '* Through the reaction of an acid and an alkali, where the anion (negative ion) of the acid combines with the cation (positive ion) of the alkali. Example 1: HCl (aq) + KOH (aq) - KCl (aq) + H,0 0) (salt) Example 2: H,SO, (aq) + CuCO, (s) > CuSO, (aq) + H,0 (1) + CO, (g) Galt) When an ammonium compound reacts with an alkali, the salt that forms is a combination of the cation of the alkali with the anion of the ammonium compound. Example: — (NH,),SO, (s) + Ca(OH), (aq) + CaSO, (aq) + 2NH, (g) + 2H,0 (salt) lassification of salts Salts can be classified according to their nature and their solubility in water. ‘idic, alkaline and neutral salts Salts dissolved in water may not produce a ere neutral solution. Table salt (NaCl) has a neutral pH in water, but baking soda (NaHCO,,) is very Baking soda is an excellent ikaline when dissolved in water. cleaning apent.ti you take a. onful oda, We can predict the pH of a salt solution if we aspeonful of baking soda, wet it and rub the paste over your ow which acid and base were combined to hand, you should feel a hint of. make the salt. Here are the general rules: ‘the slipperiness that we Salts made from the anion of a strong acid and _ associate with soaps (or bases). the cation of a strong base will be neutral. The aqueous solution of this salt will have a pH of 7. Example: NaCl, which is made from the strong acid, HCl, and the strong base, NaOH. Salts made from the anion of a strong acid and the cation of a weak base will be acidic. The aqueous solution of this salt will have a pH of less than 7. Example: NH,Cl is made from the strong acid, HCI, and the weak base, NH OH. Salts made from the anion of a weak acid and a strong base will be alkaline. The aqueous solution of this salt will have a pH of more than 7. Example: NaHCO, is made from the weak acid, H,CO,, and the strong base, NaOH, Sub-topic 2 Preparation of salts 115)Hydrated and anhydrous salts A salt that forms from an acid-base reaction can be removed from the solution by evaporating the liquid. Solid salts usually form crystals when the cations and anions combine. Sometimes some water gets trapped within the crystal structure. This trapped water is called the water of hydration or the water of crystallization. ‘The water is shown in the formula by writing the number of water molecules in each salt crystal, after the formula of the salt, for example: SnCl,.2H,,0. The salt that contains this water is said to be hydrated. ‘The water of crystallization can be removed through evaporation, The salt is then anhydrous. Examples of hydrated salts are: CuSO,.5H,O (copper(I) sulphate) and CoCl,.6H,0 (cobalt(II) chloride). Soluble and insoluble salts Some salts combine immediately and form a solid in the solution. This solid is called a precipitate. The rules that follow can be applied to identify the salts that will form precipitate To carbonates of sodium, potassium and ammonium eee all other carbonates most chlorides silver chloride and lead chloride all nitrates most sulphates barium sulphate, calcium sulphate and lead sulphate all salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium any alkali metal hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide and barium hydroxide most hydroxides 116 Topic 6 Chemistry: Acids, bases and salts Figure 10 The water droplet tums the copper sulphate from the anhydrous white salt (CuSO,) ‘to the hydrated blue salt (CuSO,.H,0). water of hydration/crystallization: ‘the water molecules that are trapped inside a salt's crystal structure hydrated: when a crystal has trapped water molecules inside its structure f ‘anhydrous: when a orystal contains no water precipitate (ppt): an insoluble solid that forms as a product in a reactionActivity 6 Solubility of salts in water alone) Answer the following questions in pairs: 1. Complete the table by listing the correct Calor), formula for each salt formed. r} 2. From the salts in the table, list those that, pasar ge when dissolved in water, give: HNO, a) an acidic solution H,SO, b) an alkaline solution ©) a neutral solution. From the table, list any insoluble salts. 3 reparation of salts sy knowing which types of salts are soluble and which are not, we can prepare a ticular salt by choosing an appropriate method from those described below. aration of insoluble salts: Filtration ‘To demonstrate a method for preparing and collecting an insoluble salt. a funnel i some filter paper | Procedure barium chloride | 1. Pour some BaCl, solution into a beaker. solution | 2. Pour some H,SO, solution into the same beaker. sulphuric acid 3. Stir the mixture with the glass rod. solution 4. Fold the filter paper and place it in the funnel. a glass rod 5. Place the funnel in the empty beaker. 6. Pour the mixture into the filter paper and funnel. 7. Allow the liquid to run through the filter paper and collect the solid. Observations What did you see when the two liquids were mixed? Conclusion 1. Explain your observation of this reaction. 2. Write a balanced chemical reaction for the experiment. 3. Write down the name of the solid that forms. Sub-topic 2 Preparation of sats 117Preparation of soluble salts: Crystallization Preparation of a soluble salt Carry out this experiment (on this page and the next) in groups of four. pases cuuicu Materials Aim You will need: | To demonstrate a method for preparing and collecting * 1x 100cm* beaker a soluble salt. * 1x 100cm* conical ; ‘fas | Procedure * aspatula 1. Pour the sulphuric acid into the beaker. * aglass rod { 2. Use a spatula to add small portions of magnesium * 1x 100cm? : carbonate to the beaker, stirring gently for up to evaporatingdish ; —_ half a minute after each addition. * actystallizing dish} 3. When all the salt has been added, heat the beaker * a filter funnel {gently for 1 to 2 minutes on a tripod over a small © filter paper { flame to ensure that the reaction is complete. * aBunsen burner | —_—‘ Then remove from the heat. * atripod | 4, Place the filter funnel in the neck of the conical * gauze ; flask. Fold the filter paper to fit the filter funnel, © 20 cm’ diluted } and put it in place. sulphuric acid | §. When the beaker is cool enough to hold at the © approximately1g | top (but the contents should still be hot), swirl of MgCO,, | the liquid gently to mix. Carefully pour all the liquid through the filter paper in the funnel. —glass rod (still hot) conical flask —— filtrate Figure 11. Heating the mixture Figure 12 Filtering the mixture 118 topic 6 Chemistry: Acids, bases and salts6. Pour the clear solution into the evaporating dish and place it on the gauze on the tripod. 7. Heat the solution gently over a medium Bunsen flame so that water boils steadily. Boil about half of the liquid away. Then set it aside to cool. Observations Describe what forms in the evaporating dish. Conclusion 1. Explain your observation of this reaction. 2. Write a balanced chemical reaction for the experiment. 3. Write down the name of the solid that forms. Preparation of salts in general: Titration In Grade 10, you learnt how to use a burette and a pipette. These instruments are used in titration, which is a method of determining the unknown concentration of a solute in a solution. erforming titration Titration involves the following steps: 1, Use a pipette to measure a volume of base and run it into a conical flask. Add a few drops of indicator to the conical | flask. Fill a burette with an acid and zero it. This F means that you fill the burette past the | | zero-mark, then open the tap so that the | liquid level drops to zero or below zero. It does not matter where the starting point } is, as long as you record the volume of the pipette Figure 13 Titration instruments starting point. . Open the tap of the burette and add the New words acid little by little to the base. Remember to swirl the conical flask. . Close the tap of the burette when the indicator changes colour. This indicates ‘that all the acid in the conical flask has reacted. This is called the endpoint of the titration. a titration: a laboratory method of determining the concentration of a solution using instruments such as burettes and pipettes ‘endpoint: the point at which the indicator changes colour in a titration (that is, when neutralization has occurred) 119 Sub-topic 2 Preparation of salts[Activity | Preparation of a salt using titration Carry out this experiment (on this page and the next) in groups of four. Materials | Aim You will need: ! To produce a salt from HCl and NaOH solutions using * 3xconical flasks —_; titration. * a spatula + diluted HCI solution | Procedure = water ! 1. Pipette a known volume of NaOH solution into a + a burette ! conical flask. * a pipette | 2. Add a few drops of the indicator to the conical” * diluted NaOH flask. solution 3. Pour the HCI solution into the burette and zero * 1x 100cm*beaker ; the burette. * a burette stand } 4. Add drops of HCI solution to the base until the * bromothymol blue ; indicator changes colour (bromothymol blue indicator i changes from blue to yellow). * Bunsen burner F * tripod : © gauze ; * a large watch glass pipette with NaOH solution. NaOH solution ‘Stop 1 Stop 2 stop 3 step 4 Figure 14 Experiment procedure 120 Topic 6 Chemistry: Aids, bases and saltsae) 5. Record the volume of acid that you used to get to the endpoint. 6. Repeat steps 1 to 4 with the known volumes of acid and alkali, but do not add the indicator. 7. Pour the solution into a large watch glass and place the watch glass on the gauze over a small Bunsen flame to evaporate the liquid, Observations What did you observe once the liquid had evaporated? Conclusion 1. What was the liquid that evaporated from the solution? burette 2. Explain your observation. 3. What is the name of the salt that was formed in this experiment? 4. Describe the salt crystals in terms of their colour and size. 5. Write a balanced equation that describes the reaction that took place. | patch glass Remember the safety rules when working with a Bunsen bumer. gauze Bunsen burner tripod Step 6 Step 7 Figure 15 Experiment procedure Ammonium, potassium and sodium salts You are asked to prepare ammonium, potassium and sodium salts. Answer the following questions in pairs: 1, Describe the best method to use to prepare each of these salts. 2. Give a reason for your choice in each case. 3. Write down a balanced equation to describe the chemicals you would use to prepare these salts in each case. 4. Describe the safety precautions that you would have to know for each preparation. Sub-topic 2 Preparation of salts 121Salts, water and air Many salts that are soluble tend to absorb water vapour from the air. They are said to be hygroscopic. You will have noticed that the salt in a salt shaker becomes damp and tends to stick together in humid weather. This shows that the salt is a hygroscopic material. Other hygroscopic salts include potassium carbonate, anhydrous calcium chloride and anhydrous sodium sulphate. Figure 16 Sodium chloride is a hygroscopic salt. This phenomenon is not only seen in salts, however. Natural fibres, such as cotton, mohair and jute are also hygroscopic, to a degree. When there is a lot of water vapour in the air (such as on very humid days), the fibres absorb this moisture and swell up. However, this is not always noticeable. Some salts absorb so much water that they start, to dissolve. We describe these salts as deliquescent. Calcium chloride is scattered on roads to settle dust in dry and sandy areas. In the form of powder or flakes, it absorbs more than its own weight in water and forms a liquid that keeps the road wet. The calcium chloride is hygroscopic. When placed on the road it undergoes deliquescence. Earlier in this topic, we saw that (white) anhydrous copper(II) sulphate becomes a hydrated blue salt when water is added. If left exposed to air for long enough, the blue salt will form a white coating on the outside. This is because the water of crystallization evaporates from the crystals near the surface, and the anhydrous white powder forms again slowly. We say that these salts that can lose their water of crystallization through evaporation are efflorescent. 122 topic 6 Chemistry: Acids, bases and salts New words hygroscopic: the ability of a substance to attract and hold water molecules from the surrounding ‘environment deliquescent: a word that describes a substance that can absorb so much moisture from the atmosphere that it dissolves in the absorbed water and forms a solution efflorescent: a word that describes a substance that can lose its water of crystallization (through evaporation) to the air Figure 17 Jute is particularly hygroscopic. Figure 18 Anhydrous CuSO, is hygroscopic. Hydrated CuSO, H,0 is efflorescent.“3 Types of oxides Describing types of oxides Oxides are chemical compounds that contain one or more oxygen atoms combined with one other element. Examples of oxides include CO,, so, CaO, CO, ZnO, BaO, and H,0. Oxides can. be classified according to their acidic or basic properties. Acidic oxides Acidic oxides are the oxides of the non-metals (the elements in Groups 4 to 7 of the Periodic Table). These non-metals are usually gases. Acidic oxides form acidic solutions with water, for example: * sulphur dioxide + water > sulphurous acid SO, (g)+H,0 () > H,SO, (aq) * carbon dioxide + water — carbonic acid CO, (g) + H,0 (0) > H,CO, (aq) * sulphur trioxide + water — sulphuric acid SO, (g) +H,0 @) + 1,0, (aq) Figure 19 Oxides of sulphur: Sulphur dioxide is used as a preservative - especially in processed fruit products (A). Sulphur trioxide is a pollutant and combines with water to form sulphuric in the atmosphere. This falls to the earth as acid rain. The effects of it can be devastating (B). Acidic oxides produce salts when they combine with bases: + sulphur dioxide + sodium hydroxide -> sodium sulphite + water SO, (g) + NaOH (aq) > Na,S0, (aq) + H,0 0) Basic oxides Basic oxides are the oxides of the Group 1 and Group 2 metals. If soluble in water, they react with water to produce hydroxides (alkalis), for example: * K,0 (8) + H,0 (l) > 2KOH (aq) * Na,0 (5) + H,0 (1) > 2NaOH (aq) * CaO (s) + 4,0 (1) Ca(OH), (aq) * MgO (s) + H,0 () > Mg(OB), (aq) Basic oxides produce salts when they combine with acids: go (s) + 2HCI (aq) > MgCl, (aq) + H,0 () Na,0 (s) + H,SO, (aq) ~ Na,SO, (aq) + H,0 () Figure 20 Manufactured glass is made entirely of oxides: sodium oxide, silicon dioxide and calcium oxide. 123 Sub-topic 3 Types of oxidesAmphoteric oxides Amphoteric oxides are the oxides of some metals from groups other than Groups 1 and 2, and the metalloids. These oxides can behave as amphoteric: a word that describes an acid or as a base, depending on the substance —_@ substance that has both acidic they react with. and basic properties * When an amphoteric oxide reacts with an acid, it behaves like a base (and the reaction forms a salt and water). For example: ZnO (s) + HCI (aq) — ZnCl, (aq) + H,0 (1) + When an amphoteric oxide reacts with a base, it behaves like an acid (and the reaction forms a salt and water). For example: ZnO (s) + 2NaOH (aq) + Na,ZnO, (aq) + H,0 (0), Neutral oxides Neutral oxides are the oxides of some of the non-metals. These oxides have neither acidic nor basic properties, so they do not form salts when they react with either acids or bases. Examples of neutral oxides are water, carbon monoxide (CO) and dinitrogen oxide (N,O). Figure 21 Zinc oxide is found in = many products that need to be white, including paint and toothpaste. Trends in acid-base behaviour Moving across the Periodic Table from left to right, we find that the oxides of the { elements in each period become more acidic. Look at Period 3, for example: Na [Mg [Al [Si [P s car Na,O [MgO [AL0, |Sio, |P,0,, [SO, |[CLO, |- Basic Amphoteric Acidic - Oxides Answer the following questions on your own: 1. Explain what amphoteric oxides are and give two examples. 2. Describe the differences between acidic and basic oxides. 3. Consider the following oxides: Na,O, ZnO, Al,O,, CO,, H,O. a) Name the amphoteric oxide(s).b) Name the acidic oxide(s). ©) Name the basic oxide(s). ) Name the neutral oxide(s). ©) Write a balanced reaction for the acidic oxide(s) with water. f) Write a balanced equation for the basic oxide(s) and water. g) Write a balanced reaction for the acidic oxide(s) with NaOH. 124 Topic 6 Chemistry: Acids, bases and saltsQualitative analysis is the analysis of chemical substances using their colour, aroma, melting and boiling points, or solubility. It also involves the identification f the solids, liquids, gases or ions produced in a chemical reaction. Identification of cations and a Cations The table below summarises the various tests for cations of ammonium, aluminium, calcium, copper(II), iron(II), iron(@iIl) and zinc using sodium hydroxide or ammonia solutions. ns Add ey Then add BUA uem elites ET pry excess Ce ieee Pee NH, gas is [no reaction | NH} (aq) + OH” (aq) > NH, (g) + H,0() liberated | occurs a white ppt | ppt dissolves | Al (aq) + SOH (aa) — Al(OH), (6) i ppt remains Ca’* [NaOH | awhite ppt | pptremains | Ca’* (aq) + 20H (aq) > Ca(OH), (9) forms Cu* [NaOH |ablue ppt | pptremains | Cu’* (aq) + 20H (aq) > Cu(OH), (8) NH; yom ppt dissolves Fe* |NaOH_ |apale ppt remains | Fe** (aq) + 20H” (aq) > Fe(OH), (s) NH, green ppt | ppt remains forms Fe | NaOH | ared-brown| ppt remains | Fe* (aq) + 30H (aq) > Fe(OH), (s) NH. Pptforms | opt remains Zn** | NaOH | awhite ppt | ppt dissolves | Zn®* (aq) + 20H (aq) > Zn(OH), (s) NH, _|forms ppt dissolves y a © nny ase 2 cate Fee ane Figure 22 The colour of the gas or precipitate is important for cation identification. Sub-topic 4 Qualitative analysis 125Anions The table below summarises the various tests for the carbonate, chloride, iodide, nitrate and sulphate ions in solution. ickC amc ore ca Cees coz | dilute HCI bubbles of | 2H" (aq) + COZ (aq) > CO, (g) + H,0.() hydrogen gas = = form cr dilute HNO, then |a white ppt | Ag* (aq) + CI (aq) > AgCl (s) aqueous AGNO, | forms r dilute HNO, then | a yellow ppt | Ag’ (aq) + I (aq) > Agl (s) aqueous AgNO, | forms ; |NaOH solution, | ammonia gas | 8Al (s) + 3NO; (aq) + SOH” (aq) + 2H,0 (I) | then small flakes |is liberated — | — 3NH, (g) + 8A1O; (aq) ‘of aluminium foil : so? | dilute HCI, then |awhite ppt | Ba®*(aq) + SO?" (aq) > BaSO, (s) Ba(NO.), solution | forms | PERT) Epsom salt, which is anhydrous magnesium sulphate, has many uses from bath salts to agricultural nutrient. It can also be used as a treatment for barium chloride Poisoning. \ Identification of cations and anions Answer the questions that follow on your own. Then, compare your answers with those of two other learners. 1. A solution contains an unknown salt that has been dissolved in water. a) Identify the cation or anion after the following two tests are performed: i) Five drops of dilute NaOH are added to the solution. A red-brown precipitate forms. When excess NaOH is added, the precipitate does not dissolve. ii) Aqueous NaOH is added to the solution, followed by flakes of aluminium foil. The solution is warmed gently. A gas with a pungent, sharp smell is formed. b) Write down the chemical formula for the salt. 2. A label lies next to a bottle of blue powder. The label says “copper chloride”. Describe the tests that you would carry out for the cation and anion, and the expected results to confirm that the blue powder in the bottle is copper chloride 126 topic 6 Chemistry: Acids, bases and saltsIdentification of gases oko oak: est ro Place damp universal The indicator paper will turn blue indicator paper in the gas. (ammonia gas is alkaline). You will also notice the sharp, pungent smell of ammonia. carbon —_| Bubble the gas through The limewater will turn milky (CO, is dioxide _| limewater (an aqueous slightly acidic, so it reacts with (CO,) | solution of calcium Ca(OH), to produce a white precipitate | hydroxide). of Caco). Place damp universal The indicator paper wil indicator paper in the gas. (because chiorine gas is acidic) and then white, because chlorine gas is the | only gas that has a bleaching effect. | Collect some of the gas ina | The flame will go out and you will hear test tube, then hold a burning | a popping sound. (H, gas reacts match in the mouth of the | strongly with oxygen when lit.) test tube. Collect some of the gas ina _| The splint will ignite spontaneously. test tube, then hold a glowing | (Fuels burn more readily in pure (not burning) splint in the oxygen than in air) mouth of the test tube. ” _| Bubble the gas through an The orange solution will turn green (the acidified potassium(VI) ‘sulphur will react with K,Cr,0, to Gichromate (K,Cr,0,) solution. | produce the green precipitate, Cr{SO,),). Pets lorine gas is used in industrial water treatment plants, because it does not contain all the salts that we find in chlorination tablets or powders. For swimming pools, the powders or tablets are preferred because they are easier and safer to handle than chlorine gas, which is very poisonous. Identification of gases Answer the questions that follow on your own. Identify the gas produced in each reaction: 1. When a burning match is placed in the mouth of the test tube, the flame goes out and a “pop” is heard. . Moist litmus paper turns red then white when placed in this gas. 3. When this gas is bubbled through a tube into an orange acidified potassium permanganate solution, the solution turns green. v Sub-topic 4 Qualitative analysis. 127TOPIC 6 Summary, revision and assessment Summary Characteristic properties of acids and bases + An acid ionizes in water to form hyd jum jens, HAO", in aqueous solution. A base (or alkali) produces hydroxide ions (OH?) in aqueous solution. Strong acids completely ionize in water; weak acids partially ionize in water. Strong alkalis are soluble bases that completely dissociate in water; weak alkalis partially dissociate in water, The pH scale gives a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. It ranges from 0 to 14. 1 When an acid reacts with a base, they neutralize each other. Salts dissolved in water may produce acidic, basic or neutral solutions. Preparation of salts * Asalt is formed either when an acid and alkali react, or when. an ammonium compound reacts with an alkali. Asalt that contains water of crystallization is hydrated (it contains some water inside its crystal structure); if the water fs removed through evaporation, the salt becomes anhydrous. * Some salts that form when an acid and base react immediately combine and form a solid in the solution. This solid is called a precipitate. Insoluble salts formed in a chemical reaction can be collected by filtration. Asalt can also be prepared using the method of titration. Salts that absorb water vapour from the alr are hygroscopic. Some salts absorb so much water that they start to dissolve in a process called deliquescence. © Effloreseent substances can lose their waters of crystallization through evaporation. ‘Types of oxides * Oxides can be classified as acidic oxides, basic oxides, amphoteric oxides and neutral oxides. * Oxides from elements on the left of the Periodic Table are generally less acidic than those on the right. Qualitative analysis * Qualitative analysis involves the analysis of chemical substances by their colour, aroma, melting and boiling points, or solubility. * Italso involves the identification of solids, liquids, gases or lons produced in a chemical reaction. 128 Topic 6 (Chemistry) Summary, revision and assessment