Analogue Filter Networks, Developments in Theory, Design and Analysis (1995) [J.I. Sewell]

Durham E-Theses
Analogue lter networks: developments in theory,

design and analyses
Sewell, J.I.
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Sewell, J.I. (1995) Analogue lter networks: developments in theory, design and analyses, Durham theses,
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ANALOGUE FILTER NETWORKS, DEVELOPMENTS
IN THEORY, DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
by
J.I. SEWELL
B.Sc. (Dunelm), Ph.D. (Newcastle-upon-Tyne)
C.Eng., F.I.E.E., F.I.E.E.E.
The copyright of this thesis rests w i t h the author.
No quotation from it should be published without
his prior written consent and information derived
f r o m it should be acknowledged.
A submission to the University of Durham
for admission to the degree of
Doctor of Science
March 1995
Dedication
"Have you learned lessons only of those who admired you, and were tender with you, and
stood aside for you ? Have you not learned great lessons from those who braced themselves
against you, and disputed the passage with you?"
Walt Whitman, 1819-1892
This work is dedicated to the female members of my family:
The late Dorothy Sewell - my mother: though denied personal access to scholarship, began
my "disputed passage".
Ruth Sewell - my wife: having an appreciation of scholarship, maintains my "disputed
passage".
Anna and Deborah Sewell - my daughters: as yet without an understanding of scholarship,
seem set to continue my "disputed passage".

CONTENTS
1. Curriculum Vitae
2. Publications Submitted
3. Statement of Contribution and Originality
4. Publications on Active Filter Synthesis and CAD
5. Publications on Network Analysis and CAD
6. Publications on Communication Circuit Design
7. Publications on the Analysis and Design of Sigma-Delta Modulator Systems
8. Publications on Educational Initiatives
9. Papers under Review

1
lo Curriculum Vitae
CJi.R R 1 C U L U M VI T AE
Name: JOHN ISAAC SEWELL

Date and Place of Birth: 13 May 1942. Kirkby Stephen, Cumbria.
Nationality: British
Marital Status: Married, two children
Present Address: 16 Paterson Place. Bearsden, Glasgow. G61 4RU.
General Education
Year School
1947 - 51 Winton Primary School, Cumbria.
1951 - 53 Soulby Primary School, Cumbria.
1953 - 55 Appleby Grammar School, Cumbria.
1955 - 60 Kirkby Stephen Grammar School, Cumbria.
Examinations Taken
G.C.E. 'O' Level 1958 G.C.E. ' A ' Level 1960

Passes in: Mathematics Passes in: Physics
Physics Chemistry
Chemistry Mathematics
English Literature
History
Geography
1959 English language

French
University Education
Dais College
October 1960 - June 1962 Sunderland Technical College

University of Durham.
October 1962 - June 1963 King's College, University

of Durham.
October 1963 - September 1966 University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne

June 1963 - B.Sc. in Electrical Engineering,
Upper Second Class Honours.
October 1966 - Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering.

Title of thesis The application of
Analogue Computing Techniques to the
design of Active Filters'.
The work was supported by an S.R.C.

Studentship held for three years.
4. Employment History
Dates
July - October 1963 System Computers Ltd., Gateshead.

Research Engineer. Development of
transistor circuitry for analogue
computers.
October 1966 - September 1968 University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Senior Research Associate. The work was
concerned with the application of digital
computers in active network analysis and
synthesis.
October 1968 - September 1976 University of Hull.

Lecturer in the Department of Electronic
Engineering.
October 1976 - September 1984 University of Hull

Senior Lecturer in the Department of Electronic
Engineering.
October 1984 - September 1985 University of Hull

Reader in Integrated Electronic Systems,
Department of Electronic Engineering.
October 1985 - present time University of Glasgow.

Professor of Electronic Systems, Department of
Electronics and Electrical Engineering.
September 1990 - 1993 University of Glasgow

Dean of the Faculty of Engineering.
May 1995 - July 1995 University of Toronto

Visiting Research Professor.
5. Professional Qualifications and Distinctions
Fellow of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, Chartered Engineer.

Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers.
J.J. Thomson Premium Award, Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1992.
4
6. University Teaching Duties
1968- 1985 Third Year Course - Telecommunications 40 hrs/year

1969- 1985 Fourth Year Courses - Passive Network Synthesis 20 hrs/year
- Active Network Synthesis 20 hrs/year
1968 - 1974)
1975- 1978) Second Year Laboratory - 156 hrs/year
1984- 1985)
1979- 1983 First Year Laboratory - 120 hrs/year
1968- 1971)
1975- 1976) First Year Problems Class 24 hrs/year
1985 - 1986 Fourth Year Course - Control 20 hrs/year

Laboratory 30 hrs/year
1986- 1989 First Year Course - Electrical Engineering 20 hrs/year
1986- 1994 Fourth Year Course- Signal Processing 20 hrs/year

Laboratory 12 hrs/year
1989- 1993 Second Year Course- Electrical Engineering 20 hrs/year
1988- 1990 Engineering Applications Laboratory 4 hrs/year
1968- 1990 Tutorials
1969 - 1990 Final Year Project Supervision
7. University Research Duties
Supervisor of the following research students:
C. Fridas M.Sc. awarded 1973

Ph.D. " 1976
L.G. Grant Ph.D. " 1978
F.G.A. Coupe Ph.D. " 1980
C. Lau M.Sc. " 1982
C.K. Pun Ph.D. " 1987
L.B. Wolovitz - Ph.D. " 1987
R.K. Henderson - Ph.D. " 1990
L i Ping Ph.D. " 1990
D.H. Hossack Ph.D. " current

Lu Yue Ph.D. " current
Shang Z Ph.D. " current
Supervisor of SERC computer programmer, P. Garbett 1981 - 82
Supervisor of research assistant, J. Barrass, 1983 - 84
Supervisor of post-doctoral research assistant D J.Gilbert 1983 - 86
Supervisor of " " " " BJ.Wishart 1988 - 89
Supervisor of " " " " R.K.Henderson 1989 - 90
University Departmental Duties
Joint development of Second Year Electronics Laboratory.
Joint development of Second Year Computer Aided Design Course.
Colloquium Organisation 1969-71
Third Year Examination Organisation 1969 - 71
Timetable Organisation 1970 - 71
Departmental Admissions 1971 - 73
First Year Syllabus Committee 1971 - 73
Departmental Publicity (Admissions, Gouriet lectures, etc) 1973 - 80
Steering Committee for Degree in Mathematics and Electronic Systems 1973 - 79
Internal Examiner for Higher Degrees - Ph.D. 1970
- M.Sc. 1973
Chairman of Course Development Committee 1978 - 79
Joint development of First Year Electronics Laboratory

Steering Committee for Science Research Council Interactive
Computing Facility Minicomputer Application 1980 - 81
Fourth Year Examination Organisation 1980 - 83
Enhanced Degree Coordinator 1983 - 85
Acting Head of Department August - November 1989
Convenor of Electronics and Electrical Engineering Advisory Committee 1987 - 1993.
Convenor of SWOT Committee (Strengths, Weaknesses, etc.) 1988-90.

Degree Accreditation 1987 - 1992.
Convenor of Rankine V A X Computer Management Committee 1986 - 89
Convenor of Publicity Committee 1985 - 89
Assessor of First Year Research Students 1986 - 91
Convenor of Ph.D Oral Examinations 1985 - present
Committee for negotiations with Paisley College of Technology 1989 - 90
University Duties
Science Safety Precautions Committee 1974 - 1976
Member of the Board of the Faculty of Science 1975 - 1977
Member of the Faculty of Science Planning Committee 1975 - 1977
Member of the Language Teaching Centre Committee 1978 - 1981
Member of the Computer Users Committee 1980 - 1985
Member of Working Party on University Computer Enhancement 1982
Member of the Board of the Faculty of Science 1983 - 1985
Member of Computer Evaluation Committee 1984
Member of various Computer Evaluation Committees 1986 - 1988
Member of Computer Communications sub-committee 1986- 1989
Member of Faculty of Engineering Publicity Committee 1988 - 90
Convenor of Faculty of Engineering Computer Committee 1987 - 90
Member of Senate Business Committee 1989 - 90
Member of Committee of Review for Faculty Engineering 1987 - 90
Published Work
1. "Table for the voltage transfer functions of single amplifier double ladder feedback systems",
Electronics Letters, May 1965, Vol.1, No.3, pp 70-71, (with A.G.J.Holt).
2. "Active RC filters employing a single operational amplifier to obtain biquadratic responses",

Proc. I.E.E., December 1965, Vol. 112, No.12, pp.2227-2234, (with A.G.J.Holt)
3. "Synthesis of multi-loop feedback systems", I.E.E. Colloquium on Active Filters, London,

January 1966, (with A.GJ. Holt).
4. "Table for the voltage transfer functions of single amplifier double ladder parallel feedback
systems", I.E.E.E. Trans. C.T., September 1966, Vol. CT-13, pp.326-328, (with A . G J .
Holt).
5. "The Computer in electronics, Part I " , Design Electronics, Oct. 1967, Vol.5. N o . l , pp. 34-
36. (with J.K. Fidler).
6. "The computer in electronics, Part I I " , Design Electronics. Nov. 1967, Vol.5, No.2, pp. 38-
41, (with J.K. Fidler).
7. "Correction function techniques", I.E.E. International Conference on Computer Aided

Design, Southampton, April 1969,1.E.E. Conference Publication No. 51, pp.515-526, (with
C. Nightingale).
8. "Matrix tables for the generalised 5-terminal amplifier". The Radio and Electronic Engineer,
April 1969, Vol. 37, No.4, pp.247-55, (with F.W.Stephenson).
9. "Synthesis of multi-loop feedback systems, Part I , International Journal of Control, May

1969, Vol.9, No.5, pp. 487-497, (with A . G J . Holt).
10. "Synthesis of multi-loop feedback systems, Part I I " , International Journal of Control, May
1969, Vol.9, No.5, pp.499-508. (with A.G.J. Holt).
11. "A simple method for producing floating inductors", Proc. I.E.E.E. December 1969, Vol. 57,
No.12, pp. 2155-2156.
12. "Accumulant theory and applications", International Journal of Control, March 1970, Vol.
l t , N o . 3 , pp.479-488.
13. "Synthesis of active devices". International Journal of Electronics, December 1970, Vol.29,
No.6, pp. 501-511.
14. "A synthetic analysis of general active networks", I.E.E. International Conference on
Computer Aided Design, Southampton, April 1972. I.E.E. Conference Publication No.86,
pp.12-18, (with I.Walker).
15. "A course in computer-aided electronic circuit design for undergraduates", Computer Aided
Design, April 1972, Vol 4, No.3, pp. 135-137, (with A.G. Martin ).
16. "General synthetic analysis of active networks", Proc. Second International Symposium on
Network Theory, Herceg-Novi, Yugoslavia, July 1972, pp. 61-69, (with C. Fridas).
17. "The multiterminal active transformer". International Journal of Control, July 1972, Vol. 16,
N o . l , pp. 171-175.
18. "Active circulator systems". International Journal of Electronics, December 1972, Vol.33,
No.6, pp.677-679.
19. "Computer-aided engineering education", Proc. Conference on the Teaching of Electronic

Engineering in Degree Courses, University of Hull, April 1973, pp. 17/1 - 17/16. (with A.G.
Martin and D. Midgley).
20. "Symbolic analysis for computer-aided circuit design - The interpolative approach", I.E.E.E.
Trans. C.T., November 1973 Vol. CT-20, No.6, pp. 738-741. (with J.K. Fidler).
21. "A partition method for symbolic network analysis", I.E.E. Colloquium on Computer Aided
Circuit Design, Colloquium Digest 1974 - 4, pp. 7/1 - 7/2 March 1974, (with C. Fridas).
22. "Digital realisation of linear and parametric networks", I.E.R.E. Colloquium on Signal
Processing in Feedback Control Systems, London, April 1974, (with F.G.A. Coupe).
8
23. "Symbolic analysis of networks by partitioned polynomial interpolation", I.E.E.E. Trans.

CAS, May 1974, Vol.CAS-21 No.3, pp. 345-347, (with C. Fridas).
24. "Correction to symbolic analysis for computer-aided circuit design - the interpolate
approach", I.E.E.E. Trans. CAS, May 1974, Vol. CAS-21. No.3, P.462, (with J.K.Fidler).
25. "The design of variable immittance amplifiers", I.E.E. Colloquium on Amplifier Design -
Theory and Practice, Colloquium Digest 1974 - 24, pp.11/1 - 11/2, May 1974. (with J.A.
Neill and F.G.A. Coupe).
26. "Interpolative analysis for computer aided design".Proc. Summer School on Circuit Theory
1974, Prague, September 1974, Vol.2, pp. 217 - 223. (with C. Fridas).
27. "An adaptive electronic circulator for use in telephones", I.E.E.E. Trans. COM, July 1975,
Vol. COM-23, No.7, pp. 728-731, (with R. Lodge).
28. "Error estimation and improvement in interpolative symbolic network analysis", Proc. Third
International Symposium on Network Theory, Split, Yugoslavia, September 1975, pp. 121-
129, (with C. Fridas).
29. "Network partition methods for use in symbolic analysis by interpolation", Proc. 1976
I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Munich, April 1976, pp. 45-48
(with C. Fridas).
30. "A theory of equivalent active networks", Proc. 1976 I.E.E.E. International Symposium on
Circuits and Systems, Munich, April 1976, pp. 497-500 (with L.G.Grant).
31. "A theory of equivalent active networks", I.E.E.E. Trans. CAS, June 1976, Vol. CAS-23,
No.6, pp.350-354, (with L.G.Grant).
32. "Network partition methods for use in symbolic analysis by interpolation". Computer Aided
Design, July 1976, Vol. 8, No.3. pp. 157-164, (with C. Fridas).
33. "Symbolic network sensitivities using partition methods", Int. Journal of Electronics, July
1976, Vol.41, No.l, pp.25-32, (with C. Fridas).
34. "Partitioned transformations in equivalent active network theory", Proc. 1976 European
Conference on Circuit Theory and Design, Genoa, September 1976, pp. 232-238, (with L.G.
Grant).
35. "On the evaluation of sensitivity polynomials in active equivalent network theory", Proc.
I.E.E.E. Conference on Computer Aided Design of Electronic and Microwave Circuits and
Systems, Hull, July 1977, pp.84-89, (with L.G. Grant).
36. "Sensitivity minimisation and partitioned transformations in active equivalent

networks",I.E.E. Journal on Electronic Circuits and Systems, March 1978, Vol.2, No.2,
pp.33-38, (with L.G.Grant).
37. "On sensitivity theorems in active equivalent network theory", Proc. 1978 I.E.E.E.
International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, New York, May 1978, pp. 1060-1063,
(with J.Dunning-Davies and F.D. Faulkner).
38. "Some further sensitivity theorems in active equivalent network theory", I.E.E. Journal on
Electronic Circuits and Systems, November 1978, Vol.2, No.6, pp. 193-198, (with
J.Dunning-D^vies and F.D. Faulkner).
9
39. "An improved adaptive electronic circulator for telephone applications". I.E.E.E. Trans.
COM, August 1979, Vol. COM-27, No.8, pp. 1218-1224 (with H. Gazioglu and D.A.
Homer).
40. "An adaptive electronic circulator for telephone hybrid applications", Proc. Fourth
International Symposium on Network Theory, Ljubljana, September 1979. pp. 369-376,
(with H. Gazioglu and D.A. Homer).
41. "Analysis of active switched-capacitor networks", Proc. I.E.E.E. February 1980. Vol. 68,
No.2, pp. 292-293.
42. "A degree enhancement scheme in electronic engineering". Proc. Conference on Electronic
Engineering in Degree Courses - Teaching for the 80's, University of Hull, April 1980,
pp.21/1 -21/11.
43. "Inclusion of amplifier finite gain and bandwidth in analysis of switched-capacitor filters",
Electronics Letters, June 1980, Vol.16, No.12, pp.462-463, (with C. Lau).
44. "Digital active network analysis", Proc. I.E.E., Part G, Electronic Circuits and Systems,
August 1980, Vol.127, No. 4, pp. 181-186 (with F.G.A. Coupe).
45. "A degree enhancement scheme in electronic engineering". Int. J. Elect. Enging. Educ,
January 1981, Vol.18, pp. 29-34.
46. "Computer analysis of switched-capacitor filters", I.E.E. Colloquium on Electronic Filters,

Colloquium Digest pp. 4/1 - 4/8, April 1981, (with C. Lau).
47. "General computer analysis of switched-capacitor networks including non-ideal amplifiers",

Proc. I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Rome, May 1982, pp.17-
20,(with C. Lau and NJ.Cutland).
48. "CAD tools for switched capacitor filter design", Proc. I.E.E.E. Workshop on Design and
Fabrication of Integrated Circuit Filters, London, September 1982, pp. B1-B47.
49. "Compact matrix scheme for use in computer analysis of switched capacitor networks".
Electronics Letters, September 1982, Vol. 18, No. 19, pp. 840-841, (with C. Lau).
50. "Software for switched capacitor filter design", I.E.R.E. Colloquium on Analogue Filters,
Colloquium Digest 2pp. November 1983.
51. "Interpolative analysis of switched capacitor networks", I.E.E. Colloquium on Design

Software, Colloquium Digest pp. 6/1 - 6/7, January 1984, (with D.G. Johnson and A . D .
Meakin).
52. "Some improvement schemes for the interpolative symbolic analysis of switched capacitor
networks", Proc. I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Montreal,
May 1984, 4pp, (with D.G. Johnson).
53. "Improved z plane polynomial interpolative analysis of switched capacitor networks",

I.E.E.E. Trans. CAS, July 1984 Vol. CAS-31, No.7, pp. 666-668, (with D.G. Johnson).
54. "Analysis of active switched-capacitor networks", selected reprint in MOS Switched-

Capacitor Filters: Analysis and Design, I.E.E.E. Press, 1984, pp. 85-86.
55. "On time-sharing and noise minimisation in switched-capacitor filters", I.E.E. Saraga
Colloquium on Electronic Filters, Colloquium Digest, 6pp, May 1985, (with M . Powell and
R.C.J. Taylor).
56. "Switched-capacitor filter transformations and optimisation", I.E.E. Saraga Colloquium on

1 0
Electronic Filters, Colloquium Digest, 5pp, May 1985, (with D.J. Gilbert).
57. "Symbolic analysis of ideal and non-ideal switched capacitor networks", Proc. I.E.E.E.
International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Kyoto, June 1985, pp.1165-1168 (with
C.K. Pun).
58. "On the generation of equivalent switched capacitor networks", Proc. European Conference on
Circuit Theory and Design, Prague, September, 1985 pp.697-700 (with D.J. Gilbert).
59. "Techniques for improving the efficiency of analysis of software for large switched-capacitor
networks, Proc. 28th Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Louisville, August
1985, pp.390-393 (with A.D. Meakin and L.B. Wolovitz).
60. "Efficient computer techniques for the exact analysis of all non-ideal effects of switched-
capacitor networks in the time domain", Proc. I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits
and Systems, San Jose, May 1986, pp. 373-376, (with L.B. Wolovitz).
61. "Application of equivalent network theory to strays insensitive switched capacitory filters",
I.E.E Saraga Colloquium on Electronic Filters, Colloquium Digest pp. 3/1 - 3/8, May 1986,
(with D.J. Gilbert).
62. "Multiphase equivalence theory for switched capacitor networks", Proc. 29th Midwest
Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Lincoln, Na., August 1986, pp. 801 - 806, (with D.J.
Gilbert).
63. "Noise analysis of switched capacitor networks in symbolic form", Proc. 29th Midwest
Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Lincoln, Na., August 1986, pp 807 - 810, (with C.K.
Pun and A.G. Hall).
64. "The LUD approach to switched-capacitor filter design", I.E.E. Saraga Colloquium on
Electronic Filters, Colloquium Digest pp. 7/1 - 7/7, March 1987, (with L i Ping).
65. "Optimisation of switched capacitor networks using equivalence transformations", Proc.

I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Philadelphia, May 1987,
pp. 730 - 732 (with D.J. Gilbert and G.L. Holden).
66. "The LUD approach to switched-capacitor filter design", I.E.E.E. Trans. CAS, Dec. 1987,
Vol. CAS-34, No.12, pp.1611 - 1614 (with L i Ping).
67. "The SCNAP series of software for switched capacitor circuit design", I.E.E. Colloquium on
Analogue IC Design, London, November 1987 pp. 10/1 - 10/5.
68. "Matrix methods for switched capacitor filter design", Proc. I.E.E.E. International
Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Helsinki, June 1988, pp. 1021 - 1024 (with L i Ping
and R K Henderson).
69. "General analysis of large linear switched capacitor networks", Proc. I.E.E. Part G, Electronic
Circuits and Systems, June 1988, Vol. 135, No.3, pp. 119 - 124, (with L.B. Wolovitz).
70. "Filter realisation by passive network simulation", Proc. I.E.E. Part G, Electronic Circuits
and Systems, August 1988, Vol. 135, No.4, pp. 167 - 176 (with L i Ping).
71. "Design and Optimisation of GaAs switched capacitor filter", I.E.E. Saraga Colloquium on
Electronic Filters, London, May 1988, pp. 1/1 - 1/10 (with D.G.Haigh, C. Toumazou, S.J.
Harrold).
1
72. "PANDDA : A program for advanced network design: digital and analogue", I.E.E. Saraga
Colloquium on Electronic Filters, London, May 1988, pp. 4/1 - 4/8. (with R.K. Henderson
and L i Ping).
73. "Digital filter realisation by passive network simulation", I.E.E. Saraga Colloquium on
Electronic Filters. London. May 1989. pp. 8/1 - 8/8 (with L i Ping).
74. "On low sensitivity/noise digital filter structures". Proc. I.E.E.E. International Conference on
Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing, Glasgow. May 1989, pp. 845 - 848 (with L i
Ping).
75. "A new filter approximation and design algorithm", Proc. I.E.E.E. International Symposium
on Circuits and Systems, Portland, May 1989, pp. 1063 - 1066, (with L i Ping and R.K.
Henderson).
76. "Design and optimisation of a GaAs switched capacitor filter", Proc. I.E.E.E. International
Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Portland, May 1989, pp. 1449 - 1454 (with D.G.
Haigh, C. Toumazou, S.J. Harrold and K. Steptoe).
77. "A design algorithm for all-pass delay equalisers," I.E.E. Saraga Colloquium on Electronic
Filters, London, June 1989, pp. 11/1-11/8 (with R.K. Henderson).
78. "The TWINTOR in bandstop switched-capacitor ladder filter realisation," I.E.E.E. Trans.
CAS, July 1989, Vol. CAS-36, No.7, pp. 1041 - 1044 (with L i Ping).
79. "The TWINTOR in bandstop switched-capacitor ladder filter realisation", Proc. European
Conference on Circuit Theory and Design, Brighton, September 1989, pp. 2 7 - 3 1 (with L i
Ping).
80. "Design program for digital and analogue filters: PANDDA", Proc. European Conference on
Circuit Theory and Design, Brighton, September 1989, pp. 289 - 293 (with L i Ping and
R.K. Henderson).
81. "High performance filter networks and symmetric matrix systems", Proc. I.E.E., Part G,
Circuits Devices and Systems, Dec. 1989, Vol. 136, No.6, pp. 327 - 336, (with L i Ping).
82. "A unified approach to the design of canonic integrated ladder filters," Proc. I.E.E.E.
International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, New Orleans, May 1990, pp.2272 -
2275 (with L i Ping and R.K. Henderson).
83. "Switched capacitor and active - RC allpass ladder filters," Proc. I.E.E.E. International
Symposium on Circuits and Systems, New Orleans, May 1990, pp. 2833 - 2836 (with L i
Ping).
84. "Design and testing of a GaAs switched capacitor filter", Proc. I.E.E.E. International
Symposium on Circuits and Systems, New Orleans, May 1990, pp. 2825 - 2828 (with D.G.
Haigh, C. Toumazou, S.J. Harrold, K. Steptoe and R. Bayruns).
85. "400 MHz switching rate GaAs switched capacitor filter" Electronics Letters, March 1990,
No.7, pp. 460 - 461 (with D.G. Haigh, C. Toumazou, S.J. Harrold, K. Steptoe and R.
Bayruns).
86. "Performance comparisons of switched-capacitor filter realisations", I.E.E. Saraga

Colloquium on Digital and Analogue Filters and Filtering Systems, London, May 1990,
pp.12/1 - 12/6 (with R.K. Henderson and L i Ping).
87. "Active and digital ladder-based allpass filters", Proc. I.E.E., Part G, Circuits Devices and
Systems, December 1990, Vol.137, No.6. pp.439-445 (with L i Ping).
88. "Extended Remez algorithms for filter amplitude and group delay approximation", Proc.
I.E.E., Part G, Circuits Devices and Systems, June 1991, Vol.138. No.3, pp.289-300 (with
R. K. Henderson and L i Ping).
89. "Canonical design of integrated ladder filters", Proc. I.E.E.. Part G, Circuits Devices and
Systems, April 1991, Vol.138, No.2, pp.222-228 (with R.K. Henderson and L i Ping).
90. "Design, optimisation and testing of a GaAs switched capacitor filter", I.EJE.E.Trans. CAS.
August 1991, CAS-38, No.8, pp.825-837 (with D.G. Haigh, C. Toumazou. S.J. Harrold. K.
Steptoe and R. Bayruns).
91. "Matrix methods for the design of transconductor ladder filters", Proc. I.E.E.E.International
Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Singapore, June 1991, pp.1355-1358 (with N.P.J.
Greer, R.K. Henderson and Li Ping).
92. "Design of a switched-capacitor filter for voice band signals", Proc. I.E.E.E.International
Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Singapore, June 1991, pp.1574-1577 (with L i Ping,
R.C.J. Taylor and R.K Henderson).
93. "A methodology for integrated ladder filter design", I.E.E.E.Trans. CAS, August 1991.
CAS-38, No.8, pp.853-868 (with L i Ping and R.K. Henderson).
94. "A 500 MHz GaAs second-order bandpass switched-capacitor filter", Proc. European
Conference on Circuit Theory and Design, Copenhagen, September 1991, pp.1171-1177
(with S.J Harrold, D.G. Haigh, C Toumazou, K. Steptoe and R. Bayruns).
95. "Software for the design of transconductor-capacitor filters and equalisers", I.E.E. Saraga
Colloquium on Digital and Analogue Filters and Filtering Systems. London, December
1991, pp.7/1-7/6 (with Lu Yue and N.P.J Greer).
96. "High performance front-end signal processing: system design aids", I.E.E. Colloquium on
Circuit Theory and DSP, London, February 1992, pp.2/1-2/6.
97. " A method for the evaluation of multirate sigma delta systems". Proc. I.E.E.E. International
Symposium on Circuits and Systems, San Diego, May 1992, pp. 1328-1331, (with D.M.
Hossack).
98. "Design of a switched-capacitor filter for a mobile telephone receiver", I.E.E.E. Journal of
Solid State Circuits, September 1992, Vol. 27, No.9., pp. 1294-1298 (with L i Ping, R.K.
Henderson and R.C.J. Taylor).
99. "Ladder based transconductor-capacitor filter and equaliser design", I.E.E. Saraga Colloquium
on Digital and Analogue Filters and Filtering Systems, London, November 1992, pp. 7/1 -
7/8, (with Lu Yue and N.P.J. Greer).
100. "Analog integrated filter compilation". Journal of Analog Integrated Circuits and Signal
Processing", March 1993, Vol.3, pp.217-228 (with R.K. Henderson and L i Ping).
101. "A transconductor-capacitor video filter and equaliser design", Proc. I.E.E.E. International
Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Chicago. May 1993, pp986-989 (with Lu Yue and,
N.P.J Greer).
102. "Efficient sensitivity analysis for large non-ideal switched capacitor networks", Proc. I.E.E.E.
International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Chicago, May 1993, pp. 1405-1407 (with
Z.Q. Shang).
103. "Design of high order sigma-delta modulators with minimum weighted noise", Proc. I.E.E.E.
International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Chicago. May 1993, pp.180-183 (with
D.M. Hossack).
104. "Computer-aided design of high order sigma-delta ADC's", I.E.E. Colloquium on Advanced
A-D and D-A Conversion Techniques and Applications, London, May 1993, pp.2/1-2/5 (with
D . M . Hossack).
105. "XFILT: an X-window based modern filter and equaliser design system", Proc. European
Conference on Circuit Theory and Design", Davos, Switzerland, August 1993, pp.305-310
(with Lu Yue, R.K. Henderson).
106. "A comparison study of SC biquads in the realisation of SC filters", Proc. I.E.E. Saraga
Colloquium on Digital and Analogue Filters and Filtering Systems. London, November 1993,
pp.10/1-10/9 (with Lu Yue).
107. "Issues in the design of low oversampling ratio single bit sigma-delta modulators", Proc.
I.E.E. Colloquium on Oversampling Techniques and Sigma-Delta Modulation, London,
March 1994, pp.3/1-3/5 (with D.M. Hossack, J. Reid).
108. "Matrix methods for the design of transconductor ladder filters", Proc. I.E.E., Part G, Circuits
Devices and Systems, April 1994, Vol. 141, No. 2, pp.89-100 (with N.P.J. Greer,
R.K. Henderson, L i Ping).
109. "Efficient noise analysis methods for large non-ideal SC and SI circuits", Proc. I.E.E.E.
International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, London, June 1994, pp.5/565-5/568 (with
Z.Q. Shang).
110. "A comparison study of SC biquads in the realisation of SC filters", Proc. I.E.E.E.
Lu Yue).
111. "Canonical realisation of ladder based transconductor-capacitor filters", Proc. I.E.E.E.

Lu Yue and N.PJ. Greer).
112. "The application of redundant number systems to digital sigma-delta modulators", Proc.
I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, London, June 1994, pp.2/481-
2/484 (with D.M. Hossack).
113. "Efficient analysis of some non-linearities in SC and SI filter networks", Proc. I.E.E. Saraga
Colloquium on Digital and Analogue Filters and Filtering Systems, London, November 1994,
pp. 10/1-10/5 (with Z.Q. Shang).
114. "First or second generation SI cells? A comparison of sensitivity from an SI filter system
viewpoint", Proc. I.E.E. Saraga Colloquium on Digital and Analogue Filters and Filtering
Systems, London, November 1994, pp. 11/1-11/5 (with L u Yue).
Grants
Science Research Council Grant 1975 -77 £ 3337
Science Research Council Grant 1975 -77 £ 6085
Royal Society Travel Grant 1978 £ 200
Imperial College/Admiralty Research Contract 1980 £ 1110
Science Research Council Grant 1980-84 £ 23800
Rutherford Laboratory Research Contract 1981-82 £ 19815

Science & Engineering Research Council Grant 1981-84 £ 56345
(Rutherford Computer Allocation £ 37500)
Ministry of Defence Contract 1984-85 £31646
Ministry of Defence Contract 1985-86 £29126

(Rutherford Computer Allocation. £69000)

(SERC Services £ 62250)
IBM (UK) Ltd. 1990 £ 24159
IBM (UK) Ltd 1992-93 £ 29965
Engineering & Physical Research Council Grant 1995-1997 £ 242306 (with S.P. Beaumont)
Carnegie Trust Travel Grant 1995 £ 1200
Numerous travel grants from various sources

including British Council and I.E.E.E.
Other Activities and Interests
Main interest is in Christian work and activities.
Sports activities include climbing and swimming.
Sub-Warden at a University Student House 1966-68.
Member of University Staff-Chaplaincy Advisory Committee 1966-68.
Part-time lecturer at Newcastle Polytechnic 1965-68.
Guest lecturer at the same college on "The use of a Digital Computer in the Design and Analysis of
Networks" in a course on Modern Network Analysis and Synthesis.
Guest lecturer at the University of Leeds, Electronics Exhibition 1967, on "Computer Aided Design of
Electrical Networks".
Lectures to Institution of Electrical Engineers Local Centre:
N.E. Graduate and Student Section 1967 - "Use of

computers in Network Analysis and Synthesis".
N.E. Electronics Section 1968 - "ZY Analysis".
Presented paper at International Conference on Computer Aided Design, University of Southampton.

April 1969. (Ref. 7)
Gave colloquium at University of Durham, March 1972.
Presented paper at International Conference on Computer Aided Design, University of Southampton,

April 1972. (Ref. 14)
Presented paper at the Second International Symposium on Network Theory, Herceg-Novi,

Yugoslavia, July 1972 (Ref. 16)
Gave colloquium at University of Newcastle upon Tyne, April 1973.
Presented paper at Conference on Teaching Electronics in Degree Courses, University of Hull, April
1973. (Ref. 19)
Presented paper at I.E.E. Colloquium on Amplifier Design - Theory and Practice, London, May 1974.
(Ref. 25)
Presented paper at the Fourth Summer School on Circuit Theory, Prague, Czechoslovakia, September
1974. (Ref. 26)
Gave colloguium at University of Newcastle upon Tyne, April 1975.
Presented two papers at I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Munich, April
1976. (Refs. 29, 30)
Gave lecture to I.E.E.E. Circuits and Systems Chapter, London, May 1976.
Gave colloquium at University of Newcastle upon Tyne, March 1978.
Presented paper at I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, New York, May 1978.
(Ref. 37)
Presented paper at I.S.H.M./I.E.R.E. Colloquium on Hybrid Realisations of Active Filters, London,

November 1978.
Presented paper at Fourth International Symposium on Network Theory, Ljubljana, Yugoslavia,

September 1979. (Ref. 40)
Presented paper at Conference on Electronic Engineering in Degree Courses - Teaching for the 80's,
University of Hull, April 1980. (Ref. 42)
Gave colloquium at Rutherford Laboratory, September 1980.

Presented paper at I.E.E. Colloquium on Electronic Filters, London, April 1981. (Ref. 46)
Gave lecture at Conference for Sixth Formers held under the auspices of the Mathematical
Association, Hull, April 1981.
Presented paper at I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Rome, May 1982.
(Ref. 47)
Gave colloquium at University of Newcastle upon Tyne. April 1983.
Presented paper at I.E.R.E. Colloquium on Analogue Filters, London, November 1983. (Ref. 50)
Presented paper at I.E.E. Colloquium on Design Software, London, January 1984. (Ref. 51)
Presented paper at I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Montreal, May 1984.
(Ref. 52)
Presented paper at I.E E. Colloquium on Electronic Filters, London, May 1985 (Ref. 55)
Presented paper at I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Kyoto, June 1985
(Ref 57)
Presented paper at I.E.R.E. Colloquium on Analogue Filters, London, November 1985.
Presented paper at I.E.E. Colloquium on Analogue IC Design, London, November 1987 (Ref. 67)
Presented paper at I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Helsinki, June 1988.
(Ref. 68)
Presented paper at I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, New Orleans, May
1990 (Ref. 83)
Presented papers at I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Singapore, June 1991
(Refs.91,92)
Presented paper at I.E.E. Colloquium on Circuit Theory and DSP, London, February 1992 (Ref. 96)
Presented poster paper at I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Chicago, May
1993 (Ref. 103)
Refereeing Duties
Referee for Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Inc. (America) - Transactions on Circuits
and Systems; Proceedings of the International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Munich (1968),
Montreal (1984), Helsinki (1988), Portland (1989), New Orleans (1990), Chicago (1993).
Referee for Institution of Electrical Engineers - Proceedings, Electronics Letters and Journal on
Circuits, Devices and Systems.
Referee for International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering.
Referee for Computer Aided Design, journal.
Referee for T. Nelson and Sons, Macmillan and Prentice-Hall, publishers.

Referee for the European Conference on Circuit Theory and Design. Lausanne (1978), The Hague
(1981), Brighton (1989), Istanbul (1995).
Referee for Journal of Analog Integrated Circuits and Signal Processing.
Book reviews - various.
External Duties
I.E.E.E. Committee on Circuits and Systems Chapter for the UK and Republic of Ireland - Member
(1975 - present). Vice Chairman (1978 - 1980), Chairman (1980 - 1983).
I.E.E.E. Section Committee for the UK and Republic of Ireland - Member (1980 - 1983).
Member I.E.E. E10 Professional Group Committee (1983 - 1989).
General Chairman of the Organising Committee, I.E.E.E. Conference on Computer Aided Design of
Electronic and Microwave Circuits and Systems, University of Hull, July 1977.
Member of the Organising Committee, I.E.E.E. Conference on Applications of Adaptive and

Multivariable Control, University of Hull. July 1982.
Joint-organiser of I.E.E.E. Workshop on Design and Fabrication of Integrated Circuit Filters, London,
September 1982.
Member of UGC E C A D Initiative, Working Party on Analogue Software, 1987-89.
I.E.E. representative on Organising Committee for CADCAM Conference, Birmingham, 1987.
Member of the Organising Committee, European Conference on Circuit Theory and Design, Brighton,
September 1989.
Member of Technical Programme Committee, I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and

Systems, New Orleans 1990.
Invited participant in I.E.E.E./N.S.F. CAS Workshop on Future Directions of Circuits, Systems

and Signal Processing. New Orleans, May 1990.
Member of International Publicity Committee, I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and

Systems, San Diego 1992.
Chair of Technical Programme Committee, I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and

Systems, London, 1994.
Member of Technical Programme Committee, I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and

Systems, Seattle 1995.
Member of the Editorial Board of the International Journal of Electronics 1989 - present.
Consultant to Plessey Research Ltd., Caswell.
External Examiner, University of Newcastle upon Tyne - Ph.D 1976
External Examiner, University of Birmingham - M.Sc. 1976
External Examiner, University of Birmingham - Ph.D. 1978

External Examiner, University of Bradford - Ph.D. 1980
External Examiner, University of Javadpur - Ph.D. 1980
External Examiner, University of Newcastle upon Tyne - Ph.D. 1981.
External Examiner, University of Essex - M.Sc. 1982
External Examiner, University of Edinburgh - Ph.D. 1983
External Examiner, Imperial College - Ph.D. 1984
External Examiner, Imperial College - Ph.D. 1985
External Examiner, University of Dundee - B.Sc. and M.Sc. 1986-89
External Examiner, University of Leeds - Ph.D. 1989.
External Examiner, University of Birmingham - B.Eng. and M.Eng. 1991 1994.

2o PetoBicMnesns Simlbinninttttedl
20
Published WorliSuhmiited for Consideration
P - indicates postgraduate student co-author.
U - indicates undergraduate student co-author.
* - indicates 19921.E.E. J.J.Thomson Premium Paper.
t - indicates I.E.E.E. Press Selected Reprint.
(-%) - indicates my proportion of contribution.
1. "Table for the voltage transfer functions of single amplifier double ladder feedback
systems", Electronics Letters, May 1965, Vol.1, No.3, pp 70-71, (with A.G.J.Holt).
(50%)
2. "Active RC filters employing a single operational amplifier to obtain biquadratic

responses", Proc. I.E.E., December 1965, Vol. 112, No. 12, pp.2227-2234, (with
A.GJ.Holt). (50%)
3. "Table for the voltage transfer functions of single amplifier double ladder parallel
feedback systems", I.E.E.E. Trans. C.T., September 1966, Vol. CT-13, pp.326-328,
(with A.G.J. Holt). (50%)
4. "Correction function techniques", I.E.E. International Conference on Computer

Aided Design, Southampton, April 1969, I.E.E. Conference Publication No. 51,
pp.515-526, (with C. Nightingale). (80%)
5. "Matrix tables for the generalised 5-terminal amplifier", The Radio and Electronic
Engineer, April 1969, Vol. 37, No.4, pp.247-55, (with F.W.Stephenson). (50%)
6. "Synthesis of multi-loop feedback systems, Part I , International Journal of Control,

May 1969, Vol.9, No.5, pp. 487-497, (with A.G.J. Holt). (50%)
7. "Synthesis of multi-loop feedback systems, Part U", International Journal of Control,

May 1969, Vol.9, No.5, pp.499-508, (with A.G.J. Holt). (50%)
8. "A simple method for producing floating inductors", Proc. I.E.E.E. December 1969,
Vol. 57, No. 12, pp. 2155-2156. (100%)
9. "Accumulant theory and applications", International Journal of Control, March 1970,

Vol. 11, No.3, pp.479-488. (100%)
10. "Synthesis of active devices", International Journal of Electronics, December 1970,

Vol.29, No.6, pp. 501-511. (100%)
11. "A course in computer-aided electronic circuit design for undergraduates", Computer
Aided Design, April 1972, Vol 4, No.3, pp. 135-137, (with A.G. Martin). (50%)
12. "The multiterminal active transformer", International Journal of Control, July 1972,
Vol. 16, N o . l , pp. 171-175. (100%)
13. "Active circulator systems", International Journal of Electronics, December 1972,

Vol.33, No.6, pp.677-679. (100%)
2 1
14. "Symbolic analysis for computer-aided circuit design - The interpolative approach",
I.E.E.E. Trans. C.T., November 1973, Vol. CT-20, No.6, pp. 738-741. (with J.K.
Fidler). (50%)
15. "Correction to symbolic analysis for computer-aided circuit design - the interpolative
approach", I.E.E.E. Trans. CAS, May 1974, Vol. CAS-21, No.3, P.462, (with
J.K.Fidler). (50%)
16. "Symbolic analysis of networks by partitioned polynomial interpolation", I.E.E.E.

p
Trans. CAS, May 1974, Vol.CAS-21 No.3, pp. 345-347, (with C. Fridas ). (50%)
17. "An adaptive electronic circulator for use in telephones", I.E.E.E. Trans. COM, July
u
1975, Vol. COM-23, No.7, pp. 728-731, (with R. Lodge ). (70%)
18. "A theory of equivalent active networks", I.E.E.E. Trans. CAS, June 1976, Vol. CAS-
p
23, No.6, pp.350-354, (with L.G.Grant ). (50%)
19. "Network partition methods for use in symbolic analysis by interpolation", Computer
1
Aided Design, July 1976, Vol. 8, No.3, pp. 157-164, (with C. Fridas *). (50%)
20. "Symbolic network sensitivities using partition methods", Int. Journal of Electronics,
p
July 1976, Vol.41, No.l, pp.25-32, (with C. Fridas ). (50%)
21. "Sensitivity minimisation and partitioned transformations in active equivalent

networks", I.E.E. Journal on Electronic Circuits and Systems, March 1978, Vol.2,
p
No.2, pp.33-38, (with L.G.Grant ). (50%)
22. "Some further sensitivity theorems in active equivalent network theory", I.E.E. Journal
on Electronic Circuits and Systems, November 1978, Vol.2, No.6, pp. 193-198, (with
p
J.Dunning-Davies and F.D. Faulkner ). (40%)
23. "An improved adaptive electronic circulator for telephone applications", I.E.E.E.
u
Trans. COM, August 1979, Vol. COM-27, No.8, pp. 1218-1224 (with H. Gazioglu
and D.A. HomerU). (40%)
24. "Analysis of active switched-capacitor networks", Proc. I.E.E.E. February 1980, Vol.
68, No.2, pp. 292-293. (100%)
25. "Inclusion of amplifier finite gain and bandwidth in analysis of switched-capacitor

p
filters", Electronics Letters, June 1980, Vol.16, No. 12, pp.462-463, (with C. Lau ).
(50%)
26. "Digital active network analysis", Proc. I.E.E., Part G, Electronic Circuits and
p
Systems, August 1980, Vol.127, No. 4, pp. 181-186 (with F.G.A. Coupe ). (50%)
27. "A degree enhancement scheme in electronic engineering", Int. J. Elect. Enging.
Educ, January 1981, Vol.18, pp. 29-34. (100%)
28. "Compact matrix scheme for use in computer analysis of switched capacitor
networks", Electronics Letters, September 1982, Vol. 18, No. 19, pp. 840-841, (with
p
C. Lau ). (50%)
29. "Improved z plane polynomial interpolative analysis of switched capacitor networks",
I.E.E.E. Trans. CAS, July 1984, Vol. CAS-31, No.7, pp. 666-668 (with D.G.
p
Johnson ). (50%)
30"*'. "Analysis of active switched-capacitor networks", selected reprint in MOS Switched-

Capacitor Filters: Analysis and Design, I.E.E.E. Press, 1984, pp. 85-86. (100%)
31. "Symbolic analysis of ideal and non-ideal switched capacitor networks", Proc. I.E.E.E.
International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Kyoto, June 1985, pp. 1165-1168
p
(with C.K. Pun ). (50%)
32. "On the generation of equivalent switched capacitor networks", Proc. European
Conference on Circuit Theory and Design, Prague, September, 1985 pp.697-700 (with
D.J. Gilbert). (50%)
33. "Efficient computer techniques for the exact analysis of all non-ideal effects of
switched-capacitor networks in the time domain", Proc. I.E.E.E. International
Symposium on Circuits and Systems, San Jose, May 1986, pp. 373-376, (with L.B.
p
Wolovitz ). (50%)
34. "Optimisation of switched capacitor networks using equivalence transformations",

Proc. I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Philadelphia, May
1987, pp. 730 - 732 (with D.J. Gilbert and G.L. HoldenU). (33%)
35. "The LUD approach to switched-capacitor filter design", I.E.E.E. Trans. CAS, Dec.
p
1987, Vol. CAS-34, No. 12, pp.1611 - 1614 (with L i Ping ). (50%)
36. "General analysis of large linear switched capacitor networks", Proc. I.E.E. Part G,
Electronic Circuits and Systems, June 1988, Vol. 135, No.3, pp. 119 - 124, (with L.B.
p
Wolovitz ). (50%)
37. "Filter realisation by passive network simulation", Proc. I.E.E. Part G, Electronic
p
Circuits and Systems, August 1988, Vol. 135, No.4, pp. 167 - 176 (with L i Ping ).
(50%)
38. "The TWINTOR in bandstop switched-capacitor ladder filter realisation," I.E.E.E.

p
Trans. CAS, July 1989, Vol. CAS-36, No.7, pp. 1041 - 1044 (with Li Ping ). (50%)
39. "High performance filter networks and symmetric matrix systems", Proc. I.E.E., Part
G, Circuits Devices and Systems, Dec. 1989, Vol. 136, No.6, pp. 327 - 336, (with L i
p
Ping ). (50%)
40. "400 MHz switching rate GaAs switched capacitor filter" Electronics Letters, March
1990, No.7, pp. 460 - 461 (with D.G. Haigh, C. Toumazou, S.J. Harrold, K. Steptoe
and R. Bayruns). (17%)
41 . "Active and digital ladder-based allpass filters", Proc. I.E.E., Part G, Circuits Devices
and Systems, December 1990, Vol.137, No.6, pp.439-445 (with Li Ping?). (50%)
42*. "Extended Remez algorithms for filter amplitude and group delay approximation",
Proc. I.E.E., Part G, Circuits Devices and Systems, June 1991, Vol.138, No.3, pp.289-
p
300 (with R. K. Henderson? and Li Ping ). (33%)
2 3
43*. "Canonical design of integrated ladder filters", Proc. I.E.E., Part G, Circuits Devices
and Systems, April 1991, Vol.138, No.2, pp.222-228 (with R.K. Henderson? and L i
Ping?). (33%)
44. "Design, optimisation and testing of a GaAs switched capacitor filter", I.E.E.E.Trans.
CAS, August 1991, CAS-38, No.8, pp.825-837 (with D.G. Haigh, C. Toumazou, S.J.
Harrold, K. Steptoe and R. Bayruns). (17%)
45. "A methodology for integrated ladder filter design", I.E.E.E.Trans. CAS, August 1991,
p
CAS-38, No.8, pp.853-868 (with Li PingP and R.K. Henderson ). (33%)
46. "A method for the evaluation of multirate sigma delta systems", Proc. I.E.E.E.
International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, San Diego, May 1992, pp. 1328-
1331, (with D.M. Hossack?). (50%)
47. "Design of a switched-capacitor filter for a mobile telephone receiver", I.E.E.E.

Journal of Solid State Circuits, September 1992, Vol. 27, No.9., pp. 1294-1298 (with
p
L i Ping , R.K. Henderson? and R.C.J. Taylor). (25%)
48. "Analog integrated filter compilation", Journal of Analog Integrated Circuits and
Signal Processing", March 1993, Vol.3, pp.217-228 (with R.K. Henderson? and L i
PingP). (33%)
49. "Efficient sensitivity analysis for large non-ideal switched capacitor networks", Proc.
I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Chicago, May 1993,
p
pp. 1405-1407 (with Z.Q. Shang ). (50%)
50. "Design of high order sigma-delta modulators with minimum weighted noise", Proc.
I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Chicago, May 1993,
pp. 180-183 (with D.M. Hossack?). (50%)
51. "Issues in the design of low oversampling ratio single bit sigma-delta modulators",
Proc. I.E.E. Colloquium on Oversampling Techniques and Sigma-Delta Modulation,
p
London, March 1994, pp3/l-3/5 (with D.M. Hossack , J. Reid). (33%)
52. "Matrix methods for the design of transconductor ladder filters", Proc. I.E.E., Part G,
Circuits Devices and Systems, April 1994, Vol. 141, No. 2, pp.89-100, (with N.P.J.
Greer, R.K. Henderson?, L i Ping?). (25%)
53. "Efficient noise analysis methods for large non-ideal SC and SI circuits", Proc.
I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, London, June 1994,
pp.5/565-5/568 (with Z.Q. Shang?). (50%)
54. "A comparison study of SC biquads in the realisation of SC filters", Proc. I.E.E.E.
International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, London, June 1994, pp.5/711-
p
5/714 (with Lu Yue ). (50%)
55. "The application of redundant number systems to digital sigma-delta modulators",

Proc. I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, London, June 1994,
pp.2/481-2/484 (with D.M. Hossack?). (50%)
2a
56. "Efficient design of ladder-based active filters and equalisers", submitted to

p
Proc.I.E.E. (with Lu Yue and N.P.J.Greer). (33%)
57. "Accurate semi-symbolic analysis of large non-ideal switched linear networks",

accepted for Proc.I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Sytems, Seattle,
p
May 1995 (with Z.Q.Shang ). (50%)
58. "A systematic approach for ladder based switched-current filter design", accepted for
Proc. I.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Sytems, Seattle, May 1995
p
(with Lu Yue ). (50%)
59. "Multirate SC and SI filter system design by XFILT", accepted for Proc. I.E.E.E.
p
International Symposium on Circuits and Sytems, Seattle, May 1995 (with Lu Yue ).
(50%)
25
3. Statement on Contribution and QriffinaBitv
Page
3.1 Active Filter Synthesis and CAD 27
3.2 Network Anaysis and CAD 30
3.3 Communication Circuit Design 34
3.4 Analysis and Design of Sigma-Delta Modulator Sytems 35
3.5 Educational Papers 36
3.6 The Future 37

26
3. Statement of Contribution and Originality
The motivating forces behind the research and scholarship described in my
publications in the learned society literature are quite diverse: some are pure research, some
are responses to an industrial problem requiring a solution or an improvement to that which
currently exists; others reflect the quest to close obvious gaps created by the progress of
technology or the need to convey knowledge as an educator. As an engineer my ultimate
goal has always been to find solutions to real problems, in the hope that some of these might
translate through to commercial products or facilitate the design of electronic apparatus that
will ultimately redound to the benefit of mankind.
A selection of my published work is presented under the following headings:
Active Filter Synthesis and CAD (Section 4)
Network Analysis and CAD (Section 5)
Communication Circuit Design (Section 6)
Analysis and Design of Sigma-Delta Modulator Systems (Section 7)
Educational Papers (Section 8)
Papers under Review (Section 9)
I acknowledge the fruitful collaboration with colleagues and postgraduate students
over many years, resulting in publication under joint authorship. Whilst it is impossible to
delineate precisely the balance of contribution, I was responsible in general for the
conception and initiation of the major themes of the work and have carried the task of
maintaining the continuity of topics over an extended period of time. A l l the work
undertaken by my research students and assistants was supervised by me at all times.
Proportions of contribution have been attributed in summary list. I adopted the principle of
listing authors alphabetically, though occasionally where one student has contributed
significantly more than another student, he has been given precedence.

2 7
3.1 Active Filter Synthesis and CAD (Section 4)
(Papers 2, 6,7, 8, 10, 12, 18, 21, 22, 32, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41. 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 52,
54, 56, 58, 59).
The origins of active filter theory emerge from classified work carried out during
World War I I , though it was not until demands on circuit size were imposed by Space
exploration that the real stimulus for serious work appeared. The whole topic gained new
impetus from the requirements imposed by IC developments, a demand which persists to the
present time. The initial designs were committed to low frequency and audio band operation,
but this expanded over the years so that the range of frequencies being covered now
extends from below 1 Hz to 500 MHz and beyond. In the development of synthesis
techniques, the aim has been towards general applicability rather than specific solutions for a
particular frequency range or building block. However, various examples are given in the
works cited, where application to certain problems with specified fabrication technologies
have required a particularisation of certain general theories to good advantage.
The early papers [2, 6, 7] address the design of multi-loop feedback active filters, the
development of a general synthesis theory and the production of a number of new circuit
implementations. These realisations employed the voltage operational amplifier as the basic
active element. This has transpired to be a very significant operational element in the whole
of active filter work and v/hereas early work on analysis anticipated the emanation of other
amplifiers, it was many years before some of these were actually utilised. Three more early
papers [8, 10, 12] show further development of synthesis theories and various operational
amplifier configurations, in the realisation of basic elements such as floating inductors or
more hierarchical devices such as active circulators and transformers.
A major contribution to the theory of active equivalent networks is represented by
three papers [18, 21, 22]. Prior to this, such theory had been limited to classical passive
networks and the only attempt at the extension to active topologies proved to be very
restricted. These papers develop the rigorous mathematics for the general equivalence
transformation in active networks containing operational amplifiers. When used in
conjunction with a general constrained nonlinear optimisation routine, significant

improvements in practical realisation parameters such as component spread and total sum,
together with minimisation of component sensitivity, were reported- At a later date these
principles were developed further in the context of switched capacitor networks [32, 34] and
again significant improvements to network implementation costs were demonstrated.
With the advent of switched-capacitor (SC) implementations of filter networks in
integrated circuit form, a major step forward was apparent in the design of filters for the mass
communication market. This technology has proved to be most reliable and extremely
robust. The initial designs were very closely linked to existing active-RC solutions and could
be classified as cascades of biquadratic sections or leapfrog ladder approaches. The former
had an early attraction because of ease of design in a mathematical sense. It had been
established many years earlier, that active filter realisations, derived from a passive ladder
prototype circuit, could demonstrate superior sensitivity properties. However SC ladder-
based synthesis was troubled by inexact simulation of termination resistances and by the
requirement for a strays-free realisation, in order to avoid the deleterious effects of stray
capacitance which is invariably present in the integrated circuit realisation. A series of
papers [ 35, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 45, 47, 48, 52, 54, 56, 58] began to address the above
problems in the general synthesis of ladder-based SC filters. It rapidly became apparent that
not only was there a good solution to the difficulties associated with the existing ladder
approach (leapfrog), but a completely general matrix scheme could be formulated to describe
the whole synthesis process. Furthermore, many new realisations were forthcoming merely
by applying standard matrix decomposition techniques. The general theory was equally
applicable to active-RC and digital ladder-based filters [37, 39] and many new realisations
followed. Later, the same general theory was also found to be applicable to
transconductance-C [52, 56] and switched-current (SI) ladder-based filters [58].
Simultaneously, two other important developments were taking place. The first was the
extension of the realisation of ladder-based allpass filters from purely digital configurations
to active ones [41]. This circumvented the need for lattice type or differential structures and
retained the essential low sensitivity ladder property; a further benefit was that these
realisations were also encompassed within the matrix formulation. A second major
breakthrough was the development of a completely arbitrary approximation theory [42]
which could include all the properties of existing classical approximations, together with a
new high order touch point concept and general template weighting functions. The general
theory could be used to approximate to any set of specifications - commonly amplitude or
group delay. These developments not only allow a designer the freedom to explore many
unusual approximations whilst maintaining readability of the circuit, but other very
important practical consequences follow. Many low frequency stop-band zeros can be
forced to the origin, thus reducing the number of large time constants required in circuit
realisation. Specific, sharp notches produced by high order zeros can be incorporated to
shape the characteristic and remove particular frequencies. Non-switched capacitance
feedthrough paths can be eliminated, thus breaking long delay free paths that cause restricted
settling times when many amplifiers appear in series connection. High order touch points
can be used within the passband to create "smoother" ripples which are particularly helpful at
the band edges in reducing circuit sensitivity and group-delay equalisation requirements.
Ripple characteristics can be tapered to reduce circuit sensitivities. Weighted passbands can
be developed to satisfy the frequency characteristics demanded by other processes within a
communication system and to absorb or equalise the amplitude characteristics of
transmission lines. Most importantly, a new form of optimisation was now available in
which the order of the search space was not dictated by the number of circuit components,
but simply by the original order of approximation. Optimisation could be used to offset the
effects of non-idealities in the circuit (amplifier gain/bandwidth, switch resistance, integrator
imperfections in switched-current (SI) realisations). It could also counter the effects of
numerical truncation due to quantisation introduced by the assembly of components such as
capacitors and even transistors from combinations of unit-sized elements in integrated circuit
layout. Thus a unified scheme based on the iterative Remez method was applicable to both
filter approximation and optimisation. A combination of various ideas also enabled progress
on the realisation of canonic ladder-based structures, when a modified function is actually
synthesised and then input circuitry of the resultant filter is adjusted to return the original
response [43, 56]. The climax of this work was a seminal paper on the methodology for
integrated ladder filter design [45] and the application of many of these principles to
industrial problems. One design [47] has been of noted commercial success with large
volume sales. The group of papers [41, 42, 43] were awarded the 1992 I E E J.J. Thompson
Premium.
The philosophy behind the software suite which incorporates the general synthesis
theories was outlined [48] and developed to a commercial level as X F I L T software. The
control of accuracy during the synthesis of high order networks is assured by methods
conventional and novel. Recent extensions include multirate SC and SI systems design [59],
when more attractive solutions can often be obtained for filters with particularly demanding
specifications, for example very narrow band ones. Powerful network analysis software [49,
53] has been incorporated and the suite can deliver full sensitivity and noise analysis to aid
the design task. A wide range of biquadratic sections has been added to provide a
comprehensive synthesis tool. A typical application might require the comparison of
numerous possible solutions to a set of filter specifications on a sensitivity basis [54].
Two other papers on filter design [40, 44] have been included in this section. These
describe the combined work of a team of investigators including the author, which produced,
in 1990, the highest frequency SC filter known to date. GaAs fabrication technology was
employed and many design obstacles needed solution. My contribution was extensive circuit
simulation using software outlined in the following section. The simulations revealed
limitations due to initial amplifier and switch designs and it was possible to incorporate
certain improvements prior to fabrication.
3.2 Network Analysis and CAD (Section 5)
(Papers 1, 3,4, 5, 9, 13, 14, 15,16, 19, 20, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 36,49, 53, 57).
Network analysis is the handmaiden of circuit synthesis and design. Traditionally the
linear analysis methods consisted of general matrix or topological techniques together with a
"bag full of tricks" - simplifying transformations, symmetry considerations, equivalent
network and superposition theorems. Certain networks, such as ladders, lent themselves to
closed form solutions. Before the advent of computers, the circuit designer was forced into a
selection of special techniques and approximations for his analysis tools. Over the past 30
years, as computing power has become more readily available, it has been possible to observe
the move away from the analysis magician towards general matrix methods which are
capable of providing analysis to whatever degree of detail and accuracy is required by the
designer. The papers selected herein reflect this general trend quite accurately. The forward
progress has not always been a smooth transition from particular to general, as evidenced in
the case of SC networks. During the peak of activity in their development throughout the
early 1980's, a variant on the traditional approach appeared, when methods for computer
analysis of such networks were divided into ideal and non-ideal. The former assumed ideal
devices (switches and operational amplifiers) within the network and permitted
straightforward and quick solution for the first pass in design. When non-idealities (finite
switch resistance, finite GB values for the amplifiers) were allowed in the device
macromodels, then approximations, gross or otherwise, were required to produce any
answers in a finite computing time. And how accurate were these solutions anyway? The
techniques and routines have been refined to such an extent that the user of a modest
workstation or PC can now expect to obtain reliable answers for complex noise or sensitivity
analysis of switched networks, within a realistic time frame.
The work represented is mainly concerned with linear networks though, more
recently, extensions have been made into the analysis of dominant nonlinear effects in
switched networks.
The development of closed form solutions [1, 3, 9] for multi-loop feedback networks
containing an operational amplifier represents a classical approach to the analysis of a certain
class of network when the operational device is assumed ideal. The networks were important
active filters, whose synthesis is outlined in the papers of Section 4. A hybrid ideal/nonideal
solution [4] for these networks when non-ideal marcromodels for the amplifiers were
assumed, presented interesting principles for computer analysis that could be extended to
many other classes of network. Early work on the derivation of admittance matrices for all
four basic types of operational amplifier [5] pre-dated much of the application and design
work that has followed from many authors. An interesting manipulation of matrix
descriptors for networks of active circulators [13] provided not only a simple analysis tool
but also gave a compact method for examining novel interconnection strategies.
Symbolic analysis has been the bete noir of a considerable number of researchers for
many years. It is universally acknowledged that the production of fully symbolic transfer
functions of networks by computer, in terms of the constituent circuit components and
parameters, could provide very attractive insight for the designer and the generation of
differentials for sensitivity and optimisation studies. But it was realised at an early stage, by
a large majority of investigators, that the exponential Cor worse) growth in size of expression
and the associated storage requirements would render the technique impractical for all but
small circuits. A number of researchers still continue such an approach and even with
"gardening" and truncation, the restriction to circuits of modest size persists. A number of
rather more realistic variations on symbolic techniques have been proposed and I have been
involved in the development of a semi-literal interpolative approach to considerable effect
[14, 15, 16, 19, 20, 29, 57]. In this case the results of computer analysis are polynomials in s
or z or both variables, whose coefficients are numeric (though a small number of symbolic
components can be included at the cost of repeating the whole procedure for each element).
The first significant step was to establish the general application of interpolation techniques
to the efficient analysis of active networks [14, 15]. As the size of network was increased,
problems of accuracy arose and major progress towards resolving this issue was produced by
partitioned polynomial interpolation [16]. This utilises sample points located in a circular
manner and involves circles of different radii or sets of samples on the same circle with
different initial set angles or combinations of both. The work was important for two reasons;
it was an elegant solution to the accuracy problem and secondly the choice of circular
samples prompted other investigators to realise that the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) was
the exact implementation of the interpolation scheme when a circle of unit radius was used.
This meant that all of the highly efficient FFT routines could be used as the basic numerical
engine for semi-literal interpolative analysis, a situation which prevails to the present time.
Other techniques, such as network partition methods [19, 20] were developed to cope with
the problems of large networks. These contributed to further improvements in accuracy and
storage improvements, together with features useful in the computation of symbolic network
sensitivities. With the advent of SC networks, the application of interpolative schemes to
their ideal semi-symbolic analysis proved to be successful, although analysis of networks of
modest size by interpolation in the z domain, raised more severe accuracy concerns than had
been experienced previously with active R C networks. A combined conformal
transformation of the plane and partitioned polynomial interpolation again proved to be very
successful in maintaining accuracy during the analysis of high order SC networks [29]. The
extension of semi-symbolic analysis to include non-ideal effects in SC networks was not at
all straightforward. An early attempt using a Kader sequence for matrix inversion [31]
enjoyed some success, but application was limited to circuits of moderate order because of
the computing resources needed. The system was considered as a general one with
polynomials in s and z. The problem has been reconsidered very recently [57], when an
interpolative approach has once again been used to advantage in the general analysis of non-
ideal SC and SI networks. Essentially there is no closed form symbolic expression for the
transfer function of a non-ideal switched network, since the computation of an extended state
transition matrix is implicit to all solutions and at best this can only be approximated in a
numerical manner. However, using an over-interpolation scheme, modified polynomials in z,
of slightly higher order than those expected in the ideal case, are produced to describe exactly
the network behaviour [57]. Accuracy has been maintained during the analysis of large non-
ideal SC and SI networks. It is also shown that significant advantages can result when this
technique is used in noise analysis of switched networks with 2 clock phases. All the aliasing
effects of wide band noise are easily computed by numerical substitution of a large number
of frequency values into the polynomials. Unfortunately such advantages are quickly eroded
when the number of clock phases increase in multirate circuits.
As already indicated, the introduction of SC networks during the late 1970's and
early 1980's brought great demands for comprehensive analysis. Initially many schemes
abounded, even for ideal networks, and I was able to make contributions to the early work
[24]. This paper was also chosen as a selected reprint [30] by I E E E Press for a volume on
significant papers in the subject. Translation of analytical techniques into CAD tools was an
obvious development, but the success story associated with SC filters in particular
encouraged designers to be more ambitious in extending their requirements to high order
circuits. This quickly brought about the demise of much of the less durable analysis
software and triggered the search for improved mathematical and algorithmic routines. A
compaction scheme [28] was very effective in coping with multi-phase higher order SC
networks. A preliminary attempt to include some circuit non-idealities proved to be limited
to simple circuits [25]. A series of papers [33, 36, 49, 53] made a serious attack on the
efficient computation of all non-idealities in large linear switched networks. A whole
compendium of numerical techniques were fully exploited, including sparse matrix methods,
optimal ordering, interpretive code generation, Hessenberg techniques, extensive frequency
independent pre-processing, polynomial approximation of excitations and full discretisation
of the non-ideal switched network description. The resultant software has gained a reputation
for speed, accuracy and robustness, the current version of SCNAP4 is in use at a number of
industrial and university sites around the world and negotiations for full commercial
exploitation are in hand with two companies. The analysis of the largest known multi-rate
switched networks to give frequency responses, sensitivity behaviour and noise performance
can now be accomplished on modest work stations and PCs in very realistic computational
times.
An investigation into the description and design of digital active networks [26]
produced very interesting results. However these have been largely superceded by the
irrepressible development of digital filters and DSP on the one hand and by SC and SI
networks on the other.
3.3 Communication Circuit Design (Section 6)
Papers (17, 23).
These two papers report work on practical circuit design for telephone applications.
In many telephone networks worldwide, problems occur when matching the wide variations
in local subscriber lines caused by different line lengths, line material (Cu or Al), conductor
dimensions and mixtures of all of these in different proportions. In rural areas the length of
local lines can aggravate the problem. In urban districts the runs are shorter and
approximately equivalent in length, but the actual lines may have been modified so often
with odd pieces of cable of such random specifications that the resultant line characteristics
often exhibit considerable variations. The adaptive electronic circulator was developed for
use in these situations, as an effective means for providing isolation between transmit and
receive signals and a constant level of side-tone for user comfort. Basic problems of voice
switching were addressed by extra feedback. The initial work was confined to resistive
matching only. In the second paper, a more general adaptive impedance match was
successfully demonstrated, low and high frequency pilot tones being used to derive error
signals for two term control. The voice switching problem was eliminated and good adaptive
performance was demonstrated over a wide frequency range for a great variety of subscriber
lines and loads.
The advantage of these circulator circuits over traditional passive hybrids was their
ease of realisation as part of any integrated circuitry associated with a modern telephone set.
3.4 Analysis and Design of Sigma-Delta Modulator Systems (Section 7)
(Papers 46, 50,51,55)
In recent years there has been an explosion of interest in over-sampling data
converters. Such circuits offer highly attractive solutions to the analogue/digital/analogue
interface problems, they permit shaping of the noise characteristic, provide multi-bit
conversion and above all they can be realised in integrated circuit form without the need for
highly accurate passive components.
One of the major problems in this area of work is the complexity of simulating the
behaviour of multirate sigma delta systems. A general behavioural simulator was developed
[46] with an emphasis on providing a user-friendly interface. The software FUNSIM has
been used extensively in one industrial establishment. It has also facilitated studies in the
design of high order sigma-delta modulators with tailored noise characteristics [50] suitable
for high quality digital audio applications.

Studies on the design of low over-sampling ratio sigma-delta modulators [51] have
utilised techniques for adaptive step size to give companding and have developed ideas on
noise gating. It was also shown that when these ideas are applied to the problem of speech
coding/decoding, the resultant system can give significant performance improvement over
existing linear PCM techniques.
More recent work has been concerned with digital sigma-delta modulators [55], the
speeds of which are limited by latency in loop filters. An interesting solution has been
developed by employing a redundant number system instead of a traditional two's
complement number system. There seems to be scope for many further developments and
some of these are curre itly under investigation.
3.5 Educational Papers (Section 8)
(Papers 11,27)
These papers describe two course developments in which I was involved. In the early
1970's the introduction of CAD into the teaching of electronic circuits began to receive
attention. Unfortunately many of the schemes were piecemeal and somewhat ad hoc. The
first paper [11] details a scheme to integrate a student's acquisition of theoretical knowledge
from lectures, with his practical experience from laboratory work and attempts to force a
convergence of these skills through the medium of a 4 week design project. Further
motivation derived from the use of analysis software to evaluate designs in a controlled
manner. The whole exercise proved to be very successful with students and ran with early
analysis software for a period of 10 years, until more general software became common
place.
The second paper [27] describes a different educational initiative. In the late 1970's
there were numerous high level reports on how to improve the quality of engineering
graduates. At the University of Hull, I chaired a working party which had the task of
producing a realistic scheme for an enhanced degree in electronic engineering. The scheme
enjoyed considerable success over a number of years. However, it is interesting to note that
many of the premises on which that initiative was based have been eroded over the
intervening years and many of the caveats mentioned at the conclusion of the paper have
been ignored. The standard of education of electronic engineers in UK might well be sinking
below the international "electronic Plimsoll line".
3.6 The Future
This set of collected papers covers a period of 30 years, during which electronics has
developed from an advanced art into a highly sophisticated one. Surely it must be one of the
few experiences of modern existence, when after such a length of time, more functionality
can be obtained at less cost. Furthermore, there is no sign that these trends have run their
course; more is yet to come.
And more is in store across the landscape presented in this work. The human form
operates almost exclusively in an analogue mode and relates to a largely analogue, physical
world by analogue means. Yet the most powerful forms of collecting data, processing
information and stimulating response lines reside firmly in the digital domain. The way
forward is not by a frantic search for remaining "analogue gaps" and the development of
electronic solutions for these niche areas only. It must be via fully engineered interfaces
between analogue and digital environments and technologies - completely integrated designs
where the advantages of each domain are utilised to maximum effect. As the possibilities of
truly mixed-mode design unfold, the demands for new simulation facilities increase, which in
turn reveal new avenues for optimisation and creative design.
Many of the techniques reported in this work and the resultant software packages
have been applied to the design of signal conditioning circuits whose frequencies of
operation lie in the frequency range 1 Hz to 500 MHz. We are already addressing the
problems associated with designs operating at 1 GHz and in the near future 12 GHz should
be within reach. The challenge is to develop proper engineering design techniques and
supporting simulation software to meet these demands.
"Si jeunesse savait; si vieillesse pouvait"
(if only youth knew; if only age could)
Les Premiees, Henri Estienne, 1531-1598

38
4. Active Filter Svthesis and CAD
Publication Page
[2] Active RC filters employing a single operational amplifier to obtain biquadratic 40

responses
[6] Synthesis of multi-loop feedback systems, Part I, 49
[7] Synthesis of multi-loop feedback systems, Part II 65
[8] A simple method for producing floating inductors 76
[10] Synthesis of active devices 79
[12] The multiterminal active transformer 91
[18] A theory of equivalent active networks 97
[21] Sensitivity minimisation and partitioned transformations in active equivalent 103

networks
[22] Some further sensitivity theorems in active equivalent network theory 110
[32] On the generation of equivalent switched capacitor networks 117
[34] Optimisation of switched capacitor networks using equivalence transformations 122
[35] The LUD approach to switched-capacitor filter design 127
[37] Filter realisation by passive network simulation 132
[38] The TWINTOR in bandstop switched-capacitor ladder filter realisation 143
[39] High performance filter networks and symmetric matrix systems 148
39
Page
[40] 400 MHz switching rate GaAs switched capacitor filter 159
[41] Active and digital ladder-based allpass filters 162
[42] Extended Remez algorithms for filter amplitude and group delay approximation 170
[43] Canonical design of integrated ladder filters 183
[44] Design, optimisation and testing of a GaAs switched capacitor filter 191
[45] A methodology for integrated ladder filter design 205
[47] Design of a switched-capacitor filter for a mobile telephone receiver 222
[48] Analog integrated filter compilation 228
[52] Matrix methods for the design of transconductor ladder filters 241
[54] A comparison study of SC biquads in the realisation of SC filters 254

40
PAPER 2
amplifier to obtain biquadratic responses
A . G . J . Holt, P h . D . , A . M . I . E . E . , and J . I. S e w e l l , B . S c , Graduate I . E . E .
Synopsis
In this paper, networks are presented in tabular form to simplify the design of RC active filters having
magnitude responses characterised by pass-band attenuation ripples and stop-band transmission zeros.
The responses of these networks may be described by biquadratic rational functions. In all, the form and
element values for 11 different networks are tabulated.
The basic network discussed in the paper is an operational amplifier with multiloop feedback in cascade
with a passive RC circuit and having a second-order response. Higher-order responses than the second may
be obtained by cascading second-order stages of the tabulated networks, with suitable isolating stages
when necessary.
Two different forms of passive circuit are given, together with their design formulas. Both low-pass and
high-pass filters are considered; these can be cascaded to give band-pass or band-stop characteristics.
The operational amplifier is assumed to have infinite input and zero output impedance; the effects of
departure from these ideal conditions on the filter response is considered.
List of s y m b o l s Responses of the biquadratic form may also be obtained

D = general transfer function with active RC filters employing operational amplifiers and
DA = transfer function of active section inductor-free passive feedback networks. The use of active
D p = transfer function of passive section networks in filter design is of increasing importance with the
p = Laplace-transform variauie introduction of integrated circuits, in which it is difficult to
(7 0— numerator polynomial coefficient of over- obtain satisfactory inductors. Active filters are also used to
all transfer function deal with the very low-frequency signals which arise in
0 h , 6, -— denominator polynomial coefficients of control applications. The size and cost of the inductors which
overall transfer function would be required in conventional LC filters become pro-
nB = numerator coefficients of general active hibitive at these frequencies.
section Amplifier circuits which may have biquadratic responses
1 5
have been described in the literature, " but these either
n b, bi . b„ = denominator coefficients of general active
section require a number of amplifiers, sometimes used as integrators,
or if only one amplifier is used, employ at least two parallel
3' , Y = admittances of active-section components
s
admittance parameters of 2-port network ladder networks.

- v
1 1 ' > ' 1 2 < >'2|. )'22
arbitrary divisor polynomial It will be shown that for a second-order stage only one
coefficients of arbitrary divisor polynomial parallel ladder network is required, together with a single
unsealed series resistive element in high- operational amplifier having multiple-loop feedback. The
pass ladder section sensitivity of the circuit to changes in amplifier gain is made
F{p) = numerator polynomial of active section small by the feedback applied. Responses of the biquadratic
« — parameter in passive synthesis procedure form may also be obtained with circuits employing negative-
a — constant attenuation coefficient for pas- impedance convenors and gyrators. Synthesis procedures for
sive network negative-impedance-convertor circuits have been described by
16 17
x, - - constant attenuation coefficient for L i n v i l l and by Yanagisawa; a set of design Tables for
Guillemin network second- and fourth-order filters employing the Yanagisawa
18
ot, = constant attenuation coefficient for net- procedure has been presented by Holt and Stephenson.
work design from Reference 15 ft is known that parallel ladder networks may be somewhat
D — high-pass transfer function difficult to adjust, and a method which reduces their number,
HP
M — amplifier open-loop gain while yielding the same form of response, would appear to be
advantageous.
The methods of design described in this paper are intended
1 Introduction to provide networks having responses described by elliptic
functions of the second order; other biquadratic responses
Filters having responses described by biquadratic
may be obtained by the same method. Responses described by
rational functions are well known in passive-/LC-network
higher-order functions may be obtained by cascading second-
design. These networks may have transmission zeros (often
order stages.
known as poles of attenuation) at finite frequencies which lie
on the imaginary axis of the p plane. The responses of
certain classes of these networks may be described by the
elliptic functions.
2 Principles
The derivation of all transfer functions considered in
Paper 4855 E , firs! received 27th August I964 and in final form 5th this paper is based on the cascaded sections shown in Fig. I.
August 1965 An operational amplifier and multiloop feedback circuit, as
Dr. Holt and Mr. Sewell are with the Department of Electrical Engineer-
ing. University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne 1 shown in Fig. 2. are included in the active network. It is
PROC I EE. Vol. 112. No. 12. DECEMBER 1965 2227
assumed lhat the input impedance of ..he amplifier is infinite a simple result is with a parallel RC network and )', • 1/R,.
and its output impedance is zero, conditions which are easily- Y -- pC .
2 K, - p C j . > = l / / ? and >' - C\ - l / R .
: 4 4 ? P 5
approached in practice (deviations from ideal-impedance The transfer function becomes

conditions are considered later).
active passive
R,
2
B »B,p*p
0 a * P
0
2
2
b *b,p+p
0
2
8 *B,p*p
0
(b)
Fig. 1 Equating coefficients between eqns. 6 and 3 gives

Arrangement of ciclive and passive sections
I " c
.6, 1 (7)
R\R* a 4
In order to use as many standard components as possible

and using normalised values, all capacitors are set to unity:
C; = C 3 = C 2 = C = I
This gives
2 _ bt_
(8)
<?2 b, 2b -
0
If /?, = !, the transfer function becomes
Fig. 2
Basic active multiloop feedback section
2
(9)
b0 ^ b l P ->- p
The biquadratic function having transmission zeros on the

A passive network is required with a transfer function
imaginary axis of the pplane is given by eqn. 1:
o - 0 P 2
(10)
2
(1)
p ^ b l P
It can be shown that the active circuits used produce transfer

functions of the form This may be synthetised by the Guillemin parallel-ladder
method, provided the function has only real poles;
B 0 + B,p 4- Bp
2
2
+ B„p"
D = (2)
bo + b\p 4- b p 2
4 b„p"
2
(in
Thus, if an active circuit of this type is used to produce the
denominator of eqn. 1, the resultant transfer function of the This condition ensures that the response described by eqn. 10
active section has the form is obtainable with a passive RC network and gives the limits to
the range of functions realisable with configuration 5 from
Table 1.
(3)
b 0 + b p - { p- The parallel-ladder synthesis may be performed in two ways:
14 13
one yielding a terminated structure, and the other an
In order to obtain the complete transfer function of eqn. 1,
unterminated structure. There is little to choose between the
it is necessary to place in cascade a network having the
two methods. The latter usually produces a network with a
transfer function
lower output impedance; this is important in cascaded systems
a - p< if isolating stages are to be avoided. It has the disadvantage
»„ = 0
(4) of using one more component.
This latter function can be realised as a passive RC network

2
provided the polynomial B S,p — p has only real roots. 0
3 A c t i v e - s e c t i o n configurations
The active network used to produce the function has the
general form shown in Fig. 2. The circuit is of the form used There is an abundance of solutions for active sections of
12
by T a y l o r . the type under consideration. Unfortunately only a limited
It is found that, for any transfer function of the type under number can be used to synthetise second-order functions
consideration, all branches of the active network may be having coefficients of the elliptic function without negative
r
single resisto s or capacitors except one which is a series or elements being required in the feedback network. Two classes
parallel RC circuit. of configuration emerge: those having one parallel RC element.
and those with one series RC element.
The general transfer function obtained using the idealisa-
tions mentioned in the first paragraph of this Section is
3.1 Circuits with one parallel element
k ( y, -
5 v - 2 v )
}
(5) Table 1 shows useful solutions of this class. These keep

. • - r ( r, - Y - Y )
3 4 2 3 • • •
to a minimum the number of components which have a
In choosing the elements such th;. eqn. 5 has the form of nonunity normalised value. Ali elements are normalised to
eqn. 3. many possibilities exist: one combination which yields unity unless they are listed under the heading of variable.
2228 PROC. IEE. Vol. 112. No. 12, DECEMBER 1965
4 3
•x.
(N
r-j
30
r-4 C
v.
O .as
U'as Iw- a:
O =s
^ a;
(_i as ^ L, as U ax
O as O a:
a: i
I
Some solutions require the choice of an arbitrary variable to 3.3 Denormalisation
satisfy readability conditions. It is frequently advantageous to denormalise the
Configurations 1 and 5 in Table 1 give simple solutions, active and passive sections to different impedance levels.
having four standard elements using only two resistive This enables the designer to obtain convenient component
elements with nonunity normalised values. values and also avoid distortion due to drawing large currents
from the amplifier. Fig. 3B shows the circuit designed for a
3.2 E x a m p l e u s i n g four s t a n d a r d e l e m e n t s cutoff frequency of lOOc/s: R = l 5 9 - 2 k £ } . C == 0 01 tiF for
Fig. 3C shows the measured response obtained when the active section, and R = 15 -92kQ and C = 0-1 uF for the
solution 5 from Table ! is used to realise the typical example passive section.
of a second-order function:
3.4 E x a m p l e using three standard e l e m e n t s
pi 7.464
D = 2 (12) Consider alternative 4 (Table I). Let C , = 20/^F, and,
p J - 0-6075p - 0-7559 • • • •
for the function of eqn. 12, R, = 0-5902kfl and R = 2
Fig. 3A shows the passive networks. In the active section, the 01067kfi.
calculated element values are R = 3-921, R = 0 - 4 0 1 9 (to
t x The numerator
four significant figures).
2
F(p) = 0-5532 - 10-4203/j - p . . . . (13)
0 0 3 6 8 0 01022 O3770 01682 02420 02195
o VW 1| « |H o-W—«JVWUJ(W o choosing
q(p) = (p - 0 \)(p ~ 20) (14)

02142 2
= P — K] P - K 0
and proceeding through the synthesis of Reference 13 gives

Fig. 3A the network of Fig. 4. This is denormalised for the passive
High- and low-pass ladder sections before combination and section R = 15 -92kfl and C = 0-1 / i F ; for the active section
denormalisation R = 159-2kfi, C = 0 01 p.F.
OOl/iF 93-93kO
)59-2k0 II — w
524kO OOOyF 00003/<F
159-2kO
444k0 / 0 O 3 7 7 / 4 F r-AAAA 246-5k0 t 0O297 uF /
-MHh 1|- O-OyF -AW-il

0-Ol^F
29Olk0 1877kO l8-27kl)
—w/—1\\ -A/W-
63-95k0 OOl/iF 945kfl O-OVF- UAA^
0 0214 00145 1698k0
37-7kf) El 554kO
656kO
F i g . 3B Fig. 4
Complete circuit for example of Section 3.2 Complete circuit for example of Section }.4
20
+10
til Ul
o -10 \
\
20 \
30
\ \f T
+
Y
40
10 100 1000
freauency. c/s
F i g . 3C
Response of active, passive and combined sections of example of
Section 3 2
a Active section
b Resultant response
c Passive section
2230 PROC. I EE, Vol. 112, No. 12, DECEMBER 1965
The transfer function for the passive section is 3.5 Circuits with one series RC element
1 Table 2 shows solutions which are applicable for the
p - 7-464
D 2
(15) range of functions under consideration.
p - 10-4203/) - 0-5532 Some solutions are more complex than others and require
the choice of one or more arbitrary variable components in
With these coefficients, it is convenient to use the synthesis
order to satisfy readability conditions.
technique of Reference 15.
For 93 9jkr>
«o ~ P2
(16) 159 2 0 005'JJ

2
B0 - B,p - p II
3786kfi 4 7 73ki)
the components of the circuit shown in Fig. 5 become
1 16-95 kf) 01 kn
A 2
( ~) 0062
It
Fig. 6
C 2 = 0 5» Complete circuit for the filter using method of Reference 15 for the
passive network
(17)
^3 •= ~
Ry = For example, taking alternative 3, again the required trans-
fer function is
2
o -f 7-464
D (21)
C - ^
GV") 0-6075/j -f 0 7559
Substitution of R = 4 k O and C = 1 fif gives /?, =

4 2
where u = ~ (B, - 1) - 0-5 0-3174kQ and R = 0 - l 6 8 4 k Q ; setting « - 1 kQ the

2B, 3 5
numerator polynomial of the active section is

2
F =- 0-8322(2-3408 — 5-5429p — p ) . . (22)
Hl-
factorising (disregarding the constant multiplier)
F = (p - 0-515)(p - 5 04) (23)
choosing the polynomial as (p — I )(p - 6) ensures realisa-

bility. The parameters are
7-464
Fig. 5
2-3408
Basic canonical form of the syiillw.sk procedure of Reference 15
; 5•5429
6
The second network produces a response with a slightly •- 1
greater gain; this is due to the different constant multiplier Continuing the synthesis yields the network shown in
produced by each synthesis method. Fig. 7. The passive section is denormalised to R = 15-92kfl,
The passive function produced by these methods has the C = 0 1/xF, and the active section to /? = 159-2 k i l ,
form C =-- 0 01 fiF.
«o ~ P 1
2
(18) 26-BhO OOl^lF
°" ^ B a ^ B l P - p rAW |h
187-4 0 0014 O-0341
For the first (Guillemin) network, 159-2kfl 6366kf) kfl uF
i—WA
i—wHP
„ >}B 0
63-61 kO 28 23kO
(19)
B 0 ~ '•.<'() OOlpF 0O324
where
5595 r 00185
kO
BoK 0
Fig. 7
K B,n K\Bn KnB, K, Bn
Complete circuit diagram for the active-section configuration using

For the second network. one series combined element
Bo
(20) The response of this configuration is identical with previous
x = x-> — -
methods, apart from a constant gain factor.
" "o
The ratio 3t /a, gives the gain difference, for this example
3
3.6 Effect of finite input and nonzero output
impedances of amplifier on filter response
I 148
As stated in Section 2, the theory presented in this
i.e. 1 -208dB. paper was derived on the assumptions that the input impe-
The complete tiller consisting of feedback amplifier in dance of the operational amplifier is infinite, and it's output
cascade with the loaded twin-T network is shown in Fig. 6. 2231
PROC I EE. Vol. 112. So. 12. DECEMBER 1965
O -f
O
a;
0- ft;
- I O +1
+ —I o
O
I
OS as
OS o O ' „ i
O
^ -lo §
1 as II it
a;
O
-la:
a;
o as
o a;
O la;
a O O
O
O o" O
O
aslaT O as la; M
ft,
o ft.
'Si. o ; |os + + +
os let o + o< a ;
as ft; m
+ o O O
1
Olas
Cla; O l a ;
Cs. o + +
Ol +
+ a. + +
Bi a ;
OS las T + + +
z ola; GV G!=c O
Ola;
o
+ ri m aslas
p
< ri ui + + Oia-
as oc ClaT +
Ola; —i 1 + Ola; Ola;
z o Olas
2 OS +
s + a ; a ; Gla? -r
O la;
+ +
o Ola; + ok + osla;
+ Olas
Ola;
o la;
asla;
GV + O Ics o'k a.
las
a.
Olas
Ola?
+ + + +
+ Ola; O ias
ft.
+ +
a.
+ + +
las las
la? -|o?l
i las Ha|
a;
3 C
-1°=
O
o.
O
cs. o
10! a;
o!o II
_ 1+
2232 PROC. IEE, Vol. 112, No. 12, DECEMBER 1965

impedance is zero. It is of imeresi 1 0 consider ihe effect of passive network denormalised 10 l< l-5v2kL2. C 1/iF.
departure from these ideal conditions on the response of the and the active network to R 159• 2ki.2, C 0 01 ,iF.
filters. The results obtained show very little difference with the
The input impedance of the amplifier used was found to passive network preceding or following the active section.
be of the order of tens of megohms and its output impedance Greatest error occurred at high frequencies, where, owing to
to be approximately 50U. The open-loop voltage gain was the higher impedance of the high-pass ladder, the loading
approximately 10000. An experimental check was carried out effect of the active section will be greater: the error rises to
on the effects of changing these impedance values. First a about 0-5dB.
variable resistor was connected between amplifier input
terminals and the response measured. Fig. 8 shows the
5 High-pass filter
Considering eqn. I.
h 0 - b p -
t p-
reduced input
impedance
substituting the high-pass transformation p --
cn-20
( i - , 0
\an 1 (24)
"(2)-
Following tfu- procedure outlined in Section 3, and taking

alternative 5 (Table I) gives, for the active section,
freauency, c/5
(.25)
Fig. 8 V ' 2
Effect of i ciliu ini! atnpli/lcr input impedance on tiller response Substituting the coefficients gives the numerator
F = 1 -6458 - 4-2916p - p-
measured response of the filter circuit of Fig. 3B when the
amplifier input impedance is 50k£>. together with the curve = (p - 3 - 8 7 ) 0 - 0-4261) (26)
for the unmodified amplifier. It is clear from these curves
that an input impedance as low as 50kU has very little effect using an arbitrary polynomial,
on the response. Another test was carried out to find the effect q = (/> - !>(/> - 5) (27)
of increasing the output impedance. A resistor was connected
in series with the amplifier output at the position marked A and continuing the synthesis gives the network shown in
in Fig. 3B. N O measurable effect on the filter response was Fig. 9.
observed until this resistor was increased to about I0k£2. OOIJJF
It was concluded that departures from the ideal values of
159-2kf) O0351JJF
input and output impedances have little effect on the filter
396 inn 9959RO / 04573IJF
response. W — 1
,-v.v—II-, Ih
The results discussed above were obtained with an amplifier
I M 2kO 89 36kO
circuit using valves. A transistor amplifier may be expected — sjvs—
to have a lower input impedance than a valve amplifier. In 00108.
F
order to reduce the effects of low input impedance of such 3168kf}| i / H y l J.

4898 00076
an amplifier on the filter response, it is possible to lower the kQ
impedance level of the feedback network by choice of the
denormalising factor. Another possibility arises from noting Fig. 9
that the effect of an amplifier input resistance R may be ln Circuit diagram for high-pass filter
cancelled by removing a conductance I/((I — A7)/?,„} from
v in Fig. 2. Thus the effect of a known input resistance may
4
be reduced or removed by adjustment of the value of the 6 Conclusions

feedback resistor. It has been shown that second-order responses may
be produced by cascading an active section, using an opera-
tional amplifier with multiple feedback loops, and a passive
4 Alternate order of cascade section. A number of solutions have been tabulated, from
So far, an active section followed by a passive section wnich the coefficients of the elliptic response may be obtained.
has been considered; frequently this is satisfactory because the The general pattern emerging shows there are two simple
operational amplifier has small output impedance and presents solutions, using four standard elements in the active section,
a voltage source to the passive network. If the reverse order and a number of more complex solutions. Two different
of cascade is required, precautions must be taken to prevent passive networks have been used in conjunction with the
one section from loading the other. A simple method of active sections derived, and, for simple responses, the method
overcoming this difficulty is to denormalise the passive of Holt and Reineck yields the best results, as far as numbers
network to much lower impedance level than that of the of elements and gain are concerned. The Guillemin synthesis
active section. This was done using the terminated Guillemin method becomes more useful when functions of greater com-
network, which has a lower output impedance, with the plexity than the second order are considered.
PROC. I EC. Vol. 112. No. 12. DECEMBER 1965 2233
The sections may be arranged with the active section 4 K H A Z A M " ' \ . G . 1..: Sinthesis o f selective amplifiers » i l h negative
feedback . ibid.. 1961. Pt. I. i i : i . p. 37
preceding the passive, as shown in Fig. 1: alternatively the 5 Kilt. t. s.. P L D E R S O V li. I ) . : Principles of circuit svnthesis'
passive section may be placed first. When the latter method is ( M c G r a w - H i l l . 19591
adopted, high-order functions may be synthetised by cascading 6 S H L M A K D . c. c.: "Design o f h i g h - p a s s , low-pass and band-pass
(titers using RC networks and direct-current amplifiers with feed-
second-order stages without interaction taking place. back'. RCA Re>.. 1950. I I . p. 534
7 B K i n ( ; \ i A \ . A . , and H H E N S A S , K . ; 'Simulation of transfer functions
using onK one operational amplifier', H'escon Convertioti Record,
1957. Pi. 4. p. 273
8 ' O n fourth-order simulation bv one amplifier".
7 Acknowledgments A G G A R U A L . G . K . :
J. Electronics and Control. 1963, IS, (5). p. 449
The authors have pleasure in thanking l rof. J
R. L . 9 W A D H W A . L . K . : "Simulation bv a single operational amplifier o f
third order transfer functions having a pole at the o r i g i n ' . Radio
Russell, Professor of Electrical Engineering, University of Electronic Engr., 1964. 27, (5), p. 373
Newcastle upon Tyne for his encouragement and for the use 10 G I R L I N G . F . E . i . , and G O O D . E . F . : 'Active filters', RRE J., 1962.
(48), p. 3
of the facilities of the Department. They also wish to thank
11 P A U L , R. j . A . : 'Simulation o f rational transfer functions with
their colleagues, M r . F . J . U . Ritson and Mr. J . T . Kennair, adjustable coefficients', Pnc. IEE. 1963, 110. (4), p. 671
for constructive criticism of the manuscript. Thanks are due 12 T A V L O R , p. L . : 'Flexible design method for active RC two-ports',
ibid., 1963, HO, (9), p. 1607
to the D S I R for financial support. 13 V A N V A L K E N R U R G , M . E . : ' I n t r o d u c t i o n to modern network syn-
thesis' (Wiley, 1960), p. 322
14 G U I L L E M I N , E . A . : 'Svnthesis o f passive networks' (Wiley. 1957),
p. 555
15 H O L T . A . G . J . , and R E I N E C K , K . M . : ' A new synthesis for RC networks
8 References lo realise transfer functions having imaginary zeros' (to be
1 A R M S T R O N G , D . B., and R E Z A , F . H . : 'Synthesis of transfer functions published)
by RC networks w i t h feedback l o o p ' , IRE Trans., 1954, C T - 1 , 16 L I N V I L L , J . G . " . ' R C active filters'. Proi. lust. Radio Engrs., 1954,
p. 8 42, p. 555
2 N A I - T U I N G T ' E N G : 'Synthesis o f electrical filters f r o m cascades o f 17 Y A N A G I S A W A , T . : ' R C active networks using current-inversion type
RC sections and on amplifier w i t h RC feedback', Telecomm. negative impedance convenors'. IRE Trdns., 1957, C T - 4 , p. 140
Radio Engng., 1962, Pt. I , (3), p. 33 18 H O L T , A . G . >., and S T E P H E N S O N , F . w . : 'Design tables for active
3 N A I - T U I N G T ' E N G : 'Synthesis o f electrical filters w i t h two section RC filters having 2nd- and 4th-order Chebyshev responses in pass and
circuits', ibid., 1963, Pt. 1, (4), p. 47 stop bands', Proc. JEE, 1964, 111, (11), p. 1807
2234 PROC. IEE, Vol. 112, No. 12, DECEMBER 1965

4 9
PAPER 6
INT. J. CONTROL, 1969.. VOL. 9, NO. 5, 483-497
Synthesis o f multiple loop feedback systems

Part I f
A . G. J . H O L T arid J . I . S E W E L L i
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Newcastle upon Tvne,
England
[Received 27 June 1968]
This paper presents a general synthesis method for multiple loop feedback systems
which is applicable to the realization of all the known configurations together with
othc s resulting from this investigation. The active device may be an amplifier of an;'
type, gain or phase characteristics.
The basic method utilizes an extended node introduction synthesis theory, which
facilitates the generation of many possible realizations for a given function.
Although the theory developed is used to synthesize R C multi-loop feedback
structures, it is equally applicable to the synthesis of R L C multi-loop feedback systems.
Rules for the numbers of active and passive node introductions are given, and a
number of examples illustrate the implementation of the technique and the various
transformations required.
Synthesis of various functions is considered, emphasis being laid upon the
realization of those which provide filter characteristics.
1. Introduction
M u l t i p l e loop R C feedback systems i n w h i c h the constraining device is a single
amplifier have eluded rigorous synthesis f o r some t i m e . A considerable n u m b e r
and v a r i e t y o f circuits belonging t o this class o f system have been reported i n
the l i t e r a t u r e (Aggarwal 1963, B r i d g m a n a n d B r e n n a n 1957, Nichols a n d R a u c h
1954, S h u m a r d 1960, W a d h w a 1962). The m a j o r i t y o f papers so f a r . w i t h the
exception o f ( H a z o n y a n d Joseph 1964. M i t r a 1967, Pande a n d Shukla 1965)
have been directed towards o b t a i n i n g these networks b y a t r i a l a n d error m e t h o d
based on analysis; a n e t w o r k f o r m h a v i n g been assumed a priori a n d t h e n
f o r m u l a e f o r the n e t w o r k elements to simulate various transfer f u n c t i o n s
developed. T h i s approach has m a n y obvious drawbacks a n d a systematic
synthesis procedure f o r these systems w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y be a great i m p r o v e -
ment,
The methods o u t l i n e d i n H a z o n y and Joseph (1964), M i t r a (1967), Pande
a n d Shukla (1965) present techniques applicable o n l y t o i n d i v i d u a l systems
a n d rely u p o n an analysis step w h i c h reduces the p r o b l e m t o one o f passive
synthesis.
The synthesis procedure to be described is capable o f p r o d u c i n g networks
h a v i n g useful filter responses and provides a general synthesis m e t h o d f o r systems
constrained w i t h one amplifier irrespective of its t y p e , gain, or phase characteristic.
This embraces all the present k n o w n single amplifier feedback type filters and
others produced as a consequence o f this i n v e s t i g a t i o n , w h i c h include systems
t Communicated by the Authors.

i N o w w i t h the Department of Electronic Engineering, University of H u l l .
cox.
484 A.G.J. Holt and J . I . Sewell
Fig. 1
General structure.
One practical realization.

(a)
General structure.
One practical realization.
(b)
(a) Single ladder active multi-loop structure, (b) Double ladder active m u l t i
structure.
5 2
Synthesis of multiple loop feedback system* 4S5
h a v i n g feedback t h a t is w h o l l y negative, w h o l l y positive or h y b r i d . The

general f o r m o f the systems are shown i n fig. 1 («. b). Emphasis is l a i d upon the
synthesis o f R C m u l t i - l o o p feedback systems, b u t the general t h e o r y is equally
applicable t o t h e active L C R case.
2. Node introduction synthesis

I n the general w o r k on synthesis b y node i n t r o d u c t i o n , Piercey (1962) has
o u t l i n e d a m e t h o d whereby passive, and certain active n e t w o r k s can be synthe-
sized b y a m a t r i x expansion technique. H o w e v e r , this t h e o r y is n o t
i m m e d i a t e l y applicable t o the synthesis o f m u l t i p l e loop structures (Sewell
1966). The reasons f o r t h i s , and the m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f the t h e o r y t o overcome
these difficulties, are as follows.
2.1. The 2 x 2 node matrix

Consider a n y m u l t i - l o o p feedback n e t w o r k , constrained w i t h , f o r instance,
an ideal voltage a m p l i f i e r at the o u t p u t p o r t of the n e t w o r k , T h e t w o p o r t
admittance m a t r i x f o r a n y such n e t w o r k w i l l c o n t a i n entries o f i n f i n i t e value,
I t is therefore n o t possible, as i n conventional synthesis, t o commence b y
i d e n t i f y i n g a 2 x 2 m a t r i x c o n t a i n i n g the relevant or g i v e n characteristic
f u n c t i o n s , w i t h t h e t w o p o r t admittance m a t r i x o f t h e n e t w o r k , Suppose t h e
f u n c t i o n to be synthesized is o f the f o r m :
(1)
where A (p) and D(p) are polynomials i n p.

X o r m a l l y i t is possible t o w r i t e a m a t r i x
1 n \ n
Um
(2)
X{P) D(P)
I Vnl linn
Q(P) Q(P)
Q(p) being some a r b i t r a r y divisor p o l y n o m i a l .
F o r the present systems the t w o p o r t m a t r i x w i l l assume a general f o r m :
1 n
II n
Y = (3)
n L x x j
and the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f polynomials and a d m i t t a n c e parameters as i n (1), (2)
cannot be achieved.
To overcome this d i l e m m a , consider another m a t r i x , say } ' * w h i c h
characterizes the performance between nodes 1 a n d k o f an n node n e t w o r k , i.e.
1 k
( 1
1 Un Uu.
y* > (4)
k i Ui.i Ui.k j
2L 2
486 A.G. J.Holt and J . I . Sewell
where /: is the i n t e r n a l p i v o t or reference node 1 < A ' < « . Before this m a t r i x

can be u t i l i z e d i t is necessary to be able to determine the relationship between
matrices Y a n d Y*. Because o f the t y p e o f n e t w o r k under consideration.,
n a m e l y n e t w o r k s w i t h m a n y loops f r o m nodes i n the f o r w a r d signal p a t h to the
o u t p u t node, the signal a t any node i n the f o r w a r d p a t h w i l l have some simple
direct relationship t o the signal a t the o u t p u t node, i.e.
: ! l
V' kk~JlO £> ~J z( n' 'n)'
F o r single a n d double ladder systems this linear relationship can be s i m p l y
expressed b y a suitable divisor p o l y n o m i a l , i.e. the f o l l o w i n g i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
f r o m ( 4 ) , ( 1 ) is possible :
1 k
1
{ .'/n* .'/,/, '
r
, j v »(P) \ • ( 5 )
where Q(p) is some d i v i s o r p o l y n o m i a l . A s Q(p) determines t h e relationship

between nodes k and n i t is n o t a n a r b i t r a r y f u n c t i o n a n d therefore cannot be
chosen as such. T h e choice o f Q.(p) cannot be u n d e r t a k e n p r i o r t o synthesis,
b u t m u s t be delayed u n t i l the node i n t r o d u c t i o n mechanism displays the
e x p l i c i t f o r m o f p o l y n o m i a l required.
2.2. Expansion of the Y* matrix

N o r m a l l y i n node i n t r o d u c t i o n synthesis i t is necessary to expand the m a t r i x
by i n t r o d u c t i o n o f i n t e r n a l nodes, b u t here a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t approach is
adopted. As the characterizing m a t r i x represents the response o f some i n t e r n a l
p a r t o f the n e t w o r k a n d the final expanded m a t r i x is required t o represent the
response at the o u t p u t node, nodes are i n t r o d u c e d w h i c h are i n t e r n a l as f a r as
the Y* m a t r i x is concerned, b u t one o f w h i c h w i l l f o r m the o u t p u t node of the
overall n e t w o r k .
F o r convenience k is o f t e n t a k e n as 2, a n d the m a t r i x ( 4 ) expanded node b y
node f r o m 1 t o n. t o give :
1 2 n
1 f
Vll J/12 • • • Vl,,'
y-n y*2 • • • y-m'
n y.n (6)
l
' y n-i, n-i y n-1. H !
J,a V,,i
,_y_n. »—1 y mi j
(The b o t t o m r i g h t -hand 2 x 2 m a t r i x includesthe active ( i n f i n i t e ) parameters.)

Hence
r=r +r 8 u
where Y is a s y m m e t r i c m a t r i x realizable b y passive means a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r

s
i n this case is R C realizable. Y is an u n s y m m e t r i c m a t r i x realized b y the

u
active device. I f the synthesis is p e r f o r m e d f o r systems w i t h i n f i n i t e o u t p u t

Synthesis of m ultiph loop feedback systems 4S7
48S . 4 . 0. J. Holt and J . I . Seicell
a d m i t t a n c e i t is necessary f o r the last i n t r o d u c t i o n to u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y generate

a n i n f i n i t e parameter t e r m i n the nn position. None o f the existing node
i n t r o d u c t i o n s (Piercey 1962) are applicable in such circumstances, and i t is
necessary t o develop i n t r o d u c t i o n s (type I I I a f t e r Piercey) t o satisfy these
demands (see A p p e n d i x ) . The appropriate passive and active i n t r o d u c t i o n s
are shown i n f i g . 2 (a, b).
I t w i l l be noticed t h a t no a t t e n t i o n is being p a i d to the numerator o f the
original f u n c t i o n X(p). W i t h this m e t h o d o f synthesis emphasis is laid
p r i m a r i l y u p o n o b t a i n i n g the required denominator f u n c t i o n , and realization
of the n u m e r a t o r f u n c t i o n is included at a later stage.
2.3. Xumber of introductions ride

A second phenomenon w h i c h occurs i n the synthesis o f these m u l t i p l e loop
systems is concerned w i t h the types o f amplifier encountered. Piercey o u t l i n e d
the m e t h o d b y w h i c h active devices m a y be incorporated i n node i n t r o d u c t i o n
synthesis, a n d a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a p p l i c a t i o n o f this theory is sufficient f o r the
synthesis w h e n the a m p l i f i e r required has a m a t r i x containing i n f i n i t e terms o f
order no higher t h a n u n i t y . I n m a n y cases d o u b l y i n f i n i t e , or even t r i p l y
i n f i n i t e parameters occur and a t f i r s t sight i t m a y appear t h a t new types o f act ive
node i n t r o d u c t i o n are required. However, these are n o t necessary, since the
r e q u i r e d terms can be generated b y a p p l y i n g the active i n t r o d u c t i o n an a p p r o -
p r i a t e n u m b e r of times. T h e n u m b e r o f active and passive i n t r o d u c t i o n s
required i n the synthesis o f single and double ladder networks are g i v e n b y the
f o l l o w i n g rule.
Rule 1. / / an active device, having a, 2 x 2 admittance matrix containing infinite

terms the highest order of which is q, is required in the synthesis of a rational function
whose denominator is of order m; then the number of active introductions u-ill be q
and the number of passive introductions m — q, where q > 3.
A n exception t o t h i s rule occurs when i t is required to generate a compact

n e t w o r k i n w h i c h there are fewer node i n t r o d u c t i o n s permissible t h a n the order
o f the i n f i n i t e parameters. I n this case i t is necessary to use a n i n t r o d u c t i o n
h a v i n g higher-order i n f i n i t e parameters. I f g > 3 t h e n m u l t i p l e - o r d e r i n f i n i t e
parameter i n t r o d u c t i o n s are also required.
3. Synthesis of finite and infinite gain amplifier systems

The developed t h e o r y embraces the synthesis o f all m u l t i p l e loop a m p l i f i e r
systems. T h i s m a y be demonstrated b y synthesizing some w e l l - k n o w n
amplifier f i l t e r circuits.
3.1. Synthesis of a Sallen and Key circuit

Synthesize the f u n c t i o n IIi(p~ + b p + b ) as a voltage transfer r a t i o using
:i n
a u n i t y gain voltage a m p l i f i e r o f non-reversing phase characteristic, a n d an

E C m u l t i - l o o p structure (i.e. a f t e r Sallen and K e y (1955).
The a m p l i f i e r has an admittance m a t r i x :
CO 0]
r= | (?)
5 6
Synthesis of multiple loop feedback systems 4S9
A p p l y i n g Rule 1, m = 2, g = l ; hence one passive and one active i n t r o d u c t i o n

only w i l l be required.
Commencing w i t h the t w o p o r t admittance m a t r i x 1' and d e r i v i n g t h e
2 x 2 node m a t r i x Y* w i t h & = 2.
A passive i n t r o d u c t i o n is p e r f o r m e d first., where Y = y . Y = y „. Y = y. o n n v 2 1 n i n
2
and are a r b i t r a r y i n this example ; Y = (p' + b p + b ):Q(p). K 2 x 0
A s s u m i n g t h a t there is no node b r i d g i n g i n the f o r w a r d p a t h , the 13 a n d

31 terms (fig. 2 (a)) should be zero. This can be ensured b y setting <v - 0 = 1' 12 12 12
and g i — # 1 2 = Y g i v i n g the m a t r i x :
2 2 l
1 2 3
1 ^ Oil 012-012 0
y , (!?32-023)(!723-023)
021 — &12 023 _
^23
033 + ^ 33
3 0 032 - #23 033 + 1 33
T h e active node i n t r o d u c t i o n is t h e n p e r f o r m e d on the b o t t o m r i g h t - h a n d

2 x 2 m a t r i x . I n s p e c t i o n o f the active m a t r i x o f the active node i n t r o d u c t i o n
f i g . 2 (6) shows t h a t i n order t o generate the active m a t r i x required, a l l o f its
terms m u s t a p p r o x i m a t e or be equal t o zero except the 32 a n d 33 terms. To
ensure this, the f o l l o w i n g identifications are made, A = 1, A = A = 0, 0 < A <«: 1 ; 33 21 12 23
(if A = 0 indeterminate terms appear).

23
A p p l y i n g t h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n gives :
1 2 3 4
1 ^ 011 </l -012

2
0 0
v - (!7» -^.i)((/«-««)
2
f/ i-«i T^(9. ' + 1V)
2 2
1
0-12 1 , '^32
S
4- I ~ 173 3 • ^ .13
3 0 #33 ~T i 33 ^32^23 - » 2 3 '
4 0 - 0 , 3 ' + A 3 2 i£ l" 3 3 '-f-A'

"33
T h i s m a t r i x is o f the correct f o r m ( 6 ) a n d i f i t could be made s y m m e t r i c

(apart f r o m the active terms) the object w o u l d be achieved. S y m m e t r y a r o u n d
node 2 can be ensured b y setting {/ = gr = 0. T h e r e m a i n i n g u n s y m m e t r i c 12 21
passive terms 2 4 . 4 2 . m a y be made s y m m e t r i c as follows. I f # ' = — Y ' t h e 1 2 21
42 t e r m is r e m o v e d and, f o r convenience, set 8 + Y ' = — # ". M u l t i p l y i n g 12 l 2 23
column 4 b y — and adding to c o l u m n 2, setting 6 ' = 0 a n d A = — 1 gives 23 32
the characteristic nodal a d m i t t a n c e m a t r i x o f a Sallen and K e y circuit.
i 2 3 4
1 ^ on -012 0 0
0 y ! (!/32- 023)(ry 3- 023) 2

-012 -012' - 023"
033 + ^ 33 (8)
1*4-.. "
3 0 -0,2' 033+ ^ 33 0
4 0 - 6" 23 Y' + K33
490 A.G.J. Holt and J . I . Seivell
For RC realizability main diagonal terms can be no more complex than

first-order factors, this may be ensured by setting Q(p) = #33 + F ^q^p + q - 3 3 0
Let (g„ — d ) = 1 and. assuming indefinite dominance

2 23
a= u 2 k'ol) (where each a is a matrix element)
at node 2. the 22 term is:
0 #23
= 9 V2 +6 12 + 0 ".
23 (9)
9iP + %
Various restrictions on component spread and size may now be imposed. For
instance, i f i t is required to have all unity normalized resistors, this will give
Now,
#23-023= Y l 2 = -(023" + (10)
Let 6 ", 6 be frequency dependent terms, and these are equal because of
23 23
indefinite dominance, i.e.
Hence, from eqn. (10) g — — 8 23 l2 . Thus (9) becomes :
p- +p{b 1 + 6 ") + b -
23 0 g 23 = (q lP + q )(d 0 12 + B ' + 0 ")
12 23
2
= VAP +P{h + ? l [ » 1 2 - #23]) + ^12 - #23- (11)
0
Comparing coefficients of (11) give :
?A=1, (12 a)
b + B ," = e + q [e -g l
l i i l i2 23 (12 6)
If
1
(7(p)= 2
1 + l-62;p+p '
a n
Setting #23= — 1 d solving 12 («. — c ) gives the following matrix:
1 2 3 4
1 1 -1 0 0
o -1 2+1-24^ -1 -1-242J
=
•1-4
3 0 -1 14-0-812? 0
4 0 - \ U p — A' l-242> + A'
which gives the circuit of fig. 3.

Synthesis of multiple hop feedback systems 491
Fig. 3
=r 1-24
i i 2
O AAAAA/VV-
E. O.BIO
"out
Second-order Sallen and K e y circuit. For all circuit realizations the element values
are in mhos and farads.
3.2. Synthesis of a third-order multi-loop network

Synthesize the t h i r d - o r d e r f u n c t i o n :
1
G(p) =
using a voltage operational a m p l i f i e r a n d an R C m u l t i - l o o p structure.

A p p l y i n g R u l e 1 w i t hTO= 3, q = 2 reveals t h a t one passive a n d t w o active
i n t r o d u c t i o n s are required. The m e t h o d of synthesis is as before, one p o i n t t o
note is t h a t w h e n m u l t i p l e active i n t r o d u c t i o n s are p e r f o r m e d the p e n u l t i m a t e
one is o f special significance, i t is t e r m e d the ' K a l i g n m e n t node i n t r o d u c t i o n '
and i t s f u n c t i o n is t o p r o v i d e i n f i n i t e parameter terms i n the last c o l u m n o f t h e
m a t r i x , p r i o r t o t h e final a m p l i f i e r i n t r o d u c t i o n . These terms are necessary t o
ensure a correct m a t r i x w h e n the m u l t i p l e order i n f i n i t e terms appear. The
n a t u r a l order o f i n t r o d u c t i o n s is passive, K a l i g n m e n t a n d then the a m p l i f i e r .
The 2 x 2 node a d m i t t a n c e m a t r i x Y* (k==2) i s :
1
1
£/n l/l2
(13)
3 2
^ p + bp t + bp + b
1 0
2/21
Q(P)
r = = :
F o r node i n t r o d u c t i o n s i n (13) 3 n 0 !/ii*> ^ ' i 2 2/i2*> ^ 21 = 2/21*
_ pt + bvpt + btf + bo
022
m •
=
A p p l y i n g a passive i n t r o d u c t i o n w i t h Y l 2 = cy — 0 , F i
12 12 2 (J21 ~ ^12 g i v e s :
1 0 3
^ Oil 0
Y — 0 y ! Uhi-023.(92*-023,)
1
i"21 U23 ~ ^23
33 ~ - #33 + ^ 33
0 (Ii3 - #33 + ^ 33
492 A.G. J. Holt and J . I . Seicell
A K alignment i n t r o d u c t i o n is now to be p e r f o r m e d on the b o t t o m r i g h t - h a n d

2 x 2 m a t r i x . As t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s are necessary on the f i n a l m a t r i x before the
n e t w o r k realization, i t is convenient to carry out some o f these at this stage of
the proceedings.
Concentrating on the i n t r o d u c t i o n , w h i c h is an active t y p e w i t h A = A = 0 12 21
and A = a / A where A"^>« the basic i n t r o d u c t i o n m a t r i x is t h e n :

32
3 3
^ nn -0 1 2
-- - -[tf,2+}'l2']
L
V '^23^23 , "^23
-012
1
022 x + \ - 0 23 +A'A 23
A A
33 33
0 -6,s + ix >' 3+ ' 33

3
A A
L e t 1 = — 6i2 + j8/A hence the 13 e n t r y is { — Kfija).

1 2 33) M u l t i p l y column 3 by
— a
( / A A ) a n d a d d t o c o l u m n 2. m u l t i p l y the b o t t o m line b y ( K y j Y + KX )
3 3 3 3 3S
(<xpy) a n d a d d t o r o w 1 : /3/A = ( # y / A ) . A s a > y the t e r m (A'j3/a) can be

33 23 33
subsequently neglected. The resultant m a t r i x is now used as the node i n t r o -

duction g i v i n g :
1 011 Y l 2
0 0
o i,- -e, )(a, -e,3)

Y-n v 2 3 3
-0,,' A'y
f / 3 3 - 1*33
Y 4.4 =
3 0 - 0 . 2 ' <?33 ~r J 33 ,
^ 3 3
4 0 0 33 ~~T-K\ 3:l
The f i n a l active i n t r o d u c t i o n is p e r f o r m e d on the b o t t o m r i g h t - h a n d 2 x 2

m a t r i x , w i t h A . = A = 0. A = l . 0 < A < | 1 .
n 2 21 3 3 A f t e r f u r t h e r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n the
2 3
m a t r i x o f e q n . ( 1 4 ) results.
1 2 3 4
nil Yx*. 0 i) 0
1"« (1
-9, =' — y
;/.n - 1
3 3
(14)
u -0, ' 3
?.,3 -r 1 33 ,
'V|3
(I 0
0 — y -A.,
Setting T* = 3~ = J /
12 21 12 and collecting the various parameter relationships:
f/-2j - #23 = 5 1-2' = - #12' + 7 - •

/V
33
#23 = "\ : 6l2 = #23= #32 - #23 = ^ 2l'>

"33
Synthesis of m ultiple loop feedback systems 4!i3
let
032 = 0,
P = 0-nY> Ki = 6<£i"> On" = Git-
Is ow examine the dominance conditions at the appropriate nodes.
Xode 4
This is the amplifier input node. i.e. a v i r t u a l earth point and therefore
indefinite dominance is desired, t h u s :
3 V = fli2" + 0, ". 3 (15)
Node 3
D e f i n i t e dominance
a > a
(i u 2 \ u\j (where each a is a m a t r i x element)
3?!
is possible here; introduce a t e r m 6' to allow f o r t h i s :
#33 + Y 3 3 - ^ l
= V + 0i " + A 2 23 + 0'. (16)
33
Xode 2
D e f i n i t e dominance is also possible here; introduce a t e r m 8" t o allow f o r
this:
Y 023(^33-023) f. , , n„ -v
i o 2 2
„ , v — =
y
i 2 + y + 2/i2 + • y
('•<)
1
#33 + 33
S u b s t i t u t i n g i n (16) f r o m ( 1 7 ) f o r the t e r m g 33 + T 3 3 gives:
023(ftM33 - 0 3) — 2 ,/ 1 y I y i 2 I g" (18)

8'
l2 + 8 " + A + 8' + (A #237^33)
V1 23 23
A t t h i s p o i n t there are a n u m b e r o f a l t e r n a t i v e methods f o r p r o d u c i n g a

f i n a l circuit. One m e t h o d , w h i c h yields an already k n o w n c i r c u i t f o r m , is to
divide the f r a c t i o n o f (18) t o p a n d b o t t o m b y A 0 ' / A : as 0 = 0 ' this gives : 2 3 2 3 3 3 2 3 12
A 2 A ,
v (012^ - 330l2" )/ 23023 a , , , , „ , a» 11 n\
= + + + e
" (A33/A2 023')(0 2' + 012" + 0 ' + A 3 1 2 3 ) l + "» r 'J« ' ^
Choose Q{p) to be equal t o the denominator o f the f r a c t i o n , t h u s :

2
p* + b p«- + b
2 l P + b- 0 (0 '/3 - A A ' ) / A , 0 '
12 3 2 3 23
= 0 i ' + 7 + 2/12 + 0"-

2 (20)
(A /A <9 ')(# ' + 8 ," + A, + 8') + 1
33 23 23 12 V 3
Synthesis continues b y m a k i n g the f o l l o w i n g simple assumptions:

(i) As the f u n c t i o n is characteristic o f a low pass f i l t e r , the excess dominance
terms are the frequency dependent ones.
494 A. G. J. Holt and J. I. Sewelt
(ii) T o complete a second-order factor necessary f o r cancellation, l e t :
' \ j 3 = / Q » ) = *'33;P-
(iii) A l l resistances i n the f i n a l n e t w o r k are equal i n value, i.e.
, / a i = 0 ' = 0 " = A = y = 0.
12 12 23
E q u a t i o n (20) then becomes :

2
* - 3 3 Q
3 2
p + b«p + p (b 1 + + b -Q
n
^23^23
l A t/2 3 2 3 A W
23 23 J J
S i m p l i f y i n g a n d d i v i d i n g the r i g h t - h a n d side b y (#'#"A: /A fJ ) (6', 6" are now 33 23 23
assumed t o be m u l t i p l i e r s o f p), gives:
p* + b p* + b p + b = k |V +
2 1 0 {30U-330 + 30(9'A- } 33
^23^23 '^23^23
0 A r j ' "1
2 3 2 3
6'6"k , 3 J •
Disregarding t h e constant m u l t i p l i e r a n d equating coefficients gives
_ 40A fl ' 2 3 2 3
°0 — wain. ' (21)

d'6"k 33
b = W + 80 2
(22)
1
^'^"33 S'6"
ft, = 3 0 l^+i-. (23)
7
F o r the numerical f u n c t i o n given, 6" is chosen as u n i t } . Solving eqns. (15),
(21)-(23) then yields t h e m a t r i x :
1 3 4 0
1 01992 -0-1992 0 0 0
o -01992 p -0-5976 -0-1992 0 -01992
3 0 -01992 0-426/; 4-0-5970 -01992 -01992
4 0 0 -0-1992 0-1992+/;0-0742 -p0-742
5 0 -01992 -01992 -0-0742/>-f A' s

0-0742;j -f-0-3984 4-A'
This gives the circuit shown i n fig. 4, a t h i r d - o r d e r m u l t i - l o o p feedback f i l t e r

( W a d h w a 1962).
Synthesis of multiple loop feedback systems
Fig. ±
01 992 01992 00742
0 - 1 9 92 01992 0-1992
WJW^- 0 VW\W
n out
Third-order multi-loop circuit.
There are m a n y possible v a r i a t i o n s o f t h i s synthesis process, p a r t i c u l a r l y

regarding the choice o f divisor p o l y n o m i a l , r e a l i z a b i l i t y constants and n o n -
excess dominance terms.
4. Conclusion
The synthesis technique o u t l i n e d provides a m e t h o d whereby m u l t i - l o o p
feedback systems m a y be synthesized i n a rigorous manner. A s the m e t h o d
requires the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f one or more roots o f a p o l y n o m i a l o f order equal
t o the denominator o f the characteristic f u n c t i o n , high-order n e t w o r k f u n c t i o n s
d e m a n d the use o f a d i g i t a l computer. W i t h increase i n order, the number
a n d c o m p l e x i t y o f node i n t r o d u c t i o n s increase a n d the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w o r k is
also m u l t i p l i e d .
The synthesis technique p e r m i t s the inclusion of a n y t y p e o f amplifier, e.g.
voltage, current t r a n s a d m i t t a n c e . transimpedance, finite or i n f i n i t e gain, as
the constraining device o f a m u l t i - l o o p feedback n e t w o r k . W h e t h e r the device
is ideal or n o t is o f no consequence as i t is possible to incorporate the non-idealities
i n the synthesis.
The m e t h o d is applicable t o the realization o f b o t h transfer ratios and d r i v i n g
p o i n t imittances.
Constraints concerning component ratios have been used here, b u t t h e
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f others d e t e r m i n i n g s e n s i t i v i t y is also a feasible extension.
As w i t h m a n y synthesis techniques there are usually numerous physical
realizations of a specific f u n c t i o n , the examples shown here illustrate some
realizations o f various transfer f u n c t i o n s . I t was indicated at various points
d u r i n g the synthesis o f these networks t h a t , h a d other identifications been made,
d i f f e r e n t networks w o u l d result. The m e t h o d does n o t restrict realization t o one
p a r t i c u l a r f o r m , b u t can be used t o display d i f f e r e n t ones.
The f u n c t i o n s synthesized here a l l have constant numerators, a n d therefore
no emphasis was l a i d u p o n n u m e r a t o r realization. N u m e r a t o r inclusion is the
subject considered i n a f u r t h e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors w i s h to t h a n k the Science Research Council f o r financial

support.
63
496 A.G. J. Holt and J . I . Sewell
Appendix
T h e d e r i v a t i o n o f the required node i n t r o d u c t i o n s is presented here.
F o l l o w i n g the n o r m a l d e r i v a t i o n (Piercey 1962). i.e. commencing w i t h a 2 x 2
matrix:
IIL1 ^ 12
Y,.,=
I Y, 1 022
using a 1-node i n t r o d u c t i o n g i v e s :
Ôll + Wl-" ! 1 y +a. A

u 2 1 aA
3 l
^ 33 — }',! + «! J , Y 0 2 2 + a. A, 2 a A,
3 (24)
M s
a,A 3 « 3 ^ 3
f /
3 ^ 3 — 033 + 1 33'
f _
'2^3 = J/32 ^23 !
(25)
fl J
M i = ffia- ia- *i2. !
Ct A 2 x
=
f?21 ^12 —
21 • j
where t h e (/"s are frequency independent terms, ffs a n d Y s can be f u n c t i o n s o f
the complex f r e q u e n c y variable.
B y s u b s t i t u t i o n the r e m a i n i n g u n k n o w n s m a y be d e t e r m i n e d :
(#32 - ^ s X f e - #23)
a A.
2 2
.- )
033 + * 33
g
(gai ~ i 2 ~ y ) ( g 2 1 3 a ~ 0 )(033 + 23 y 3 3 )
(032 ~ ^ 3 ) ( f e - ^ 2 3 )
( g l 2 - ^ 1 2 ~ ^12)(y23-^23)(!733 + ^33)
(032 - 023)(023 - ^23)

f
(.012 - ®12 ~ ^12)(6 ai ~ 012 ~ ^2l)(ff33 + ^33)
(032 - 023)(023 - ^23)
S u b s t i t u t i n g i n (24) yields the passive node i n t r o d u c t i o n as shown i n f i g . 2(a).

A c t i v e devices can be t a k e n account o f b y the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f i n f i n i t e p a r a -
meters, these are o b t a i n e d b y setting ( j = X K, (A%*co). T h e r e s u l t i n g i j ij
expressions are t h e n expanded i n a T a y l o r series a n d any t e r m w h i c h is d i v i d e d

b y K or higher powers o f A' is neglected. The frequency independent constraint
on (jjj is now removed, i.e. A - m a y be a f u n c t i o n o f frequency ; A ' is a real constant.
(J
E q u a t i o n s (25) now become :
« 3 ^ 3 = A A + 3' 3 3 !
3 3
«.,.4 ='W^' - 3
aA 3 2 = A.vj/v - ^23-
a,A v = A 1 2 A - #12- r
= A A - 012- Y
2 1
21-
Synthesis of multiple loop feedback systems 491
A f t e r expansion
K A 2 3 A , 3 (Ao3^23 '
a.,A,,=
A
A
33 33
« -4i =
3
A
33l"#21 + ^12]) +
A
*i 3 3
.
A
32
A
32 32"
V A A
^ 21 33 ,
A y
a i - J 3 = \ 1 33L 21-T 1 2lJ) + ••
A
A
23 A
23 23~
A AjoAojAjg A
33
(A 1 2 [0 1 3 +r 2 1 ]+A 2 1 [0 +rK 1 2 ])
A03 A 3 2 A A
23 32
A A. A
1 2 2 1 3 3 / ^23 #23 N
+ +
A
A
23 32 A
V#23 32>
These terms are s u b s t i t u t e d i n t h e m a t r i x o f eqn. (24), a n d separating t h e terms

in K i n t o a separate (active) m a t r i x , l e a v i n g the finite parameters i n the passive
m a t r i x , gives t h e r e q u i r e d active node i n t r o d u c t i o n as shown i n f i g . 2 (b).
REFERENCES
AGGABWAL, G . K . , 1963, J. Electron. Control, 15, 449.

B R I D G M A X , A . , and B R E X X A X ' , R . , 1957, Wescon Com, Bee, 4, 273.
H A Z O X Y , D . , and JOSEPH, R . D . . 1964, Proc. Inst, elect, electron. Engrs, 32, 1478.
M I T R A , S. K . , 1967, Electronics Lett., 3, 332.
NICHOLS, M . H . , and R A U C H , L . L . , 1954, Radio Telemetry (Xew York : John
AVilev & Sons).
P A X D E , H . C., and S H U K L A , R , S., 1965, Proc. Instn elect. Engrs, 112, 2208.
P I E R C E Y , R . X . G „ 1962, Ph.D. Thesis, University of London.
S A L L E X , R . P., and K E Y , E . L . , 1955, I.R.E. Trans. Circuit Theory, 2, 74.
S E W E L L , J. I . , 1966, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Xewcastle upon Tyne.
S H U M A E D , C. C , 1960, RCA Rev., 11, 534.
W A D H W A , L . K „ 1962, Proc. Inst. Radio Engrs, 50, 201.
65
PAPER 7
I N T . J . C O N T R O L . 1909. V O L . 9. N O . .3. 4!I!I-5US
Synthesis of multiple loop feedback systems

Part I l f
A. G. J. H O L T and J . I . S E W ELL:!:
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Newcastle upon Tyne-
England
Synthesis of ail-pole functions ha* already been demonstrated. T h e paper describes

the extension of the method to realize various types of rational functions which arc
used in filter networks.
The method is demonstrated on known networks and in the synthesis of a new
class of parallel systems. The technique of numerator inclusion by choice of div isor
polynomial and ' branch introduction ' arc shown.
The transformation from the nodal matrix to the node matrix for the parallel
systems is formulated and Number of Introductions Rule for such systems is given.
1. Introduction
The general method of synthesis of m u l t i - l o o p feedback systems has already
been described ( H o l t and Sewell 1.968). w i t h particular emphasis on the synthesis
of functions w i t h constant numerators. M a n y useful network functions have
numerators t h a t are polynomials and i t is therefore necessary to include the
realization of a numerator polynomial i n the synthesis.
2. Numerator polynomial inclusion

As can be appreciated there is not complete l i b e r t y to synthesize any con-
ceivable numerator polynomial w i t h any particular denominator p o l y n o m i a l
when dealing with'these m u l t i - l o o p systems. For. although in certain c i r c u m -
stances the denominator is not affected b y the numerator, the numerator is
never t o t a l l y independent of the denominator. There are a number of ways
of including the numerator polynomial according to the f o r m o f the f u n c t i o n .
2.1. Xuineralor inclusion by choice of divisor polynomial

I f the numerator consists of a single term., w h i c h is not s i m p l y a constant,
the method is to proceed t h r o u g h the synthesis as outlined f o r realizing the
given denominator f u n c t i o n . Then b y suitable choice of the divisor p o l y n o m i a l
Q(p). the required numerator is produced.
Consider the synthesis of the f u n c t i o n
cm- '"'
by a m u l t i - l o o p network using an infinite gain voltage amplifier. A p p l y i n g

Rule L ( H o l t and Sewell 1908). /».= 2. q = 2. thus all introductions are of the active
t Communicated by the Authors.

t Now with I . . iiartment nf Electronic Engineering, I niversitv of H u l l , England.
CON. 2 M
500 .4. 0. J. Holt and J.I. Sew II
type. P e r f o r m i n g these as shown previously w i l l yield a matrix::
1 •>
3 4
] u U
' mi -f.-.
o v '^23^23 ;,
-".2 -• 23
r ..,=
4
o
O 0 -fl->'
4 0 \
•-2,' '
''2'!
As the numerator f u n c t i o n contains a term i n p. tlie appropriate co-factor

should produce this t e r m . Setting 9 = 'p w i l l achieve this end. E x a m i n e
12
dominance conditions : assuming indefinite dominance at node 3. and since no

excess dominance t e r m is required to supply frequency dependent terms,
indefinite dominance at node 2 is possible.
W i t h A = k p. Q(p)=p
33 M the realization equation at node 2 i s :
= P + V\» + ' W
2
Setting (A g0 /A\, ) = 3 w i l l give A + 0, ' = 3- i f 0,./ = 0. then A.,., - 3A., + 3/.\ = 0 ;
2 23 3 23 2 rs :i i;i
/ . = p, gives convenient roots yielding A = -A or 5. 0 ' = § or \. T a k i n g the

33 23 12
first root yields the circuit shown in rig. 1.

Other numerator f u n c t i o n s o f this type may lie realized in a similar manner.
Fig.
Multi-loop circuit, for a function having a second-order denominator and first-order

numerator.
2.2. Branch introduction

When the numerator f u n c t i o n is a complete polynomial o f the same order as
the denominator, the m e t h o d o f synthesizing the denominator is again followed.
Suitable terms can then be added into the m a t r i x which have a desired m o d i f y i n g
effect on the numerator b u t have no effect on the denominator. F o r example :
a
1-25+ 3-o2}+;p
synthesize the f u n c t i o n G{p) = i
(y~Q+ ()•(}]]+ p
Synthesis of the denominator f u n c t i o n proceeds as before (§2.1). The

numerator is of the same order as the denominator, so t h a t the divisor p o l y -
nomial Q(p) need o n l y be a constant, e.g. Q(p) = k. also let \ = k. E x a m i n i n g 3 3
dominance conditions at node 2 gives:
To p e r m i t reduction, let A = 6>, =/> and 6 ,'=8

23 3 thus y i e l d i n g k — 0-3 and
V 23
,
0 , = 2 5. I f the numerator co-factor is now evaluated i t appears t o f a i l to
1
produce the required f u n c t i o n . E x a m i n i n g the m a t r i x again, i t is seen t h a t i f a

t e r m is introduced i n the 13, 31 positions, the denominator co-factor is unaltered
but the numerator m a y be affected at w i l l . I f this t e r m is (1 + -p) the required
numerator f u n c t i o n is realized. The circuit is shown i n fig. 2. T h i s last step
is k n o w n as ' branch i n t r o d u c t i o n " and is extremely i m p o r t a n t i n the realization
of m u l t i-loop systems chai'acterized b y rational functions.
Fig. 2
i
I
A/vWW <>
0-3
II
in
Multi-loop realization of a biquadratic function.
The question o f synthesizing functions h a v i n g i m a g i n a r y and r i g h t - h a l f

plane zeros now arises. The latter has been dealt w i t h elsewhere (Sewell 1966)
a n d the, f o r m e r p r o b l e m w i l l be dealt w i t h i n the n e x t section.
3. Parallel systeui synthesis

The general systems so f a r described cannot produce imaginary axis zeros
unless some degree o f positive feedback is introduced. F o r s e n s i t i v i t y a n d
stability i t is often advisable to avoid such a step and the f o l l o w i n g shows how
this is achieved.
Consider a general rational transfer f u n c t i o n :
this may be w r i t t e n as:
a p { ) = y t M .
{ 1 )
' , f , D{p) '
where Xj are single or groups o f numerator terms, r being their number.
2M2
69
50 rl. (•'. J. Holt a,vi ./. / . >• //
Fie
cut
«)
1
• U
1 out
9 I
Double ladder active multi-loop structure, (a) General st ructure. (//) One realization
Synthesis of multiple loop fiidback systems 503
This suggests a parallel ladder synthesis method and the f o r m of system

w h i c h results is shown i n f i g . 3. This approach therefore presents a method o f
realizing numerator functions not included by the previous techniques.
I n the work presented here the f o l l o w i n g assumptions are made:
(i) The array of elements i n the system w i l l be of a symmetrical f o r m , i.e.
each passive ladder has the same number of nodes.
(ii) Each ladder is responsible f o r one t e r m of the numerator f u n c t i o n .
W i t h these constraints, the f o l l o w i n g rule is postulated.
3.1. Xumber of introductions rule

Rule 2. If cm active device, having a 2x2 admittance matrix containing infinite
terms the highest order of which is q, is required in the synthesis of a rational function
whose denominator is of order m. and r is the number of terms in the numerator
polynomial: the number of active introductions required will be q and the number
of passive introductions is m—q + (m— l ) . r _ 1
Where r / > 3 , and f o r q=3 i t is again possible, and occasionally necessary,

to use the multiple-order infinite parameter introductions.
3.2. The 2 x 2 node matrix

The only alteration required i n the synthesis procedure t o incorporate these
parallel systems is connected w i t h the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the Y* m a t r i x . I n the
cases of single and double-ladder systems the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n was accomplished
via a simple divisor polynomial, whereas here subtractive terms are necessary
to effect the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .
Thus the I ' * m a t r i x becomes:
1 k
1
= Dip) '-'
w here D{p) is the denominator o f the rational f u n c t i o n , a n d Q{p) a divisor p o l y -

nomial. Thef^p) functions are determined d u r i n g synthesis and depend upon
the characteristics o f the i n d i v i d u a l ladders, i.e. they express the relationship
between the voltage and current at the reference node i n one ladder and those at
various nodes i n other ladders.
The follow ing example illustrates the method.
3.3. Synthesis of a second-order elliptic function

Synthesize a second-order elliptic f u n c t i o n :
as a voltage transfer ratio, employing an R C m u l t i - l o o p feedback circuit and a

voltage operational amplifier.
504 A.G. J.Holland J . I . SeiceU
W i t h k = 2 the m a t r i x is :
.'/12*
r*
J L\l') i
C M
If
2
P + bp + b 1 0
; ; :
022 -
and y 0 2 2 = Y 023-A{p),
t h e n the m a t r i x f r o m w h i c h synthesis proceeds is:
* | ^ Oil "^12
Y* =
Y Y *
J J
21 022
5
2 / n * = Iôiu 2/i2*= ' i 2 : #21* = Y-21- K u l e 2 ( m = 2 , <7 = 2 and >- = 2), shows t h a t
one passive a n d t w o active introductions are required.
P e r f o r m i n g the passive i n t r o d u c t i o n w i t h j / , . , = g r = 0 and 6.,./ = 0 gives: M
l 2 3
(fl,,.-l', )(!7 3-l'

2 3 ; l 3 )
J
mi
•J y/l,.;
j-
J
« • ff23<7a2
022 i i- r/ 3 2
1
!/33 T" 31
( 9 | + I ' i ) ( f f , a + l''.-. )
3 2 5 3
T/:i3 -^33
A p p l y i n g a K alignment i n t r o d u c t i o n to the b o t t o m r i g h t - h a n d 2 x 2 m a t r i x ,
with A = A = 6 = 0 :
12 21 V2
3 4
(e -r )fr/:,:,-r„)
I S 1 5
Oil -flu 0
y # , " ! 3 V,. 0 'Waa

-e,. J
02-2 . -.-
f/33 J
33
(e, -5' )(ff, -V:,:,) - *2302.l' ""^23

i 1 2 3
n f/.S3
v
1
33 \ } -0 ,'-A\V,
2 : : !
f/ia
fl 'V, r/ 2 r
3 3
r : 3 -A A : i : l
A ; 3
P e r f o r m i n g the m a t r i x m a n i p u l a t i o n outlined for the third-order 1\ alignment

( H o l t and Sewell 1968). m u l t i p l y i n g the b o t t o m row b y - ; / . , . , ' A A" and adding 2 3
to row 2 gives a m a t r i x i n w h i c h a final active i n t r o d u c t i o n yields the m a t r i x

shown i n eqn. (3) (see p. 506).
F o r symmetry. A 3 3 " = K. 0., " = A

3 3 3 . 0 1 2 " = 0. ':
J 3
(#ia + •>'.••)(.'/,,:. + I'aa) = ( # 1 2 + ^ i X f i t o + 1* ) = tf . 33 fl

13
032 !/23
examining dominance conditions at nodes 2. 3. 4.
Aotfe 2
Here definite dominance is possible :
V * , if 231/32 V32^ "33/32 , , / ) . „ / I \

1 = 4
022 + r — ~ - — + y + + .'/22- ( )
A
f/.33 + 33 23
Aoc/e 3
A g a i n definite dominance is possible :
\ 0 '
f/33 + ^33 = 6vl" + A
2 3 + #13 + Z/33- ( ) 5
A
33
Xode 4
T h i s is the v i r t u a l earth node and thus only indefinite dominance is p r a c t i c a l :
A
23
A t the o u t p u t node :
J
V = 7 + A.,3 + 0.,3".
X o w / ^ p ) expresses the relationship between the variables at nodes 2 and 3, a

convenient choice f o r w h i c h not onlv fulfils this requirement b u t simplifies
(3) is:
A
r , „x #23"32 , 23^23
MP) = , v 1
+ —y •
.733 + 33 A
33
E q u a t i o n ( 4 ) becomes:
A
v f/327 ^23#2:i' 33f/32 . , n , „
1
- (122 - -T x = " I + 7 + #12 + U-Z2-
A
23 '"33 "23
I f Q(j)) = p., A 3 3 = A- /J ;T3 and A 2 3 ->A 2 3 TJ. Then
p- + b [ p + h ll _ _ A 2 3 0 2 3 ' = /, 3 3 (/ 3 2
+ y+ 0 1 2 + /y
P ^23 P / l
33 A
23
I f h
o = (</ 2y)
3 ''"W- then :
, 1 ^23^23 ^33?32 , , / ) , , , /•r-x
iJ + fcj : = - r + 7 + 012+#22- (0
K
33 "23
A.G. J. Noll and J . I . Seicell
!
<3S
+
Synthesis of multiple loop fadb'n-/: systems .">i.iT
X o w the f u n c t i o n under consideration w i l l require at least one high-pass and

one low-pass ladder i n a parallel configuration. For the low pass branch the
periodic t e r m is associated w i t h the excess dominance term as usual, thus
f r o m (7):
where 6 = (A- <7 ).'A or

2i 33 32 a3
b
b =e
1 2i + Y + e 1 2 + - ^ . (s)
For a symmetrical network, and to ensure cancellation o f unwanted numerator

terms, i t is necessary t h a t eqns. (4) and (5) are equal.
I n the high-pass branch the periodic term is associated w i t h the series
elements, t h u s :
S u b s t i t u t i n g f o r y i n (8) gives:
b 1 = e . 2 i + +g l 2 +6 -(y 1 M + A ).
ta (10)
& l - ( ! / 3 3 + ^ 3 )
I f the numerator co-factor A o f the m a t r i x is evaluated, then provided the

1 5
above cancellation conditions are v a l i d , the numerator is :
x(p) = e e + e ,o. '. l 2 2 i 1 23 (ii)

I t has already been determined t h a t 6 , 0 ' arc frequency dependent , thus let 13 23
5
^ i 3 ~ ^ i 3 P - ^ a ' ^ ^ n ' i - Thus f r o m (11) and (2) (neglecting any constant m u l t i p l i e r
produced):
a
^12^24
or 0n 1 2 = 0 3^ 1 ^3 ^ L
23
. (12)
For s y m m e t r y of the circuit components i t is convenient to l e t :
S u b s t i t u t i n g for 6 13 i n (12) gives:
e =a d. '(}
v l 0 2 3 -e^ye . u
Substituting in (10) f o r 9 l2 yields:
024 (&l -
2
l>33 + A
2 3 ] ) +M&l - L'/33 + 'VJ)( - [y 33 + A, ])
3
+ a ( 1 - 0 ' ) 0 ' ( & i - [,y + A, ]) + 6 A t f ' = 0.

0 23 23 33 3 0 23 23 (13)
Solutions o f this equation are possible for elliptic functions. Take the numerical
example :
; j 2 + 7 . 4 f i 4
2
p + 0-607.3/; + 0-7559
508 Synthesis of -multiple loop feedback systems
I t is advantageous to have as many equal components as possible, hence choose

^ = A., = 0-1 and 0 ' = 0-001 then (13) becomes:
3 23
2
0-4075# 24 - 0-08150. 4- 0-003.1 1.41 = 0.
24
One solution of this equation is 0 = 0-14855. which gives:

24
d = 0-050190.
l n
0 = 0-999.
13
a
y= 1-2487 x 10" :
k. =
33
33
_o
2-45397 x
—
"
The resulting circuit is shown in fig. 4.
Fig. 4
OOOI3 5O-000245
O-O 502 2 0-148 6
0.999 3 O-OOI
Multi-loop circuit realizing a second-order elliptic function. For all circuit realizations
the element values are in mhos and farads.
4. Conclusion
I t has been demonstrated how various numerator polynomials can be included
in the synthesis o f m u l t i - l o o p feedback systems. This increases the range o f
functions which may be synthesized using these systems.
The method o f synthesis f o r parallel systems may be extended to include
circuits of order n and rank m ( H o l t and Sewell 1 9 6 6 ) . There is, o f course,
increased complexity associated w i t h the realization o f such networks.
1
A ( K X O W L E I> CO [ E X T S
The authors wish to t h a n k the Science Research Council f o r financial support.
REFERENCES
HOLT. A. G. •)., and S E W E I . L . .J. I . . 1 9 6 0 . J.E.E.E. Trans. Circuit Thtonj, 13, 326:
1908, Jut. J. Control, 9, 4 8 3 .
S E W E L L . J . 1.. 1966, Ph.D. Thesis. University of Newcastle upon Tyne.
76
PAPER 8
PROCEEDINGS LETTERS 2155
A Method of Power Measurement

A b s t r a c t — A m e t h o d of m e a s u r i n g t h e p o w e r i n j e c t e d i n t o a n e t -
w o r k is d e s c r i b e d . Either input c u r r e n t or v o l t a g e w h i c h are both
complex waveforms, must be electrically integrable and phase-
l o c k e d to t h e o t h e r . T h e m e t h o d is p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p l i c a b l e to cases
w h e r e o n e o f t h e v a r i a b l e s is s i n u s o i d a l .
Fig. l i a i represents the general case of a one-port network with a c u r -

rent ilrl injected by a voltage generator v\i). T h e p e r i o d i c voltage a n d
c u r r e n t w a v e f o r m s m a y be of a n y f o r m with the s t i p u l a t i o n that one must
be electrically integrable and p h a s e - l o c k e d to the other. S u p p o s e iV) can
be integrated to give r , U l . T h e c l o s e d c u r v e of F i g . l i b ) m a y be a s s u m e d to
represent the r e s u l t i n g plot of Ht) against c , U ) . T h e total area enclosed is
given by the line integral of c u r r e n t a r o u n d the c u r v e . T h u s .
.-1 = ©idr (II
but v (t)
: | vdt. (at General one-port network, tbi input current versus integral
Jo of input voltage for general one-port network.
S u b s t i t u t i n g (2) into (1) gives

tes i
RO
ivdt (3)
Y
Plates
w h e r e T is the time t a k e n for o n e e x c u r s i o n a r o u n d the c l o s e d c o n t o u r o f
Fig. K b ) . T
The integral o n the r i g h t - h a n d side o f (3), a n d hence the a . ^ a e n c l o s e d
,ft) current
by the c u r v e o f F i g . K b ) , is d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l to the average p o w e r
f l o w i n g into the c i r c u i t .
T h i s m e t h o d is p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p l i c a b l e to the c a s e w h e r e one o f the
v a r i a b l e s is s i n u s o i d a l . I n t e g r a t i o n c a n then be p e r f o r m e d by i m p o s i n g vft N
c
a 90 phase shift on the s i n u s o i d a l w a v e f o r m .
The power flowing into a n e t w o r k N was m e a s u r e d using the experi-
mental layout illustrated in F i g . 2. T h e input voltage w a s s i n u s o i d a l a n d o f
frequency f v — 50 k H z . T h e input c u r r e n t w a v e f o r m w a s p e r i o d i c a n d it Fig. 2. Experimental circuit for measurement of input power.
consisted of a n u m b e r of sinusoidal frequency components w h i c h were all
multiples o f a f u n d a m e n t a l f r e q u e n c y / , . Frequency f v w a s an integral ponent o f the c o m p l e x w a v e f o r m w h i c h , as a result, w o u l d preclude a n
m u l t i p l e o f f , ; o t h e r w i s e , the p o w e r input w o u l d h a v e been zero. T h u s , in exact d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f phase angle.
this case. T equaled 1//J. The a b o v e m e t h o d o f p o w e r m e a s u r e m e n t lends itself p a r t i c u l a r l y to
The r e s i s t a n c e - c a p a c i t a n c e n e t w o r k p r o v i d e d the necessary 90" phase cases w h e r e either the c u r r e n t o r the voltage w a v e f o r m s a r e easily i n t e g r a -
shift. T h e integral o f the d r i v i n g voltage w a s d i s p l a y e d o n the X plates o f ble; f o r e x a m p l e , s i n u s o i d a l a n d e x p o n e n t i a l w a v e f o r m s . It m a k e s possible
the oscilloscope a n d the input c u r r e n t o n the Y plates. T h e r e s u l t i n g the a c c u r a t e m e a s u r e m e n t o f p o w e r in p a r a m e t r i c a m p l i f i e r s , h a r m o n i c
L i s s a j o u figure then c o r r e s p o n d e d to the general plot o f F i g . I (b). T h e trace and s u b h a r m o n i c o s c i l l a t o r s , a n d other f o r m s o f f r e q u e n c y c o n v e r t e r s .
o n the C R O w a s p h o t o g r a p h e d a n d the negative w a s p l a c e d in a n enlarger. J. A. N E L S O N
T h e a r e a enclosed by the m a g n i f i e d i m a g e w a s m e a s u r e d u s i n g a planimeter. W. D. RYAN
F o r the p u r p o s e o f c a l i b r a t i o n , n e t w o r k /V w a s r e p l a c e d by a s t a n d a r d Dept. of Elec. Engrg.
resistance a n d . for the same c a m e r a a n d enlarger setting as a b o v e , a n area The Queen's University
c o r r e s p o n d i n g to a k n o w n p o w e r w a s f o u n d . T h e p o w e r flowing into Belfast, N o r t h e r n I r e l a n d
n e t w o r k N w a s o b t a i n e d by c o m p a r i n g the a r e a e n c l o s e d by the u n k n o w n
c u r v e w i t h that o f the c a l i b r a t i o n c u r v e . T h e i n h e r e n t e r r o r s in m e a s u r e -
ment thus tended to cancel out. since they w e r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f both
curves.
A m o r e direct a p p r o a c h o f d e t e r m i n i n g the p o w e r flowing into the net-
A Simple Method for Producing Floating Inductors
w o r k w o u l d be to multiply/(.') a n d i ( / ) a n d integrate the result. T h e p r o d u c t A b s t r a c t — A simple method for producing ungrounded inductors
o f / ( / ) a n d r ( / ) is generated in a m u l t i p l i e r w h i c h is a costly a n d c o m p l e x using a g y r a t o r is d e s c r i b e d . F l o a t i n g i n d u c t o r s m a y be o b t a i n e d f r o m
piece o f e q u i p m e n t w i t h severe l i m i t a t i o n s o n a c c u r a c y especially at high either g r o u n d e d or u n g r o u n d e d c a p a c i t o r s . T h e t e c h n i q u e h a s an a d -
v a n t a g e in t h e l o w n u m b e r o f a m p l i f i e r s r e q u i r e d .
frequencies. T o integrate the p r o d u c t o f i(t) a n d tit), w h i c h is a c o m p l e x
w a v e f o r m , w o u l d require a m u c h m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d c i r c u i t t h a n the phase The p r o b l e m of r e a l i z i n g floating i n d u c t o r s using g y r a t o r s a n d c a -
shifter used to integrate the s i n u s o i d in the m e t h o d d e s c r i b e d here. A n p a c i t o r s h a s led to s o m e ingenious s o l u t i o n s [ l ] - [ 3 ] a n d has p r o v o k e d
alternative m e t h o d o f m e a s u r i n g the input p o w e r w o u l d entail the m e a s u r e - interest in u s i n g o t h e r devices s u c h a s c i r c u l a t o r s [4] to o v e r c o m e the dif-
ment o f the a m p l i t u d e s o f c o m p o n e n t s o f voltage a n d c u r r e n t w a v e f o r m s ficulty. In a recent report [ 5 ] , a t e c h n i q u e for s i m p l y p r o d u c i n g an u n -
and their relative phase d i s p l a c e m e n t at the f r e q u e n c y o f the s i n u s o i d a l grounded inductance was indicated and the general method can be
w a v e f o r m . T h i s w o u l d involve filtering out the r e q u i r e d frequency c o m - e s t a b l i s h e d as follows. C o n s i d e r a p a r a l l e l c o n n e c t i o n of t w o 5 - t e r m i n a l
Manuscript receded Juno 2. 1969: revised August 19. 1969. Manuscript received August I I . 1969.
2156 P R O C E E D I N G S O F T H E I E E E . D E C E M B E R 1969
quired in an\ circuit realization. For a lou-pasb tiller, the number of

amplifiers required by (he above techniques is 2n in being the number of
inducme elements normalh required!, whereas the "tuo-gvraior method"
[1 ) needs An amplifiers and the Deboo technique [3] needs }n amplifiers
or 2n amplifiers and associated floatation circuits [2\. The alternative
circulator technique [4] requires }i\ amplifiers when using third-order
circulators or 5((>i-f\) 2} amplifiers with fourth-order circulators. The
multiierminal gyraior method [7] wouldneed 2 \2n -r 11 unii>-Cain cti.Tem-
and voltage amplifiers.
J. I. St\vi;u
Dept. of Electronic Engrg.
Fig. I. G y r a t o r circuit using 5-terminat amplifier*. University of Hull
Hull. England
RE-FRRENTKS
(I ] A . G . J H o l t a n d J . T a y l o r . " M e t h o d o f r e p l a c i n g u n g r o u n d e d i n d u c t o r s by g r o u n d e d
g y r a l o r s . " Electronics Letter*, v o l . 1. p. 105. 1965.
(2 | D . F S h e a n a n . " G y r a t o r - f l o i a i i o n c i r c u i t . " Electronic Letters, v o l . 3. pp. 3 9 - 4 0 . 1967.
[ ) ) G. i. D e b o o , " A p p l i c a t i o n o f a g y r a tor-type circuit to realize u n g r o u n d e d i n d u c t o r s . "
IEEE Trans. Circuit Theory, v o l . C T - 1 4 . p p . 101-103. M a r c h 1967.
| 4 ] J . M . R o l l e t t . " C i r c u l a t o r - c a p a c i t o r n e t w o r k s . " Electronics Letters, vol 4. pp. 5 9 9 - 6 0 1 .
I96K.
[5] T . N . R a o . " R e a d i l y biased w i d e b a n d g y r a i o r for floating or earthed i n d u c t o r s . "
Electronics Letters, v o l . 5. p p . 3 0 9 - 3 1 0 , 1969.
(6) J . I . Sewelt a n d F . W . S t e p h e n s o n , " M a t r i x tables for the generalized V i e r m i n a l a m p l i -
fier." Radio and Electronic Engrg.. v o l . 37. pp. 2 4 7 - 2 5 5 . 1969
( 7 | A . G . J . Holt a n d R t.inggard. " T h e m u l t i l e r m i n a l g y r a i o r . " Pmc IEEE ( L e t t e r s ) ,
veil. 5n. pp 1354 1155. A u g u s i I96H
| 8 | K . J . S m y i h a n d G . C . H a y w a r d . " T h e design and l i m i t a t i o n s o f practical g y r a t o r s , "
IEE Colloquium Digest, no. I968/J2.
F i g . 2. G y r a i o r circuit p r o d u c i n g a floating i n d u c t o r f r o m a g r o u n d e d c a p a c i t o r .
transadmittance amplifiers (6] (voltage-controlled current sources) as

shown in Fig. 1. The amplifiers are ideal and have a transconductance g.
The definite admittance matrix for such a circuit is
On the Reflection Pattern Made by a Laser Beam on the
" 0 0 9 -9 Etched Surface of Germanium
0 0 -9 9
A b s t r a c t — A l a s e r b e a m i s s h o t o n t h e s u r f a c e of s i n g l e - c r y s t a l
-9 9 0 0 germanium, after etching. From the reflection pattern, the character-
9 -9 0 0 i s t i c s o f e t c h e d p i t s a n d h i l l o c k s a r e e x a m i n e d a n d it i s f o u n d t h a t
e t c h e d pits not only are simple holes but also are convex.
which can be partitioned as In a d d i t i o n , a n e w r e f l e c t i o n p a t t e r n in t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f [ 1 1 0 ] is
r e p o r t e d . T h e s e n e w d a t a will b e applied t o d e c i d e t h e orientation of
s i n g l e - c r y s t a l g r o w t h a n d t h e e f f e c t of d i s l o c a t i o n in c r y s t a l .
A determination of the orientation of semiconductor single crystals is

needed for many purposes such as the use of seed in the growth of single
This matrix has precisely the same form as that of the common two-port crystals and the study of dislocation and isotropy of the crystal. Until now.
gyrator. two methods of measuring this have been known. One is an X-ray tech-
If a capacitor is connected between nodes 3 and 4. it can be easily shown nique, the other involves using the reflection pattern of visible light. The
by pivotal condensation that the matrix describing the input port (nodes former has accuracy, the latter has ease of measurement and the benefit of
2
I and 2) represents an inductor of value C/g connected between these inexpensive machinery. When a high degree of accuracy is not required, it
nodes. is more convenient to use the latter system.
The negative sign of one of the G matrices can be obtained by appro- The method of the reflection pattern of visible light is used in the follow-
priate connections of amplifier inputs or outputs. ing manner. A single crystal is first cut at an appropriate orientation and
It is possible, however, to progress further and produce an ungrounded the surface is polished with emery paper. After that, the crystal is etched
inductor from a grounded capacitor using this type of circuit. The gyrator with a substance such as superoxol ( H F : H 0 : H 0 ) (ratio 1:1:4). 2 2 2
circuit shown in Fig. 2 has an admittance matrix In the configuration outlined in Fig. 1. visible light (our experiment used
a laser beam) is shot through a pinhole onto the pits and hillocks that have
0 0 \ 9 been etched into the surface of the crystal. From the reflected light pat-
0 0 tern, the orientation of the axis and the degree of incline of the surface
\ ~9
from the axis can be determined.
-9 9 ! o
In our experiment, we tried to control the width of the laser beam by
using slit diameters from 0.5 mm to 1.0 mm. The photographs obtained
A capacitor connected between node 3 and ground will produce a float-
under such conditions are shown in Fig. 2; etched pits appear in the orienta-
ing inductor between nodes 1 and 2. There are two other methods of realiz-
tion of [111 ] and [100] and hillocks appear in the orientation of [110].
ing gyrators which are inherently capable of producing floating inductors.
We concluded that the reflective surface was convex because the re-
The connection of two transimpedance amplifiers (current-controlled ,:
flected ;iht pattern was enlarged more than the diameter of the laser beam.
voltage sources) in series is one of these, but one which uses ungrounded
Besides this, the size of the reflection pattern changed when the distance
amplifiers, This circuit will give a floating inductor from a floating ca-
between sample and screen was changed. We can observe the effects of a
pacitor, or with one amplifier grounded, the circuit will give a floating
convex mirror in the targe etched pits of orientation [ 100 J and [110]. and
inductor from a grounded capacitor. The gyraior produced by a negative
the effects of a concave mirror in [111]. However, we were interested in
impedance convenor iNICl. negative impedance inverior (Nil) cascade
why there were such special pits and hillocks corresponding to each orien-
using an entirely active Nil [8] will produce a floating inductor from a
grounded capacitor. This circuit employs two grounded amplifiers.
The advantage of these methods is the low number of amplifiers re- M a n u s c r i p t received F e b r u a r y 17. 1969.
79
PAPER 10
INT. J . ELECTRONICS. 1970. VOL. 29. >~0. 6. 501-511
Synthesis of active devices f

J. I . S E W E L L
Department of Electronic Engineering. University of Hull

The paper considers the synthesis of active network devices from a mathematical
point of view. It is demonstrated how various devices can be realized without any
detailed prior knowledge of the circuit form. Commencing with a matrix which
characterizes the device performance, an appropriate admittance matrix is produced
and then expanded by node induction until a network consisting of amplifiers and
resistances only can be recognized. The validity of the method is demonstrated by
synthesis of some accepted practical device realizations.
1. Introduction
I n recent years there has been considerable interest shown i n the design and
use o f active n e t w o r k devices f a b r i c a t e d f r o m operational amplifiers and
resistors. Devices such as gyrators (Morse a n d H u e l s m a n 1964, A n t o n i o u
1967) negative impedance converters (Morse 1964, A n t o n i o u 1965), active
transformers ( H o l t and Stewart 1968, Keen a n d Glover 1968 b), circulators
(Keen ef al. 196S, R o l l e t t and Greenaway 1968), a n d various others have been
realized i n this f o r m . These devices are finding extensive use i n active
n e t w o r k theory.
Certain m a t h e m a t i c a l techniques have been e m p l o y e d i n the design o f
these elements, such as the technique using a basic active f o r m o f n e t w o r k
(Keen and Glover 1968 a) and t h e n u t i l i z i n g a m a t r i x f a c t o r i z i n g method.
This m e t h o d appears t o be the sole a t t e m p t at approaching the whole problem
m a t h e m a t i c a l l y , a l t h o u g h even here some basic active f o r m is assumed a priori.
I n the references cited, no rigorous mathematical techniques are employed i n
the c i r c u i t realization.
The m e t h o d t o be o u t l i n e d does n o t assume any detailed i n i t i a l active
topology or rely upon any particular design s k i l l . F r o m the i n i t i a l device
specifications, the f i n a l c i r c u i t is derived b y basic m a t r i x operations. The
technique o f node i n t r o d u c t i o n is employed ; t h i s m a t h e m a t i c a l m e t h o d has
been-rigorously defined (Piercey 1962) and successfully a p p l i e d t o the synthesis
of certain active networks e m p l o y i n g operational amplifiers ( H o l t and Sewell
1969).
2. Synthesis of 2-port devices

A t y p i c a l active 2-port device i n current usage is the negative impedance
converter ( N I C ) . The synthesis o f a current inversion negative impedance
converter ( I X I C ) w i l l demonstrate the principles i n v o l v e d .
j Communicated by the Author.

j.E.
502 J.I. Sewel!
2.1. Admittance matrix of an, IXIC

The transmission m a t r i x o f an ideal 1 X 1 0 w i t h u n i t y conversion ratio is
( M i t r a 1969) :
'1 01
.4 =
0 - 1
A non-ideal one has « . a. ^0, 1 2 2l let a . = S- —>0. (i ^ j ) .
f ( Hence
~1 3,
A =
6, -1
T r a n s f o r m i n g to a Y m a t r i x
i i + sa
Y =
1 1
since S, - » 0 any higher power or m u l t i p l e 5- terms can be neglected and f o r

(
convenience define
£ j -+Kg,
where K is a real constant t e n d i n g t o i n f i n i t y , g is some f i n i t e real constant.

Thus
- Kg Kg
Y = (1)
- Kg Kg_
2.2. Method of synthesis
The general technique employed here is t h a t o f node i n t r o d u c t i o n . The
general t h e o r y a n d application o f t h i s have been discussed elsewhere, b u t the
basic idea is t o commence w i t h a 2 x 2 a d m i t t a n c e m a t r i x , w h i c h m a y consist
of complex entries, and expand the m a t r i x one node a t a t i m e u n t i l an nxn
m a t r i x is obtained, the elements o f w h i c h can be d i r e c t l y recognized as the
elements o f an n node n e t w o r k . Most o f the i n t r o d u c t i o n s are already k n o w n ,
b u t the a d d i t i o n a l ones required i n t h i s w o r k a n d the m e t h o d o f d e r i v i n g t h e m
are given i n the A p p e n d i x .
• I t is n o t possible to commence synthesis i m m e d i a t e l y w i t h eqn. (1) i f i t is
required t o have a n e t w o r k consisting o f a voltage difference a m p l i f i e r a n d
resistors only. The compactness o f such a n e t w o r k prevents the i n t r o d u c t i o n
of sufficient terms i n the expanded m a t r i x .
However, this p r o b l e m is overcome b y s p l i t t i n g the m a t r i x Y i n t o t w o
matrices ; p e r f o r m i n g node i n t r o d u c t i o n s on these, the resultant matrices
represent t w o n e t w o r k s i n parallel w h i c h realize the r e q u i r e d device :
Y=Y +Y ,
A B (2)
Kg 0 0 Kg
Kg 0 L0 Kg.
Synthesis of active devices 503
Consider Y and use an A c t i v e I I I b i n t r o d u c t i o n w i t h A = 4, A = 0. A = 0,

B 3 3 )2 21
0 < A <^ I . A = A'.

23 32
0 -8 12 -A(0 1 2 +r 1 2 )
A
^ B(3'3) — -d l 2 Kg-2K6 23 - ^ 3
r 3 3 + 2 A
^23
With d 12 = o, 9, = \g and r
3 3 3 = flrt h i s becomes :
0 0
y B(3-3) —
0 0
K
0 =J> K*+ , + -
I n order to ensure r e a i i z a b i l i t y of the final n e t w o r k , terms w h i c h constitute

the passive elements, i.e. any terms other t h a n K, w i l l have t o produce a
a r e
s y m m e t r i c s u b - m a t r i x when Y . r (n.n) A i n u l t i m a t e l y added. I t is
n ) B
therefore necessary t o p e r f o r m a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the t y p e T YT. ; the lB 2B
response o f the system is i n v a r i a n t under such a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .

For the above m a t r i x Y ( . , T B 3 and T
3 ) have the f o r m
1 B 2 B
M 0 0 " "1 0 0'
9 0 1 0
0 1 2
?'i = A . T
2 =
0 0 1 ~9
0 1
K
The t r a n s f o r m e d m a t r i x becomes
0 0 Z l
Y B(3'3) — z i (3)
•~>
2
0 -g + K g+-
2N 2
83
504 J . I . He well
N o w consider ] ' and A use an A c t i v e I l i a i n t r o d u c t i o n w i t h A = -J.

33
A = A = 0, 0 = O. 0 < \ <z
1 2 2 1 12 13 1. A = - A " .
3 1 = (f?'2) l ' = g. ? m
0 0
0 0 — 2
•>
A g a i n a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the t y p e T YT ^ 1X S is necessary t o ensure, u l t i m a t e

r e a d a b i l i t y o f the passive n e t w o r k . T f 1 A ! 2 X have the f o r m :
-9 " 1 0 0"
1 0
K-
T — 0
J
1 0 T — 0 1 0
1A — ' 2A —
0 0 1 -9
0 1
_K
P e r f o r m i n g the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n yields
A(3-3) —
0 0 — 29 (4)
o
1
K
-9-K 0 g+ o
Fig. 1
Current inverting negative impedance converter.

Because o f the basic properties o f node i n t r o d u c t i o n , ecjn. (2) w i l l hold f o r

these expanded matrices, hence the n e t w o r k m a t r i x is obtained b y adding
eqns. (3), (-4)
g o -9
Y = -9
-(/-A'* -g + K* ig
w h i c h leads t o a k n o w n I N I C c i r c u i t shown i n f i g . 1 (Morse 1964).
2.3 Synthesis of other 2-port. devices

I t is possible t o e x t e n d the m e t h o d shown t o include gyrators and other
devices. B u t as a g y r a t o r can be constructed f r o m a cascade o f circuits
e m p l o y i n g N I C ' s f u r t h e r elaboration is f e l t unnecessary.
3. Synthesis of multi-port devices

A n interesting development arises i n the synthesis o f active circulators
w h i c h belong t o this class and have received some a t t e n t i o n recently (Keen
et at. 1968, R o l l e t t a n d Greenaway 1968).
3.1. N-port. circulator transmission matrix

The admittance m a t r i x o f an A l p o r t circulator is skew s y m m e t r i c and can
be expressed as follows :
Y ,,: =
X KG K,C
where G is the c i r c u l a t o r m a t r i x o f the f o r m

v
0 1 - 1
- 1 0 1
1 I 0
1 -1
7
the phase p a t t e r n o f (? is always t h a t f o r A odd. The phase m a t r i x K is
e
used t o produce the correct phase p a t t e r n , w i t h p a r t i c u l a r reference t o even

order circulators where a phase reversal m a y be i n t r o d u c e d between any t w o
ports to ensure s t a b i l i t y . A" is a diagonal m a t r i x c o n t a i n i n g elements ± 1,
w r i t t e n as { 1 . 1] and is o f the same order as G . c
Synthesis could commence b y considering the m a t r i x (?,. and a p p l y i n g

node i n t r o d u c t i o n s u n t i l a realizable n e t w o r k resulted. However, this w o u l d
involve dealing w i t h matrices o f higher order and t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f associated
c o m p l e x i t y . A n alternative approach is suggested.
Most circulators consist o f cascaded identical u n i t s enclosed w i t h i n an
overall feedback loop. I f this loop is broken, i t is t h e n possible to derive a
transmission m a t r i x describing the path between the open ends o f the feedback
loop. The m a t r i x f o r an A t h f a c t o r follows f r o m easy f a c t o r i z a t i o n .
506 J. I. Seicell
T h e overall transmission m a t r i x has the f o r m

"1 01
A x = ' (5)
0 0
when N is even the m a t r i x becomes :
-1 0'
-4.v = (6)
0 0
b u t the r e m o v a l o f a phase reversing stage w i l l produce eqn. (5).
A can be split i n t o X A matrices o f the t y p e
x
""1 0]
A,= (~)
0 0
3.2. Basic elemevt admittance matrix

F o r synthesis o f an i n d i v i d u a l u n i t , b y node i n t r o d u c t i o n , i t is necessary t o
commence w i t h an a d m i t t a n c e m a t r i x . I m m e d i a t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of A (
w o u l d lead t o a m a t r i x w i t h i n f i n i t e entries, hence i t is o b l i g a t o r y t o consider

the transmission m a t r i x o f a non-ideal u n i t :
where 5, ->0.
S 2 S 2
If a n = 1 and S is so small t h a t only first-order terms are significant

^
Si
r..=
-1 1
Si
N o w investigate these terms i n the l i m i t
(^\ where g. a are constants.
-. where K->oo and is a real constant.
Hence
g -g
a 2 2
- A A
a is a constant i n t r o d u c e d to aid synthesis, i f a = 2 synthesis proceeds i n a
convenient manner :
g_
Y,= 2 2
(8)
2 2
-A A
T h i s m a t r i x is obviously n o t realizable b y passive means.

3.3. Method of synthesis

T h e m a t r i x of eqn. (8) is expanded b y node i n t r o d u c t i o n in the usual
manner, commencing w i t h an A c t i v e I I b i n t r o d u c t i o n w i t h the f o l l o w i n g
identities: A = 0. A = 7v/2 A = - A". 0 = O. A = -</,./A"-. 0 = (/;-,
12 21 : 23 2 3 3 2 vl
Y 22 •
-g
Y, (3-3) — -g A"- A 2
q „ 2
— •A
•? + —•> —o 4 •->- + A
L -0c 0c
The next step is to p e r f o r m a passive I I b i n t r o d u c t i o n on the b o t t o m

r i g h t - h a n d 2 x 2 m a t r i x w i t h the conditions
(021 - #12 - 3*2l) = (022 + Y i) = (023 - 0 ) -*0 S 23
and
£
Y
/Z, (021 - #12 - 21) j_, ft/9 1023
(023 ~- 23
^23) P
I.
2
(022 + 5 ' ) 22
' ^ ( 0 , + J'
2 9
,)
?12 = °> 021 = °.- 023 = . 012= - 0 -
0
0 0
•>
2
-0 A
2
— + — A+</ -gr -</ + A
:
i(4'4)
•0c 0 0e
-032
032 032
A g a i n i t is necessary t o p e r f o r m an elementary t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the t y p e

2 \ 7 / T with
2
' 1 -1 1 "1
0 0 0" ~\ 0 2
0 1 0 0 , T = 2 0 1 0 6
0 0 I 0 0 0 1 0
_ I 0 -1 1 0 0 0 1
and w i t h g 32 = -g the f o l l o w i n g m a t r i x results :
0 + 0c 0 -g c -0
2
^•u-4>= 0 K + g - A
-0c 0 j/, 0
-0 -0 0
508 J.I. SeweU
w h i c h can be recognized as the circuit shown i n tig. 2. A cascade of these as

shown i n fig. 3 w i l l realize a n A - p o r t circulator o f the f o r m reported by R o l l e t t
and Greenaway (1968).
Fig. 2
3
I W 1
3'
Circulator section.
Fig. 3
9 3 g
3 3
I — v w - i -
1 VW—t— I VW—f— Si^^

3c 3
I 2 N
U U 7
L
A l p o r t circulator (A odd).
4. Transformation of amplifier type

I f the a m p l i f i e r used i n a n e t w o r k has i n f i n i t e gain, t h e n i t is i m m a t e r i a l
w h i c h o f the f o u r types, voltage, current, transadmittance or transimpedance
of the same configuration, are employed, as the system response is i d e n t i c a l .
W i t h f i n i t e gain devices i t is possible to show a certain equivalence between
amplifier types o f d i f f e r e n t configurations. F o r instance, i t has already been
shown ( H o l t and Carey 1966) t h a t a voltage a m p l i f i e r can be t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o
a current one merely b y t a k i n g the transpose o f the a m p l i f i e r m a t r i x . N o w
T
for any m a t r i x Y. det Y = det Y , and i f the d e t e r m i n a n t is i d e n t i c a l t h e n the
class o f device remains unchanged, although there m a y be a change w i t h i n the
class, which is true in the case o f negative impedance converters. The transpose
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w i l l convert a difference voltage a m p l i f i e r i n t o a current para-
phase a m p l i f i e r i n a reverse d i r e c t i o n . S i m i l a r l y the transpose o f a difference
transimpedance a m p l i f i e r is a paraphase transimpedance a m p l i f i e r f a c i n g in
the opposite d i r e c t i o n . I n the case o f the N I C device b o t h o f these t r a n s f o r m a -
tions have the effect o f changing an I N I C t o a V N I C .
There is also an equivalence between a f i n i t e gain voltage difference amplifier
and a f i n i t e gain transadmittance difference amplifier.
I t is therefore possible to realize the devices synthesized earlier w i t h

d i f f e r e n t types o f amplifier, p r o v i d e d t h a t the f o r w a r d gain is large, compared
to the other parameters o f the a m p l i f i e r admittance m a t r i x . I n the case o f
f i n i t e gain amplifiers some interchange o f amplifiers is p e r m i t t e d b y the transpose
rule, a l t h o u g h there m a y be some change w i t h i n the class o f device.
5. Conclusion
The mathematics o f synthesizing active devices has been presented a n d

demonstrated on t w o d i f f e r e n t types o f devices. I t is possible t o realize a l l
the devices i n t h e 2-port group and the m u l t i - p o r t one using the techniques
derived. The techniques could be m o d i f i e d to include a m p l i f i e r non-idealities.
B y e m p l o y i n g the transformations indicated and others such as n u l l a t o r -
norator p a i r i n g ( A n t o n i o u 1968) a m u l t i t u d e o f equivalent c i r c u i t realizations
can be realized.
Appendix
F o l l o w i n g Piercey (1962) and H o l t and Sewell (1969) i t is easy t o derive
the node i n t r o d u c t i o n s used i n this w o r k . For a m a t r i x
Y J
Y '
-'Oil 12
v
1
-
—
2-2
Y
1 1
Y
21 022.
a 1-node i n t r o d u c t i o n gives
Y + aA
o n 1 1 Y + aA
x 2 2 x aA 3 1
Y
1
-
—
Y i-haiA
2 2 Y + aA
0 2 2 2 2
a
3A 2
3-3
aA x 3 aA 2 3 Q
3^3J
F o r the Passive I I b node i n t r o d u c t i o n :

a
*A 2 =g 22 + I 22'
0 J = r —
3 ^2 9 23 ^23'
a = —
2^3 !732 ^23'
On s u b s t i t u t i o n the i n t r o d u c t i o n becomes :
^ Oil
1 (!7l2-012- *'l2)(l/21-012- 3
'2l) 012-012
( 0 i 2 - 0 i 2 ~ Y )(g 12 23 - B)
23
Y
022+ 22 022+ ^22
$21 - #12 022 922 22 023 — 023
(021 ~ #12- )r
2l)(<732 - #2 ) 3
032 - ^23 ( 0 2 3 - 0 2 3 ) ( 0 3 2 - 023)
g 22 + }'.„ 022 + Y-.2
510 J.J. Sewell
The A c t i v e I I b ( A . , , = 1) i n t r o d u c t i o n lias the f o l l o w i n g identities :
a. A. = K +
2 2 Y. .22
aA
2 3 = A / v - 6. .
32 23 K -> x .
o Ao
3 = A / Y — $03.
23
Fig. 4
•Y.„- [(9..*Y..)A„ - l«.i*>..)X„] - Lce.i - y . o x , 5 . x„ s » 1

- 9„
~ Y J T
- YJI X>1 X ji.
- 6ij Yon • V H
- [ S J J X J J -tSjjXjj] - Y M X J 5 \ J J
K XJI An k X„ X 5 5
K Xj, X j 2
K X 5 J
K X13 \ 3 3 L
Active IT b node introduction ( A = l ) . 22
Fig. 5
-9.1 -ft,
y„„ + Kûhil^ „ o„\ Xi,y 5 i - (8,,+v,)
- 9,
+ 9,, X 55 Xj,
X,. X , ( J
s
4,
X.JYJS - >.» ( e . ^ Y . ) e,j x „ X„
Y
x:, 5 I
K X31X.3 K X,» K X„
X53
K X, Xi,
t x ! 5
K Xj, X J J
K X11
X,} X), X),
K X,i XJJ
K Xj, K X35
X>*
Active U f a node introduction ( A ^ l ) . 3 3

S tj tithe->•/•>• o/ net ice devices oil
Fig. 6
'•n
-e, 2
+ 9j3 X , l X55
Xn
y „ _ — (x«o - x „ f l „ ) - y„x„>,,.
5 JS
*3S <= -e, s
J - ( Xj,Y - X [Pa + fl X„\ ,

XJJ
: 3 53 3s
X 1
5
>51
A
15
-t-
K X,i X., X 5 i K X.J

Xl5 X ^
3
*J1
K Xj, K Xj, X ! S
KXJJ
X33
K X „ Xj, K X U
K X S 5
X 5 T
Active I I I b node introduction ( A ^ l ) . 3 3
The A c t i v e I I I a ( A ? i 1) i n t r o d u c t i o n has :
33
( A
<3 3 = ^33^- + ^ 33'
« i ' 4 = A /v - 3 31 d 1 3 .
a A A A
3 l = 1 3 ' ~ ^13-
and s i m i l a r l y f o r the A c t i v e I I I b ( A ^ 1) i n t r o d u c t i o n : 3 3
C A
<3 3 = K s ^ + ^ 33-
aA 2 3 = A 3 2 A- 8.23
aA 3 2 = XK - 23 6.23
S u b s t i t u t i o n , expansion in a T a y l o r series, and neglecting any terms d i v i d e d by

A" or higher powers o f A' w i l l y i e l d the i n t r o d u c t i o n s shown i n figs. 4. 5. 6.
REFERENCES
A N T O N I O C . A.. 1965. Electron. Lett.. 1, 88 ; 1967. Ibid.. 3, 350 : 1968, Ibid.. 4, 87.
H O L T , A . G . J., and C A R E Y . J. R . . 1966. I . E . E . Conference Publication 23, p. 343.
HOLT A. G . J . , and S E W E L L . .1. I . . 1969. hit. J . Control. 9, 4 8 3 .
HOLT A. G . J . , and S T E W A R T . R . J . . 1968. hit. J . Control. 8, 517.
K E E N . A. \V.. and G L O V E R . J . L . . 1968 a. Proc. Instn elect. Engrs. 1 1 5 , 9 1 8 : 1968 b.
Ibid.. 115, 1114.
K E E N , A. Y V . . G L O V E R . J . L . . and H A R R I S . R . J.. 1968. Electron. Lett., 4, 389.
M I T R A . S. K . . 1969. Analysis and Synthesis of Linear Active Set works (John Wiley).
M O R S E . A. S.. 1964. M.Sc. Thesis. Universitv of Arizona.
M O R S E . A. S.. and H C E L S M A X . L . P.. mi.'l.E.E.E. Trans. Circuit Theory. 11, 277.
P I E R C E v. R. X . G . . 1962. Ph.D. Thesis. University of London.
R O L L E T T . .1. M . . and G R E E N A W A Y . P. E.. 1968. Electron. Lett.. 4, 579.
91
PAPER 12
INT. J . CONTROL. 1972. VOL. Mi. NO. 1. 171-175
The imultiterminal active transformer^
J. I . SEW E L L
Department of Electronic Engineering. University of H u l l
[Received 19 August 1971]

A method is presented for realizing an active multiterminal transformer which can
then be used to produce a multiport transformer. This technique overcomes
previousl}' encountered restrictions and permits replacement of the floating trans-
former used in conventional network synthesis.
1. Introduction
O f t h e a c t i v e realizations w h i c h have been p r o d u c e d f o r t r a n s f o r m e r s
(Weiss 1966, Su 1966, B r o d i e a n d Crocker 1966, H o l t a n d S t e w a r t 1968) o n l y
one does n o t have the r e s t r i c t i o n t h a t one t e r m i n a l on the i n p u t side a n d one
on t h e o u t p u t side f o r m a c o m m o n e a r t h . T h i s n a t u r a l l y prevents realizations
o f m u l t i p o r t t r a n s f o r m e r s b y these techniques. H o w e v e r t h e m e t h o d developed
b y Weiss (1966) allows the r e a l i z a t i o n o f the m u l t i p o r t t r a n s f o r m e r , b u t u n -
f o r t u n a t e l y employs a considerable n u m b e r o f negative resistances and requires
t h e m t o be f l o a t i n g . T h e m e t h o d t o be described overcomes the r e s t r i c t i o n s
so f a r encountered.
2. Transformer realization
T h e basic procedure is t o realize a m u l t i t e r m i n a l t r a n s f o r m e r , each t e r m i n a l
of w h i c h represents one end o f a w i n d i n g t h a t has the o t h e r end g r o u n d e d .
Fig. 1
1 1
1.
MULTI- 2 MULTI - 2
2 n
TERMINAL TERMINAL
GY RATOR GYRATOR
n
m G
2
o
Multiterminal active transformer.
t Communicated by the Author.

93
172 J. J. Sewell
Suitable c o m b i n a t i o n s of pairs of t e r m i n a l s w i l l produce ports. The a d m i t t a n c e

m a t r i x seen at the i n p u t o f a m u l t i t e r m i n a l g y r a t o r ( H o l t a n d L i n g g a r d 1968)
is
1 T
Y = GY ~ G , I
where G is an nx m g y r a t i o n matrix,, a n d Y is an m x »> load m a t r i x . L Con-

sider t w o m-ultitci. m i n a l g y r a t o r s in cascade as shown -in f i g . 1, the input
m a t r i x is t h e n
1 : l
Y = G (G Y,- G ' )- GT,
1 2 2 (l)
where G is an n x m g y r a t i o n m a t r i x ,
x
G is an m x I g y r a t i o n m a t r i x ,
2
and Y is an / x I l o a d m a t r i x .
L
2 . 1 . Realization with square G matrices

I n the case w h e n t h e G matrices are square, s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d manipulation
o f eqn. ( I ) yields :
Y = G 1 ( u ^ Y L G 2 - K ^ (2)
a n d a n u m b e r o f a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r the matrices G lt G are w o r t h y o f considera-

2
tion.
2.1.1. Unequal symmetric G matrices, G 2 non-singular

This presents a v a l u a b l e p r a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n ; i f G = g A G — g B where 1 x 2 2
g are constants and A. B are matrices, A^B,

2 and | . B | ^ 0 then eqn. (2)
becomes
Y AB- Y B~ A. l
L
l
2
J7,
T h i s (equation represents t r a n s f o r m e r a c t i o n on the load m a t r i x , w h i c h m a y

be readily observed b v considering an example.
Let
~9L 0"
i - r bi -b 2
YL =
0 9L. - I I _-b2 6_ X
s u b s t i t u t i o n gives
where
b,-b 2
C:
2 2 2
I n this case the constant 2c ((/ /'</ ) can be considered t o represent a t u r n s
1 2
r a t i o effect. The i n p u t m a t r i x corresponds t o the a d m i t t a n c e m a t r i x o f a

f l o a t i n g resistance a n d , as the load m a t r i x describes t w o resistances w h i c h are
g r o u n d e d at one end, an isolation effect is a p p a r e n t .
The multiterminal active transformer 173
Fig. 2
o
o
o rx
• — i +
Floating 2-port active transformer.
A simple realization of a two-port transformer as shown in fig. 2 follows,

where the amplifiers are ideal transadmittance amplifiers (Sewell 1 9 0 9 ) with
appropriate transconductances. A unity turns ratio effect is available for
9I = 9-L and b = 1 + 8(8<z 1), 6 = 1 .
1 2
2 . 1 . 2 . Unequal symmetric G matrices, both non-singular

If CT 1 = <7 B,
1J G = gB
2 2 and \B\ ^0 then by eqn. (2)
Y = % BB~ YjB- B l l
= — n Yr.
2 2
<7 2 S'2 ^
The action of this circuit differs from the previous one in that although there
is a turns ratio effect represented by (gi!g )~, the form of the input matrix is 2
the same as the load one and hence does not reveal the same isolation effect.
2 . 1 . 3 . Unequal symmetric singular G matrices

Let G = g A and G = g A where | d | = 0 .
1 1 2 2Since this will give a singular
matrix for G the formulae derived cannot be applied and this situation does
2
not represent a practical circuit. However, two comments are appropriate:

first, in practice i t would never be possible to ensure perfect equivalence between
the two .4 matrices ; secondly, precise symmetry of A may be fairly difficult
to ensure physically and thus there is a possibility of an inverse matrix existing.
Hence a working circuit of this type is not too impractical, although the reasons
for operation are more related to § 2.1.1 than to the properties of the matrices
of this section.
2 . 1 . 4 . Unequal unsymmetric non-singular G matrices

This choice of unsymmetric G matrices gives a type of transformer action,
but the resultant input matrix demonstrates isolation properties which are a
combination of those encountered in § § 2 . 1 . 1 and 2 . 1 . 2 .
2 . 2 . Realization with non-square G matrices

A further significant step is obtained i f fig. 3 is considered; the input matrix
is again given by eqn. ( 1 ) . As the 6' matrix is not symmetrical it is not 2
1 1
possible to utilize eqn. ( 2 ) . However, i t is obvious that G Y ~ G ' = constant 2 L 2
of the form g.r y, . where y is some complex admittance. Hence

L
95
in J. I. Sewell
Fie. 3
MULTI - MULTI-
TERMINAL TERMINAL
GYRATOR GYRATOR
G , G„
Improved multiterminal transformer,
and if G = g A, where A is a connection matrix, then

1 1
Again transformer action is recognizable, this can be illustrated b\ considering

a simple example.
Let
1"
-1] and G = 9i
1
_ — 1
i.e.
r 0"
~9L
A-- , Y L = 3
- I 0 9L.
then
' 1
0
9L
G*Y,;-*C? = gf[\ - 1 ]
1
0 —
9LJ
S i
Or,
and hence
[1 - 1 ]
1 - 1
-1/2
which is a similar result to that of § 2.1.1.

96
The maltiter»ii/ial active trans former
Fig. 4
3
o
C>
35
A realization of a nuiltiterminal transformer.
A realization o f such a t r a n s f o r m e r can be o b t a i n e d d i r e c t l y b y e m p l o y i n g

t w o m u l t i t e r m i n a l g y r a t o r s as shown, t h i s w o u l d require 2(n + vi + 2) a m p l i f i e r s
o f the u n i t y gain c u r r e n t a n d v o l t a g e types. A n o t h e r c o n v e n i e n t r e a l i z a t i o n
is shown i n fig. 4, t h i s utilizes 4 - t e r m i n a l t r a n s a d m i t t a n c e a m p l i f i e r s t o p r o d u c e
t h e f l o a t i n g g y r a t o r s (Sewell 1969). T h e a m p l i f i e r r e q u i r e m e n t s are, f o r TO, n
b o t h even, m + n; m or n o d d , m + n+1 ; b o t h TO, n o d d , TO + re+ 2. A n
a l t e r n a t i v e c i r c u i t f o r a floating t w o - p o r t t r a n s f o r m e r f o l l o w s i m m e d i a t e l y .
3. Conclusions
T h e r e m o v a l o f the r e s t r i c t i o n o f g r o u n d e d t e r m i n a l s w h i c h t h e above
t e c h n i q u e has f a c i l i t a t e d , means t h a t a c t i v e realizations o f t h e i d e a l t r a n s -
f o r m e r can n o w be used t o replace f l o a t i n g 2-port t r a n s f o r m e r s i n n u m e r o u s
synthesis techniques, a l t h o u g h i t m a y be necessary, f o r d.c. s t a b i l i t y con-
siderations, t o g r o u n d one t e r m i n a l o f some o f the structures presented. These
techniques, together w i t h i n d u c t o r replacement b y g y r a t o r s a n d capacitors
w i l l enable complete m i c r o m i n i a t u r i z a t i o n o f the c o n v e n t i o n a l c i r c u i t s . I t also
provides a novel m e t h o d f o r p r o d u c i n g a m u l t i p o r t t r a n s f o r m e r b y a c t i v e means.
REFERE>TCES
B R O D I E . J. H . . and C R O C K E R . R. S.. Proc. I.E.E.E.. 5 4 , 1125.

H O L T . A. G. J., and L I N G G A R D , R . 1968. Proc. I.E.E.E.,
: 5 6 , 1534.
H O L T . A. G. . ) . . and S T E W A R T . R. J.. 1968. Int. J . Control. 8, 517
S E W E L L . J. I . . 1969. Proc. I.E.E.E.. 5 7 , 2155.
Su. K . L . . 1966. Proc. I.E.E.E.. 5 4 , 1083.
W E I S S . C. D . . 1966. Proc. I.E.E.E.. 5 4 , 302.
97
PAPER 18
350 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS. VOL. CAS-23. NO. 6, JUNE 1976
A Theory of Equivalent Active Networks

L E S L I E G . G R A N T AND J O H N I . S E W E L L , MEMBER, I E E E
Abstract The effective application of equivalence transformations to

so V/ = Vj\ hence add c o l u m n j to c o l u m n / of Y and then
active networks has been prevented by the difficulties produced by the delete c o l u m n j. The current l at node k is arbitrary,
k
nonsymmetric terms introduced by the active elements. These problems
being the o u t p u t f r o m a voltage source, so delete row k of
are overcome by constraint theory, and it is demonstrated bow equivalent r
networks can be generated for active structures in which important param- V. p r o d u c i n g Y , the constrained admittance m a t r i x of the
eters such as component spread and value, and sensitivity, can be optim- active circuit. I n the case of an embedded single i n p u t
ized. Methods of controlling the number of elements in the equivalent operational a m p l i f i e r w i t h i n 9 i between nodes / and k,
networks are also given. the constraint imposed o n Y consists of r e m o v i n g c o l u m n
/ and r o w k. A l s o it is well k n o w n that i n the l i m i t of
I. INTRODUCTION
i n f i n i t e gain the ideal current a m p l i f i e r has exactly the
same effect as the ideal voltage a m p l i f i e r , hence the
T H E theory of equivalent networks as presented [1], [2], method may be generalized to include current amplifiers.
a n d w i t h later elaborations [3], [5], has been effec- Keeping the n u m b e r i n g of the rows and columns of the
tively applied to passive networks. However the nonsym- constrained m a t r i x Y unchanged, network functions may
r
metry of the nodal admittance m a t r i x due to the presence be calculated f r o m Y i n the usual manner. Y' is a r
of active devices renders the application of the theory to nonsymmetric m a t r i x ; however, due to the symmetry o f Y
active networks d i f f i c u l t . O n transformation, unsymmetric certain pairs of elements are equal. I t is postulated that
terms appear i n the admittance m a t r i x to such an extent matrix transformations can be applied to Y' p r o d u c i n g a
that it is almost impossible to i d e n t i f y any conventional scaled equivalent constrained m a t r i x Y", which has the
active devices. By constraining the n o d a l admittance necessary symmetry in the same places as Y . T h e n the r
matrix of the passive part of the circuit, it is shown that a matrix Y' is rebuilt to produce a symmetric admittance
general scaled H o w i t t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n may be applied to matrix Y' of the passive part of a network 9 1 ' w i t h
circuits incorporating operational amplifiers. The o p t i m i - voltage amplifiers embedded in the same positions as i n
zation of network criteria may then be undertaken using a the original passive network 9 1 . This rebuilt admittance
constrained nonlinear p r o g r a m m i n g method. The type of matrix must obey the usual realizability constraints o f a
active element remains unchanged and its position w i t h i n passive nodal admittance m a t r i x
the network is constant, but the passive elements may
change i n number, k i n d , a n d connection between the Y f < 0 (2a)
nodes of the initial structure.
v i ; - 2 ^ > o , i - i . ( 2 b )
II. CONSTRAINT T H E O R Y
r ; - r ; - o . (2c)
The e m b e d d i n g of a d i f f e r e n t i a l i n p u t operational
a m p l i f i e r w i t h i n a passive network may be considered as a
III. SCALED EQUIVALENCE
constraint imposed u p o n the nodal admittance m a t r i x of
the passive part of the circuit [6]. [7], Consider a passive Definition: T w o networks 9 1 , 9 1 ' are scaled equivalent
network 9 1 w i t h admittance matrix Y. Embed a d i f f e r e n -
w i t h respect to some voltage transfer f u n c t i o n T„(s) if and
tial a m p l i f i e r gain A w i t h i n 9 1 , positive input node i ,
only i f T;.(s)= HT (s),H c ER. N o t e that H= \ gives the
negative input node j , and o u t p u t node k. This introduces
a constraint i n the network f o r c i n g (he potentials V , Vj, usual d e f i n i t i o n of equivalence. Scaled equivalence w i l l be
t
a n d V at node ;', j , and k to obey the relation

k
considered w i t h respect to the voltage transfer f u n c t i o n
* { V - V j ) = K - (i)
As A-*oo, (1) becomes
IV. GENERALIZED SCALED HOWITT

TRANSFORMATION
Manuscript received June 12, 1975; revised November 26, 1975. This
work was supported by the Science Research Council. Consider two networks 9 1 , 9 l ' w i t h their admittance
The authors are wiih the Dep.. ment of Electronic Engineering,
University of Hull, Hull, England. matrices Y,Y' (not necessarily symmetric) related by the
GRANT AND SEWELL: EQUIVALENT ACTIVE NETWORKS 351
equation Theorem: Sufficient conditions on T | ( j ) . | ( i ) to produce

a scaled equivalent t r a n s f o r m a t i o n are:
Y-(s) = V(s)Y(s)S(s) (3)
1) the / t h c o l u m n of T)(s) = mu ; i
where TJ(J),4(J) are nonsingular. r

2) the /'th row of £(s) = / u , :
T h e n f o r 9 1 , 9 1 ' to be scaled equivalent networks with
3) the y'th row of £ ( s ) = ATH/; mJ,k£R
respect to the voltage transfer f u n c t i o n T (s).
v
a n d the scaling f a c t o r H = l / k .
Proof:
(4)
A ^ ) - d e t [>"(*)]„
I t is required to determine the s u f f i c i e n t conditions on -det y (*)«(*)]„
T | ( J ) , J ( J ) f o r (4) to h o i d . First we prove three lemmas.
Lemma I: = 2 2d«[l(*)] d«[ ^)Ldet h (lemma 1)
det [ ^ B C - Z l ^ 222' • = det[r,( )], det[ lT(s)]êt[£(i)]^

J i ( l e m m a 3)
abc
2 (det [A ] dei ia [ fi] det

fl4 [ C] f c • • • det [ Z ] „ ) . = ^det[T,( )]det[y( )] ^det[|( )]
i i y J ( l e m m a 2).
Z
Similarly,
Proof: W e need o n l y show
det[^5] ,= j 2det[/l] det[a] , u v

AM') = ~det [ TJ(') ] d e t [ Y(s)}}det [{(,)]
3
tyj) , det[y(5)].. A,
Let A',B' be the a d j o i n t matrices of A,B, respectively.
W
Then A;,(J) * det [ > - ( * ) ] , , V
Thus the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n V ( S ) = T / ( S ) K ( j ) £ ( . r ) w i t h the re-

strictions o n T ) ( J ) , £ ( J ) being d e t [ T ) ( j ) ] ^ 0 , det [£(*)] =^0,
Now and 1), 2), 3) of the theorem has been shown to be a
scaled equivalent t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . I n the case H = k — I = 1
B'A'M-2^,= 2<tet[fi]„det[^] . f c (5) the generalized H o w i t t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n results.
N o assumptions about the nature of Y(s) were made i n
Put the proof of the theorem, hence this t r a n s f o r m a t i o n may
C = ^B=>C'=fl'/l'=>fl'/l' / 1 = det[/ifl], , >
be applied to produce a scaled equivalent constrained
r
m a t r i x Y '(s) f r o m a constrained m a t r i x Y'(s)
Hence f r o m (5)
K"(j)-H(j)r(*)£(j).
det[/lB] i y =2det[/(] det[S] i l i y .
i
T h e elements of V ( s ) , a n d hence Y'(s) are n o n l i n e a r l y
The lemma follows by obvious extension. dependent o n entries of TJ(J) a n d £ ( J )
Lemma 2: I f the ith r o w ( c o l u m n ) of a matrix A
= mw,,«, the / t h u n i t vector, then
p i
det[y«] -J-dei[/»]. fl Hence the elements of the passive part of the scaled
equivalent network may be f o u n d after r e b u i l d i n g Y'(s)
/Voo/.- The result is obtained by expanding det [A] in symbolic f o r m as quadratic equations i n the entries of
along r o w ( c o l u m n ) /'. T | ( J ) and i{s).
Lemma 3: 1) I f the / t h c o l u m n of a m a t r i x A = mu ,u
i i
The scaling f a c t o r H w i l l enable the generation of
the /'th u n i t vector, then equivalent networks w i t h d i f f e r e n t gain factors, w h i c h is
of some significance in active RC network synthesis.
det [ / ) ] „ = (), Vp*/.
F u r t h e r m o r e , the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n matrices T)(J),£(J) can
2) I f the 7th row of a m a t r i x A=mu ,u J
T
j the yth unit assume any type of entry, and hence i t is easy to d e m o n -
vector, then strate the equivalence t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of an RLC network
i n t o an active RC network c o n t a i n i n g FDNR elements.
d e t [ < 4 ] „ = 0, Vp+j.
A n i m p o r t a n t observation is that whereas i n generation
Proof: For 1), r e m o v i n g any c o l u m n p¥=i from A of passive equivalent networks the quadratic t r a n s f o r m a -
makes c o l u m n /' of [A] lp all zeros. Hence dei[A] ip =Q tion is generally required to retain symmetry and hence
Vp¥=i. The proof of 2) f o l l o w s . realizability, no such l i m i t a t i o n s are imposed in the active
10 0
352 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, JUNE 1976
situation. As the constrained matrix is unsymmetric i n i t i - 5) F o r m the scaled equivalent component admittance
ally, a simple l e f t - h a n d or right-hand t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is matrices of the passive part of the network, Y^. Y' by the c
usually quite sufficient. A sequence of these can, of f o l l o w i n g operations on Y^, Y£:

course, be used. a) E x p a n d Y^, Y' to dimension N x N by inserting
c
rows of zeros in positions / , , • • • .l ,(),.• •• , 0 , and col- A o
V. A L G O R U H M FOR CONSTRAINING AND umns of zeros i n positions J ,- • • ,J ,Ai ," • • , A/^.

x A x
REBUILDING THE EQUIVALENT b) Put

ADMITTANCE MATRICES
Y£»=Y£„+Y^, V j * p /> = /„••,I ,0 ,•••,0 A T D
Let N be the n u m b e r of nodes in the network, 1 the

r ^ = l Y ^ , /> = / „ • • • , I , 0 , - - - f l .
A i D
input a n d 2 the o u t p u t node, and Y-is) the value of

admittance between nodes i and j of the passive part of
the network. c) Put
If A is the number of single-input operational amplifiers
embedded i n the network, then let I ,I -•• ,I = o u t p u t X V A
Y ^ - Y ^ + Y ^ , Vi#/»
nodes o f single-input o p e r a t i o n a l a m p l i f i e r s I • • • A ; Y
>G»= 2 G*' P = Jl<
y , , y , • • • ,J = i n p u t nodes o f single-input o p e r a t i o n a l
2 A
amplifiers 1 • • • A.
If D is the n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t i a l - i n p u t operational d) Put
amplifiers embedded i n the network, then let 0 , , 0 , - • • ,0 2 D
f o r the pairs
= o u t p u t nodes of differential-input operational amplifiers
1 - - - Z ) ; P P ,- • • ,P , = positive input nodes of d i f f e r e n - YQP, — YQ„ + YQ„ p=M q ]y = P; l
V 2 1
tial i n p u t operational amplifiers l - - £ > ; A / , , M , - • • ,M 2 D Y£~ = 0 p= M ,q>=P ,-

2 2
= negative input nodes of d i f f e r e n t i a l i n p u t operational P = M ,q D = D. D
a m p l i f i e r s [•••D. k,m,l are scaling factors, H = i / k ; S v
the K r o n e c k e r delta. The a l g o r i t h m f o l l o w s . e) Put

1) Construct component conductance and capacitance =
Yc» YQ* + Y£*,
admittance matrices Y , Y f r o m admittances Y (s).c c tj
2) F o r m the c o n s t r a i n e d c o m p o n e n t a d m i t t a n c e f ) Put
matrices Y' , Y' by the f o l l o w i n g operations on Y , Y :
a c 0 c
YQI, = YQI, ~ YQI,, •V ( * V • • , / „ ; < > „ • ••,<)„; M, T
a) remove rows / , , • • • ,I ; A
r t n e a r s
b) remove columns 7,,- • • ,J ; A

• • • ,M ', D P\,' • • ,PD f° P '
c) remove rows 0,, - • • ,0^,; p = M ,q i = P ;p l = M ,q 2 = P; 2 - •
d) add c o l u m n s P, and M X ,P 2 and M ,---,P
2 D and p = M ,q D = P . D
M; D
e) remove columns M - • • ,M . YT D
g) Put the resulting matrices equal to Y^, Y^..
3) F o r m the symbolic t r a n s f o r m a t i o n matrices with 6) W e n o w have symbolic scaled equivalent passive
dimensions {N-A — D)X(N — A - D) where part matrices Y' , Y^. w h i c h are symmetrical i n a l l b u t
G
m8y. N -(l+4(A+D))N
7=1
+ (A+D)(2 + A + D)
V •>1
pairs of entries.
where X, is a symbolic variable and t = (N — A — D-
and
VI. OPTIMIZATION
«= 2 I n general, i f a least squares error c r i t e r i o n is used t o

o p t i m i z e some p e r f o r m a n c e f u n c t i o n o f the scaled
i>2 equivalent circuits, the resulting cost f u n c t i o n is quartic i n
entries of T/(J) a n d and the realizability constraints
where Y, is a symbolic variable and t = (N — A — D — 2)
necessary to satisfy (2a)-<2c) are quadratic i n the entries
0-1) + i-2.
of r/0) and £ ( J ) .
4) T r a n s f o r m the constrained component admittance
The requirement that the equivalence transformations
matrices YQ, Y{- to the scaled equivalent constrained
be executed i n symbolic f o r m so that the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
component admittance matrices Y^', Y^'. Thus
algebra is needed o n l y once introduces quite large storage
requirements f o r the arrays i n v o l v e d . This is especially
YQH = 2 2 % *G"£j/
p 1 true w i t h the quadratic t r a n s f o r m a t i o n when quadratic
terms of the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n variables occur i n the c o n -
Y =
C' 2 2 % Yc"&qj- straint arrays. W i t h a one-sided t r a n s f o r m a t i o n the con-
10 1
GRANT AND SEWELL: EQUIVALENT ACTIVE NETWORKS 353
straint arrays contain linear combinations of the transfor-

m a t i o n variables, and hence storage requirements are less
crucial. I n consequence, the results obtained in the present 0.4U9
implementation have been produced by application of a

one-sided t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w i t h real entries.
The p r o g r a m m i n g p r o b l e m produced is
min/°(x),x = (X|,x , 2
1.11(1
subject to G, ( x ) > 0, /=1,
H j ( x ) = 0, j=m+l,--,m + q
where x is the vector of entries of T/(S) or £(.$) depending

o n whether a left- or r i g h t - h a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is used. F
is the nonlinear cost f u n c t i o n . T h e inequality constraints
G,(x) derive f r o m consideration of (2a) a n d (2b), and the 0.1)11
equality constraints Hj(x) f o l l o w f r o m (2c).

T h e m e t h o d used to solve this constrained nonlinear
p r o g r a m m i n g p r o b l e m uses a m o d i f i e d S U M T [8], [9]
p r o g r a m . T h e basis of the m e t h o d is to determine a
starting p o i n t x° such that G , ( x ° ) > 0 , i = 1, - • • ,m and then 1.7010 1.0149
solve a sequence of unconstrained m i n i m i z a t i o n s of the

sequence of f u n c t i o n s
P(x,r )
k = F(x)-r 2ilog G^x) k t
0 . 0 791
i
I
+ 2l+i[«,(x)] A*+x£ i»W 0.4141 0.4141
j I
0.079]
where [ r ) is a sequence that decreases strictly m o n o t o n i -
k
0.1716 0.4141 0.4)41
cally to zero, the conjecture being that the sequence of
unconstrained m i n i m a {x(r )} k w i l l approach the solution
to the o r i g i n a l p r o g r a m m i n g p r o b l e m as r —>0. K
1.1040
I n general, the inequality constraints G , ( x ) in this prob-
lem f o r m u l a t i o n w i l l never be all satisfied strictly, and so
a small b o u n d a r y term 5 , « m i n ( G , ) , where GÔ, was
added to each inequality constraint, enabling an interior
starting p o i n t x ° to be f o u n d . 5, is somewhat dependent Fig. 1. (a)Original Rauch fourth order Butterworth realization. (Ele-
ments in Siemens and farads). (b)Equal resistance realization, (c)
u p o n the computer w o r d length, a n d the particular prob- Combined equal capacitance and resistance realization.
8
lem, f o r the examples included, B = 1 0 ~ proves satisfac-
t o r y ; i f B is m u c h larger, then an excessive number of
i
nonzero elements is introduced i n the solution. For a VII. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
smaller value of B r o u n d i n g errors prevent p r o f i t a b l e
i
solutions. The computer i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of the p r o b l e m is i n t w o

T h e method generally leads to solutions w h i c h have parts. One p r o g r a m produces a symbolic t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
m o r e ' elements than the original n e t w o r k ; i t is f o u n d of the networks; this avoids the use of the optimizer and
useful to be able to c o n t r o l the number of new elements t r a n s f o r m a t i o n simultaneously a n d the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is
introduced using the f i n a l penalty term of the objective required o n l y once. The t w o o u t p u t files of the transfor-
f u n c t i o n \^ w,x, .
{
n
A f t e r an initial r u n w i t h A = 0 it is clear m a t i o n p r o g r a m enable the i n f o r m a t i o n to be presented i n
w h i c h x, tend to zero i n order to satisfy the constraints; a simple manner so that objective f u n c t i o n s can be set up
grouping these x w i t h the x, w h i c h are zero i n order to
(
easily; at the same time the large arrays of constraints are
prevent elements being g r o w n across certain branches available f o r i n p u t to the optimizer. T h e programs are r u n
f o r m s the set X= {x,: x , - > 0 } . T h e n by p u t t i n g A large and on an I C L 1906A, C D C 7600 computer c o n f i g u r a t i o n .
specifying nonzero values f o r the weights correspond- A typical objective f u n c t i o n can be f o r m u l a t e d f r o m a
ing to the x , e A \ convergence to solutions y i e l d i n g feasi- 2
least squares approach 2 , ( 0 , — G ) , w h i c h can be used to
ble networks w i t h the desired restrictions upon topology is reduce resistance spread to center the values o n some
effected. mean G. Similar objective f u n c t i o n s are used f o r capaci-
10 2
354 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, JUNE 1976
are executed by the 1CL 1906A and only take a few

seconds on all the problems tackled. The optimization
step f o r these circuits required about 70 s on the C D C
7600. The -circuits of F i g . 2 show similar results when a
f i n i t e gain Sallen-Key circuit is t r a n s f o r m e d .
It has been d e m o n s t r a t e d h o w e q u i v a l e n t active
networks can be produced. Because active circuits have to
satisfy more critical criteria than passive ones, more work
is required i n producing practical realizations. I t is likely
0.1647 that parameters such as sensitivity, component spread,
and size will produce c o n f l i c t i n g demands under transfor-
m a t i o n , and f u r t h e r investigation is required i n o p t i m i z i n g
w i t h c o m p o u n d objective f u n c t i o n s .
REFERENCES
11J Howitt, N . "Group Tneory and the Electric Circuit," Phys. Rev. voL
37, pp. 1583-1596, 1931.
(21 Cauer. W. "Vierpole," Elek. Nach. Tech., vol. 6, pp. 272-282, 1929.
13) Schoeffler, i. D. "The synthesis of minimum sensitivity networks,"
l.E.E.E. Trans. CT., vol. C T I 1 , pp. 271-276, 1964.
W Calahan. D . A. "Computer generation of equivalent networks,"
l.E.E.E. Int. Con. Rec. Pt.l, pp. 330-337, 1964.
15) Cheetham, B. M . G . "A new theory of continuously equivalent
circuits," l.E.E.E. Trans. CAS, vol. CAS21, pp. 17-20, 1974.
1*1 Nathan, A. "Matrix analysis of networks having infinite gain opera-
tional amplifiers," Prcc. IRE, vol. 49, pp. 1577-1578, 1961.
[71 Morse. A. S. "The use of operational amplifiers in active network
theory." M . S. Thesis, University of Arizona, 1964.
[81 Fiacco, A. V., and McCormick, G . P. Nonlinear Programming:
Sequential Unconstrained Minimization Techniques, i. Wiley & Sons,
1968.
CI Kuester, 5. L., and Mize, J . H . Optimization Techniques with Fortran,
McGraw-Hill, 1973.
0.5(11
Leslie G . Grant was bom in South Shields Co.

Fig. 2. (a)Original Sallen-Key elliptic realization. (b)Equivalent realiz-
Durham. Durham, England, on September 8,
ation.
1952. In July 1973 he received a B.Sc. in
mathematics from the University of Hull.
tance spread and size. A t the present time the method He is now with the Department of Electronic
using such objective f u n c t i o n s has been applied success- Engineering, University of Hull, engaged in re-
search leading to a Ph.D. degree.
f u l l y i n circuits up to f o u r t h order a n d c o n t a i n i n g a
number of operational amplifiers. There is no l i m i t to the
number of amplifiers i n a network; the main l i m i t on the
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n p r o g r a m is dictated by the s y m b o l i c
storage r e q u i r e d . T h e o p t i m i z e r , using the N e w t o n -
Raphson alternative i n S U M T , has w o r k e d effectively o n John I. Sewell (M'74) was born in Westmor-
problems w i t h 20 variables and 98 constraints. land, England, on May 13, 1942. He received
the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from
The diagrams of F i g . 1 show alternative realizations f o r the University of Durham in 1963 and the Ph.D.
a f o u r t h order B u t t e r w o r t h f u n c t i o n , starting w i t h the degree from the University of Newcastle upon
Tyne in 1966.
circuit of Fig. 1(a); an equal resistance solution w i t h two
From 1966 to 1968 he was a Senior Research
pairs of equal capacitors was produced [ F i g . 1(b)]. The Associate at the University of Newcastle upon
circuit of F i g . 1(c) has a c o m b i n a t i o n of as many equal Tyne, where he was engaged in the study of
computational methods in the design of active
capacitors as possible, together w i t h numbers of equal
networks. He joined the University of Hull in
resistances. T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n program and file h a n d l i n g 1968 as a Lecturer in the Department of Electronic Engineering.
103
PAPER 21
iensitiwBty a™ partitBoni miisiruiBsatiOui
traosfomatras In aotove ©qyowaleont
[networks
L . G . G r a n t and J . I . S e w e l l
Indexing terms: Active networks. Minimisation, Sensitivity
Abstract: Following the extension of equivalence transformations to a general class of electrical networks
containing active devices such as operational amplifiers, the theory is developed to accommodate the mini-
misation of the sensitivity of the network response function to component variations. Theorems for passive-
component sensitivity invariance and for updating routines applicable to the optimisation step are proved.
Previous limitations imposed upon the optimisation routine by equality readability constraints are com-
pletely eliminated by a partitioned approach. This leads to a new form of transformation. The partitioned
transformation can be implemented in both discrete and continuous forms, and applied to the optimisation
of component values and sensitivities in active networks.
1 Introduction
is termed the semi-relative sensitivity. Noting that
Equivalent-network theory is well established in the passive-
1,2
det IY ] R U = N(s)
filter field, and the application to sensitivity studies and (4)
component value optimisation is well documented. For " det [Y ]„ R £>(*)
3
active networks it has been shown recently that
we define as follows the entry sensitivities Eft o f the
(1) numerator and the denominator to the entry y kt of Y : R
is a scaled equivalence transformation w i t h respect to the dN 3(det [ ¥ „ ) „ )

voltage transfer function, where Y is the constrained det [ Y ] R i L „, (5)
R
admittance matrix o f a passive network w i t h embedded

operational amplifiers and r\ , § are suitably constrained dD a(det [ r ] „ ) R
det [ K ] „ , (6)
generalised Howitt transformation matrices. The solution o f H W
problems involving the minimisation o f component spread

and size has been successfully attempted using this trans- Hence
formation. The implications o f this theory upon sensitivity
minimisation o f active RC networks obviously require Qpq T II 3e„
investigation. The initial implementation o f the transform-
3
a t i o n resulted in large arrays o f equality and inequality F N
EM
constraints that must be satisfied to maintain realisability.
In particular, the equality constraints can prove to be quite
=I I N D
(7)
a nuisance in the constrained optimisation routine. A new h 1

transformation is developed f r o m a partitioned approach, Sensitivity polynomials are considered, since this enables
and this completely eliminates all equality conditions. sensitivity optimisation over a range o f frequencies to be
undertaken without further development.
We define the variable
2 Active-network sensitivities
Assuming that the active elements are ideal operational < , = 6 ,(5*p + &
fc KQ + 6 K P 8 K Q ) - ( 5 K P 6 L Q + & & ) KQ LP (8)
amplifiers, whose effects upon the network can be rep- dy | A' if e is a conductan.
M P q p q
resented as ideal constraints, then only the sensitivities o f (9)

the passive components need be considered. 3e,PQ V sA Pq ife p q is a capacitor
The relative sensitivity S f y o f the voltage transfer func- Therefore, once the matrix o f entry sensitivities is
tion T to some passive element e between the nodes p
v p q
obtained, the relative sensitivity o f any element may be
and q is defined as found using eqns. 9, 7 and 2.
o ST During the generation o f equivalent active networks, i t is
T
<; v = ~pq K
" 0 (2) advantageous to be able to calculate the current-sensitivity
PQ T de
v Da values (in terms o f the current transformation matrices) and
the entry-sensitivity values o f the original network without
where
further sensitivity analyses. The following theorem demon-
_1_ _w; (3)
strates how the current entry sensitivity matrix may be
evaluated at any point o f the transformation:
T v deBa
Theorem I
Paper T 1 3 8 E , first received 28th October 1977 and in revised form
6th January 1978
Dr. Grant and Dr. Sewell are with the Department of Electronic
Engineering, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7 R X , England N' N
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, MARCH 1978, Vol. 2, No. 2 33

0308-6984/78/138E-0033 tl-50/0
where E N
is the current entry numerator sensitivity Theorem 2
N
matrix, E the original entry numerator sensitivity matrix, The sum o f the relative sensitivities o f all passive compo-
and n , % the current transformation matrices. nents o f one type in an RC network with embedded
operational amplifiers is invariant under a generalised scaled
Proof Howitt transformation.
3(det [ i ' f i l . v ) Proof

N /V 7
aZ det[K^], 7 avj Let Y be the conductance component o f Y . Then, where
A R
'sum o f diagonal entries' is represented by s.d.e.,

det [ Y ] R I J I pq
r S D
I S " = s.d.e. o f >'J E
det [Y' ]u R
all
conductance!)
Now
Putting
det [ Y \ „ R det [ n 5 - § ] R jy
r
S = YQ E N D
, IS " = I [5], (12)
= det n det [ K ] , det § R 7 p
3
for a scaJed equivalence transformation. Form.F such that
T T N D
= » I S " = s.d.e. o f [ Y Q ] E
det y = det [ y ] , , fl
all
conductances
r r JVI T
=» det [ K R ] „ = det n det y det § = s.d.e.of[t,K «] [(» )-'£ 0 1 '(5 )-l

r r D
= det [T|^5]
= s.d.e.of§ y V( r'£" (§V G n
T N D T I
= s.d.e. of § K j i T (§ r
=* det [KAlo.pa = det [ t L v g ] M
r r
I Z det [n] „ det LH det [f ] = 111 l 5 l p . [ * U l ? W

p o6 b a
a b p a b
therefore
= Z I Z [s]o»K]»KU
Now
det n det [ Y \ K T J detf Z iSUtSW = Sat,

P
x I I det [ n ] O T det [ Y ] R I J : ^ det [ f ] „ , I ^"=11 WabSab

a b ail a b
conductances
1 d(detn)
Z„ I b detn dVpa = Its]-
1 3(det [Y ]„) R 1 3(detg)
T
del [ y ] „ 3v„6 det 5 3£ , = Z S" f r o m e q n . 12.

R 6
all
conductances
1 3/V" Hence the theorem is proved, and an alternative proof is
= 11 -V 3}'ab given o f sensitivity invariance o f active networks generated
a b bq
by the scaled equivalence transformation (eqn. 1).
The theory presented here has been used to formulate
Hence the theorem is proved.
objective functions designed to minimise sum squared
Using theorem 1 and its equivalent for the entry
sensitivity, using the computer program described in Refer-
denominator sensitivity matrix, the current relative sensi-
ence 3 and utilising a s.u.m.t. optimisation technique."
tivity o f some element e during a generalised scaled p q
equivalence transformation may be found in terms o f the

original entry sensitivities using the relation
01992 01992 00742
-1
ZZZzf V f ^ e p q (10) 0-1992 01992 01992

k 1 a b { ha ab ^<K261
where
(11) Fig. 1 Initial realisation of a Srdorder Buttervmrth function

N
Conductances i n Siemens (S): capacitances in f a r a d s ( F )
34 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND S YSTEMS, MARCH 19 78, Vol. 2, No. 2

Fig. 1 shows an initial circuit fur a 3rd-order Butterworth tion reveals that Y is symmetrical in (n — 2m — 2)(n— r
function; the value o f sum squared sensitivity function at 2m — l ) / 2 pairs o f entries. Now consider Y re-ordered so r
s = / ' l is7-7016. The circuit o f Fig. 2 results f r o m sensitivity as to place these symmetrical entries in an (n — 2m — 1) x
minimisation and has a comparative sensitivity value o f (n — 2m — 1) symmetrical submatrix in the top right hand
6-8393. This solution is a local as opposed to a global mini- corner. That is, f o r m
mum. The increase in number o f elements is apparent, but
this is not unexpected as the limiting solution to these
problems is a fully connected network with equal element
sensitivity values. Y* = (14)
The results shown here were obtained using one-sided
transformations only, because of the problems reported in
f = n - 2m - 1
Reference 3 and the difficulties arising f r o m the nonlinear
form o f the equality constraints generated by the quadratic where Y, is an / x / s y m m e t r i c matrix.
transform. The following well-known matrix properties are used:
(i) the interchange o f columns /' and / o f a matrix A is
obtained by forming the product A j<; and r -,
( i i ) the interchange o f rows /' and j o f a matrix A is
obtained by forming the product 7} *jA
where the topological transformation matrix 7} ,y is the unit
matrix w i t h its / t h and / t h rows interchanged.
Let the unloaded nodes (those not connected to an
06666 amplifier, and not the input node / ) be p , , p ,. . . ,pallet 2
the corresponding rows and columns be / - j , r , . . . , / y ; 2
<?!, c , • . . , Cf. Then the topological transformations f r o m

2
Y -+ Y* take the f o r m
r
i i M
~ Tf-*f ••• r 2 -+2 ' r , -»1 *r Cf*n-m 'Cf.i+n-m-l •• •
Fig. 2 Reduced sensitivity realisation of a 3rd-order Butterworth

...r Cl<B . a 05)
function
where the T are (n — m — 1 ) x (n — m — 1) and the
n M
Conductances in Siemens (S): capacitances in farads (F) T .^

c are (n — m ) x (n —m). Hence, taking inverse trans-
k
formations, and noting 7} - is self inverse, <;
3 Partitioned transformation
=
T , •>\T ->l
r Tj • • • T ^fY*T ^nn.2
rf c • • • T * -.
Cf n m (16)
The equality constraints, which are necessary to keep sym-
metric the passive part o f the admittance matrix during
In practical terms, this amounts to simply re-ordering the
optimisation, have prevented, up to now, the formulation
nodes.
of a continuous quadratic transformation f o r active RC
5
The following results emerge and are proved where
networks like that proposed for passive networks. Essen-
necessary.
tially, continuous techniques depend on the transformation
being small and the ability to make linear approximations
to quadratic constraints. I f the constraints are inequalities, Theorem 3
good linear approximations may be made; however, it is
det [ 7 - . J p l 7 = ( - -5 p a )(«„6 / p +S 6 )
LP IA
almost impossible to make efficient linear approximations
to quadratic equality constraints. The elimination o f - « « 0 - « P , X 1 -«/P)(1 - 8 i ( I ) + 8 ,6 . p (j
equality constraints i n the discrete transformation will

reduce the complexity o f the optimisation problem. = 0, or - 1, or 1
Here, a transformation is constructed which eliminates

the equality constraints by means o f topological transform- Theorem 4
ations o f the constrained nodal admittance matrix, and
For fixed p , q, i there exists only one / such that
which utilises the redundancy o f the row o f the constrained
det [ T p . J y # 0
nodal admittance matrix corresponding to the input node
to simplify the application o f the transformation. For fixed p , q,j there exists only one /' such that
Consider an n-node RC network /V with m embedded det [ f p . J i , * 0
operational amplifiers. The constrained admittance matrix
Y , formed by deleting rows corresponding to amplifier
R
Theorem 5
output nodes and columns corresponding to amplifier input
nodes, h&, dimensions (n —m)x (n —m) and is symmetri- det [AB . . .Z]jj
cal in (n — 2m — 1)(« — 2m)/2 pairs o f entries. From eqn.
4, = I I ... 2 det [A] ia det [BU . . . det
det [Y ]
R det [YA.j a b 2
Tv = (13)
det [Y ],H det [Y ].,
r D(s)
Proof
where Y is formed by removing the /'th row o f Y . Inspec
r R
See Reference 3.

Theorem 6 Hence, from theorems 3 and 4.
If A is ( I - l ) x ( / - 1), V is ( / - l ) x l.Bislx /.then det [Y ],- r = ± d e t [Y*] , (19)
i
det [Y ]j = ±det [)'*]., (20)
det [AYB]j = X det A det [>'].,, det [B} bj
r
b = 1
where /. / are the unique solutions o f the equations. The
Proof signs are ignored, as inverse transforms are taken later. Then
Construct det [T- ->m +2 lib det [ 7 - C i < m + 3 ] be • • •
'i : <i," 0 0
1\ ...det [ T C R N . )4 * 0M (21)
A = Y' =
0 : det [T ti -m +2 1 Iff det [ 7 " , , c m + 3 ] 3 T . ..
0: 7 •••det [ T ^ . n ] ^ * 0 (22)
0 : A Y
0 : Eqns. 21 and 22 are solved easily by a computer
_
algorithm using the result of theorem 3.
then We observe from eqns. 19 and 20 that the problem o f
applying transformations to Y to retain invariant [det Y ] J
r r
det [ K ] ,• is equivalent to that o f applying transformations

r
A'Y'B a, Y B to Y* to retain invariant det [ K * ] ,/det [Y*] ,.

We now wish to form Y*' by transformations upon Y ,
such that
A Y B
I - 1 det [Y* _ //det [r*]. (23)
Hence, from theorem 5, det [ ¥ * ' ) . , ~ det [Y*].,
det [A'Y'B] , = £ £ det [A'] det [Y'] det [B]

X ia ab bj
where / / e ( ^ d e n o t e s real space).
Put
Now
Y*' = n K* § (24)
det [A'] la = 0 for all a * 1
where r| is (ii — m — 1) x (n — m — 1) and E is (n — m) x
=» det [A'Y'B]^ = I det [A') n det [ H i o det [£]„, (n — m), and where
6
=» det [AYB]j = £ det .4 det [Y]. det / m
B
6
f "So . o "m + 1
n' : °
Theorem 7 £ _ (25)
s —
I f / I is ( / - l)x ( / - 1), Y is ( / - 1) x / and B, C . . .Z are m 1i • To 5.
/ x /, then
m+l f
det [A YBC... Z]j = £ £ . . . I det / I det [Y], b
Considering eqn. 14, eqn. 24 becomes
b e 2
n —m
x det [B] bc . . . det [ Z ] , z
f
/Voo/
\n — m—\
By extension of theorems 5 and 6, writing Y"
n.v 5o'+ ;n§r':n 'F,V +
1 n 1
V
+ 1oJ'o§o + 1 o > 2 § i - n o ^ c ; ' (26)
A = ^ , -.1 7*r, -»2 • • • 1y->f"
using eqn. 16 and theorem 6, we get

(27)
det [Y \jr
= X £ . . . X d e t / l d e t [K*]. det [T .„ , U . .. a Ci 7
T
where 1^ = x]'Y %'. Putting r | ' = § ' gives
s
• det [r „- ] er m z;
(17) 7
and
n' = n'nn'". (28)
a transformation
transformation vwhich retains the symmetry o f the f x f
det [Y h r top-right-hand
p-right-hand submatrix.
subr Now
det [Y*'h = det h K ' S J . i

= I I - . . I d e t ^ det [Y']. a det [r , c . ..
a b <•>
I det i,det [Y*). det [£]„, (29)
. . . det [ r (18) b
b
36 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, MARCH 1978, Vol. 2, No. 2

from Theorem 6, and which is close in some metric sense to the originai. The
readability constraints obtained from eqn. 37 are linear,
det [Y"h = I det ndet [ } ' * ] „ det [§]„, (30) and i f a linear approximation to the objective function is
made then a linear programming problem may be solved for
a sequence o f step sizes. Using eqn. 36 as a check of realis-
Putting the / t h row o f § = 05, and the a h row of £ = co<5, v 7
ability, and cutting the step size .v i f readability is
O, u> € J?), then from eqns. 29 and 30 we have
contravened, a series of networks which tend towards some
det [Y*'] , det n d e t [ > " ] . , 0 M
detg optimum may be obtained.
=
1 From eqn. 10 it can be seen that the matrices of entry

det [ } ' * ' ] . , det n det [Y*\, to" det§
semirelative sensitivities for an active network under
det [K*]., equivalence transformation are related as follows:
= H (32)
det [ K * ] . (
"< ' VD
- r«T] rND f~T\ - l (38)
where H = CJ/0.
but
Hence we have the following theorem:
A
•r+m ' M ~~
Theorem 8
(" ) - 'r+m — n * + n n * +•• (39)
Constraining n, § such that
T
and
(0 5' = l ' and 5 , n have the partitioned form o f
eqn. 25 (40)
( u ) § , n are nonsingular
(iii) the llh row o f 5 = #6,-,
therefore
(iv) the r t h row o f | = co6 - l;
T 1 D
then the transformation K*' = t i K ' f is a scaled equivalence E N D
' = (/, + m + n xr ^ (^ . m l
r
+5 v)-'
transformation with scaling factor co/0, and the necessary
2
symmetry properties o f Y are conserved under the trans- = ilf+m - r\ x T
+ riV* . . . )
formation.
Once we have Y*' in symbolic f o r m , inverse transform- x E N D
( l , . m . l - Z T
x + T
S ?x>+...)
ations are applied to produce K '; thus r
N D N D N D 2
= E - ( r f E +E f ) x + 0(x ) (41)
~ ^r, +1 - - • Trf-*f Y T Ci ^ M + 2 • . . T f +- C n m (33)
The sensitivity minimisation techniques o f Section 1 can
The matrix Y' is then rebuilt f r o m YR by inserting suitable
now be implemented using linear programming methods;
symbolic rows and columns corresponding to the con-
this avoids matrix inversion each time the semirelative
strained nodes, to form the symmetric nodal admittance
sensitivities are updated.
matrix of the passive part o f an equivalent active network.
The symmetry o f this matrix has been ensured entirely by
the f o r m o f the transformation and not by equality con-
straints imposed on the optimiser in a previous implemen- 5 Conclusion
3
tation. A method for the minimisation o f the sensitivity o f active
networks using equivalent-network transformations has
4 The continuous partitioned transformation been produced, and appropriate sensitivity updating
routines derived. A new transformation is given which
The partitioned transformation may be implemented in a eliminates equality constraints and enhances the application
continuous f o r m . Let o f the quadratic transformation, both in the minimisation
o f element spread and in the sensitivity o f active networks.
(34)
It also enables a continuous f o r m o f the transformation to
where I , I f * i are identity matrices, q , § are o f the
f t m t m
be used. The choice between discrete and continuous forms
form described in theorem 8 and x is a small real scalar. is somewhat subjective, as some assessment of the effect o f
Then i j , g clearly obey the conditions o f theorem 8 and the truncation steps in the continuous form must be
weighed against the avoidance o f matrix inversion present
Y*' = i\Y*% (35) in the discrete implementation. The equivalent networks
produced by the two forms can differ quite considerably.
is a generalised scaled equivalence transformation. Substitut-
Both methods will produce new networks containing more
ing eqn. 34 into eqn. 35 gives
elements than the original, an effect observed particularly
Y"(x) = (7, + ^)V*(/ +ix, when the optimisation o f total sum squared sensitivity is
+ m n f + m t l
attempted.
2
= Y* + (T,K* + Y*S)x + (r,Y^)x (36)
I f the transformation parameter* is small, a linear approxi-

mation can be made to eqn. 36: 6 Acknowledgments
Y" = Y* + (x]Y* + Y*$)x (37) The efforts of D.G. Spridgeon in writing and running some
of the programs used in this work are particularly appreci-
The consequence o f eqn. 37 is that, for a small x, a trans- ated. The work was supported by the Science Research
formation may be applied producing an equivalent network Council.

7 References
1 HOWITT, N.: 'Group theory and the electric circuit', Phvs. Rev.. 4 F I A C C O , A.V., and McCORMICK, G.P.: 'Nonlinear program-
1931, 37, pp. 1583-1596 ming: sequential unconstrained minimisation techniques' {Wiley,
2 S C H O E F F L E R . J.D.: 'The synthesis of minimum sensitivity net- 1968)
works'. IEEE Trans., 1964. CT-11, pp. 271 - 2 7 6 5 C H E E T H A M , B.M.G. 'A new theory of continuously equivalent
3 G R A N T , L . G . , and S E W E L L , J.I.: 'A theory of equivalent active circuits', IEEE Trans., 1974, CAS-21, pp. 17-20
networks', ibid., 1976, CAS-23. pp. 350-354
J o h n I . Sewell was born in C u m b r i a ,

L . G . Grant was born in South Shields, England, on 13th May 1942. He
T y n e and Wear, E n g l a n d on 8th received the B . S c . degree in electrical
September 1952. I n 1973 he received engineering from the University of
the B . S c . degree in mathematics from D u r h a m in 1963, and the P h . D . degree
the University of H u l l . F r o m 1973 to f r o m the University of Newcastle-
1976 he was with the Department u p o n - T y n e in 1966. F r o m 1966 to
of E l e c t r o n i c Engineering at the 1968 he was a Senior R e s e a r c h
University of H u l l , undertaking re- Associate at the University of
search leading towards a P h . D . In 1976 Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where he was
he joined F e r r a n t i L t d . in E d i n b u r g h , engaged in the study of computational
Scotland, where he is currently with methods in the design of active networks. He joined the
the Inertial S y s t e m s group working on high-accuracy University of H u l l in 1968 as a L e c t u r e r in the Department
measurement systems. of E l e c t r o n i c Engineering; he is n o w Senior L e c t u r e r .
38 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, MARCH 1978, Vol. 2. No. 2

l i o
PAPER 22
Some further sensitivity theorems in
active equivalent - network theory
J. Dunning-Davies, Faith D. Faulkner and J.I. Sewell
Indexing terms: Active networks, Sensitivity analysis
Abstract: The relevance of various sensitivity measures in the study of active equivalent networks is inves-
tigated. It is known that the summed differential sensitivity of the passive components in an active RC
network is invariant under the transformation; it is now shown that the similar sums of large-change sensitivities
and the large-change multiparameter sensitivity are both invariant for component changes within specified
bounds. Even more practical sensitivity measures derive from integral definitions over a specified frequency
interval. It is demonstrated that the sums of integral sensitivities are noninvariant under transformation
but the integral of the multiparameter sensitivity function again remains invariant. These results are of
significance in any attempted optimisation of the sensitivities of active-filter structures.
1 Introduction ykl of Y R as
1
The theory of equivalent networks '" h-s been extended dN
N
to the case of networks containing active devices such as fT -

3
operational amplifiers together with passive elements,
and some interesting results have followed. The active BP
devices are regarded as constraints on the passive network
/V with a nodal admittance matrix Y from which a con- ?>y M
strained matrix Y is obtained by deleting appropriate

R
the complete relationships between entry and element
rows and columns. The characteristic network functions sensitivities are outlined elsewhere. 4
are available from Y by the usual ratio of cofactors and

R
Now T = T (s, e) where e is the passive element of
v v
determinants. In particular, the voltage transfer function interest between nodes p, q and sensitivity calculations
T , which is a function of the complex frequency s and
v
assume the bilinear properties of network functions. 5
the passive elements, is Hence

det[r ]„ K = N
(1) AT = T (e + Ae)-T (e)
det [ / „ ] , , D V v v
_ N(e + Ae) N(e)

Whole series of equivalent networks, maintaining this
function constant, but which are optimised with respect D{e + Ae) D(e)
3
to component size and spread, and component differ-
4 dN(e) W(e)
ential sensitivity have been generated. Some basic theo- D(e) N(e) + Ae • D(e) + Ae
rems on differential sensitivity have been noted." he be
In this paper expressions are obtained for both the bD(e) '
large-change and multiparameter large-change sensitivities, Die) D(e) + Ae
5
de
which obviously have considerable practical significance.
In each case it is shown that the summed sensitivity for
component changes within certain practical bounds is
k_j
invariant under a generalised scaled Howitt transformation. AT„ (2)
The next Section investigates the question of invariance of
the integral definition of the differential, large-change, de
and multiparameter large-change sensitivities.
where
J_ 3/V(e) __1_ dD(e)

2 Large-change sensitivity Cfel
N by kl D dy kl
Two networks N, N', consisting of active devices (in the Now large-change sensitivity is defined to be
same positions in both networks) together with passive
3
elements, are scaled equivalent with respect to some
voltage transfer function T iff, T' =HT \ H&J%. De- A e
v V V
* T Ae
fining the entry sensitivities and of the numerator
and denominator of T (eqn. 1) with respect to the entry
v From eqn. 2
„ V V P N D ^M.
Paper T2S8 E, received 20th June 1978 (3)

Dr. Dunning-Davies is with the Department of Applied Mathematics,
University of Hull. Hull HU6 7RX, England. Ms. Faulkner and Dr. 1+ I I # ^
Sewell are with the Department of Electronic Engineering, k i D de
University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, England
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, NOVL...3ER 1978. Vol. 2. No. 6 193

0308-6984/78/060193 + 06 $01-50/0
where Y is the conductance component of Y
G R the con-
(dN/de bD/be
strained admittance matrix.
N D Let S = YSE then ND
(4)
dD/be
1 + Ae I YSE = 1 ND
[S] P P
diagonal P
as A e - » 0 , S ^ -.^"(differential sensitivity). Now and for a scaled equivalent network
diagonal
= I h i c s n c V r ' ^ a V ]
and for changes in e of up to 10%, eqn. 3 can be expanded diagonal
to give a bounded large-change sensitivity function
= 1 i Yjn (n r E ' (i r
T T T i s D T
e b
diagonal
- L L kl , T T
= I I I [ E U [ s U K J i J .
a
P b
2
EH W = 1 i i i s u m a p u u
(5) a b p
=
I 11^1 "b &ob (8 = the Kronecker de'ta)
a b
The computation of such a sensitivity measure during
each cycle of optimisation would obviously be expensive. = I [S]aa = I YSE ND
(8)
° diagonal
However it is possible to update eqn. 5 without further
evaluation of the complete function. Direct application
4
of the updating theorem to eqn. 5 gives the current
Let y= YQE ND
(A Y ) G
T
— then
sensitivity function of some element e', during a generalised
scaled equivalence transformation, in terms of the original
entry sensitivities as
I YSE °(AY )T N
G \ = £ M <
diagonal U q
, T
sli =e zzzz[iv );i[E N D
un rt T
Now
h I a b
- w I I I I rf I Yg'E"°X*Y ) G
be' diagonal \U
D
-i i rF i ftTi -i On = I [ r » r o H T
[ 0 j V £ N D
( { V ]
diagonal
[V ika pit 1 ab I? ] bl
T
WAr )£] [(TjV c ^ t t V l
= I T
i YjE (AY f^r ND
G
(6) diagonal "

T
= I I I U ] „ a [ ^ U [ T O
0 0 6
Theorem I: The sum of the bounded large-change sensi-
tivities of all passive components of one type in an RC net-
work with embedded operational amplifiers is invariant
under a generalised scaled Howitt transformation. = I M « = I YZE °(AY )T N
G ±- (9)
a
diagonal L>
Proof: Consider all the conductances in the network. By Similarly, the third term gives
induction (see Appendix 7) it may be shown that
I YS'E \*Y f[^\ ND

0 (Ar ) 'f^G
r
I YZE* diagonal Û J \D
all diagonal
conductances
(10)
diagonal
I ND
Y£E (AY ) E G
T D
D diagonal
Henu
I Slv (ii)
all
diagonal
conductances
Y l E m }
{ A Y a ) T
E D
( A Y c ) T
E The same proof will hold when considering capacitances.
(7)
194 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, NOVEMBER 1978, Vol. 2. No. 6
Tlieorem 2: The bounded large-change multiparameter sensi- Using the same methods of proof as for eqns. 8 - 1 0 . it
tivity of all the passive components of one type in an RC follows that
network with embedded operational amplifiers is invariant
S^; ~ S% (17)
under a generalised scaled Howitt transformation.
Hence theorem 2. and of course this also implies the in-
froof: In reality T = T (s, <?,, v v e„) hence variance of the differential multiparameter sensitivity of the
same networks.
A'(c, + Ac, ,
AT. =
D(e, + Ac, . .e„ + i f „ ) £>(e,
| isV a.v
| Dn\ . . . . c „ ) [ . V ( c , . . . . c„l + Ac, (e, nl + ''n)
I Be, A<<„ — If,.
dD ZD
+ Ac, — (e, , . . . c„) + . . . + A e n — (e, . . . . c „ ) ]
dD 3£>
flic,,. ..e )\D(e
n c ) + Ac, — (c,
n
•«n) + -<•„)]
dc. 3c„
(12)
A C
+ Z ;Z
For convenience define the large-change multiparameter 3 Integral sensitivity

sensitivity as: The previous definitions of sensitivity and the resultant
theorems do have both theoretical and practical implic-
(13)
1
ations and although proved in general, their meaningful
V
interpretations are restricted to a point-by-point frequency
6
basis. It has been rightly pointed out that a more signif-
i ft t 0 e
i icant sensitivity measure over a relevant frequency band
will involve the integral of the appropriate functions.
The relative sensitivity is commonly defined as
i + Z ^ Z Z § ^ (14)
ST V = e_ ar„ 3A//3<? dD/de
(18)
For T„ de N D
Now N = a s" n +a„-|S n _ 1

+ . . . + a 0 where fl, =aj
< 1 ((?,, . . . e ) where p is the number of network elements.
p
i k l u o e
i Hence
£
3>'h!
Z Ae, Z Z ^
3e,
sn + (3a -i/3e)
n (3flo/3e)
5
(3a /3e) n " '(bajbe)
i - z - , z z - ^ M ^ ^ ! ? 3A//3g = 3a /3e n
(15) N ~ a„
s" +-
which is a definition for bounded large-change multi-
parameter sensitivity.
Using an induction proof similar to that given in Appendix Let A/ have n distinct roots s, = a, + jp t = 1, t . « and
7, it may be shown that 3fl,/3e = a/. Tlien
A/
Sit, • Z
diagonal
Vi*Y
r ) E-- a
N TD ND 1
Z
diagonal
<.AY ) E
C
T ND
A/ "
III l + ^ + (19)
S — S i
where
'n-1
+ 1 X AY
(- G)'E N
diagonal (S,-S,)(S( - s j ) . . . ( s , - s„)

F°
T
Z (*Yc) and similarly for
diagonal *^
If = b\n G( ) Sr
E i+ Z (20)
Z (AK ) c
r
^-1 (16) D b m r=l S — S r
\ diagonal U }
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, NOVEMBER 1978. Vol. 2, No. 6 195
1 1 4
where D has/?; distinct roots s = y + je , r = \ . r r . m. Sub- Proof: From eqns. 4 and 5

stituting eqns. 19 and 20 into eqn. 18 yields
/V D
' A'' Sll = e 1 -Ae (26)
a'n b' D
m
+ "-» V
N D
) s = jw
"The first term corresponds with that of the differential
G(Sr) sensitivity already studied. Now consider the second term
y
- a, + /(to - (i, ) &,„ r^l 7r + / (e - to) r
G(s ) r
-eAeW i + y
T i - s ,
5j v
eU + eV I — ^
+/(to-M]
t s - s, ' s— s
+ y (21) r
r"i [ T r + / ( e - " ) ] r
Integration over the passband interval co = [0, 1] gives
where
I S i A U , - u , da><\eAeW\
e \U\u~\V\ £ |f*(s,)l
Jo
W -1 _1
a„ b„ bm
sinh [ ^ - ) ~ |G(s )|sinh
r i^J^
Hence, from eqn. 21,
B
\F{*t)\
\sJ \ => <\eU\ s w + )eV\Z 2
ffi K +(co-(3,) ]'
+ sinh" IH'I I I
lC(*r)l
+ ieW| I 2 2
r, * r ,
[7? + ( e - t ) ] "
r J
\G(s ,)l\G{s )\
r r2
sinh
and for the case of a lowpass filter the integral of sensitivity V(e , - e
r r j ) 2
+(7,, -7 r ! ) J
over the passband interval is J

|C (* )l r
+ sinh 1*1 X
eU\u+\eV\ t \F(s,)\
7r
e — co
r
tan
sinh effl I |G(s )lsinh"'
r
ui=0
A similar expression may be obtained for the third term.
(22)
Direct application of theorem 3 establishes the non-
Theorem 3: The sum of the integrals of the differential
invariance of the sum of the integrals of the moduli of
modulus sensitivities of all the passive components of one
expressions of the type given in eqn. 26. Hence the
type in an RC network with embedded operational ampli-
corollary.
fiers is noninvariant under a generalised scaled Howitt
transformation. Theorem 4: The integral of the modulus of the bounded
large-change multiparameter sensitivity of the passive com-
Proof : Since the summations concerned are finite
ponents of an RC network with embedded operational
amplifiers is invariant under a generalised scaled Howitt
t f lSl"tdw = [ liS^lrfw (23) transformation.
Under a generalised scaled Howitt transformation it has al- Proof: With reference to eqns. 15-17 the bounded large-
ready been established that change multiparameter sensitivity function is invariant
under transformation, and hence the integral of the mod-
I = I (Sl )', v
i.e. invariance. ulus is also.
However
I IIC^TI (24) 4 Examples and conclusions
Fig. 1 shows an initial circuit for a 3rd-order Butterworth

and so
function and Fig. 2 an equivalent network produced by
transformation but having a reduced value for the sum
I f \sj'\du* 1
I f \(S??y\du
J
(25) squared sensitivity function evaluated at a typical value
i -'o i o '
of s = / l . For the first circuit this numerical value taken
Hence the theorem. over all components is 7-7016 and for the second circuit
6-8393, a moderate reduction. Examining the summed
Corollary : The sum of the integrals of the bounded large- sensitivities according to the definitions given, over all
change modulus sensitivities of all the passive components conductances say, yields for the differential case values of
of one type in an RC network with embedded operational 2-9154 and 2-9008. For component changes of 10% the
amplifiers is noninvariant under a generalised scaled Howitt bounded large-change sensitivity sums are 2-9030 and
transformation. 2-8795 and for the bounded large-change multiparameter
196 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS,,ND SYSTEMS, NOVEMBER 1978, Vol. 2, No. 6

sensitivity 0-2416 and 0-2416 for the respective circuits 6 References
at s = / ' l . So considering the limits of accuracy in the 1 IIOWITT, N.: 'Group theory and the electric circuit', fhvs. Rev..
calculations, these results confirm the invariance theorems. 1931, 37, pp. 1583-1596
For the integral definitions the following values are ob- 2 SCHOEF-TLER, J.D.: "The synthesis of minimum sensitivity
tained, over all conductances, for the first circuit : networks', IEEE Trans.. 1964, CT-11, pp. 271 -276
3 GRANT, L.G., and SEWELL, J.I.: 'A theory of equivalent active
networks', ibid.. 1976, CAS-23, pp. 350-354
£ 1 \Sj |t/co < — 1 -9999
1 v
4 GRANT, L.G., and SEWELL, J.I.: 'Sensitivity minimisation and
•'o partitioned transformations in active equivalent networks', I EE
J. Electron. Circuits & Syst.. 1978. 2. pp. 33-38
5 1-TDLER, J.K.: 'Network sensitivity calculation'. IEEE Trans..
and for the transformed circuit 1976, CAS-23, pp. 567-571
\dcj<- 7-3133 6 ROSENBAUM, A.L., and GHAUS1, M.S.: 'Multiparameter
sensitivity in active RC networks', ibid.. 1971, CT-18, pp.
592-599
and bounded
Jo large change integral sensitivity evaluations
give 7 Appendix
i-i
Consider the second terms in eqns. 5 and 6. It is necessary
I j ISA" I 2-7486
to show that
and
I J' \ s Z |c/co<-6-7217 all conductances k I & k t
E% Qki
(27)
The results demonstrate again the care required in speci- D be
fying sensitivity measures. The sums of the integrals of the 1 T N D D
£ Y E (AY G ?E (28)
moduli of differential and large-change sensitivities are U diagonal
noninvariant and can be grouped with the other non-
invariant measures such as the sum of sensitivity squares or where A Y is the matrix of entry increments.
a
moduli. For a network with n nodes and m operational ampli-

The sensitivity measures having real practical signific- fiers, for simplicity consider single input/output type,
ance, the bounded large-change multiparameter sensitivity where / is the input at the node / and O, is the output at
(
and the integral of the modulus of this function exhibit a node /. Let f=n — 2m, the number of nodes not
complete invariance, when the network is subject to a fairly connected to an amplifier. Also e = e - and e Ae = 0, tj ;i /; fc/
general class of equivalence transformations, and this con- V(i Eqn. 27 gives:
firms an underlying practical feature. j f f m m
ii J ,
all conductances
= —
n L
£>
Z
,
L,
a = 1 b = 0 + I = l t = 1
019921 019921 00742 n [e *e E™E?

aa aa a +e Ae (E»
ab ab
D
+ E» b
D
-E „ a
N D
01992 01992 01992 " ££.")(£?. + E? - Eg - Eg) + e

b a Q l Ae a0l
± 0 4261
(Eg - ££) + e Q l h Ae 0lI> (- £$?,)(- f £ 0 j )]

Fig. 1 Initial realisation of a Srdorder Butterworth function
Equating to eqn. 28
Elements in Siemens and farads
S S L = I W ^ A V f E " = P n m
v n > m
D diagonal '
For a network of n + 1 nodes, m amplifiers a n d / ' = / + 1

free nodes
06666 e r r A e i r E ^ E f f
D
+ 1 e fAe .{E™+E?
a af r Era)
Fig. 2 Reduced sumsquaredsensitivity realisation of a 3rd-order

Butterworth function
+ £ e / 0 ,Aey 0 l (/f#?-E%Ê? -E? ,) r 0
(=1
5 Acknowledgment
m
The work reported in this paper was supported by the U K +l e f [ l Ae r i l (E^-E^)(Ef. -E? f l f .)
Science Research Council.
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, NOVEMBER 1978. Vol. 2, No. 6 197

1 1 6
• t r f lt
'•/ o - ; o
) s l 3
a=\ u = I b= a+l
(•/TiVD j _ r . V f l _ r-.VD
£
_ ,-.VD,
\ oo ' £ bb o6 £ 6a )
l-inallv. for a network with n + 1 nodes, in + 1 amplifiers.
c c L £
i aa ^ bb ab ba I ./"=/-!
f m /' r" m + 1 m * I
+ 1 1 e Ae (F™-EîFg-EZo.)
a0l a0l
V V V V 1 if
aa — - aa*- aa u
t
a - l 1=1 «=lb=«tl ( - I s= 1
e
+ ab Al> b {E^ a + t 'J'f — C ~ ab
+ i i ^ . ^ ( f - s ' - ^ x f s - £ • { , „ )
f r D j _ I'D _ r-D _ pD
m m
£ f •f fe « A„ ,r-wn /r.VD*
+ I Ie,,o. ™ . K - So.) "0,Ae ^J>Ê^ Fg-E )
a0l l){ a0l
+ eÂeÊ™ - E%S)(ES, ~ E? ) ia
=
+ I. m
+ e Ae (-E™ )(-E? )
ll0s ll0s s l0s
Similarly for a network with n nodes, m + 1 amplifiers

/•'=/"-2 = P
1
n+ 1 , m + 1
/" m + l m + 1 For a specific case of n - 3, m = 1 these expressions hold,
I I I I »„^£-2?£? hence the second term can be written
T ND T D
I &. = - k l Y E (A Y) E
,
(£"£ + f £ b - f ? 6 - £ g , ) all U diagonal
conductances
The same process can be used to identify the other terms in
eqn. 6.
198 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, NOVEMBER 1978, Vol. 2. No. 6

1 1 7
PAPER 32
E7.1
Proc. European Conference on C i r c u i t Theory and Design, Prague, September 1995.
ON THE GENERATION OF EQUIVALENT SWITCHED CAPACITOR NETWORKS
D.J. G i l b e r t and J . I . Sewell

Department o f E l e c t r o n i c Engineering
University o f Hull
H u l l , HU6 7RX, United Kingdom
Abetraat - By r e f o r m u l a t i n g the fundamental d e s c r i b i n g matrices i n a manner

t h a t permits access t o basic theorems governing the existence and s t r u c t u r e o f
r e l e v a n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n matrices, t h i s paper develops a general theory f o r the
generation o f e q u i v a l e n t switched capacitor (SC) networks. The method i s p e r t -
i n e n t t o the common 2-phase SC networks and i s e a s i l y demonstrated on a simple
second order SC f i l t e r network. I t also provides the foundation f o r a general
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n program SCNAPT.
1. INTRODUCTION not e s s e n t i a l t o the subsequent analysis,- however

i t s s i m p l i f y i n g e f f e c t enables the p r i n c i p l e f e a t -
The generation o f e q u i v a l e n t networks using m a t r i x ures o f the argument t o be presented more c l e a r l y ) .
transformations was o r i g i n a t e d by H o w i t t [ l ] . The The 2p x 2p passive admittance m a t r i x (PAM) Y i s
method was l a t e r adapted by S c h o e f f l e r and others constructed from the capacitor matrix C and the
to o b t a i n passive networks w i t h minimal s e n s i t i v - even and odd s w i t c h i n g matrices S and S using
i t i e s [ 2 ] . More r e c e n t l y , e q u i v a l e n t network the-
ory has been extended t o include a c t i v e RC c i r c -
u i t s [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] . Some l i m i t e d r e s u l t s f o r the SC
case i n c l u d e a method f o r o b t a i n i n g an equivalent
s t r a y s f r e e a c t i v e c i r c u i t from a given s t r a y s t
s e n s i t i v e c i r c u i t [s], an adaptation o f Schoeffler's o e|
method using SC b u i l d i n g blocks (SCB's) [ 6 ] , and
s cs
I
an a p p l i c a t i o n o f s t a t e space methods t o produce
e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t s w i t h minimum c a p a c i t o r r a t i o The s w i t c h i n g matrices are i n standard form [sj;
and t o t a l capacitance [ 7 ] . note t h a t separate c u r r e n t and voltage d e r i v a t i o n s
I n t h i s paper a systematic general theory i s pre- of S s ' and S , S„ r e s p e c t i v e l y , are unneces- J
e P e o
ented which enables m o d i f i c a t i o n t o be made t o sary. Note also t h a t a l l non-zero o f f diagonal
c i r c u i t parameters and topology a t component l e v e l , terms i n S and S occur i n rows p+1, ...,n and
e Q
and applies equally t o passive and a c t i v e networks. columns 1, ...,p, and t h a t Y i s obtained from N by
Using ii-domain f o r m u l a t i o n o f the nodal charge d e l e t i o n o f the zero rows and columns p+1, .,.,n,
equations, i t i s demonstrated both i n theory and n+p+1, ...,2n.
by example t h a t a wide class o f d i s t i n c t but equi- The submatrix R o f T includes the c o n s t r a i n t s due
v a l e n t networks can be obtained using two sided to the a c t i v e devices {assumed here t o be VCVS's),
scal;.r transformations o f a reformulated MNA the vector I represents the c u r r e n t v a r i a b l e s i n t -
m a t r i x (RMNA). For s i m p l i c i t y o f p r e s e n t a t i o n , roduced as a r e s u l t o f the MNA method, and S con-
only c i r c u i t s w i t h two non-overlapping clock pha- t a i n s e n t r i e s due t o the r e s u l t i n g c u r r e n t balance
ses w i l l be considered; the corresponding time equations. Note t h a t i n p u t i s a t node 1, and t h a t
s l o t s w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o as odd and even respect- (1) represents the equations f o r even e x c i t a t i o n .
ively. Since Vy has been normalised t o 1, the t r a n s f e r
e
e
f u n c t i o n s H ( 3 ) , H ( z ) may be equated t o V
e e e o 2
0
2. EVALUATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTIONS USING MODI- and V 2 r e s p e c t i v e l y , which are r e a d i l y evaluated
FIED NODAL ANALYSIS
!l 0
A v a r i e t y o f e q u i v a l e n t presentations o f the nodal JO .
equations o f SC networks are i n c u r r e n t use. The I .
I
p r e s e n t a t i o n described i n t h i B s e c t i o n combines •!• '
i •
nodal a n a l y s i s i n the s-domain [sj w i t h the modi-
f i e d nodal approach (MNA) [ 9 ] , t o produce a m a t r i x
d e s c r i p t i o n which always includes the complete - i f:~?j
o
admittance m a t r i x o f the passive p a r t o f the n e t -
I. •
work i n symmetric form. D e t a i l s o f the m a t r i x i,
f o r m u l a t i o n are shown i n ( 1 ) ; since the e v a l u a t i o n lo 0
of s o l u t i o n s i s not i n v o l v e d , arguments f a v o u r i n g
a f u l l clock cycle d e f i n i t i o n o f a, as used i n 1
n
[ 1 0 ] , do not apply. The scheme i s based on t h e
elemental switch time f o r the d e f i n i t i o n o f a,and
has the advantage o f r e t a i n i n g the t o t a l system
d e s c r i p t i o n w i t h i n the m a t r i x .
Suppose t h a t the network under c o n s i d e r a t i o n has

n nodes, and t h a t o f these the f i r s t p form an
independent s e t o f nodes a f t e r both even and odd (1)
s w i t c h i n g has taken place. (This r e s t r i c t i o n i s or, simply, TX = u 2 p + 1
697
E7.1
and i f s , t e D
necessary t o replace the u n i t sector 2 p + l Y 2 o + 2 , 3 r U b u
then solve the r e s u l t i n g equations for V 2 and*V,

f o r V->° and'vj 0 e 10 i f s f t
<S > S t e =
respectively. 1 i f s = t . . (4)
Two c i r c u i t s w i l l be said t o be e q u i v a l e n t (reap. Also,
scaled equivalent) w i t h respect t o a given t r a n s -
fer f u n c t i o n i f the t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n o f the det S e = I ± (S ) e l j (2 )2k
e
. <S„) r
second c i r c u i t i s the same as (reap, a scalar mul- where { J , k, . . r } = U,...n} and the sum i s taken
tiple oft t h a t o f the f i r s t . over a l l permutations o f the second s u b s c r i p t s .
Prom (3) every non-zero element i n t h i s sum has
3. REFORMULATION OF THE MNA the form
Consider whether a class°f two-sided transforma-

§ §
t i o n s o f T e x i s t s such t h a t T'=GTH i s the m a t r i x "ft < e)ii
TT < e>st
representation o f a d i s t i n c t SC network i n modi- 1 = 1 s,t t D
f i e d nodal form. I f G and H were t o have s c a l a r so t h a t , from ( 4 ) , the only non-zero element o f
e n t r i e s and a block diagonal form, then s c a l a r the sum i s n
and non-scalar e n t r i e s i n T' would a u t o m a t i c a l l y TT <3 >ii e
occur i n the c o r r e c t p o s i t i o n s . I f i n a d d i t i o n , i = i
the s u b n a t r i x o f G c o n s i s t i n g o f elements i n rows It f o l l o w s t h a t d e t S = 1; s i m i l a r l y det S = 1 e 0
and columns l , . . . 2 p were transpose o f the corresp- so the lemma i s proved.

onding submatrlx P o f H, then symmetry o f the
transformed PAH would be assured (see ( 2 ) ) . Lemma 2:
If M =
-
tl " t ~ r " r - t "
P ,0
I | . C S I s„ cs„ E
and if Y* is obtained from H by deleting rows and

0 IP, columns p + l , . . . , n then ? = Y.
V Proof: I f I,D are as i n Lemma 1, then i f t e I
1
and i f m e I ,
-1 t 1
-3 P, Y P, . (S
e>rm = ( e'rm s v r e (1
'-- n
'
_ _ _ J - _ ? ° _ 2 _ J pS, Hence f o r each I , ?> Jn I n
P, Y_P„ |
2 oe 1 2 oo 2 (êê'tm = 1 I Cs^)
e ' t q q r ' e'rm c s
I
=
! I O w ^qr< e>rm s
!2) q=l r = l
or, simply, GTH = T
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the f o l l o w i n g d i f f i c u l t y a r i s e s and a s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p holds f o r S C S , S C S , e 0 0 E
I f two d i s t i n c t capacitor matrices C an3 C w i t h 1 S *-CS . The lerma now f o l l o w s from the c o n s t r u c t -
0 0
the same rank and dimension are given, and i f Y ion o f Y.

and Y' are corresponding PAMs,then,in general, no
block diagonal s c a l a r m a t r i x P e x i s t s f o r which From henceforth the m a t r i x H i n Lemma 2 w i l l be
t
Y' =p YP. A primary reason-is t h a t t h e number o f r e f e r r e d t o as the extended passive admittance
unknowns i n P, 2p , i s smaller than t h e number o f m a t r i x (EPAM). The f o l l o w i n g c o r o l l a r y t o Lemma 1
equations needing t o be s a t i s f i e d , which i s , t a k i n g i s immediate:
due account o f symmetry, 2p +p. 1
C o r o l l a r y : If S and M are EPAMe corresponding to
To overcome t h i s d i f f i c u l t y , w i t h o u t s a c r i f i c i n g two distinct capacitor matrices C and c' which
the advantages o f transformations o f the type have the same dimension and full rank, then there
shown i n (2) we s h a l l reformulate the m a t r i x pre- exists a block diagonal scalar matrix P such that
1
s e n t a t i o n ( 1 ) . The key t o t h e problem i s the s i n - M = ptRp.
g u l a r i t y o f the s w i t c h i n g matrices S and S . e D 1
Proof; Since C and C are p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e ,
Consider a modified s w i t c h i n g m a t r i x S e d e f i n e d by: there e x i s t s a non-singular m a t r i x Q such t h a t C 1
= Q'CQ. By Lemma 1, 3 and S are non-aingular e 0

S
< e'ij = < e'ij s
V i , j E { l,...,n), i + j so i f ,
(
ê>ii = 1 V i e { l,...,n) " , I
1 I
Thus S i s i d e n t i c a l t o S except t h a t zeros on
e e
1
the diagonal have been replaced by l ' s . Suppose ) | r j
3 i s defined s i m i l a r l y . Then
0 where P j , P 2 are n x n matrices such t h a t
p
l = e" <2 e s X S
...(5)
Lemma l : ?> and s
e D are non-singular.
then P s a t i s f i e s fi'
Proof: Let I = ( 1 , . . . , p } , D = { p + 1 , . , .,n) be
the sets o f independent and dependent nodes resp- Thus by Lemma 2 , M contains t h e PAM Y as a submat-
e c t i v e l y . As noted e a r l i e r , the non-zero o f f d i a - r i x , and by Lemma 2 and the C o r o l l a r y , one PAM can
gonal terms i n S occur only i n rows p + l , . . . , n
e now be obtained from another by means o f a very
and columns l , . . . , p . convenient type o f congruence transformation. I t
Hence, i f 1 E I , would t h e r e f o r e seem d e s i r a b l e i ffir a t h e r than Y
could be Incorporated i n t o the matrix f o r m u l a t i o n
(SJtn =
of the nodal equations i n such a way t h a t the ex-
= l istence o f the e x t r a rows and columns d i d not
, (3) e
a l t e r the s o l u t i o n s V i , Vl
698
1 2 0
E7.1
Consider the s e t o f equations presented i n matrix a t i o n o f the RMNA shown i n (7). Only q u i t e simple
form i n ( 6 ) . The presence o f the four submatrices adjustments are r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n the analogous
I _ p e f f e c t i v e l y removes rows and columns p + l . . . ,
n f conditions f o r any o r a l l o f the other t r a n s f e r
n,n+p+l, ..2n i n the e v a l u a t i o n o f the determinant f u n c t i o n s . The approach i s a n a t u r a l extension o f
of any submatrix o f T c o n t a i n i n g these four ident- e a r l i e r methods [ l ] , [ 4 ] , and r e a l i s a b i l i t y con-
i t y blocks. Therefore by Cramer's Rule and Lemma s t r a i n t s on C do not occur as conditions i n the
2- V i = v , $1°= Vj° V 1 e { l , . . . , p } , where fv ,
e
i
e e
theorem but must be separately considered.
V,°, i = 1, ... p) are s o l u t i o n s o f the o r i g i n a l
set o f equations ( 1 ) . Theorem: Let the non-singular matrix T* be the
RMNA of a SC networks with n nodes, invut and out-
put being at nodes 1 and 2 respectively. Let G
and H be scalar block diagonal matrices as in (7)
with the following properties:
0 0 .v.. ( i ) G is non-singular
1 t
( i i ) the first row of H i s l " U j
t
( i i i ) the second row of H is k u 2
( i v ) the ( 2 n + l ) f i row of G is t u + i 2 n
(v) the (2n+l)tfc column of G is £U n+l 2
where u^ denotes the ith unit vector.

j Then if GTH is the RMNA of a realisable network,
I 0 . H ' (a) = * k > H ( s ) _ 1
ee e e
o . .
where H ( z ) and H ' W ore the even input/even
e e ee
output voltage transfer functions of the networkB

corresponding to T and T'= GTH respectively.
Proof: I t s u f f i c e s t o show t h a t the f i r s t and
second e n t r i e s Xj and X o f the s o l u t i o n vector 2
o ' 1 0
X of ~
G T H X = U. 2n+l u ...(8)
are s u i t a b l e scalar m u l t i p l e s o f the f i r s t and
. ~ 1 ... (6) second e n t r i e s (X )± and (X )2 o f the s o l u t i o n
or amply TXQ = u M 2 n + 1
Q 0
vector Xo o f
9
Comparing (1) w i t h ( 6 ) , i t i s seen t h a t a number T Xo " "2n+l •••< >
of new unknowns have been introduced i n t o the sec- Now by c o n d i t i o n (v)
ond s e t o f equations, i n the v e c t o r s J-y J2' 3 - f
J ! _ 1 G u
2n+l = 2n+l u
However, a l l s o l u t i o n s o f i n t e r e s t are t h e same i n so t h a t from ( 8 ) , c o n d i t i o n ( i ) and (9)

both f o r m u l a t i o n s , so t h e f o r m u l a t i o n (6) may be fc T H X = U = T Xo2 n + 1
1
adopted i n s t e a d o f ( 1 ) , as convenient. The advan- Since T i s non-singular, i t t o l o w s t h a t

tages are clear i n the context o f two sided trans- i H X = XQ
formations o f T. so t h a t X2 = . i * * ) " < o>2 1 x
condition ( i i ) The
b v
e
s t r u c t u r e o f T ensures t h a t ( X ) ^ = V^ = 1 (see Q
Consider the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f T* shown i n (7),where ( 6 ) ) , and c o n d i t i o n s (11) and ( i v ) ensure t h a t t h e

G and H are s c a l a r matrices and P i s as i n the ( 2 n + l ) t h row o f GTH 1B rT so t h a t X^ = 1.
Corollary. The theorem i s now proved."
I f 3? i s the RMNA o f a r e a l i s a b l e network, i t seems

reasonable t o expect t h a t , i n general, f w i l l be
non-singular as i n the hypothesis o f the theorem.
Note t h a t c o n d i t i o n s ( i ) - (v) ensure only t h a t
0 | B c e r t a i n s o l u t i o n s are preserved a f t e r transform-
a t i o n o f f, and t h c t a d d i t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s are
necessary t o ensure t h a t GTH has t h e s t r u c t u r e o f
(7)
or, simply, T' = G T H an RMNA. For example, i f the o r i g i n a l a m p l i f i e r
and s w i t c h i n g arrangements are t o be r e t a i n e d ,
Not only i s one PAH r e a d i l y obtained from another then c o n d i t i o n s (11) and ( i v ) would be replaced
on account o f the C o r o l l a r y , t h e remaining equa- by AVP = V and P^ffl = H, i n t h e n o t a t i o n o f ( 6 ) ,
t i o n s which need t o be s a t i s f i e d present no obst- and r e a l i s a b i l i t y c o n s t r a i n t s on H would also be
acle e i t h e r . For, consider the equations AVP = V necessary. Nevertheless, a p p l i c a t i o n o f the
ptwB = w ' , o r e q u i v a l e n t l y , AV = v'p" , BB =
1
theorem can produce e q u i v a l e n t SC networks i n i n -
W' ( Pb t )i ',-wl h. e r e A and B are k x k matrices; c l e a r l y
x f i n i t e v a r i e t y , as w i l l now be shown.
for f i x e d V,v', W, W , t h e number o f unknowns i n B ,
A and P, 2(k^ +n^), cannot be less than the number 5. APPLICATION TO SECOND ORDER FILTER
of l i n e a r equations t o be s a t i s f i e d i n these un-
knowns, which i s 4nk. Therefore, s u b j e c t t o the Consider t h e second order a c t i v e SC f i l t e r shown
e n t r i e s o f P being such t h a t C = Q*CQ i s r e a l i s - i n F i g 1. Nodes 1 - 4 are independent, nodes
able, there seems a good prospect t h a t d i s t i n c t 5 - 7 are dependent, and i f C i s the capacitor
networks can be obtained by transformations o f the m a t r i x o f t h e f i l t e r then
RMNA T as shown i n ( 7 ) . C' = Q CQ t
. . . (10)
where
4. EQUIVALENCE TRANSFORMATIONS USING THE RMNA 0
0
Let us suppose t h a t m a t r i x transformations o f the
RMNA can y i e l d r e a l i s a b l e new SC networks and en- k-q
q u i r e whether i t i s p o s s i b l e t o r e s t r i c t the ent-
0
r i e s o f such transformations so t h a t equivalence
of the new networks i s assured. o .111)
The theorem presented below gives a s e t o f s u f f i - o

c i e n t c o n d i t i o n s f o r the i n v a r l a n c e o f H ( 2 ) up
e e
k
to a s c a l a r m u l t i p l e under the type o f transform-
699
1 2 1
E7.1
k > 0 c q k C 1 2 }
' c + c + c + c < •••
L L
l 2 ^3 ^4
i s a r e a l i s a b l e capacitor m a t r i x . Moreover, i f P
i s derived from Q using (5) , and A. and B from the
r e l a t i o n s AVP = V, P^TB = W { c f ( 7 ) ) , then GTi: i s
a transformation o f the RMNA T o f the f i l t e r satis-
f y i n g the conditions o f the theorem, where G and
H are i n ( 7 ) . Therefore, each SC network whose ~j"c,» t a n u f
capacitor matrix c' s a t i s f i e s (10), ( 1 1 ) , ( 1 2 ) above
and whose switching and a m p l i f i e r arrangements FIG. I : SECOND ORDER A C T I V E SC F I L T E R
are as i n Fig 1 i s equivalent t o the f i l t e r i n
Fig 1. Two examples are shown i n Figs 2 and 3; =j= H IP* P f
note t h a t the o r i g i n a l network corresponds t o
k = q = 1. Analysis o f these three equivalent
networks using the computer program SCNAP 2 shows
good agreement-of the t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s .
Note t h a t , since k and q can take a continuous
range o f values, the same i s t r u e o f the capacit-
ance values o f the networks i n the equivalence
class. Moreover, t h i s class o f equivalent net-
works i s only a small subset o f the class o f a l l
networks which are equivalent t o the f i l t e r o f
Fig. 1 and can be obtained using the conditions o f FIG. 2 : EQUIVALENT F I L T E R WITH k=1, q«0.99
the theorem. Hence o p t i m i s a t i o n w i t h respect t o
such parameters as component sum and spread, o r z - s q - f t 6 > p»
s e n s i t i v i t y would seem t o be one possible a p p l i c -
a t i o n o f the theory.
A general t r a n s f o r m a t i o n and o p t i m i s a t i o n program ,\ 0'6klia P P
SCNAPT which i s being developed w i l l f a c i l i t a t e a

comprehensive implementation o f t h i s theory.
6. CONCLUSIONS
41ff04ffr
f J_ 3 0 p r
A s i m p l i f i e d theory has been developed t o enable

the generation o f equivalent SC networks. Funda- FIG. 3 : EQUIVALENT F I L T E R WITH k=3, q - 0 . 9 7 8 9 5 1
mental theorems r e l a t i n g t o t h e existence o f equi-
valence transformations have been proved and the
a p p l i c a t i o n t o one simple SC f i l t e r network i s
shown. Results from the a p p l i c a t i o n o f the gener-
a l transformation program SCNAPT t o a v a r i e t y of [8j C.F. Kurth and G.S. Moschytz, "Nodal analysis
l a r g e r f i l t e r networks w i l l f o l l o w . of switched capacitor networks", IEEE Trans.
CAS, V o l CAS-26, No.2, 1979
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [9] C.W. Ho, A.E. Ruehli, and P.A. Brennan, "The
modified nodal approach t o network analysis",
This work i s supported by the Science and Engin- IEEE Trans. CAS, Vol. CAS-22, No.6 1975
eering Research Council.
[lo] J. Vandewalle, H.J. de Man, and J. Rabaey,
"Time, frequency and 3-domain modified nodal
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analysis o f switched capacitor networks".
Summer Course on SC C i r c u i t s , Heverlee,
[l] N. Howitt, "Group theory and the e l e c t r i c
Belgium, pn 1B6-195, June 1981.
c i r c u i t " , Phys.Rev., Vol. 37, pp 1583-1595,
1931.
[2] J.D. S c h o e f f l e r , "The synthesis o f minimum
s e n s i t i v i t y networks", IEEE Trans. CT Vol.
CT-11, pp 271-276, 1964.
[3] L.G. Grant and J . I . Sewell, "A theory o f
equivalent a c t i v e networks", IEEE Trans. CAS,
Vol. CAS-23, pp350-354, 1976.
[4] F.M. El-Turky and J. Vlach, "Generation o f
e q u i v a l e n t a c t i v e networks w i t h minimised
s e n s i t i v i t i e s " , IEEE Trans. CAS,Vol. CAS-28
No. 10, pp 941-946, 1981
[5] M. Hasler and M. Saghafi, "Stray capacitance
e l i m i n a t i n g transformations f o r switched
capacitor c i r c u i t s " , Circ.Th.fi. Appl. Vol. 11,
pp 339-354, 1983
[&] B. Dasch, "Equivalence transformation o f
switched capacitor networks and o f micro-
s t r i p f i l t e r s " , Proc. 1982 IEEE ISCAS, Vol 2
pp 217-220
[7] S. K. M i t r a and P.P. Vaidyanathan, "Design
of switched capacitor f i l t e r networks w i t h
minimum capacitor r a t i o and t o t a l capacit-
ance", Proc. IEEE ISCAS, pp 326-329, 1980
700
1 2 2
PAPER 34
Proc. IEEE I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on C i r c u i t s and Systems, Philadelphia, May 1987.
OPTIMISATION OF SWITCHED CAPACITOR NETWORKS

USING EQUIVALENCE TRANSFORMATIONS
D.J. G i l b e r t " , G.L. Holder)" and J . r . Sewell**
•Department o f E l e c t r o n i c Engineering, U n i v e r s i t y o f H u l l , H u l l ,
U n i t e d Kingdom, " D e p a r t m e n t o f E l e c t r o n i c s and E l e c t r i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f Glasgow, Glasgow, U n i t e d Kingdom.
ABSTRACT TX = w (1)
Provided a s i n g l e network r e a l i s a t i o n o f a d e s i r - and o f t h e transformed system
ed t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e , an i n f i n i t e 1
GTHX = W (2)
c l a s s o f d i s t i n c t b u t e q u i v a l e n t networks can be
generated u s i n g s p e c i a l congruence t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s are i d e n t i c a l . R e s t r i c t i o n s t o t h e e n t r i e s o f G
of the capacitor matrix. Continuity properties o f and H ensure n o t o n l y t h e i n v a r i a n c e o f c e r t a i n
these t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s enable improvements t o n e t - s o l u t i o n s , b u t a l s o t h a t T" = GTH has t h e s t r u c t u r e
work parameters, such as c a p a c i t o r sum and spread, o f an RMNA m a t r i x . The r e s u l t i n g networks may be
dynamic range o r s e n s i t i v i t y , t o be achieved w h i l e exact o r scaled e q u i v a l e n t s w i t h r e s p e c t t o any o r
d e s i r e d t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s are preserved. To a l l o f t h e v o l t a g e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s , as d e s i r e d
implement t h e method, a program SCNAPT, i n c o r p o r a - [1], [2].
t i n g a c o n s t r a i n e d o p t i m i s a t i o n s u b r o u t i n e , has
Equivalence t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s can a l s c be express-
been developed; as i l l u s t r a t i o n , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n t o
ed as congruence t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s
a range o f two-phase s t r a y s i n s e n s i t i v e switched t
c a p a c i t o r networks i s discussed. C = Q CQ (3)

o f t h e nxn c a p a c i t o r m a t r i x C c.^ the i n i t i a l n e t -
INTRODUCTION work, t h e e n t r i e s o f Q being s u i t a b l y r e s t r i c t e d ;
t h i s f o r m u l a t i o n can be deduced from (2) and i s
The r e c e n t development o f a t h e o r y o f equiva-
more convenient from t h e p o i n t o f view o f computer
lence t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s f o r switched c a p a c i t o r (SC)
implementation. The u n r e s t r i c t e d e n t r i e s o f Q
networks enables m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o component v a l u e s
c o n s t i t u t e an n - d i m e n s i o n a l Euclidean space,
and network t o p o l o g y t o be achieved w h i l e p r e s e r v -
and t h e r e s t r i c t e d e n t r i e s a c o n s t r a i n e d space tj)
i n g one o r more t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s . S t a r t i n g from
Every p o i n t i n (j> corresponds t o a r e a l i s a b l e n e t -
a s i n g l e network r e a l i s a t i o n , an i n f i n i t e c l a s s o f
work which i s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e i n i t i a l network,
e q u i v a l e n t networks can n o r m a l l y be generated u s i n g
and may have t h e same, o r d i f f e r e n t , a m p l i f i e r and
matrix transformations; possible modifications t o
s w i t c h i n g arrangements.
network parameters which can be achieved i n c l u d e
t h e growth and l o s s o f c a p a c i t o r s , and a l t e r a t i o n s I f e q u i v a l e n t networks a r e r e q u i r e d which have
to capacitor values, a m p l i f i e r gain o r switching the same a m p l i f i e r and s w i t c h i n g arrangements as
arrangements [ 1 ] , [ 2 ] , [ 3 ] . the i n i t i a l network, t h e corresponding subset o f
ip w i l l u s u a l l y i n c l u d e a s i m p l y connected r e g i o n K.
Owing t o c o n t i n u i t y p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e t r a n s f o r m - which c o n t a i n s t h e p o i n t Q = I corresponding t o
i n g m a t r i c e s , equivalence t h e o r y can be a p p l i e d t o the i n i t i a l network. S t a r t i n o from Q = 1^, i t i s
network design u s i n g c o n s t r a i n e d n o n - l i n e a r o p t i m i - then n o r m a l l y p o s s i b l e t o move around i n K i n
s a t i o n techniques. I t i s normally possible t o i n c r e m e n t a l steps u n t i l some d e s i r e d o p t i m a l p o i n t
o p t i m i s e a g i v e n network w i t h r e s p e c t t o component i s reached. For t h i s reason equivalence t r a n s f o r m -
sum, spread, dynamic range, s e n s i t i v i t y o r indeed a t i o n s which p r e s e r v e t h e s w i t c h i n g and a m p l i f i e r
any o t h e r performance f a c t o r s which can be formu- arrangements o f an i n i t i a l network may be a p p l i e d
l a t e d s u i t a b l y i n terms o f a continuous o b j e c t i v e t o SC network design u s i n g standard o p t i m i s a t i o n
function. Other f e a t u r e s o f i n t e r e s t , such as techniques. The fundamental theorem governing
l a y o u t o r number o f components, can a l s o be taken equivalence t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f t h i s type may be
i n t o account by a p p r o p r i a t e adjustments t o t h e s t a t e d f o r two phase networks as f o l l o w s :
constraints.
Theorem: Let the nxn matrix C be the capacitor
EQUIVALENCE TRANSFORMATIONS matrix of a given SC network N with n nodes. Let
To adapt t h e c l a s s i c a l method o f Howitt [ 4 ] , t h e the scalar matrices s , s and K , K denote the
MNA r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f nodal charge equations i n t h e modified even and odd*switching matrices and gain
s-domain i s r e f o r m u l a t e d i n terms o f an enlarged matrices respectively, suppose the RMliA matrix of N
RMNA system m a t r i x T. T h i s enables a c l a s s o f is non-singular, and that non-singular nxn matrices
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n m a t r i c e s {G,H} t o be i d e n t i f i e d p ,p and Q satisfy
which have t h e p r o p e r t y t h a t r e l e v a n t s o l u t i o n s , e o ^ % _v ^
U) Q = S P S S PS 1
and hence t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s , o f t h e m a t r i x equa- e ee o oo

t i o n (1) r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e i n i t i a l network j . ,+K IP J
o i l o o 21
are non-svngu \ar,
73C
C3E394-5/87 /OO0O-(J730 $1.00 © 1887 IKffi

1 2 4
liii) P
phase networks, f o r example, o n l y those c a t e g o r i e s
'Vl2= o " °
l 2
of connections l i s t e d i n Table I can ever c o n t r i b u t e .
(iv) R K = K [P 1 = K
e 22' o P
o( oi 2 2
One method o f overcoming t h e problem o f low rank i n
(v) itoe 1st column of R is U the c a p a c i t o r m a t r i x , t h e r e f o r e , i s t o i n c o r p o r a t e
-1 a d d i t i o n a l f u n c t i o n a l l y redundant, o r 'phantom',
(vi) t/ie 2nd row of P is
„ .
k. k>0,
t e —2 c a p a c i t o r elements i n t o t h e i n i t i a l network date i n
ivii) C = Q CQ is a realisable capacitor mat-
ru, o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e rank o f t h e i n i t i a l c a p a c i t o r
where U denotes the i t / i u«it vector. m a t r i x C. A f t e r a p p l y i n g an e q u i v a l e n c e t r a n s f o r m -
I f H (z) and H '(2) respectively denoze the even a t i o n ( 3 ) , any f u n c t i o n a l l y redundant c a p a c i t o r s i n
input/eên output Voltage transfer function of N the network w i t h c a p a c i t o r m a t r i x C' are removed t o
1
and o/ ifte network with capacitor matrix C and t/je y i e l d t h e f i n a l e q u i v a l e n t network [ 3 ] .
same s u i t e m n g arjd amplifier arrangements as N, then
(B) = k H (z) Capacitor Plato I Capacitor P l a t e 2
ee Typo
connected switching coonocted (witching
F u r t h e r d e t a i l s and n o t a t i o n may be found i n [ 2 ] . to phase to phase
_ 1 I i/p of network Q v i r t u a l ground e
Since P = S "' Q S , P = ^ Q S and t h e e n t r i e s
E
of S ,^ ,K and K i r e ?ixed°real numbers determined ap-anp / p
II v i r t u a l ground a 0 a
by t n e f n i f i a l ne?work N, t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e t h e o -
rem c o n s t i t u t e , i n e f f e c t , a s e t o f c o n s t r a i n t s on III i/p o f network e v i r t u a l ground o
the e n t r i e s o f Q. Where t h e i n i t i a l network i s
s t r a y s f r e e , some s l i g h t adjustments a r e n o r m a l l y rv v i r t u a l ground. • op-asp o/p a
r e q u i r e d t o ensure t h a t a s a t i s f a c t o r y c l a s s o f
e q u i v a l e n t networks i s generated; t h i s aspect w i l l V op asp o/p o v i r t u a l ground o
now be c o n s i d e r e d .
VI v i r t u a l ground o op-cap o/p a
STRAYS INSENSITIVE NETWORKS TABUB I t CATBGORIBS Or CAPACITOR COKMECTXOKS WBICB GCBTUBUTS

TO l^ni IK 1-PHASS n u n nunsrnvs ransom
In t h e p r a c t i c a l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f SC f i l t e r s t r u c -
t u r e s u s i n g MOS t e c h n o l o g y i t i s i m p o r t a n t where An a l t e r n a t i v e approach, which a v o i d s t h e e x p l i -
p o s s i b l e t o adopt t o p o l o g i e s which ensure i n s e n s i t i - c i t i n t r o d u c t i o n o f phantom elements, i s based on
v i t y t o s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e s t o ground. I t i s usual the removal o f unnecessary r e a l i s a b i l i t y c o n s t r a i n t s
t h e r e f o r e t o d e s i g n such networks so t h a t from t h e t r a n s f o r m e d m a t r i x C . I n t h i s method, C
(a) the amplification of the op-amps is large i s t h e c a p a c i t o r m a t r i x o f t h e i n i t i a l network, and
(b) in each switching phase, every node is either the e n t r i e s o f Q and C i n (3) a r e r e s t r i c t e d i n
a low impedance node or a virtual ground accordance w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e theorem,
(c) a capacitor node is never switched from a low except t h a t now o n l y those e n t r i e s i n C which r e p -
impedance node, other than ground, to a resent capacitor connections i n categories I - V I
virtual ground. i n Table I need t o s a t i s f y t h e u s u a l c a p a c i t o r mat-
I t has been shown t h a t c o n d i t i o n s (b) and (c) a r e r i x r e a l i s a b i l i t y c o n s t r a i n t s ; t h e remaining e n t r i e s
s u f f i c i e n t t o ensure complete i n s e n s i t i v i t y t o s t r a y s of C may be p o s i t i v e , n e g a t i v e o r z e r o . To o b t a i n
under t h e assumption o f i d e a l o p e r a t i o n a l a m p l i f i e r s the c a p a c i t o r m a t r i x C" o f t h e f i n a l e q u i v a l e n t n e t -
[5]. From now on, " s t r a y s i n s e n s i t i v e " w i l l r e f e r work from C , a l l o f f d i a g o n a l terms which do n o t
o n l y t o networks s a t i s f y i n g ( a ) , (b) and ( c ) , and r e p r e s e n t c o n n e c t i o n s i n any o f t h e c a t e g o r i e s
for t h e purposes o f e q u i v a l e n c e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , such I - V I a r e equated t o z e r o ; then t h e o n - d i a g o n a l terms
networks are assumed t o have i n f i n i t e a m p l i f i e r g a i n . are a d j u s t e d t o y i e l d
n
I f a g i v e n SC network N s a t i s f i e s ( a ) , (b) and ( c ) , £ C J = 0 ± f o r each i = 1,.. . ,n
then t h e same i s t r u e o f every network generated from
N u s i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e theorem; t h i s i s be- These two methods for generating equivalent strays
cause t h e o n l y p o s s i b l e m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o network i n s e n s i t i v e networks can be r i g o r o u s l y j u s t i f i e d ,
t o p o l o g y are t h e growth and l o s s o f c a p a c i t o r s which and a r e , i n f a c t , i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d . The c a p a c i t o r
cannot a f f e c t t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f nodes. I n t h e o r y , connections n o t l i s t e d i n Table I a r e p r e c i s e l y
t h e r e f o r e , t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e theorem are s u f f i - those c o n n e c t i o n s which can never c o n t r i b u t e t o n e t -
c i e n t n o t o n l y t o preserve t h e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n work f u n c t i o n i n g , and hence may be used as phantom
H (z) b u t a l s o t o preserve s t r a y s i n s e n s i t i v i t y when- elements. A l t h o u g h t h e use o f phantom elements i s
ever t h i s i s p r e s e n t i n t h e i n i t i a l network. i n t u i t i v e l y more a p p e a l i n g , t h e removal o f c o n s t r a -
i n t s from t h e t r a n s f o r m e d c a p a c i t o r m a t r i x achieves
I n p r a c t i c e , however, many o f t h e p o t e n t i a l l y the same g o a l more e c o n o m i c a l l y and more s y s t e m a t i -
e q u i v a l e n t t o p o l o g i e s cannot be g e n e r a t e d f r o m an cally. The r e s u l t i n e i t h e r case i s t h a t s t r a y s
i n i t i a l network which i s s t r a y s i n s e n s i t i v e by i n s e n s i t i v e networks whose c a p a c i t o r m a t r i c e s may
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e theorem. T h i s i s have d i f f e r e n t ranks can now be r e l a t e d b y e q u i v a -
because congruence t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s p r e s e r v e rank,and lence t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s .
the t y p i c a l l y low rank o f t h e c a p a c i t o r m a t r i x i n
s t r a y s i n s e n s i t i v e networks i s l i k e l y t o be a f f e c t e d I f an i n c r e a s e i n t h e number o f s w i t c h e s i s
by s m a l l changes i n network t o p o l o g y . F o r t u n a t e l y , acceptable, a f a r wider v a r i e t y o f equivalent strays
some s l i g h t adjustments t o t h e u s u a l procedure enable i n s e n s i t i v e networks can be g e n e r a t e d by I n s e r t i n g
t h i s problem t o be overcome. redundant s w i t c h p a i r s a t s u i t a b l e nodes i n t h e
i n i t i a l network. T h i s t e c h n i q u e enables networks
I n s t r a y s i n s e n s i t i v e networks, a s i g n i f i c a n t whose c a p a c i t o r m a t r i c e s may have d i f f e r e n t dimen-
p r o p o r t i o n o f p o s s i b l e c a p a c i t o r c o n n e c t i o n s never s i o n s t o be r e l a t e d by e q u i v a l e n c e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s
c o n t r i b u t e t o network f u n c t i o n i n g ; i n the case o f 2- [ 3 ] . Sometimes t h e e q u i v a l e n c e c l a s s can be s t i l l
731
f u r t h e r extended by using the f a c t t h a t the i n p u t s W i t h i n each o f the e q u i v a l e n t t o p o l o g i e s , the
o f o p e r a t i o n a l a m p l i f i e r s are v i r t u a l grounds t o c a p a c i t o r elements n o r m a l l y take a continuous range
weaken c o n d i t i o n ( v i ) . of values; o c c a s i o n a l l y , however, the values a r e
unique up t o a s c a l a r m u l t i p l e i n minimum element
FORMULATING THE OPTIMISATION PROBLEM topologies. A s e q u e n t i a l augmented L a g i a n g i a n
technique i s used i n the o p t i m i s a t i o n s u b r o u t i n e i n
The mathematical c o m p l e x i t y o f the o p t i m i s a t i o n SCNAPT, the m i n i m i s a t i o n subproblems being solved
problem means t h a t a c o m p u t a t i o n a l approach i s by a quasi-Newton method; the o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n s
e s s e n t i a l i n a l l b u t the s i m p l e s t cases. A F o r t r a n should t h e r e f o r e be c o n t i n u o u s , and p r e f e r a b l y
77 program SCNAPT has t h e r e f o r e been developed c o n t i n u o u s l y d i f f e r e n t i a b l e , over a s u i t a b l e con-
which f i r s t determines e q u i v a l e n c e and r e a l i s a b i l i t y s t r a i n e d space. Many network parameters o f i n t e r e s t ,
c o n d i t i o n s from the i n i t i a l network data, and then f o r example, n o r m a l i s e d c a p a c i t o r sum ( t o t a l sum v
o p t i m i s e s a chosen o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n s u b j e c t t o s m a l l e s t c a p a c i t o r ) o r spread ( l a r g e s t c a p a c i t o r f
these c o n s t r a i n t s . I t i s necessary t o s p e c i f y a t smallest capacitor) give r i s e t o o b j e c t i v e functions
t h e o u t s e t whether the i n i t i a l network i s i n s e n s i - which are not continuous on a l l o f the c o n s t r a i n e d
t i v e t o s t r a y s , so t h a t a p p r o p r i a t e c o n s t r a i n t s space, b u t are continuous on r e g i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g
and o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n s are u t i l i s e d i n the program. to a f i x e d topology. Since r e g i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g
I t i s e v i d e n t from t h e theorem and from t h e t o f i x e d t o p o l o g i e s are u s u a l l y simply connected,
d i s c u s s i o n i n the p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n t h a t e q u i v a l e n c e o p t i m i s a t i o n o f such parameters can be c a r r i e d out
and r e a l i s a b i l i t y c o n d i t i o n s can be expressed i n f o r each o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t t o p o l o g i e s i n t u r n i n
terms o f t h e e n t r i e s o f Q; the e q u i v a l e n c e c o n d i - o r d e r t o o b t a i n the g l o b a l optimum.
t i o n s are m o s t l y l i n e a r e q u a l i t y c o n s t r a i n t s and
Suppose a network N i s g i v e n , and t h a t , proceed-
the r e a l i s a b i l i t y conditions quadratic i n e q u a l i t y
constraints. Since t h e o n l y v a r i a t i o n i n network i n g as above, e q u i v a l e n t networks N ,N. w i t h
components under the e q u i v a l e n c e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i s d i s t i n c t t o p o l o g i e s T j , . . . , T r e s p e c t i v e l y have
t o c a p a c i t o r elements, e v e r y o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n can been o b t a i n e d whose components are scaled so t h a t no
be expressed as a f u n c t i o n o f the e n t r i e s o f C , c a p a c i t o r v a l u e i s l e s s than 1. For each i = 1 ,. . . ,
and hence a l s o , by ( 3 ) , o f the e n t r i e s o f Q; how- *' ^ C j (a) C^(q,
ever , where t h e i n i t i a l network i s i n s e n s i t i v e t o
denote the c a p a c i t o r elements p r e s e n t i n T., where
s t r a y s , o n l y those e n t r i e s o f C should be i n v o l v e d
q i s a v e c t o r i n the space o f reduced v a r i a b l e s . To
which correspond t o one o r more o f the types o f
c a p a c i t o r c o n n e c t i o n l i s t e d i n Table I . o b t a i n an e q u i v a l e n t network w i t h t o p o l o g y T. and
m i n i m a l spread S^ffJ^' u s i n g SCNAPT, i t i s r e q u i r e d
F o r m u l a t i n g the, problem i n terms o f the e n t r i e s t 0
minimise { F (<i) = max{Cj (gj ,... . c ^ (g_) ) )
i
o f Q r e s u l t s i n n v a r i a b l e s f o r a network w i t h n
nodes; t h i s would be e x t r a v a g a n t on computer time s u b j e c t t o e q u i v a l e n c e and r e a l i s a b i l i t y c o n s t r a i n t s ,
f o r even q u i t e small networks, and f o r l a r g e r n e t - and, a d d i t i o n a l l y ,
works c o u l d j e o p a r d i s e the o p t i m i s a t i o n process C
i<i> ^(gj i1
completely. The l i n e a r e q u a l i t y c o n s t r a i n t s , once
a l l o t h e r p o s s i b l e c a p a c i t o r c o n n e c t i o n s being con-
t h e s e have been d e t e r m i n e d , are t h e r e f o r e used w i t h -
s t r a i n e d t o zero. Since the v a l u e o f t h e s m a l l e s t
i n t h e program t o reduce t h e number o f v a r i a b l e s ;
c a p a c i t o r i s f o r c e d down t o 1 by the m i n i m i s a t i o n
t h e r e d u c t i o n achieved i s n o r m a l l y around 75%. I f
process, , min „ , .
t h e r e are s t i l l too many v a r i a b l e s f o r o p t i m i s a t i o n
t o proceed e f f i c i e n t l y , t h e user has the o p t i o n o f Vai' - a Va'
imposing a d d i t i o n a l c o n s t r a i n t s which w i l l reduce s u b j e c t t o t h e above c o n s t r a i n t s , a n d the g l o b a l m i n i -
b o t h the number o f v a r i a b l e s and t h e c o n s t r a i n e d mum i s
S m i n S (
space over which the o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n i s m i n i m i - min = i l i '
sed. A s i m i l a r approach i s adopted t o minimise n o r m a l i s e d
c a p a c i t o r sum; note t h a t t h i s t e c h n i q u e a v o i d s t h e
Each p o i n t x i n the c o n s t r a i n e d space corresponds problem o f i d e n t i f y i n g t h e s m a l l e s t c a p a c i t o r s .
t o a s p e c i f i c network N(x) which i s e q u i v a l e n t t o Sometimes t h e number o f e q u i v a l e n t t o p o l o g i e s i s so
t h e i n i t i a l network and has the same s w i t c h i n g and large t h a t i t i s only p r a c t i c a b l e t o consider a
a m p l i f i e r arrangements. I f x i s an i n t e r i o r p o i n t , sample o f the p o s s i b i l i t i e s .
then N(x) can be expected t o have t h e most g e n e r a l
e q u i v a l e n t t o p o l o g y , whereas, i f x i s a boundary A number o f o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n s have a l r e a d y been
p o i n t , N(x) w i l l have fewer c a p a c i t o r elements, i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o SCNAPT, b o t h f o r the purpsoe o f
s i n c e a t l e a s t one o f t h e r e a l i s a b i l i t y c o n s t r a i n t s i d e n t i f y i n g the e q u i v a l e n t t o p o l o g i e s , and i n o r d e r
i s active. The most g e n e r a l e q u i v a l e n t t o p o l o g y t o improve s p e c i f i c performance f a c t o r s such as
i n c o r p o r a t e s a l l the c a p a c i t o r c o n n e c t i o n s which c a p a c i t o r sum and spread. There i s no d i f f i c u l t y
occur i n any o f the o t h e r e q u i v a l e n t t o p o l o g i e s ; in principle i n incorporating further objective
because o f t h i s p r o p e r t y , an e q u i v a l e n t network N f u n c t i o n s , f o r example, weighted o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n s
G which r e f l e c t those parameters c o n s i d e r e d t o be most
w i t h the most g e n e r a l t o p o l o g y can be generated i m p o r t a n t , p r o v i d e d they can be s i m p l y e v a l u a t e d
from the i n i t i a l network by u s i n g i n d i v i d u a l capa- w i t h i n the program, and are c o n t i n u o u s on i d e n t i f i -
c i t o r elements (which are c o n t i n u o u s on the whole able s i m p l y connected r e g i o n s o f the c o n s t r a i n e d
c o n s t r a i n e d space) as o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n s and then space. A d d i t i o n a l range c o n s t r a i n t s may be used t o
maximising w i t h SCNAPT. The r e m a i n i n g e q u i v a l e n t p r e v e n t improvements t c some parameters from r e s u l t -
t o p o l o g i e s can be o b t a i n e d by successive m i n i m i s a - ing i n unacceptable d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n o t h e r s .
t i o n s o f c a p a c i t o r elements p r e s e n t i n N .
732
1 2 8
APPLICATION TO PRACTICAL NETWORKS switched capacitor f i l t e r s ; Proc. IEE Saraga

Some r e s u l t s o f a p p l y i n g e q u i v a l e n c e t r a n s f o r m a - C o l l . E l e c . F i l t . , p p . 3 / 1 - 3 / 7 , L o n d o n , 1986.
t i o n s to 2-phase s t r a y s i n s e n s i t i v e f i l t e r s e c t i o n s N. H o w i t t , "Group t h e o r y and t h e e l e c t r i c
a r e shown i n F i g s . 1 - 3 . In each case the governing circuit",Phys.Rev.37,pp.1583-1595,1931
e q u i v a l e n c e e q u a t i o n s a r e g i v e n , { C . } and { C ! } b e i n g M. H a s l e r , " S t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e i n s e n s i t i v e s w i t c h -
the s e t s o f c a p a c i t o r s i n t h e i n i t i a l and r e s u l t i n g ed c a p a c i t o r f i l t e r s " , P r o c . I E E E I S C A S - 8 1 , p p .
equivalent networks r e s p e c t i v e l y ; note that connect- 4 2 - 4 5 , C h i c a g o , 1981.
i o n s not p r e s e n t i n the i n i t i a l n e t w o r k s a r e marked
v/ith-a broken line..
C}»C£.»k ( ( c - b l C ^ e c , )
The r a n g e and e x t e n t o f i m p r o v e m e n t s t o n e t w o r k = c < a l
C
4 V " - <c-b)C 2
p a r a m e t e r s w h i c h a r e p o s s i b l e i n a g i v e n c a s e depend c
' 4 C '=a(c-b)C
b o t h on t h e t o p o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e and on t h e compon- 1
7 2
ent v a l u e s of the i n i t i a l network. I n the f i r s t 1 C '=b(l-alc

HI--
8 2
o r d e r s e c t i o n , no i m p r o v e m e n t s t o c a p a c i t o r sum and k = s c a l i n g f a c t o r >o

spread are p o s s i b l e w i t h i n the i n i t i a l topology, un- 2 o<ac1,o<b(c
less a scaling factor i s used; however, i n second
and h i g h e r o r d e r f i l t e r s t h e r e a r e more d e g r e e s o f
freedom and s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n s c a n u s u a l l y be
FIG.1: F I R S T ORDER SECTION
a c h i e v e d both w i t h i n the i n i t i a l topology and i n
many o f t h e more g e n e r a l e q u i v a l e n t t o p o l o g i e s . I f
s c a l e d e q u i v a l e n c e i s a c c e p t a b l e ( t h i s may be t r u e
where a f i l t e r i s c o n s t ) a c t e d f r o m c a s c a d e d s e c t i o n s , C!(CJ
f o r e x a m p l e ) , then t h e r e i s an a d d i t i o n a l d e g r e e o f
f r e e d o m w h i c h c a n be u s e d t o o p t i m i s e p e r f o r m a n c e .
I n some o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t t o p o l o g i e s , s w i t c h e s
a r e e f f e c t i v e l y l o s t b e c a u s e t h e y become r e d u n d a n t ; c;ic ),
3 " i c,'
t h i s o c c u r s i n the f i r s t order s e c t i o n i f = C5 =
0, s i n c e no c a p a c i t o r s a r e c o n n e c t e d t o node 4 , and
i n t h e l o w p a s s f i l t e r w h e r e many s w i t c h e s a r e s h a r -
ed i n t h e e q u i v a l e n t n e t w o r k s i n F i g . 3 b . This pro- C ( O
c e s s c a n be r e v e r s e d by t h e u s e o f r e d u n d a n t s w i t c h
pairs [3].
CONCLUSION c
• ^» h c C
3 •<V<5"" 3 ' i l - < , c l C i C
4 '<li* 2 • Y3 < M,hC
4' Y4- 7< 1C
Cj',FghCj j g»b-a h"=d-c, l=f-e,bia>o,dic>o,£io>o

(
The f o r m u l a t i o n o f e q u i v a l e n c e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s
as congruence t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s of the c a p a c i t o r mat- FIG-2: SECOND ORDER BANDPASS F I L T E R
r i x e n a b l e s o p t i m i s a t i o n o f SC n e t w o r k p e r f o r m a n c e
f a c t o r s t o be a c h i e v e d u s i n g c o m p u t a t i o n a l m e t h o d s .
In a d d i t i o n to the 2-phase s t r a y s i n s e n s i t i v e n e t -
works c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s p a p e r , e q u i v a l e n c e t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n s may be a p p l i e d t o p a s s i v e , s t r a y s s e n s i -
t i v e and m u l t i p h a s e n e t w o r k s , a n d , i n d e e d , the p r o -
gram SCNAPT h a s been d e s i g n e d t o c o p e w i t h a l l o f
these cases. Although i n p r i n c i p l e a p p l i c a b l e to
networks o f a r b i t r a r y s i z e , the p r a c t i c a l implemen-
t a t i o n o f t h e t h e o r y i s d e p e n d e n t b o t h on t h e
existence of s a t i s f a c t o r y o p t i m i s a t i o n algorithms
and on t h e a v a i l a b l e h a r d w a r e ; however, r e a s o n a b l e
r e s u l t s a r e c e r t a i n l y a c h i e v a b l e w i t h s m a l l and
medium s i z e d n e t w o r k s .
c,V
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
T h i s work i s s u p p o r t e d by t h e Science and 1 ^ J-c!

Engineering Research Council.
7
REFERENCES 1 i j ^ i iil^H™
1. D . J . G i l b e r t and J . I . S e w e l l , "On t h e g e n e r a t i o n
of equivalent switched c a p a c i t o r networks", Proc.
ECCTD'85, p p . 6 9 7 - 7 0 0 , P r a g u e , 1985.
2. D . J . G i l b e r t and J . I . S e w e l l , M u l t i p h a s e e q u i v a -
- - - - - I I - - - 7 -
-- — I J
lence theory for switched c a p a c i t o r networks",
P r o c . 29th Mid-West S y m p . C i r c . S y s t . , L i n c o l n , Cj =kaC[,C +C^=abC ,C}=abc ,C^=adC ,CJ»bcC ,C£scdC
2 2 3 4 5 6
Nebraska,1986.
C e c C c C
3. D . J . G i l b e r t and J . I . S e w e l l , " A p p l i c a t i o n o f =7 ^ J " ^ • c a - ^ e ' 9 - 9 • ^(T^ld- < » B • if 12

e q u i v a l e n t network t h e o r y to s t r a y s i n s e n s i t i v e WrfSs ( ^ S ' ^ . C ' - f C ^ C , ^ ' ; . , ! , , < : ,d,e>o,f,g>,o
FIG.3: THIRD ORDER LOWPASS FILTER
733
12 7
PAPER 35
1 2 8
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS. VOL. CAS-34. NO. 12. DECEMBER 1987 1611
I E
Fig. 4. Layout of a testable serial-parallel multiplier.
in the logic block, the output PZ should be low (connected to 2

layout area is found to be 3.89 mm . The multiplier takes around
KJJ) in the case of n-logic and high (connected to V ) in the case
DI 11 ns to produce the product and the error signal. The additional
of p-logic. cost for the error detection circuitry is only in the range of 10
I n the case of static CMOS, the presence of a stuck-on tran- percent of the total area.
sistor may result in both p- and n-networks being conducting. The testability enhancement technique is useful especially where
The output voltage thus depends on the resistance of the p- and the internal nodes of the system are difficult to test. I t can also be
n-network and hence increases the complexity of fault detection. used for probe testing of wafer. In conclusion, the proposed error
Such cases do not happen in NORA CMOS because the p- and detection circuit, based on the structure, properties, and oper-
the n-network cannot be both conducting at the same time even ations of N O R A CMOS, can detect stuck-at, stuck-open, and
if stuck-on occurs in the logic block. This is because the clock (<p stuck-on faults. It occupies only a small amount of area overhead
or <f>) is applied to both the pMOS and the nMOS transistor that and is independent of the complexity of the cell to be tested.
are in series with the logic block and thus prevent both tran-
sistors to be conducting at the same time. Hence the output
voltage is not dependent on the resistance of the networks and, REFERENCES
therefore, it is easier to detect stuck-on faults. The procedure for [1) N. Weste and K. F.shraghian, Principles of CMOS VLSI Design, Read-
testing stuck-on is similar to those described for other faults. For ing, MA: Addison Wesley, 1985.
the circuit with n-logic block shown in Fig. 2, TEST2 is charged [2| N. F. Goncalves and H. I. D. Man, "NORA: A racefree dynamic CMOS
technique for pipelined logic structures," IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits,
high prior to the evaluation phase. A low TEST2 during the vol. SC-18, June 1983.
evaluation phase with appropriate test vector inputs TV1 applied |3) P. S. Moritz and L . M. Thorsen, "CMOS circuit testability," IEEE J.
prior to, and kept constant at the evaluation phase indicates a Solid-State Circuits, vol. SC-21, Apr. 1986.
[4] O. Baschiera and B. Courtois, "Advances in fault modelling and test
stuck-on condition. Similarly, for the circuit with p-logic block as pattern generation for CMOS," in Proc. [CCD, 1986.
shown in Fig. 3, a low TEST4 during the evaluation phase with [5[ K . W. Chiang and Z. G. Vranesic, "On fault detection in CMOS logic
appropriate test vector inputs TV2 indicates a stuck-on condi- networks," presented at the 20th Design Automation Conf., Miami Beach,
F L , 1983.
tion. It can again be seen that the test for stuck-on fault and the [6[ M. A. Bayoumi and J. C. H. Yang, "A fault-tolerant testable module for
test for stuck-at fault are overlapped to some extent, because a wafer scale integrated systems," in Proc. VLSI and Computers, Hamburg,
device stuck-on could result in the output to be either stuck-at-one Germany, pp. 590-593, May 1987.
or stuck-at-zero.
V. AREA A N D T I M E CONSIDERATIONS
The additional circuits (shown in F<°s. 2 and 3) used to detect

stuck-at, stuck-open, and stuck-on faults occupy only a small T h e L U D Approach to Switched-Capacitor Filter Design
amount of area overhead and is independent of the complexity of LI PING A N D J. I. SEWELL
the gate to be tested. The amount of contact cuts for the layout is
also very small. This is favorable because contact cuts occupy Abstract —A new design method for switcned-capacitor filters (SCF) is
large areas and degrate reliability of the circuit. However, by presented. It is based upon an LU matrix decomposition technique and has
connecting many nMOS devices or pMOS devices in series may the distinct advantage of producing SC filter realizations containing no
reduce the speed of operation for testing. This disadvantage is delay free loops. These are formed traditionally by capacitors and op-amps
not so important because the clock can be slowed down for in leapfrog realizations. It is demonstrated that this feature should render
reduced dependence of me filter response to nonideal effects such as finite
testing. Moreover, buffers can be inserted between the devices to
amplifier GB and switch resistance. Results from realistic leapfrog and
reduce the delay.
LUD SC filter realizations confirm this.
VI. APPLICATIONS A N D CONCLUSIONS
This testability enhancement technique is employed in imple- Manuscript received May 6, 1987; revised August 12, 1987 L. Ping was
menting a testable serial-parallel multiplier. A prototype of multi- supported by the Royal Society and British Telecom.
The authors are with the University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United
plier with 4-bit multiplicand and 3-bit multiplier has been imple- Kingdom.
mented using 4-/i m CMOS (NORA) technology, Fig. 4, the total I E E E Log Number 8717615.
0098-4094/87/1200-1611$01.00 ©1987 IEEE

1612 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. CAS-34, NO. 12. DECEMBER 1987
INTRODUCTION
Passive terminated LC ladder simulations are popular tech-

niques in switched-capacitor filter (SCF) design, as they retain
(a)
the low sensitivities of the prototype passive ladders. Among
various simulation methods the leapfrog-type SCF has received
most attention because of its strays insecitive property [ l ] - [ 3 ] . 12 a,, la
There are two kinds of transformations commonly adopted in 21 22
J
designing leapfrog SCF's: L D I and bilinear transformations [1]. 2g.<t>
33
L D I SCF's have the problem of strictly unrealizable termina- 1-Z
21
tions. Some approximation must be made and this limits their 1
applications. Bilinear leapfrog SCF's using L D I integrators are (b) i-z
more favorable. However, there is a major drawback for the

bilinear leapfrog SCF (and, also, for L D I leapfrog SCF when the
T. T.
transfer function has finite transmission zeros) that there always
exist delay-free loops formed by capacitors and op-amps. This i i
increases the op-amps settling times. As a result, some consider-
able distortion of the transfer function may be caused by the
finite GB product of op-amps and on-resistance of switches [3],
[4], [6]. Incidentally the existence of delay-free loops makes
digital circuit realization difficult [7}-[9],
I n this paper, the matrix form derivation of leapfrog SCF is
(c) •1
o i
viewed first. Then a new structure of SCF based on L U decom- SH 4 V '.TV
position is presented and the corresponding digital circuit realiza-
tion is briefly discussed. N o delay-free loops exist i n these
13
circuits. Examples are given to show that the new approach II II II
19
produces circuits with better performances than leapfrog-type
circuits when nonideal effects of op-amps and MOS switches are r r r
considered. Fig. I. (a) A terminated LC ladder passive prototype, (b) Leapfrog-type
signal-flow-graph simulation of the circuit in (a), (c) Leapfrog SCF simula-
D E R I V A T I O N O F L E A P F R O G SCF I N MATRIX FORM tion of the circuit in (a).
The first bilinear leapfrog SCPs were sensitive to stray capaci-

tance. A further development [1] allowed application of the
bilinear transformation whilst using modified L D I integrators
which are completely strays insensitive. We shall derive this kind
of SCF as the preliminary to the new approach.
Starting from a passive RLC prototype network which can be J o
ll.ZII ft 1
described by nodal equation: 2 1-Z

1
31
sC + -J + G^V = J (1) 1
1-Z
23
where C, I " , and C stand for the contribution of capacitors,
22
inductors, and conductors respectively. Performing the bilinear
transformation on (1) we have (when T = 2 for simplicity) lX„9-2o, a 2)
* 22
1
ll-z- 1+ ) <.X„*'2ft
23
c + r + G y ( 2 ) 13
( i T ^ r ^ r =
Equation (2) is equivalent to
SH rt>i r>i rO-i
1 1
/ 4*-' 2z" \ l + z' —t
AV={ jT TG}V + TJ (3a) ii
7
-JUL
with
A = C+T + G. (3b)
12 20 21
The inverse inductance matrix T in (3) can be decomposed

into
T
T~A D A
L L L (4) b)
where A is the incidence matrix of the network obtained by
L
removing all elements except inductors, and D = d i a g ( l / L , ) .

Let
t
is
Fig 2. (a) L U D type signal-flow-graph simulation of the circuit in Fig. t(a).
A~D„ +B (5) (b) L U D SCF simulation of the circuit in Fig. 1(a).
13 0
I E E E TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. CAS-34. NO. 12, DECEMBER 1 9 8 7 1613
TABLE 1
D E S I G N D A T A FOR THE S C F I L T E R EXAMPLES OF F I G . 1 A N D F I G .
Normalized Data f o r t h e LC L a d d e r o f Pig.(la)
F i f t h o r d e r Lowpass E l l i p t i c Case
p a s s b a n d edge 1. s t o p b a n d edge 1.555723827
passband ripple 0.0436 dB srophand r i p p l e 41.9 dB
G i - GL - 1 LI 0 CI 0 867058 L2 1.223976 C2 0.L37493
C3 1.S1194B L4 0.940651 C4 0 406594 C5 0.669168 L5 0
S i x t h order Bandpass E l l i p t i c case

u p p e r p a s s b a n d edge 1.034 l o w e r p a s s b a d edge 967
upper s t o p b a n d edge 1.173 l o w e r s t o p b a n d edge 895
passband ripple < 0.25 dB stopband a t t e n u a t i o n > 34 dB
G l - G2 - 1 C3 - 0 CI 1.6310 LI 0.014807 C2 0.38030
L2 0.088285 C3 0.27356 L3 0.063504 C4 1.6310 L4 0.014807
Component V a l u e s f o r t h e L e a p f r o g SCF o f Ftg.(lc)
p a s s b a n d edge 3.225 kHz s t o p b a n d edge

CI 4.3117021 C2 3.8187507 C3 1.0000000 C4 1.1283536
C5 3.8212329 C6 2.7566618 C7 1.0000000 C8 1.0000000
C9 3.319450S C10 8.8680304 Cll 1.3122242 C12 1.6543911
CI 3 2.1279985 C14 3.0446682 C15 1.2372708 C16 1.0000000
cn 1.3110067 C18 1.7601345 C19 3.5202689 C20 3.2856668
C21 1.0000000
number o f c a p a c i t o c s 21 number o f s w i t c h r t G 30
number o f op amps 5 total capacitance 52.2778
capacitance spread 8.8680 clock frequency 32 kHz
Component V a l u e s f o r t h e LUD S C F o f Fig.12b)
F i f t h o r d e r Lowpass E l l i p t i c Case
p a s s b a n d edge 3.325 kH2 s t o p b a n d edge 4.8 kHz
CI 1.125332 C2 1.125332 C3 3.664828 C4 1.128354
C5 5.732167 C6 7.104417 C7 1.000000 C8 1.938541
C9 1.000000 C10 1.000000 Cll 7.464650 C12 3.953S23
C13 4.867762 C14 7.053555 C15 1.295663 C16 1.654369
C17 1.351268 CIS 1.000000 C19 1.905143 C20 1.000000
C21 1.000000 C22 1.595858 C23 2.100672 C24 1.430766
number o f c a p a c i t o r s 24 number o f s w i t c h e s 26
capacitance spread 7,4646 clock frequency 32 kHz
s i x t h o r d e r Bandpass E l l i p t i c Case
upper p a s s b a n d edge 1 kHz l o w e r p a s s b a n d edge 0.9 kHz
upper s t o p b a n d edge 1.08 kHz l o w e r 6 t o p b a n d edge 0.829 kHz
CI 1.000000 C2 1.000000 C3 23.35666 C4 13.72274
C5 2.353740 C6 2.807107 C7 2.180592 C8 1.030186
C9 3.930910 C10 1.000000 Cll 7.101668 C12 4.910849
C13 4.977363 C14 5.842078 C15 6.643089 C16 5.464835
C17 1.000000 C18 1.000000 C19 12.62665 C20 10.11870
C21 1.000000 C22 1.375713 C23 1.432187 C24 1.000000
number o f c a p a c i t o r s 24 number o f s w i t c h e s 26
capacitance spread 23.3567 clock frequency 8 kHz
where D is diagonal and all diagonal elements in B are zeros.

a One way to solve this problem is to decompose A into L U
Then (3) can be written as form. Let
A = LU (7a)
iz' l + z~
D V=-
U BV - -GV-
1-2"
•UV. (7b)
Az-
T
D A V,
L L (6b) From (3) and (7) we have
These equations can be represented in signal-flow-graph form. r 2 G

Z T ==| ( - - j -^ ^- rTr - -2 G )| K +
(i + z
) J
(8a)
Fig. 1 gives a terminated passive LC ladder with its correspond-
ing signal-flow-graph in the discrete domain and the SCF imple-
mentation. Notice branches representing the term - BV in (6a) (8b)
form two delay-free loops. uv= +l -- z '
A signal-flow-graph can be drawn to represent (8); Fig. 2(a)
L U DECOMPOSITION (LUD)-TYPE SCF
shows one for the prototype given in Fig. 1(a).
In the last section it was shown that a leapfrog-type signal- The SCF implementation is shown in Fig. 2(b). Normally for a
flow-graph is formed by decomposing matrix T and realizing all prototype network with n nodes, 2n op-amps are required. It
nondiagonal elements in A by feedthrough branches. If A is of seems that for a prototype having more loops than nodes, we can
upper triangle or lower triangle form then these branches will not start from a loop equation instead of the nodal equation in (1). I n
form delay-free loops. Unfortunately, A is neither of these cases more general cases, a hybrid description of the prototype network
for a practical ladder prototype. can be used.
1614 IEEE TRANSACTIONS O N CIRCUITS A N D SYSTEMS, VOL. CAS-34. NO. 12. DECEMBER 1987
Approximately in (n is ihe number of the nodes) coefficients

need lo be stored and 4n multiplications performed in each
period, l i can be shown that this kind of digital filter is highly
10 insensitive to finite length of coefficients.
20 Examples
A program named SCNDf (SC network design program) has

JO been developed using L U D as well as leapfrog approaches. This
is used in conjunction with analysis programs S C N A P 1 F and
SCNAPNIF [ 5 ] .
40
Some typical filter realizations are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The
extra components in the passive prototype are required for the
30 bandpass realization. The calculated capacitance values are listed
in Table I . I n the L U D realization it can be seen that one extra
amplifier is only required for low-pass filters, the bandpass case
-60
utilizes the same circuit topology with changed component values
and is canonic in number of amplifiers. A leapfrog bandpass
-70 realization would require a changed topology and a simple com-
parison does not follow. The one extra amplifier in the low-pass
20 40 60 GO 100 120 140
case will require more chip area, but this difference reduces in
nSQUOCf (H>) MO*
significance as the filter order increases. The op-amp's outputs in
(a) all circuits are adjusted to give the same level as the input. N o
attention has been given to minimizing the capacitance spread.
Fig. 3(a) shows the ideal filter response. Fig. 3(b) gives a
comparison between ideal performance and non-ideal responses
in the passband for L U D and leapfrog realizations with typical
amplifier and switch parameters. The L U D realization demon-
strates some improvement i n per.o.mance over the equivalent
NON- I D E A L L E A P F R O G / A leapfrog circuit for typical parameter values.
gain c 10 s
\ j / I Preliminary sensitivity studies indicate that the L U D realiza-
bandwidth • 10H2 ^ ^ " ^ 1 tion possesses similar properties to the leapfrog structure, except
at u> = 0 in the low-pass case where a drop i n magnitude response
B„.lkfl / J
is observed. This is a subject of further work.
/ / N O N - I D E A L LUD
CONCLUSION
0 A new kind of structure for S C filters is presented. Results

obtained show that the proposed circuits demonstrate better
performance than leapfrog circuits i n certain non-ideal cases. It
-0.1
can be observed also that the particular ranges of non-ideal
parameters pose serious influence on both circuits. Work is being
-0.2 undertaken to formally eliminate these effects in the design
procedure.
50 100 150 200 250 300 350
FREOUENCV IHil .to'
REFERENCES
(b)
[1] M . S. L e e and C . C h a n g , "Switched-capacitor filters using the L D I and
Fig. 3. (a) Response of ideal fifth-order low-pass elliptic filter ( L U D ) (b) bilinear transformations,'* IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst., vol. C A S - 2 8 , pp.
C o m p a r i s o n of filter passband characteristics with typical amplifier and 2 6 5 - 2 7 0 , 1981.
switch parameters, (sine not included). [2) E . H o k c n e k and G . S. Moschytz, "Designing of parastic-insensitive bilin-
ear-lransformed admittance-scaled ( B I T A S ) S C ladder filters," IEEE
Trans. Circuits Syst.. vol. C A S - 3 0 . pp. 873-887, 1983.
Fig. 2(a) can be realized directly by digital circuits. In this case [5, R . G r e g o r i a n . K . W . Martin, and C . C . Temes, "Switcbed-capacilor
circuit design." Proc. IEEE. vol. 71. pp. 941-966, 1981.
the number of multiplication operations must be taken into
|4| C . F Lee. R . D . Davis, W. K . Jenkins and T . N . T r i c k , "Sensitivity and
consideration. So we can decompose A into (note A is always nonlinear distortion analysis for swilched-capacitor circuits using
symmetrical) S C A P N . " IEEE Trans. Circuits Sysl.. vol. C A S - 3 1 . pp. 213-221, 1984.
|5] J . 1. Sewell. A . D . Meakin and L . B . Wolovitz, "Techniques for improving
^ = L„D„L „ T
(9) the efficiency of analysis software for large switched-capacitor networks."
in Proc. 28th Midwest Symp. on Circuits and Systems. Louisville, pp.
where diagonal entries of L are all 1 and £>„ is a diagonal 3 9 0 - 3 9 3 . 1985.
n
|6) P. R . G r a y and R . Castello. "Performance limitations in swilched-capaci-
matrix. Thereby (8) can be rewritten as tor filters." in Proc. ICCAS. pp. 2 4 7 - 2 5 0 . Kyoto, Japan, 1985.
|7] L . T . Bruton. " L o w sensitivity digital ladder filters," IEEE Trans. Cir-
cuits Syst.. vol. C A S - 2 2 . pp. 168-176, 1975.
L n D J = \ - ^ - ^ T - i c \ v +z)J (10a)
|Xj A . F e l t w c i s . " D i g i t a l filter structures related to classical filler networks,"
Arch. Elek. Uhertragung.. vol 25. pp. 7 8 - 8 9 , 1971.
|9] L . E . T u r n e r and B. K. Ramesh, " L o w sensitivity digital L D I ladder
L y = + Y 10b
filters with elliptic magnitude response," IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst., vol.
" J Z ~ ^ < ) C A S - 3 3 . pp. 6 9 7 - 7 0 6 , 1986.
13 2
PAPER 37
Li P i n g , B S , M S
Prof. J.I. S e w e l l , B S c , P h D , C E n g , F I E E
Indexing terms: Filters and_fil!pring,_Simulnt\nn, Digital circuits
Discussions are restricted to the lowpass case. The

Abstract: General simulation methods of passive principles are the same for other types of R C circuits and
networks are investigated. A new simulation also f o r bandpass digital design [10, 11]. For the high-
approach based on L U m a t r i x decomposition is pass digital case a well k n o w n transformation of
presented. This approach can be used to design 2 _ 1
-» — z _ 1
can be used. F o r the bandstop digital case
active-RC, switched-capacitor and digital net- the technique adopted is somewhat different and will be
works. T h e resulting system demonstrates very presented elsewhere.
low sensitivities w i t h respect to component values.
N e w digital realisations, i n particular, reveal struc-
2 Matrix f o r m simulation of passive ladders
tures of l o w complexity, high speed of operation
and l o w cost of implementation. Leapfrog structures have been very popular in active-RC
and SC filter design and are conventionally explained as
methods simulating the voltage/current relationships i n
1 Introduction RLC ladders [ 1 2 - 1 4 ] . The structure is derived according
to these voltage/current relations, which can be a tedious
A wide variety of design methods are available f o r digital procedure. A more systematic derivation is now present-
filter circuits. Direct methods, including cascade biquads ed as the preliminary to further developments i n suc-
and follow-the-leader ( F L ) , have the advantage o f simpli- ceeding sections.
city but the penalty of high sensitivity [ 1 ] . T h e e f f o r t The procedure starts w i t h a typical passive RLC
devoted to low-sensitivity structures has achieved notable prototype network, Fig. l a , which can be described by
success. I n particular, wave and lattice approaches have the nodal equation
developed i n t o a distinguished family [ 2 , 3 ] . M o d i f i c a t i o n
of the leapfrog method d r a w n f r o m active-RC circuits has (sC + s - T + G)V = J (1)
also attracted much attention [ 4 - 6 ] . A n interesting
where C, T and G represent the contributions of capac-
recent development is the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the lossless
itors, inductors and conductors, respectively. F o r conve-
bounded real ( L B R ) concept w i t h several p r o m i s i n g
nience V is defined by [i>„ — v , v , —1> , . . . ] to make 2 3 4
r
structures emerging [ 7 - 9 ] . The remaining problem w i t h

all the entries o f C, T and G positive. Notice the inverse
these low-sensitivity circuit designs is that they are gener-
inductance m a t r i x T in eqn. 1 can be decomposed
ally complicated, suffering f r o m high hardware cost or
according to network topology into
l i m i t a t i o n of operation speed, especially f o r high-order
realisations. T = A D AlL L (2a)
This paper discusses a new approach based on passive
where A is the incidence matrix of the inductor sub-
L
ladder s i m u l a t i o n i n m a t r i x f o r m . T h e L U m a t r i x decom- -
network and D = diag ( L , ' , L I . . . ) .L
position is employed to derive new filter structures.
Define a new set of variables
Besides retaining the low-sensitivity o f the prototype, the
l T
new m e t h o d also has the i m p o r t a n t property of relatively X D L A y L (2b)
low hardware cost and high operation speed. Some stra-
with
tegies are adopted to o b t a i n structures most suitable
for parallel processing. Because the design method is uni- (sC + G)V= -A X L +J (2c)
fied t h r o u g h m a t r i x manipulations, the resulting circuit
structures are regular, allowing easy programmable F o r an allpole lowpass filter (Fig. l a ) C is diagonal and
l
implementation. (sC + G)~ = diag [(sc, +gj-\(sc2)-\(sc3r
l
(sc„
This method has been previously proposed f o r + 9L) ' ] • X and Vcan be expressed i n a recursive f o r m
switched-capacitor (SC) realisation [10, 11]. F o r simpli- 0 -(sC
city o f comprehension, the application to active R C
circuit design is outlined first i n this paper, and the devel-
opment o f the digital case is then discussed i n detail.
Examples are given comparing the performance o f the
new design w i t h those of other methods. •c 0 1 (3)
A signal flow graph (SFG), Fig. li> can be d r a w n to rep-

resent eqn. 3 and the corresponding active-RC implemen-
Paper 6134G (E10), first received 24th August 1987 and in revised form
24th March 1988
tation follows directly (Fig. lc). The output of every
The authors are with the Department of Electronics and Electrical
op-amp represents a variable either i n V or in X. F o r
Engineering. University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United every nonzero entry in the coefficient m a t r i x of eqn. 3
Kingdom there is a corresponding connection between t w o op-
/££ PROCEEDINGS. Vol. 135, Pt. G. No. 4, AUGUST 1988

amps. For circuits w i t h series capacitors (Fig. 2a) matrix realisation difficult. I n the next Section, a new simulation
C w i l l have off-diagonal elements and this w o u l d appear structure is suggested to overcome this problem.
0
C 6
9
.n T L
l T 3 C
t C
5 T 7 C
119,
V V
1 1 ~ > 1 1 3 I 1
SC„*g i n
i i ; i j I i
SC,-9„
su sc
su t"SC 5 ' 5L 6 t'SC .g ; L
1 1 1 ]
1 1 X, I I X ? 1 1 X 3 1
b
1 1 1 1 I 1
in in in in in in
SL 2
sc 2 2 "SC 3 3
S L
6 "5C >g
w L
1 1 X, 1 1 X; 1 I X, 1
b
\06kn l.OOkn I.00W1 1.23W) lOOkn l.65kn
h i
72nF 85nF
2.0nF
A
80.1 nF 66.5nF
Fig. 1 7th-order Chebyschev lowpass ladder

a Circuit diagram
9 I „ = I S 9 L = I S I27W1 lOOkn 1.06W! I-OOMI I00W1 146M1 I 00M1
r , = 3.585F L = 4.330H 2
Cj = 6.370F L = 4.789H 4
c , = 6.370F L = 4.330H b
c , = 3.585F
b Leap-frog type S F G simulation of the passive circuit Fig. 2 7th-order elliptic lowpass ladder
c Corresponding aclive-RC realisation (normalised) a Circuit diagram
I S l s
9i. = 9t=
C . - 3.450F c = 0.1717F2 L,=4.137H
1
to make the matrix inversion (sC + G)~ i n eqn. 3 some- Cj = 5.60IF C = 0.80I6F L, = 3.828H
4
c, - 5.328F c - 0.5722F L = 3.659H

what more complicated. I n this case eqn. 3 can be rewrit- c , = 3.082F
6 t
ten as b Leap-frog type S F G simulation of the passive circuit

c Corresponding active-RC realisation (scaled for maximum dynamic range and
l
(sC^ + O-'sQ, -(sC diai + G) A L
denormalised, 3.4 kHz)
l T
s~ D A L L
0
3 The LU decomposition simulation method
(4) The elimination of feed-through loops is possible. Let

o
matrix C i n eqn. 1 be decomposed i n t o L U f o r m [ 1 5 ]
where C = C + C . C „ = {c } and
d i a g C = o f f d d i u o f f d
c 1
i ij 1 ^ j} contain the diagonal and off-diagonal elements C=LU (5a)
of C, respectively. N o w the S F G and the corresponding As m a t r i x C in the nodal equation (eqn. 1) is always sym-
circuit implementation can be obtained f r o m eqn. 4 (see metric f o r passive networks, eqn. 5a can be expressed i n
Figs. 2b, c). Branches representing the term symmetric f o r m w i t h D being a diagonal matrix.
_ s n e n o r m
( Q i a + C) ~'sCVffd > 1 - 4 f
8 three feed-through
T
loops, shown in the upper part of Fig. 2b. These feed- C = U DU (5b)
through loops, which are realised by cross-coupled
Choose L = I f D and introduce a new set of variables
capacitors, increase the high-frequency noise levels; as
can be seen f r o m Fig. 2c, the high frequency noise created X = sDUV (5c)
by each op-amp w i l l be fed directly via the cross-coupled
capacitors to the output. They also extend the settling F r o m eqns. 1 and 5
time of op-amps in SC realisations and render digital U X=T
-s'VV-GV + J (6a)
168 IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 135, Pi. C, No. 4, AUGUST 1988

]
DUV = s X (6b) elliptic filter (Fig. 2a). Both the biquad and wave filters
are canonical in terms of the number of multipliers
T o show how the system of eqns. 6 can be represented by
whereas the wave digital filter requires a higher number
a S F G f o r m , choose V w i t h all the diagonal entries being
of a d d i t i o - - and delays and offers a slower speed of oper-
1 and separate V into diagonal and off-diagonal terms:
ation because multiplications must be performed i n some
V = I + l/„, (7) hierarchical sequence [ 1 , 9 ] . This Section will develop
new structures which offer some noteworthy improve-
F r o m eqns. 6 and 7 a recursive representation of V and X
ments.
is obtained:
- ( J T T + (7) V 4.1 Standard LL discrete system
'D 1
-I/.. I + _0_
(8) Perform the bilinear transform on eqn. 1 (let sampling
period T = 2 s for simplicity)
Then the so-called L U D - t y p e S F G and corresponding
1 +
active-/?C implementation can be obtained according to v + G\v = j (9)
eqn. 8 (see Fig. 3). This circuit configuration w i t h altered 1 + .
component values can also realise an 8th order bandpass
T o produce a system w i t h o u t delay-free loops, the f o l l o w -
filter. N o feed-through loop exists i n the circuit. O n l y i n
ing manipulations are required. Eqn. 9 is equivalent to
the lowpass case is one extra op-amp required when com-
pared w i t h the leapfrog approach. I n other cases the + z
number of amplifiers can be made canonical. A + r +- J (10a)
(1
with
A = c+ r+ G (10ft)
F o r simplicity rewrite eqn. 10a as
(A + Nf<D4r + V2G)V = ^ ( l + z)J (11)

with
l
T = z-'/(l -z~ ) (12a)
<D = 1/(1 - z"') (12fc)
I t is interesting that ¥ and * constitute a pair of L D I

integrators [ 4 ] . The relationship between bilinear and
'exact' L D I transformed systems is discussed elsewhere
66lnF
[ 1 1 ] . As m a t r i x A is always symmetric, it can also be
B6.1nF 1 9 6 n F 7e OnF II O n F S74nF ll.5nF Ul OnF decomposed into the f o r m
T
A = U DU (13)
22lkn ?36kfl I67kfl 3.23k(l
I 65kfl where D is used i n the same way as i n eqn. 5 and let
63 O n F J ; [
U = / + U . This leads to the discrete L U D system
o f i A
I06kfl 35 9 n F
^ I J - ^ -(<D4r + 2C)TX"] (1+4/
0
A (14)
42.8nF 43.8nF 4 B . 0 n F 2.54nF 4 9 8 n F
It II I The corresponding S F G is shown jn Fig. 5, and is suit-
Z16nF U 35nF
able f o r SC realisation [ 1 0 ] . The realisation of input
f u n c t i o n (1 + z) can be accomplished by m u l t i p l y i n g by
1
"Out z " giving (1 + z " ' ) . but i n t r o d u c i n g a delay of one
period.
F o r digital realisation T can be decomposed as i n the
Fig. 3 LUD type simulation of circuit in Fig. 2a
leapfrog method, r = A D Al, i n this way the number
L L
a Diagram
b Corresponding aclive-RC realisation Iscaled for maximum dynamic and denor-
of multiplications is reduced. The corresponding stan-
malised. 3.4 kH2) dard L L ( L U D - l e a p f r o g ) can be realised directly by the
circuit shown i n Fig. 6a.
N o w it is essential to take into consideration some
F o r a prototype w i t h more loops than nodes, it is pos-
factors related to the operation speed. Let
sible to start w i t h a l o o p description of the network
instead o f eqn. 1. I n more general cases, h y b r i d descrip- m = order of the filter (15a)
tions of the p r o t o t y p e can be used.
n = number of nodes of the prototype (15b)
4 T h e L U D a n d leapfrog ( L L )approach for Ts = sampling period (15c)
discrete systems
T„ = time for one multiplication operation (\5d)
It is now logical to examine the application of this theory
to discrete implementations. T o a f f o r d some means of T* = time for one a d d i t i o n operation (15e)
comparison w i t h existing approaches. Fig. 4 shows cas- F o r an ordinary odd-order lowpass RLC ladder,
caded biquad and wave digital realisations of a standard m = In - 1. Examining eqns. 15 and F i g . 6a carefully, it
/££ PROCEEDINGS. Vol. I ) f . Pi. G. No. 4. AUGUST 198S 169

13 6
can be seen that when the transfer factors {c,} of the hori- along horizontal branches must be performed serially, for
zontal branches i n Fig. 6a are general numbers, the oper- the upper line f r o m left to right and for the lower line
f =2 816 x 10""
;) A ^ J l ^ J ) A^nLjÂ u^x__
o/p
Fig. 4 Realisations of the elliptic filler

a Cascade biquadratic digital realisation b Wave digital realisation
a , = 1 498 6, - 0.6331 c, = 0.3442 m, = -0.7748 m, = -0.7532 m , = 0.1203
u , = 1 488 b, = 0.7751 c = -1.013 2 m, = -0.4140 m =0.1511
t m = -0.6899
l 0
a, = 1.522 b, = 0.9252 c = -0.7097 s mj = 0.08522 m, = -0.8550 m,, = -0.5811

a . = 0.7541 m = -0.9366 m, - -0.6774
4
ation speed is limited by f r o m right to left. Since 7" > 7^, the limit is dominated
m
by the multiplication time. I n the f o l l o w i n g we shall show

m + 5 m +1 some strategies to improve this l i m i t a t i o n on operation
(16)
2 ° 2 speed.
because in every period, additions and multiplications 42 Modified LL system
1 t Z ^2 ^-2 ^3 ^3
The l i m i t a t i o n given by eqn. 16 can be reduced by scaling
all nonzero elements i n U t o the nearest powers o f 2, as
k
the operation required t o m u l t i p l y a number by 2~ is
simply to shift it by k bits. I t is also possible to scale all
nonzero entries i n U t o ± Is, but this results i n a very
large coefficient spread, which is undesirable. The scaling
procedure can be performed i n terms o f matrix trans-
formations. Let 5 be a diagonal constant matrix, pre- and
post-multiply the matrices in eqn. 11 by S. Let
A = SAS
S fls = SA 4D AlS
L L G =
S S2GS
l
V = S' V
s J = SJ
S (17)
Fig. 5 LUD-type SFC for the elliptic filter A new system is obtained w i t h a transfer function differ-
j, = 0.2056 6, = -0.9668 r , = -0.0850 ing f r o m that o f eqn. 11 only by a constant.
a, = 0.1420 b, = -0.9668 c, = -0.1509
aj = 0.1412 fi, = -2.011 c, = -0.1201 (A, + V<t>B + <VG,)V = 4>(1 + z)J,
s S (18)
u, = 0.2070 6. = - 1.045
fc, = -2.138 J, = -2 Scaling is carried o u t so that A, w i l l decompose i n t o
ft, = -1.093 tf ; = -2
b- = - 1.093 A =UJD U,
S S (19)
170 /££ PROCEEDINGS, Vol. US, Pt. G, No. 4, AUGUST 1988

where every diagonal element of U is 1 and also the
s most 'l — l . which is an important property related to the
upper-diagonal elements are powers of 2. It can be veri- system behaviour at to = 0. as shown in the next Section.
fied that this procedure is possible provided A is t r i - s (ii) T'-"? M2(Fig. 6c)
diagonal, which is always the case f o r a ladder structure. L U decomposition can also be performed on B s
According to the decomposition o f B , several systems

s
can be obtained as listed i n the f o l l o w i n g : Bt OlD Uh b (21)

(i) Type Ml (Fig. 6b)
w i t h diagonal entries of U being 1. As just mentioned,
Use the straightforward decomposition of B accordings
b
the rank of B is n — 1, so that at the last step of L U

to eqn. 17: s
decomposition the pivot is zero. In this case D and U

b b
B. = SA 4D AlS
L L (20) can be expressed in (n — 1) x (n — II and (n - II x n
matrices, respectively,
In the lowpass case there are (n - 1) inductors in the (iii) Type M3 (Fig. 6d)
prototype (Fig. 2a). D Lis (« — 1) x (n — 1) and A is L
n x (n — 1). This also means that the rank of B is at i B, = A D„Al

t + D„ (22)
A V A v A
(££ PROCEEDINGS. Vol US. Pi. C . No. 4, AUGUST 1988 171

w i t h all entries of A being either 1 or - 1 . It will be
h 4.3 Examples
shown that although this type of circuit has an improved The f o l l o w i n g example illustrates the design procedures
speed l i m i t a t i o n , it has high sensitivity at cu = 0. for a Standard L L and a Type M l circuit. For the
A y A V A v A
o/p
f_.= 0 5 7 8 7
A v A A v A A v A A v AA
f = 0.585
Fig. 6 Digital realisations of the elliptic filter

a Standard L L c Type M2
u, - 0.2056 *, = -0.9668 r, = -0.0850 a, - 0 8807 fc, = -0.226 r, = 0.7352
a, = 0.1420 b, = - 1 0 4 5 r
i = -0.1509 u, = 1.125 b = -0.131
2 Cj = 1.657
a, = 0.1412 - -1.093 = -0.1201 a, = 0.4078 r>, = -0.379 c, = 1.041
a, = 0.2070 <>,.,
_ 2
= a . = 0.5519 </, = -0.4670
NType M l d, - -0.7S02
a, = 0.5651 = -09668 c, « 06032 d T y p e M3
a. =0.7219 = -1.045 C y= 0.4435 u, =0.8911 f), = -0.1640 c, = -0.5907
uj = 02616 = -1.093 c = 3 07347 a, = 1.138 J>, = -0.2159 r, = 0.1290
a, = 0.3541 <'« = 07646 a = 0.4126
s fij = -0.3894 r, = -0.1265
<i, = 0.5583 c, . -0.01587
= -04615
= -0.7416
172 IEE PROCEEDINGS. Vol. 135, Pt. G, No. 4, AUGUST 1988

13 9
passive network. Fig. lit. eqn. 1 becomes 0.603

0.444 1 1
3.62 0.171 fl = S4TS
t =
0.735 1 1
0.17! 6.57 0.802
0.765
0.802 6.71 0.577
0.968 1 1 0.603
0.577 3.66
1.06 I 1 0.444
0.242 0.242 1.09 I 1 0.735
0.242 0.503 0.261 0.765
0.261 0.535 0.273 0.603
0.273 0.273 0.444
G< = S2GS =
0.735
1
0.765 2_
0
V = (23)
0 0.603
0 0.444
(26)
0.735
where V=[v -t> V , -V ~] . Let s = ( l — z ~ ' ) / T
l
u 2 > 3 4
0.765
(1 + z~ ) and f o l l o w the procedure eqns. 9-14. The rele-
vant matrices are The type M l realisation shown in Fig. 6b follows imme-
diately.
4.86
4.4 Comments
0.085 1 7.04
Since the transfer coefficients of the horizontal branches
0.151 7.08 in Figs. 6b-d are all 2*, and assuming shift and add has
0.121 1 4.83 the same cost as addition, then for M l and M 2 the oper-
a t i o n speed is limited by
1 0.085
0.1<! T . > ^ T . + 3Tm
(27)
(24a)
I 0.121
1 and for M 3 the limit is given by
m + 5
0.968 I 1 T + 2T
a m
(28)
l I 1.06 1 1
4r = A l l these new systems demonstrate a high degree of
I I 1.09 1 1
parallelism [ 1 ] , and types M l and M 2 will show low
sensitivity; thus a c o m b i n a t i o n of the features of the
(24b) biquad cascade and the wave filters is possible. As these
new structures only use some simple matrix operations
(see eqn. 14), they are particularly attractive i n the case
where an array processor is available.
2G = (24c) It is i m p o r t a n t to distinguish between the number of
multiplications and the number of m u l t i p l i c a t i o n coeffi-
cients to be stored i n the new structure. T r a d i t i o n a l l y , in
biquad and wave realisations these t w o processes are
The standard L L realisation can now be d r a w n (Fig. 6a). inextricably linked. In some of these new methods
T o produce a type M I realisation, continue by choos- (standard L L , types M l and M 2 ) , because of their sym-
ing the scaling matrix S ( f r o m eqn. 17) metrical structures, t w o identical multiplications {c,} can
be undertaken serially by one multiplier. F o r hardware
S = diag [0.603, 0.444, 0.735, 0.765] (25) implementation, therefore, the number of multipliers
required is nearly cononical f o r these circuits. The adders
Then f o r eqns. 17-20 can be shared i n a similar way.
The methods introduced i n this Section can be applied
directly to bandpass but not to highpass and bandstop
design. The difficulty is that f o r these latter cases the
A = SAS = U.D.UT transfer f u n c t i o n is not of zero value at z = — 1
(corresponding to s = oo i n continuous domain).
2~ J
1 However, the input function of eqn. 14, ( I
z
+ " ' ) l = - i = 0 - This implies that the transfer f u n c t i o n
2
.77 2 - 4 f r o m (1 + z)J to the o u t p u t must be infinite at z = — 1 to

facilitate cancellation, which inevitably results i n an
1.39 1 2" 2
unstable system. F o r the highpass case this difficulty can

3.82 1 2" 3
be overcome by using a frequency t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of
1 1
2.82 1 z~ -» — z " to obtain the desired system f r o m a lowpass
/££ PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 135. Pi. C , No. 4, AUGUST 198H 173

1 4 0
1
reference. F o r the bandstop case some different tech- By comparing the power of (jQr in the denominator
niques are adopted which are beyond the scope of this and numerator it can be seen that in order to retain the
paper. output i„ nonzero, the coefficient of (jni"" i n det | Y\
must be zero. This leads to the f o l l o w i n g :
5 C o m p a r i s o n of t h e various approaches
Remark: T h e system given i n eqn. 30 has nonzero
In the above Sections four types o f digital filters simulat- response at Q = 0 only i f T is singular. The response is
ing passive ladders have been proposed (standard L L given by
and types M 1 - M 3 ) . N o w they are compared w i t h each
other as well as w i t h cascade biquad and wave realis-
ations. n *i
J- ti at Q = 0 (34)
5.1 Sensitivity estimates 4?, i det ( T ) , , + gm det (D„„
W h e n the coefficient matrices i n eqns. 11 and 18 are rea- Otherwise, i f r is nonsingular, then v = 0 at fi = 0. n
lised by digital circuits, they will deviate f r o m their ideal Using this result f o r a lowpass filter, it would seem
values owing to finite wordlength. This also happens mandatory to ensure that T is singular. However, f o r
when they are realised by SC circuits, owing to element L U D it is easily seen that deviation i n the entries o f r
deviations. I t is observed that the sensitivities o f all four may cause it to become nonsingular; this is also true for
types o f circuits differ most significantly at u> = 0. This type M 3 f r o m the relation that r = S' (BJ4]S~K Only l
effect is now explained mathematically. Standard L L , M l and M 2 w i l l always guarantee singular

M a k i n g the standard substitution T or B whatever the deviation i n entries, since the
s
decompositions o f r or B i n these three structures

s
1 involve multiplications o f matrices w i t h only (« — 1) rows

jSl = ;' tan (to772) = (29)
1 +z~ or columns. The resulting matrices can never have rank
greater than n — 1.
eqn. 9 becomes
Incidentally, the extra zeros introduced at the origin
l
[ j ( n c - n - r ) + G]y = j (30) can be viewed as an advantage or disadvantage accord-
ing to the filter application; f o r instance, low-frequency
Denote
noise suppression can be facilitated by these zeros.
Y=j(ClC-n 'D-t-G (31)
5.2 Implementation cost
Use the f o l l o w i n g properties, which always hold true for
Table 1 gives a comparison o f the implementation cost o f
a nodal description of a passive ladder (eqn. 1):
the various types o f digital filter proposed i n this paper,
(a) C , T and G are all tri-diagonal matrices; hence, Y is
as well as f o r the biquad and wave filters used f o r refer-
also tri-diagonal
ence. It can be seen that type M 3 is a special case. In the
(b) J has only one nonzero element, i.e. J = (J , 0 , . . . , m
remaining five structures the numbers of multiplier coeffi-
0) cients to be stored are roughly equal. F o r the number o f
(c) G has only t w o nonzero elements g = g-,„ and M
additions, delays and speed o f operation, the biquad
9nn = 9L approach appears best, the wave filter is worst, w i t h
(d) output is the nodal voltage v„. Standard L L , M l and M 2 being i n between these
F r o m these properties and Cramer's rule it can be found extremes.
for output v„ The lower l i m i t a t i o n on T f o r the cascade biquad is
s
achieved by assuming that a delay is inserted between

every successive biquad block, so ensuring independent
JUjncti+i.o-unrVi.iJ processing o f the signal, b u t this increases the signal
= J ,
(32) delay between input and output.
' delm °
If adders are time-shared, then the numbers required
where r = and C = {c }.
[iJt for L L and its derived types can be much less than the
It can be shown that when CI -» 0, numbers o f additions listed i n Table 1. F o r example, the
, m i n i m u m number o f adders f o r type M l is (m + l ) / 2 ,
det | Y\->(jtl)~" det (D + (jnr" ~"[0i det ( T ) , , 1
provided that other relevant figures i n Table 1 are kept
- r ^ d e K r U + O f i ) - ' - ' (33) 2
unchanged.
Table 1: C o m p a r i s o n of i m p l e m e n t a t i o n c o s t a n d operation s p e e d of v a r i o u s digital realisations for a n o d d - o r d e r l o w p a s s

elliptic f u n c t i o n
Function Cascade Wave Standard Type Type Type

biquad LL M1 M2 M3
7m+ 5
Number of additions 7m 6m-2 3m + 1 3m + 1 3m + 1
2
Number of multiplier coefficients to be 3m - 1 3m + 1 I'm + 1) 3m + 5 §(m + l ) 3m-5
stored (scale factor f , not included)
c 2 2 2 2
3vn - 1 3m + 4
Number of delays m m + 1 m + 1 m + 1
2 2
Lower bound on T, (T and T are
M M
m +5 m + 1 m + 5. m + 5 m + 7 .
multiplication and addition times, r. + 3 r „ T. + 37\, T. + 2TM
respectively)
m = order of function
174 I EE PROCEEDINGS. Vol. 135, Pi. G. No. 4. AUGUST 1988

14 1
5.3 Design examples 6 Conclusions

in Fig. 7 the ideal response of a bilinear transformed
digital elliptic lowpass response is given. Its prototype is A new approach to the simulation of passive filter struc-
simply the lowpass ladder in Fig. 2a (C-071536 Saal nota- tures by active-RC and digital means has been developed.
tion [16]). All six type digital structures are simulated A detailed comparison of the various digital implementa-
using the same prototype. Sampling frequency is 32000 tions has been undertaken and reveals that although the
Hz. It is assumed that floating-point storage of coeffi- sensitivity of a wave digital filter is usually optimum, it
cients is used. All the coefficients are truncated to the can be approached by types standard L L , M l and M2.
nearest smaller number. However, in practical realisations types M l and M 2 will
out-perform all others, apart from the biquad, in terms of
speed of operation and number of additions and delays.
-For increased order, the wave filter shows linear increases
in both multiplication and addition times, whereas the
alternatives have a linear dependence only in addition
time. So for sensitivity, speed of operation and cost of
implementation, the new structures offer attractive pos-
sibilities, especially for high order realisations.
The scaling technique introduced in modified L L types
in this paper may also find useful application in other
m -100 h digital filter implementations, and is worthy of further
investigation.
°>-125
frequency, kHz
5 -0.4
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

frequency, H z
Fig. 8 Filter passband responses with 8-bit digital realisation

Biquad
M3
Wave. M l . M2
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

frequency, H z
5 -60
Fig. 7 Ideal response of elliptic filler
a Overall ideal response (wave digital with 16 bitsl
b Ideal passband response of elliptic filter
The detailed passband responses for 8-bit implementa-

tion given in Fig. 8 show that a droop at zero-frequency
occurs for type M3 and quite serious overall distortion
for the biquad, whereas all other responses are almost
ideal. When the wordlength is reduced to 4 bits, the
6 8 10 12 16
overall filter response for wave and M l is retained with
frequency, kHz
reasonable accuracy while biquad response variation is
dramatic, Fig. 9. The passband detail comparison of Fig. 9 Overall frequency response of elliptic filter with 4-bit digital
wave. M l , M 2 and M3 realisation with 4 bits is also realisation
shown in Fig. 10. The zero-frequency droop exhibited by M2

Wave
type M3 supports the mathematical prediction. Biquad
IEE PROCEEDINGS. Vol. 135. Pt. G , No. 4. AUGUST 1988 175

The problem of truncation error analysis in these new 8 References
structures is a more complex study and is the subject of
1 A N T O N I O U . A . - Digital filters: analysis and design' (McGraw-
future work.
Hill. New York. 19791
2 F E T T W E I S . A . : 'Digital filter structure related to classical filter net-
o works'. Arch. Eli'kinm. & Ubertragungstech.. 1971. 25, pp. 7 8 - 8 9
3 G R A Y . A.H.. and M A R K E L . J.D.: Digital lattice and ladder filter
0 1
synthesis'. IEEE Trans.. 1973. A L - 2 I . pp. 4 9 1 - 5 0 0
4 B R U T O N . L.T.: Low sensitivity digital ladder filters'. I E E E Trans..
02 1975. CAS-22, pp. 168-176
5 L I U , E.S.K.. T U R N E R . L . E . . and B R U T O N . L T . : Exact synthesis
of L D I and L D D ladder filters', ibid.. 1984. CAS-31. pp. 3 6 9 - 3 8 1
03
] 6 T U R N E R , L . E . , and R A M E S H , B.K.: Low sensitivity digital L D I
ladder filter with elliptic magnitude response", ibid.. 1986. CAS-33,
04 A pp. 6 9 7 - 7 0 6
CD
u 7 M I T R A , S . K , V A 1 D Y A N A T H A N . P.P.. and A N D E R S O N ,
c -0 5 B.D.O.: 'A general theory and synthesis procedure for low-
sensitivity active R C filters', ibid., 1985, CAS-32, pp. 6 8 7 - 6 9 9
en
06 8 V A I D Y A N A T H A N , P.P.: 'A unified approach to orthogonal digital
filters and wave digital filters, based on L B R two-pair extraction',
ibid.. 1985, CAS-30, pp. 6 7 3 - 6 8 6
07
9 C R O C H I E R E , R.E.. and O P P E N H E I M . A.V.: 'Analysis of linear
digital networks', Proc. IEEE. 1975,63, pp. 5 8 1 - 5 9 4
0.8 1 0 P I N G , L I , and S E W E L L . J.I.: 'The L U D approach to switched-
_f l ; , i capacitor filter design', IEEE Trans., 1987, CAS-34, pp. 1 6 1 1 - 1 6 1 4
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
1 1 P I N G . L I , H E N D E R S O N . R . K , and S E W E L L , J.I.: Matrix
freauency.Hz
methods for switched capacitor filter design'. Proc. international
Fig. 10 Filler passband responses with 4-bit digital realisation symposium on circuits and systems, June 1988, Helsinki, Finland
1 2 O R C H A R D , H.J.: Inductorless fillers', Electron. Lett.. 1966. 2. pp.
O—O Wave
Standard LL 224-225
Type Ml 13 L E E , M.S, and C H A N G , C : 'Switched-capacilor fillers using the
TypcM3 L D I and bilinear transformations', IEEE Trans.. 1981, CAS-28, pp.
TypeM2 265-270
1 4 G H A U S I , M.S., and L A K E R , K.R.: 'Modern filter design, active
RC and switched capacitor' (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1981)
7 Acknowledgments 15 K E L L Y , L . G . : 'Handbook of numerical methods and applications'
(Addison-Wesley. 1 9 6 7 )
The authors wish to thank R.K. Henderson, B.J. Wishart 1 6 SAAL, R.: 'Handbook of filter design' (Telefunken, Berlin, 1979)
and L.B. Wolovitz for their useful discussions and sug-
gestions. Li Ping also wishes to thank the Royal Society
and British Telecom for financial support.
176 / E E PROCEEDINGS. Vol. 135, Pt. G, No. 4, AUGUST IVS8

14 3
PAPER 38
1 4 4
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS VOL ."'6. SO " . .111.1 1 S»Sy 1041
TABLE I interpreted here as the maximum total number of packets that

E L E C T R O N I C CHARACTERISTICS OF T H E 8 X S N E U R A L N ' E I ean be transmitted through the crossbar switch without destruc-
tive interference.)
G 0
"* t c 3
Meut Vilue 101 . 70 DV sio E n The statistical estimations reported in Table 11 indicate that an
8 x 8 neural net controller which has the above characteristics is
DUtribntion 54
expected to compute configuration matrices within a period of
120 ns, and with at least 98 percent of average throughput
T A B L E II efficiency.
PERFORMANCE E S T I M A T I O N OF T H E 8 X 8 N E U R A L N E T CONTROLLER
V. CONCLUSIONS
Avoraga rank Avenge Throng hps I Analog Computation
Efficiency
This letter has demonstrated the efficiency of neural networks
S 110a*
to arbitrate the packets at the input of an 8 X 8 crossbar switch
6 U0u with nearly optimal throughput performance. The proposed ar-
4 1009 120u chitecture computes configuration matrices in a lapse of time of
2 100O UOna
approximately 100 ns, with an average throughput efficiency of
at least 98 percent.
The number of neural interconnections of this architecture is
totally optimal configuration matrices, the analog computation of the order of A/ (instead of N for a fully connected neural
3 4
which results from the set of synaptic weights of (4) leads to very net), N being the dimension of the crossbar. This reduction in
satisfactory throughput performance. the number of neural interconnections will facilitate hardware
implementation of the proposed neural net arbitrator with VLSI
IV. REAL-TIME SIMULATION AND OPTIMIZATION OF AN
technology, and perhaps of larger size controllers, e.g., 16x16.
8 x 8 NEURAL NET CONTROLLER
As for the 8x8, the resistance of the larger neural nets can be
Given an arbitrary input request matrix, the problem of maxi- optimized through computer simulations of the real-time evolu-
mizing the throughput of the crossbar reduces to finding numeri- tion of their neurons for various samplings of the input request
cal values for the set of synaptic weights defined in (4), and the matrices.
characteristics of the amplifiers of an N x N neural net which Finally, in view of the simplicity of this architecture, i.e.,
would compute optimal configuration matrices in the least synaptic weights having the same sign a_.d absence of exterjal
amount of time. It is clearly impossible to simulate the analog input currents, an implementation based on opto-electronic or
computation of a configuration matrix for each of the 2" N X N photonic technologies would probably be more suitable for the
binary matrices. For N = 8, there are already of the order of 10" larger size and faster switch controllers.
possible input request matrices. In order to estimate the perfor-
mance of the net, we have generated separate subsets of 500 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
input request matrices by choosing their matrix elements to be The authors are indebted to Dr. S. M. Walters for suggesting
" 1 " with a probability x and "0" with a probability 1 - x. X the problem and for stimulating discussions.
being a positive number between 0 and 1. Within each subset, the
analog computation of a configuration matrix associated to each REFERENCES
input request matrix has been real-time simulated by integrating 11] T. P. Troudet and S. M. Wallers, "Hopfield neural network architecture
for switch control," lo be published.
on a VAX 8650 the set of coupled differential equations (1). The [2] J. J. Hopficld, "Neural networks and physical systems with emergent
selected electronic characteristics of a VLSI implementation of collective computational abilities," in Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, vol.
the neural cells are reported in Table I for the 2-jim CMOS 79, pp. 2554-2558. 1982.
(31 , "Neurons with graded response have collecuve computational
technology. properties tike those of two-state neurons," in Proc. Nail. Acad. Sci.
In Table I , G„, u^ , p and y denote the average gain, offset,
r USA, vol. 81, pp. 3088-3092, 1984.
input resistance and propagation delay of the amplifiers respec- [4) J. J. Hopfield and D. W. Tank, "Neural" computation of decisions in
optimization problems," Biol. Cybern , vol. 52. pp. 141-152, 1985.
tively, and Q is the capacitance per connection. Such a distribu-
tion of the input resistances of the neurons is chosen in order to
break the symmetry of the neuron time-constants so as to en-
hance the performance of the neural dynamics. The TWINTOR in Bandstop Switched-Capacitor
For N = 8, the resistances between neurons of the same row
Ladder Filter Realization
and the same column have been randomly chosen distributed
around 4 kfl within 1 percent. The initial voltages of the "free" L I P I N G A N D J. I. S E W E L L
neurons have been randomly distributed in the interval [-2.5
mV, + 2.5 mV] around the ground potential. The stability of the Abstract — A new design for strays-insensitive bandstop switcbed-eapaci-
analog computation with respect to noise has been tested by tor ( S Q ladder filter structures is introduced. A two channel scheme
simulating, at the input of each inverter, a white noise gaussianly obviates the need for term cancellation in realizing bandstop-type opera-
distributed around 0 V with a standard deviation of 10 jiV. With tors and is less demanding on opamp settling time.
this set of parameters and initial conditions, the time-evolution of
the 8 x 8 neural net controller has been simulated for a period of Manuscript received November 9, 1988. This letter was recommended by
120 ns. The results of the simulation are reported in Table I I for Associate Editor T. R. Viswanathan.
subsets of input request matrices having an average rank of 2, 4, ing.TheUniversity
authors are with the Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineer-
of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, U.K.
6, and 8 respectively. (The rank of an input request matrix being I E E E Log Number 8926456.
0098-4O94/89/070O-lO41$Ol.O0 ©1989 IEEE

1 4 5
1042 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS A N D SYSTEMS. VOL. it,. NO 7. MJLV 1989
entries of the mairices non-negative. It is well known that in the

continuous-time domain a symmetric bandstop function can be
derived from a normalized low-pass one by transformation [5),
(see Fig. 1(b)):
CO y?,„ 4=c, 4c, n 9 l

(2)
with
! = / i d * UI
Substitute (2) into (1) and perform the bilinear transformation

i = 2(l-r-')/r(l + z ' ' ) .
2 1- H.,7" 1 + 2'
2 1-
t ui ur w (JJ
(b)
2 1-
V + G)V=J. (3)
T~ 1-2"
Multiply through (3) by the coefficient of V and rearrange to

give
l
(A-4az- VQT-4>2G) = (-1 +* ) / (4)
where
2
9„ <D/o„ *9 L J
0 - ( ^ - ' - l ) / ( l - z - )
1
4a"' i|i z" J
* - ( 2 - ' - / ! ) / ( l - ;" )
L,
A=a'C+ aT-T-G
with
(c) l
a= a(n
Fig. 1. (a) A Ihird-order normalized low-pass ladder, (b) Low-pass to band-
stop transformation, (c) The signal flowgraph of leapfrog-type simulation. ^-(/i-'-^/U-'+ji).
Topologically, decompose T into
I. INTRODUCTION
T= A D Al
L L (5)
Switched-capacitor (SC) filter structures based on passive lad-
der simulations have attracted much attention because of their where A is an incidence matrix of the inductors in the ladder,
L
low sensitivity properties. However, an instability problem exists D is a diagonal matrix of reciprocal inductance values. With this
L
in the design of bandstop SC ladders by stray-insensitive LDI (4) can be rewritten in the form
integrators [1]. A second-order building block technique has been
AV=Q(A fV + 2GV) + ( - l + Q)J (6a)
proposed in [2] to overcome this difficulty. L
l x T
In this paper a new type of second-order building-block called W = Aa- z- *D A ,y L (6b)

a TWINTOR (TWinned INTegraOR) is introduced for bandstop
A signal flowgraph can be drawn to represent (6), Fig. 1(c)
SC ladder design. The circuit uses two signal channels to directly
which can be replaced by a SC circuit. The frequency-dependent
realize the basic bandstop operators without term cancellations
operators * and 4> given by (4) are realized with a new
[2], and also reduces the required opamp operation speed by a
TWINTOR second-order strays-insensitive biquad scheme. Fig.
factor of two. Either single-inp'H or differential-input integrators
2(a). In a TWINTOR each opamp is operated only in every other
are allowed, giving flexibility for fabrication.
period, T. The charge relations for the circuit of Fig. 2(a) are
II. THE TWINTOR CIRCUIT C [y'(n)-y<(n-2)) = -C x'{n) + C x°(n-l)
e l 2
Following a matrix leapfrog method [3], [4] a passive low-pass when n even (7a)
reference RLC ladder, Fig. 1(a), is described by the nodal admit-
tance matrix equation Q [ / ( » ) - / ( » - 2 ) ] =-C x°(n) + C x'(n-l) 1 2
when n odd. (7b)

|iC + ^r + c j = ^ = / (i)
Therefore, the overall transfer function is given by
where C, I", and C are admittance matrices formed by the
1 C z-'-C, 2
contributions of capacitors, inductors, and resistors, respectively. y(z). •X{z). (8)
The voltage vector V= [u,, - v . u , - i> , • • ] to ensure all the
2 3 4 c, 1-
1 1 r,
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS. VOL. 36. NO. 7. JULY 1 9 8 9 1043
lor y = * x . C , i l , C j = P . C j = 1
for y»(jlx.C,=p.Cj=1.Cj=l
T 2T 3T a 5T 6T
(b)
even
channel
~ ° channel
channel
-0-
5- >odd
channel
(c)
Fig. 2. (a) A TWINTOR circuil. (b) The clock waveform, (c) Two channel
equivalent connectors of TWINTOR's.
Fig. 3. A sixth-order bandslop SC bichannel Titter realization.
2
Notice that the denominator (1 - z~ ) is exactly realized without a ladder structure, some simplifications are possible by separat-
term cancellation. ing signals into two channels, Fig. 2(c). The first equivalence in
It can be seen from Fig. 2(b) that now the clock period is 27* Fig. 2(c) is obvious. For the second equivalence, notice that a
compared to T in a conventional LDI integrator SC circuit. This sampling signal of an even (odd) channel opamp output in a odd
means that the operation speed for the whole circuil, determined (even) period is actually the signal held from the previous period,
by sampling frequency, can be doubled without requiring an l
therefore a delay factor, z~ , is realized. A number of switches
increase in opamp speed. are saved by this two channel technique.
By selecting suitable capacitance values 4> and * can be easily An overall sixth-order bichannel bandstop SC ladder is shown
implemented. When TWINTORS are connected together to form in Fig. 3 with the low-pass RLC ladder of Fig. (la) as reference
14 7
1044 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS A N D SYSTEMS. VOL. .<6. SO. 7. H / I . Y 1S)S9
TABLE I
D E S I G N D A T A FOR THE S I X T H - O R D E R S C BANDSTOP F I L T E R
Specifications fot t h e B a n d s t o p SC F i l t e r
lower p a s s b a n d edge A.5 kHz u p p e r p a s s b a n d edqe

l o w e r s t o p b a n d edqe i.% Vtu u p p e r s t o p b s r . d edge
passband r i p p l e < 0.1 dB stopband a t t e n u a t e
sampling frequency 100 kHz
Noroaliied Data f o r t h e L o w p a s s SC L a d d e r Reference Filter
Gl - GL - 1 CI 0.91646 L.2 0.96995 C2 0.17046 C3 0.916*6
Component V a l u e s for t h e B a n d s t o p SC F i l t e r
CI H.79097 C2 1.414525 C3 \ . 398662 C4 1.614900 C5 1.633215

C6 15.64070 C7 37.44417 C8 37.86882 C9 1.000000 C10 1.141830
Cll 1.154780 C12 10.93656 CIS 37.86304 C14 38.2924% CIS 10.57509
C16 1.011341 C17 1.000000 ClB 1.977572 C19 2.000000 C20 1.000000
nuober of c a p a c i t o r s 40 rtunber o f s w i t c h e s 30
number o f o p araps 6 total capacitance 439.51
capaci tance spread 3 8 . 29
REFERENCES
11] R. Gregorian. K. W . Martin, and G. C. Temes. "Switched-capacilor

circuit design." Proc IEEE. vol. 71. pp. 941-966. Aug. 1983.
-10 j2| C. lkeda. Y . Horio and S. Mori. " S C bilinear band-eliminalion ladder
fillers with extended biquad." Electron. Lett., vol. 24. pp. 432-434. Mar.
1988.
(3) Li Ping and J. I. Sewell. "The L U D approach lo switched capacitor
network design." IEEE Trans Circuits Svsi.. vol. CAS-34. pp. 1611-1614.
-20 -
Dec. 1987.
|4] Li Ping. R. K. Henderson, and J. I. 5 i - . ! l . "Matrix methods for
switchedcapacitor filter design," Proc IEEE ISC/IS. pp. 1021-1024.
CO Espoo. Finland. June 1988.
30 [5] R. Saal, Handbook of Filter Design. Tetefunken. Berlin. Germany. 1979.
(6) T. Hsu and G. T. Temes. "Improved input stage for bilinear swilched-
capacitor ladder filters." IEEE Trans. Circuits SOT., vol. CAS-30. pp
758-760. Oct. 1983.
to
-50 An Improved Search Algorithm for the Design of

Muitiplierless FIR Filters with
Powers-of-Two Coefficients
-60 •
J. I u 1 1 1 1 HENRY SAMUELI
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2l0
4
Frequency (Hz "ID ! Abstract — An improved algorithm is presented for the discrete optimiza-
Fig. 4. Computed response of the SC bandstop filter. tion of F I R digital filter coefficients which are represented by a canonic
signed-digit (CSD) code, i.e., numbers representabte as sums or differ-
ences of powers-of-two. The proposed search algorithm allocates an extra
prototype. The specifications and the component values are listed nonzero digit in the C S D code to the larger coefficients lo compensate for
in Table I . The simulated response of the SC bandstop ladder is the very nonuniform nature of the C S D coefficient distribution This
shown in Fig. 4. A negative input is required to realize the results in a small increase in the filter complexity however the improve-
ment in the frequency response is substantial. The coefficient optimization
constant term in (6a), which may be avoided by the technique
is performed in two stages. The first stage searches for an optimum scale
of (6).
factor and the second stage consists of a local bivariate search in the
neighborhood of the scaled and rounded coefficients.
III. CONCLUSIONS
A new strays-free SC circuit scheme has been proposed for I. INTRODUCTION

bandstop SC ladder design. A major feature of the new circuit is
that the clock period required is 2T so that the circuit can High-speed digital filtering applications (sample rates in excess
operate at a higher speed without extra demands on opamp of 10 MHz) generally require the use of custom application
performance. specific integrated circuits (ASIC's). Programmable signal proces-
sors cannot accommodate such high sample rates without an
Manuscript received November 2, 1988. This work was supported in pan by the
University of California MICRO Program and TRW, Inc. under Grant 87-066. This
ACKNOWLEDGMENT teller was recommended by Associate Editor T. R. Viswanalhan.
The author is with the Integrated Circuits and Systems Laboratory, Electrical
The authors are grateful for the Valuable help from R. K.. Engineering Department, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90024.
Henderson. IEEE Log Number 8926455.
0098-4094/89/0700-1044$01.00 ©1989 IEEE

14 8
PAPER 39
jln°perf@riinasi©e filter m
mmlm systems
L. Ping, BS, MS
Prof. J.I. Sewell, BSc, PhD, CEng, FIEE
Indexing terms: Filters and filtering. Matrix algebra
and pseudopassivity, are proved to be closely related to

Abstract: A unified investigation is presented for the matrix symmetry.
low-sensitivity and limit-cycle-free filter structures. A difference between the topological [8-18] and
It is shown that important properties like matrix approaches is that the former analyses the behav-
boundedness and pseudopassivity are closely iour of local building blocks, whereas the latter examines
related to the symmetry of the system matrix the overall system. The two approaches complement each
description. Negative elements can be incorpo- other to provide insight into the filter design problem.
rated in certain prototypes leading to real advan- The matrix system discussed in this paper can be used
tages in switched-capacitor (SC) realisations. to produce prototypes for various implementations.
Stability and noise problems are also discussed. Detailed realisation methods are discussed elsewhere
According to the realisation, component varia- [20-22]. It is also shown that the symmetric matrix
tions can result in matrix symmetry being main- system is a generalised concept of a passive network,
tained, or more generally, in the introduction of allowing negative elements. Examples will be given to
assymmetry. Sensitivity considerations are out- show that advantages can be gained for SC and digital
lined for both situations. Implementation by simulations.
passive RLC, SC and digital circuits are con- The problem of sensitivity behaviour for asymmetric
sidered. deviations is also investigated. In active-RC or SC imple-
mentations the component deviations may destroy the
symmetry of the system description. From practical
1 Introduction observations the sensitivities of active-RC and SC ladder
simulations are nevertheless very good; this is attributed
There are a number of attractive features about filter
to their multifeedback nature. Sensitivity formulas are
structures derived from passive RLC network simula-
presented which clearly indicate that better performance
tions: they show very low sensitivity in the passband,
is assured by more complete symmetry.
which is an important factor for active-/?C and switched-
capacitor (SC) filter fabrications [1-7]. They can be made
limit-cycle free for digital-filter implementation, as shown 2 Basic c o n c e p t s
for wave structures [8-10], and they usually have better
dynamic range compared with cascade biquads or other The concept of boundedness can be traced back to an
direct-form structures, which can be observed from many observation by Orchard about the low-sensitivity proper-
practical designs. Limit-cycle suppression and better ties of doubly terminated ladders [1].
dynamic range can improve the noise behaviour of the
circuits. Definition I. Boundedness: The transfer function H(P) of
Theories have been proposed to analyse and generalise a system is said to be bounded with respect to the change
the properties of passive ladders and their simulations of a set of parameters, P = {p,}, if there is a positive
[10, 14]. A unified investigation has been proposed in number M and
References 17 and 18 for digital circuits. It was shown
\H(P)\^M (1)
that general low-sensitivity filters can be constructed by
properly connecting LBR (lossless-bounded-real) sec- is always satisfied when P varies within the allowed
tions, which include adaptors for wave digital circuits as range.
specific examples. In general, this approach is mainly When a bounded system is properly designed to make
concerned with the topological point of view. \H(P)\ attain M at a frequency point in the passband
This paper investigates the problem of high-quality jw , then the deviation of P can only cause | H{P) \ to
m
network design based on matrix principles. Attention is decrease. This means that | H(P) | must have zero deriv-
given to the properties of the system descriptions of the ative with respect to any parameter p, at jm , and conse-
m
circuits. It is shown that matrix symmetry is a crucial quently the sensitivity is also zero, i.e.
factor to ensure optimal performance of the systems. Two
concepts considered by many other authors, boundedness Pt S\H(P)\
= 0 at s = jwm (2)
I H(P) | d Pi
Paper 6942G (E10), first received 7th November 1988 and in revised
form 10th July 1989
and it may be reasonably expected that over the whole
The authors are with the Department of Electronics and Electrical
passband the sensitivity will remain small, a reassuring
Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ. United argument used by many other authors for ladders as well
Kingdom as various simulation methods [23-25].
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 136, Pt. G. No. 6. DECEMBER 1989 327
:L 5 0
The generalised concept of pseudopassivity has been 3 Continuous s y m m e t r i c matrix systems

employed in discussion for wave digital filters [10], which
is, in fact, based on the principle of the Lyapunov func- Consider the matrix system of the following form:
tion. Consider a standard state-space system in the con- YV=J (lid)
tinuous domain
with
sX = AX + BJ (3)
sC + s-T + G (Mb)
or in the discrete domain
x
Output functions may be added in the form
X=z~ AX + BJ (4)
y=DV + EJ (12)
Definition 2-. Pseudopassioily: A slate-space system eqn. 3
but only the system in eqn. 11 will be considered, since
or 4 is said to be pseudopassive if
sensitivity and noise problems arise mainly from the feed-
T
e(t) = x (t)x(t) (5) back loops in eqn. 11.
Eqn. 11 is a generalised form of the standard state-
is a monotonically decreasing function for any initial space equation (eqn. 3). Indeed, eqn. 11 is reduced to eqn.
value JC(0) = X with 7 = 0. (For a discrete system x{t) is
0
3 when T = 0. Alternatively, eqn. 11 can always be rear-
examined at a discrete instance, i.e. f = nT). ranged into the form of eqn. 3 by introducing some inter-
e(f) can be seen as an energy function and it is always mediate variables. However, the advantage of using the
decreasing for a pseudopassive system without excitation. system description of eqn. 11 is that optimal performance
The pseudopassive property in a discrete system is can be achieved by imposing some simple conditions
important for the suopression of parasitic oscillations. If
(notably symmetry) on the matrix. If the matrices in eqn.
the input 7 = 0, the s.ate-space variables x(nT), and so all
3 are constrained to be symmetric, then the system can
the variables, in a stable digital system (eqn. 4) will
only have real poles, which is too restrictive for most
approach zero regardless of ihe initial state in the ideal
applications.
linear case. However, when the necessary quantisations
are adopted in a digital filter, x(nT) may oscillate and The most convenient way to set up the system in eqn.
take nonzero values due to nonlinear effects, which may 11 is the formulation of the network equations (nodal,
even cover the entire number range in the filter when loop or hybrid) of a general passive RLC ladder, designed
overflow occurs. These parasitic oscillations, so-called either by a synthesis process or with the help of tables. It
limit cycles, can be avoided if the discrete system is can be easily shown that in this case all the matrices of
pseudopassive and magnitude rounding for quantisation eqn. 1 lb can be made non-negative if nodal or loop for-
of x(nT) is adopted. In magnitude rounding, a number a mulations are used. For more general cases, an opti-
is truncated to a finite number of bits Q[a], with misation procedure can be used to adjust the entries of
1Q\_a] | ^ | a |. Let Q[JT] denote the vector of x after mag- the matrices of eqn. 11 to make the transfer function fit
nitude rounding, and suppose in a pseudopassive system the prescribed specifications. In this case conditions are
(eqn. 4) that these are the only quantisation operations, required for testing the stability of the resulting system.
then according to eqn. 5
3.1 Critical stability
r
e W"T)]eWnT)] < x (nT)x(nT) T
H Q\x({n - 1)T)] It can be shown that the system in eqn. 11 is critically
stable if C, T and G are all symmetric non-negative. Let
x Q[x((n - 1)7)] «: x((n - l)7)jr((n - 1)7) sj • • • (6) \Sm = Cm + j D . j be the set of roots of det Y(s) of eqn. 11
Therefore, if x(nT) -* 0 in the ideal case, then in the non- det(s*C + s G + r ) = 0 m (13)
ideal case it will still approach zero. This will completely
suppress limit cycles [10, 18]. So there is a non-zero vector X which satisfies [27] the
The second norm of a matrix A is given by [27] equation
2
x A Ax 1 7 X*(s C + s G + r)X = 0
m m (14)
Mil = max — f (7) (X* denotes the transposed conjugate of X) or
1*0 x x
The time-domain equation (eqn. 4) gives (when 7 = 0) 2

as + bs + c = 0
m m (15)
x(n) = Ax(n - 1) (8) with
Hence, from eqns. 7 and 8 a necessary and sufficient con- a = X*CX b = X*GX c = X*TX (16)
dition for pseudopassivity is
As C, G and T are all definite non-negative, a, b and c are
Mil £ 1 (9) all non-negative numbers [27]. But in this case, eqn. 15
has no roots with
In this case
T T Re ( s j = <r > 0 (17)
x \n + k)x{n + &)$•••«£ x (n)x(n) m
That is, the system in eqn. 11 has no poles in the right-

T
= x (n - \)A Ax(n T
- I K x (n - \)x{n - I) (10)
r
haif plane if C, T and G are all symmetric non-negative.

It has been proved on a topological basis that the condi-
tion in eqn. 9 is met by wave, normalised-lattice and LBR 3.2 Absolute stability
structures [18], and the same concept has been used in The absolute stability condition for the system in eqn. 11
the design of second-order 'minimum norm' building is that <r < 0 for all in. Therefore, some extra constraints
m
blocks [19]. In Section 4 it will be shown that higher should be added to ensure that no roots lie on the ima-
order networks, based on a symmetric matrix decomposi- ginary axis. This can be checked by evaluating
tion approach, can also be designed to meet this condi- det | Y(jw) |. In most cases the system in eqn. 11 is
tion. designed to realise a transfer function H(s) which has no
328 I EE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 136, Pi. G, No. 6, DECEMBER 1989
15 1
poles on the imaginary axis. If the system is properly From eqns. 27 and 28
designed without redundancy so that the order of the
V*G V=iJ*R J
system is equal to the order of H[s\ or in other words it aM in
is observable from the output, then it will have no poles -{J* - 2y*GjRjJ (29)
on the imaginary axis either, as in this case H{s) and the
system have the same set of poles. If G,„ is non-negative, then from eqn. 24 / f is also non- in
The non-negative property of the symmetric matrices negative, which means that (7* - 2 Y'GJRjJ - 2G K| in
C, T and G can be easily tested. For instance, decompose is a non-negative number. Theorem 1 follows from eqn.
Cinto symmetric L U form [28] 29 immediately.
C=L D LJ (18) 3.4 Boundedness for terminated reactance network

C C
Eqn. 23 is a general expression which can be applied to
where D ~\& a diagonal matrix. C is non-negative if, and
c multi-input/output systems. To provide some insight of
only if, all the entries of D are non-negative. The compu- c its physical meaning, consider the special case of a single-
tational requirement for this test is nearly equal to per- input/output system. Suppose eqn. 11 has only one input
forming Gaussian elimination. J = [ J , , 0, 0] and one output t;„. G,„ and G have QM
only one non-zero diagonal entry, respectively, corre-

3.3 Boundedness
sponding to the input and output, i.e.
From network topology it is known that the output
power of a doubly terminated ladder is bounded by G = diag (
in 9 l l , 0 , 0, . . . , 0 ) (30a)
maximum input power, a reasonable fact since a passive
ladder cannot create power within itself. This result can C , = diag (0, 0
ou 0, g j (30fc)
also apply to the system in eqn. 11 in a more abstract Then /?,„ can be generated by
sense. Let eqn. 11 be evaluated on the imaginary axis
s = jm and denote / f = diag (3,7.0, 0
in 0) (31)
Q = wC-cu-'r 19) Therefore, in this case eqn. 29 is reduced to
The system can be written as 1

2
. K f = [l " H -2 9 n [ > /J,| ]
L IAI 2
(32)
YV = (jQ + G)V = J (20) 40,,
Suppose matrix G in eqn. 11 can be separated according

to input and output parts, respectively,
(33)
G = G +G in 0M (21)
Then eqn. 20 can be written as
jQV+G ,y+G „V=J m i (22)
(34)
We first prove a general relation. 2(y,,9„„) TTJI-M
A typical example of the system constrained by the con-
Theorem I: Assume that in eqn. 11 ditions of eqn. 30 is a doubly terminated ladder (Fig. 1),
(i) G X = J has at least one solution
in
(ii) all matrices are symmetric non-negative.

Then the following inequality holds:
y*G v^y*R j
om i (23)
where R is the Moore-Penrose inverse of G,„.
in
Proof: According to Moore-Penrose's theories [28, 29],

R is defined by
in
Fig. 1 Terminated LC ladder passive prototype

r r
(24)
(G,„ RJ = G K,„ {R G,„) = R G„
h in in
in which case (eqn. 11) are its nodal equations with input
and X = R J is a solution of G,„ X = J. if it has a solu-
s in
and output nodes labelled l and M, respectively. The
tion at all, which means physical meaning of eqn. 32 can be seen by rewriting it as
G,„ R,J = J (25) 2
9„„|fJ = [ l - | p l ] 9 r , ' U i l / 4 2 2
(35)
Now multiply eqn. 11 by V* with p defined by
j y*Q y + y* Gou V + V*G- V = V*J m (26) p = l - 2g v /J n 1 l (36)
Take the real part of eqn. 26 Consider a passive ladder with the source resistor being
r a n
n = 9ii d input impedance of the two-port ladder
y*G y=Re{
am y*j} - y*G y in (27) including the load is z = y[„ 1
jn
Notice from eqns. 24 and 25

-
2gu
V*R,„J - (J* - 2y*G )RJJ - 2G „n]/4 2g 'i/î = I
u
in 1
y + 01,
in
= [2J*R G y- in in 2y*G R J m m - 4^G „/f,„G,„K]/4

i
(37)
= Re { y*J] — y*G y in (28) Yin + 011 + z,-.
/££ PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 136, Pi. G, No. 6, DECEMBER 1989 329
15 2
So p is just the reflection function and the upper bound tributioti to Y of a branch admittance jq between nodes k
of | r „ | is attained at p = 0. This result is well known in a. b be jq \ f . where

k a h
network theory.
In the proof of the boundedness, no condition has
been imposed on C and T except that they must be sym-
metric and non-negative. Accordingly, zero-sensitivity (43)
with respect to symmetric deviation can be achieved at
the frequency points where the transfer function attains
its upperbound.
So
4 Sensitivity formulas dY,'dq =jM (441
k ah
The above result provides only an estimation of sensi- ft is easily seen that
tivity for symmetric deviations. More general sensitivity
T 2 1
formulas are now derived. To simplify the problem, only y M y=v
ab k and VM y=\v \ab k (45)
single-input/output system will be considered.
where v is the voltage across jq .
k k Then eqns. 41a and b
Suppose a single-input/output system meets the condi-
are reduced to
tions of theorem 1 and eqn. 30. Let the system in eqn. 1 la
be excited by another arbitrary input K instead of J and dvjdq t = (2g„„! v„ \)~'(-fpv 2
k + |v | ) k
2
(46a)
let the response be U. The system can be written as
and
(38)
d\v„\ldq k = (2g„ \ \y> n K Im [>n (46b)
then the output of the new system is related to the old
system by Eqn. 46b is zero at the frequency points where p = 0 or
equivalently \v„ \ attains maximum bound. This is just the
u„ = (2g„„vj-'CpY T
- Y*)K (39)
well known zero-sensitivity property for doubly terminat-
C indicates conjugate). The derivation of eqn. 39 is given ed ladders. An alternative derivation of eqn. 46 based on
in Appendix 10.1. a topological approach is given elsewhere [31].
4.1 Sensitivity formulas 4.3 Application to digital and active networks

Differentiate eqn. 11a w.r.t. some network element c, to In the following Sections it will be shown that the system
get in eqn. 11 can be simulated by digital or active networks.
For digital simulations, even in non-ideal cases, it is still
YdV/d£, + YdY/dQ=0 (40) possible to keep deviations in Y symmetric by carefully
Here the second term can be viewed as the new input selecting the coefficient quantisations, so the zero-
vector for eqn. 38 and we have sensitivity property can be preserved. For active-/?C and
SC simulations, it is difficult to keep deviations of Y sym-
Theorem 2: metric, since the element value drift is a random pheno-
menon. The component drift may cause the equivalent
T
dvJdQ = (2g „-v„) \ - p V
n + y*) dY/di y (41a) system description (eqn. 11) to become nonsymmetric, so
that the output may exceed the bound given by eqn. 23
and
or 34. However, in practical active-RC or SC implemen-
d>„|/<i£ = Re [t„ dvJd^lM tations, low sensitivity is still observed, a property due to
the multifeedback nature of the structures. Eqns. 41a and
= (2g „\v„\r>
a R e [ ( - p ^ + y*)dY/dtn (41b) b are valid for these general cases.
In particular, if the deviation of { only perturbs the ima-
ginary part of Y, jX say, and dY/dS, = j dX/di is sym-
metric, then
T
5 Discrete s y m m e t r i c matrix s y s t e m s
d\v„\/dc = (2g„ | P. | ) " ' Re [ - j p V dX/dc, V
n
The results in the previous Section can be readily

+ j\y* dxid^yn
extended to the discrete domain if a bilinear transform-
= (2g„\v \)- m
1
Re[-jpy T
dX/d£ ation is applied to the system in eqn. 11
1 T
= -Uyjujr \m{ y P dXId^y] (42) YV - J (47a)
So d 11-„ | jdi, = 0 when p = 0. This again confirms the with
conclusion for single-input/output system, that \v„\
attains its upper bound and has zero-sensitivity at p - 0, Y="VC+"V T + C (47b)
if the deviation is symmetric.
where
4.2 Application to passive networks

When the system in eqn. 11 is implemented by a real
passive RLC network, i e {R , L,, C,} and dY/dc is
t Eqn. 47 can be rearranged as
always symmetric. Then a very simple alternative to the
2 2
topological derivation of sensitivity follows: let the con- (P+ :->() +z~ R)V = {\ -z~ )J (48a)
330 ;t'£ PROCEEDINGS. Vol. 136. Pi. G. No. 6. DECEMBER 1989

15 3
with manipulation of eqns. 50 and 53a gives

I 2 T
P = 11 c + y r +G r
AA
I j c + 1 r + c
2 T
'-<fc-Ir (486) - c + ^-r
T 2
+G 154)
2
^. T From eqns. 51 and 54 it can be seen that the following
J? c + r relationships hold when J = [ 0 ] :
r 2
T T r T
x [n\A Ax[n\ = .v (ii).r(n) r (n)Gv{n) (55«)
which can be seen as a generalised form of the standard
state-space equation (eqn. 4), by introducing a second- T
If G is non-negative, then v [n\Gv{n) is a non-negative
order term. number, and therefore
As bilinear transformation will keep the stability pro- T T r
perty and map the imaginary axis in the s domain to the x {n)A Ax(n) < jr (n)x(n) 155b)
unit circle in the z domain, it is easy to show: no matter what the value of x(n). The theorem follows
from eqns. 7 and 9. Incidentally, from eqn. 54 it can be
Remark: The system in eqn. 47 has no poles outside the seen that matrix A is orthogonal if G — [ 0 ] .
i a T
unit circle z = e if C, T and G are all symmetric non- Conditions for the continuous time-domain systems
negative and has the same boundedness and sensitivity have no direct practical applications; however, for com-
properties as indicated by theorems 1 and 2, except that pleteness a derivation is given in 10.2 Appendix.
Jt r
eqn. 47 is evaluated on the unit circle z = e ° .
As indicated in Section 2, the pseudopassive property

6 Circuit implementations
is of particular interest for discrete systems in order to
suppress parasitic oscillations. Consider the problem of In the previous Sections effort has been given to the
constructing a pseudopassive state-space system from investigation of the theoretical properties of symmetric
eqn. 47, which can be written in an equivalent form matrix systems (eqn. 11) and their discrete form (eqn. 47).
Now the circuit implementations of these systems by
(1 C + \ T + G)V various techniques, general RLC networks, active-RC, SC
and digital networks, are considered. The discussion is
brief as RLC and wave circuit designs are well known
2 -2z" ^ T 2z" 1
and matrix methods for circuit design have presented in

c +
2 ~ r }V = J (49) other recent publications.
Let C and T be decomposed into symmetric forms
6.1 General passive RLC implementations
i i r
— r — i i T
(50a) Eqn. 11 can always be derived from a nodal-voltage or
T ^c^c 2 i
r L
r loop-current formulation of a passive RLC network. In a
nodal-voltage approach the contribution of every com-
ponent is indicated by eqn. 43. The reverse procedure,
Define 2z~ from an equation with symmetric non-negative matrices
L c
X c + z" to a network, is not always possible unless negative
(50b) element values are allowed. Advantage can be gained by
X= Xr. -2z"
permitting negative elements [ 7 ] , as regular structures
1 - z" easier for fabrication may result. According to the last
From eqns. 49 and 50 Section, negative elements would not appear to cause any
special sensitivity problems.
C+-T+G [i i ] + J (51)
c r
6.2 Active - RC circuit implementations
Let matrices C and T in eqn. 11 be decomposed into the
Substituting eqn. 51 into eqn. 50 we get a state-space
form, C=L Ll[, T = L L[. Then eqn. 11 can be
description c r
written as the left-LUD form

X = z-'AX + (52)
L W=
C —(s" ' T + G)V + J (56a)
with LlV - (56b)
A = 2' £ ?
Y - c ^ ir + G\ [I I ] + or the right-LUD form
+ c r
T +
_-L j\T 2 UsC + G)V= -L U+J r (57a)
(53a) l J
{ U=s- L V v (57b)
C+-T+G (53/3) Both eqns. 56 and 57 can be realised directly by active-

(I RC circuits. Every non-zero entry is realised by a corre-
sponding element. To illustrate the implementation
Theorem 3: \\A\\ ^ 1 if C, T and Gare non-negative. technique, consider a typical row equation in eqn. 56a
Proof: First, only if C and T are both non-netative can Crii.i-i) + 'el,-. ,))*'.• = + Vii.i)f (
the decompositions of eqn. 5 be carried out. Substantial ,

+ /ii.i+o .+ i ] + l,
+ J> (58)
f £ £ PROCEEDINGS. Vol. 136. Pt. G. No. 6. DECEMBER 1989 331
1 5 4
1 This can be represented by a signal-flow graph (SFGl

-j ° • 1
(Fig. 2«l and the corresponding active circuit. (Fig. 2b).
i 1
The overall active-RC simulations of the passive proto-
W . O
c ow
type (Fig. I ) are shown in Figs. 2c and d.
In an example of sensitivity analysis for a right-LUD
form (eqn. 57), i corresponds to a single entry c in C. (j
then from eqn. 41a
T
1 / 1 dvjdc,, = (2y„v,r\-f>V + V*)jm dCdc V
1
= (2<J„„[~„r ' M - p V i V j + Vfi-j) 159)
V
1 .1 Similar formulas can be derived in the same way for
other elements.
1 (..I For the lowpass case, the right-LUD system (eqn. 57)
J: O I results in identical circuit structures to those derived
c It 1 from a leapfrog approach. The left-LUD simulation (eqn.
-oW
56) has a significant advantage for elliptic transfer func-
tions in that there are no capacitor-coupled op amp
loops in the circuit implementation. The right-LUD
simulation may produce such loops, and high-frequency
1 oscillations may exist in these loops, resulting in undesir-
D I.I
able noise problems.
6.3 Switched capacitor circuit implementations

1 Eqn. 47 is equivalent to
-
c1 2 c
r ^ i
8
n^ 10
/
\P + 4
-1
;
z~ l
-T r + 2
\
rG V
II
r, c, c c«
II c,„
II
n
7 c
=
1 + z''
T T 7 ^ Y
< > 60
As matrix P is always symmetric, it can be decomposed

into the form
12T G I T 1 C13TG10
1 T
P=L L p p (61)
Similar to active-RC design, eqn. 60 can be written in the

left-LUD form
4 c, c .4c. c / 4 c 11 L
' W =
- ( j ~ ~ i \ T + 2 G
) V + ( X + Z ) J 62fl
< >
I I II
7 L y
l = yr^ w 62b
( >
or the right-LUD form (with L L\ = T/2 V) r
out
PV= -~^— (L U
l r + GV)+ ' _' J + Z
(63a)
1- z 1
1— z
2
c 3
V = ^—nL\V (63b)
12 c A A 13 1— z
A number of new realisations have been derived in Refer-

CO
ences 20-21. Here only an application of adopting nega-
V
1
8 10
tive elements in the prototype design is discussed. When
the prototype relation (eqn. 11) is produced by nodal-
Fig. 2
1 11 a SFG representation of a continuous domain equation
b Corresponding active-RC realisation
c Left-LUD type active-RC realisation
d Right-LUD type active-RC realisation
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol 136, Pi. G, No. 6, DECEMBER 1989

voltage simulation of a passive ladder, matrix P. given by duced bv these series branches and are aiven bv
eqn. 48, is generally not diagonal. The design procedures
according to eqn. 62 or 63 require cross-coupling capa- - 1 _4_
(65)
citors to realise the non-zero off-diagonal entries of P. T 1
However, in an all-pole case, negative elements can be

A response error is thereby incurred, but this can be
introduced to simplify the circuit structure. If every
eliminated in the approximation procedure, by placing
series-inductor branch L, in a Chebyshev ladder has a
transmission zeros on the real axis. Examples of a right-
parallel negative capacitor, C,, added according to the
LUD SFG and SC circuit are shown in Fig. 3b and c.
relation 1
The input stage is modified to realise r " ' ; ( l - r " ) - The
resulting distortion is compensated, together with that
C
11 (64) caused by real zeros. The response is shown-in-Fig; 4. i f
7 < 2%
This is shown by dotted lines in Fig. 3a. Then, from eqn. f r e q u e n c y , kHz
48f>, it can be verified that the off-diagonal entries of C 2 3
.0 1
•0.5
- 0 9 j-
/'-'21"22 \ F
/- 32 33 / P
\ cn j
"D i
I — s 2g *
i
1 1 1 1
h 1 P
1 1-—' 33
11 L7 P
22
-2.1
Fig. 4 Simulated response of the circuil in Fig. J C
the off-diagonal entries of P are not zero, then the dotted

branches in the SFG and the SC circuit would be
required. Notice that in this lowpass case the right-LUD
structure corresponds with that produced by a leapfrog
approach.
6.4 Digital implementations
Cl6 c 6
c 7 C13 6.4.1 Matrix method: Eqn. 52 has already given one
II II 11 II
II H II II realisation of the system (eqn. 47). Direct implementation
\
r ,L° ]
'o
I' I of the multiplication of X and U by A and B can require
a high number of multiplications and additions, as
usually A and B are full matrices. If A and B are decom-
Fig. 3 posed according to eqn. 53, the multiplications of A and
a Terminated all-pole LC ladder prototype B are then carried out by a sequence of multiplications
Component values Tor normalised ladder by factors. Efficiency is achieved by taking into consider-
C, =0.93106 C , - -0.073694 L , = 1.4326
C = 1.9453 C, = -0.071313 L. = 1.4804
ation matrix sparsity. Numerical methods, such as L U
3
C, = 1.5760 j , , = g„ = 1 factorisation, can be employed in the multiplications by

1
b Leapfrog {or right-LUD) simulation (2/T C + T/2 T + G)- (Fig. 5a). This method could have
advantages for implementation on concurrent array pro-
cessors. However, for conventional single-processor
implementation an excessive number of multiplications
are required.
c Leapfrog SCF simulation of the circuit in Fig. 3 A Digital structures can also be derived from eqn. 62,
Capacitance . ilues for the SC ladder
C, = C, = C = C , , = £",,= I
1 0
since there are no delay-free loops in the corresponding
C, = 3410 C , = 1.658 C, = 1.352 signal-flow graph (Fig. 5b). This approach has advantages
C , = 3.125 C = 1.194 C , = 1.846
T concerning the properties of sensitivity behaviour, paral-
C, = 4029 C , , = 1.925 C = 1 769
C = 1.072 C = 1.547
1 4 1 0
1 3
lelism and the ability to be pipelined [22]. However, no
efficient way to suppress parasitic oscillation for this type
and T will cancel each other and make P diagonal. This of structure has yet been found. As pseudopassivity is
will remove the coupling capacitor in the simulation and only a sufficient condition for limit-cycle suppression, a
save on the fabrication cost. However, zeros are intro- possible solution should not be ruled out.
IEE PROCEEDINGS. Vol. 136. Pi. G. No. 6. DECEMBER 1989 333

15 6
input vector" 6.4.2 Topological method: As indicated above, the

prototype system (eqn. II) can always be realised by a
general passive RLC ladder. Consequently, a indirect
realisation of system (eqn. 47) can be
(i) determine eqn 11 from eqn. 47 according to the
bilinear transformation relationship
(ii) construct a general passive circuit from eqn. 11
(iii) design a wave digital circuit from the general
passive circuit.
In Appendix 10.3 it is shown that the rounding of wave
2z-
1 .z-1
variables is equivalent to the rounding of the stale vari-
— ables given by eqn. 50 to keep the pseudopassivity pro-
perty of the system. This agrees with the early theories of
wave circuits using the property of adaptors. It can also
be shown that the wave approach represents a special
decomposition of matrices A, B in a topological way.
T L The results of this paper can also be applied to the
circuits containing not only adaptors. For example, a
output vector
standard wave circuit may require a excessive number of
delays [25]. Techniques have been proposed for the
input vector design of wave filters with a canonical number of delays
J [9], resulting in a circuit structure which does not follow
the rules of the connection of adaptors [25]. But, accord-
ing to the discussion of Section 5 and Appendix 10.3,
4l provided rounding is carried out at the points where
-(1.2 )/2
wave variables can be accessed, limit cycles can still be
suppressed.
It is interesting to point out that the discrete system
(eqn. 47) can be rearranged into two equivalent forms,
that of eqn. 49 and that of eqn. 60. Using these two differ-
ent forms as the basis of derivation produces two major
families of circuits, wave [8] and L D I [11]. In wave
approaches the basic frequency-dependent factors are
1 l
- z " 7 ( l - z " ) and z " ' / ( I + z~ ) (Appendix 10.3). On
2
G
-22-1 the other hand, in L D I approaches the basic frequency-
1-2-1 1-2-1 1 1
! |
dependent factors are —1/(1 - z " ) and z " ' / ( • — z " ) , as
shown in eqn. 60 which can be seen as a stable and exact
LDI-type realisation. The system expression of eqn. 49
involves matrices P, C and T, whereas that of eqn. 60
involves matrices P, T and G. Usually, matrix C is more
complicated than G. Therefore, implementation based on
eqn. 60 may result in simpler structures. However, no
output vector simple method for oscillation suppression has been found
for standard LDI-type [11-12] digital structures nor for
the exact structures based on eqn. 60. Therefore, struc-
tures based on eqn. 49 are suitable for digital design, if
both sensitivity and noise due to number-truncation-
induced oscillations are considered. Realisations based
V X
on eqn. 60 are interesting for other discrete systems, in
particular for SC filter design, due to the fact that the two
L D I factors coincide with the transfer functions of a pair
of stray-insensitive integrators, resulting in efficient fabri-
cations [6].
7 Conclusions
A family of low-sensitivity/noise systems have been

Fig. 5
studied for both continuous and discrete filter design. It
a Block realisation of wave-related structure
b Block realisation of LDI-relaled structure
is shown that symmetric matrix systems can be designed
c Realisation of frequency-dependent factors with optimal performance. Sensitivity can be minimised if
the deviation of component values is kept symmetric,
a r- ' * which is possible for a digital-filter design by carefully
selecting the coefficient truncations. In fact, it can be
proved that for some structures like wave circuits the
coefficient truncations will always result in symmetric
deviations.
334 I EE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 136, Pi. G, No. 6, DECEMBER 1989

For active-KC and SC circuits, asymmetric deviations and switched-capacitor' (Prentice-Hall. Lnglewood Gill's. New
may occur. Efficient sensitivity analysis and optimisation Jersey. USA. 19811
can thus be carried out utilising theorem 2. 25 A N T O N I O U . A.: Digital filters: analysis and design' (McGraw-Hill
Inc.. New York. 19791
The matrix decomposition method for filter design is 26 C H E N . W . K . : Applied graph iheor\' (North-Holland. Amsterdam,
the subject of continuing research and other articles will The Netherlands. 19761
describe the application of these theoretical studies to the 27 W I L K I N S O N . J.H.: The algebraic eigenvalue problem' (Oxford
practical synthesis of traditional and novel circuit struc- University Press. 1965)
28 MORRIS. J.L.: 'Computational methods in elementary numerical
tures. analysis' Uohn Wiley & Sons Ltd.. 19831
29 A L B E R T . A.: 'Regression and the Moore-Penrose pseudoinverse'
8 Acknowledgments (Academic Press New York, 19721
30 RAO. C.R.. and M I T R A . S.K.: 'Generalized inverse of matrices and
The authors wish to thank R.K.. Henderson for useful dis- its application' (John W i l e & Suns Lid.. New York. I 9 7 i i
31 O R C H A R D , H.J.. TEMES. G C . and C A E A L T E P E . T.: 'Sensitivity
cussions and suggestions. Mr. Ping also wishes to thank
formulas for terminated lossless two-ports'. / £ £ £ Trans., 1985.
the Royal Society and British Telecom for financial CAS-32, (51. pp. 459^166
support.
10 Appendix
9 References
10.1 Derivation of the perturbed system output
1 O R C H A R D , H.J.: 'Induclorless filters'. Electron. Lett.. June 1966, 2, equation
pp. 224-225
2 A N T O N I O U , A.: 'Realisation of gyrators using operational ampli-
Commence with
fiers and their use in RC-active network synthesis'. Proc. / £ £ , 1969, YU = K (66)
126,(11), pp. 1838-1850
3 G I R L I N G , F . E J . , and G O O D . E . F . : Active filters: part 12. The
leapfrog or active ladder synthesis', Wireless World, July 1970, 76,
Left multiply by V* gives
pp. 341-345 V*YU= V*K (67)
4 G I R L I N G . F.E.J., and G O O D , E . F . : Active fillers: part 13. Appli-
cation of active ladder synthesis'. Wireless World, September 1970. Note that when J is a real vector
76, pp. 445-450 T
5 L E E , M.S.. and C H A N G , C . : 'Switched-capacitor filters using the [V*Y) = YV = {)Q + G)V

L D I and bilinear transformations', / £ £ £ Trans., 1981, CAS-28, (4),
pp. 265-270 = -(-}Q + G)V + 2GP
6 G R E G O R I A N , R., M A R T I N , K.W., and T E M E S , G . C . : 'Switched-
capacitor circuil design', Proc. IEEE, 1983, 71, (8), pp. 941-966
= 2GV - /
7 S I G G , R.P.. K A E L I N , A., M U R A L T , A , B L A C K , W . C , and
M O S C H Y T Z , G.S. JR.: 'Automated S C generation with a C M O S
= (2îit', - J „ 0 , . . . , 0 , 2g vf
m
gate-anay type filler chip'. Proceedings of ISCAS, Espoo, Finland, T

= (pJ^0 0. 2g„„-v„) (68)
June 1988, pp. 1725-1728
8 F E T T W E I S , A.: Digital filler structure related to classical filter net- Substitute eqn. 68 into eqn. 67 and make some rearrange-
works'. Arch. Elektr. Uebertrag.. 1971, 25, (2), pp. 78-89 ment to get
9 F E T T W E I S . A.: 'Canonic realisation of wave digital filters'. Int. J.
Circuil Theory Appl., 1975. 3, (4), pp. 321-332 2g v„u -pJ u
m n i i + y*K = 0 (69)
10 F E T T W E I S , A : 'Wave digital filters: theory and practice. Proc.
IEEE. February 1986, 74,(21, pp. 270-326 Again left multiplying eqn. 66 by V and noticing that
r
11 B R U T O N , L.T.: 'Low sensitivity digital ladder filters', / £ £ £ Trans., V Y = r = [ J „ 0 , . . . , 0 ] we have
1975, CAS-22,(3). pp. 168-176 T T r
12 T U R N E R , L . E . , and R A M E S H . B.K : Low sensitivity digital L D I V K= V YU=J U=J u l 1 (70)
ladder filter with elliptic magnitude response", / £ £ £ Trans., 1986,
CAS-33,|7), pp. 697-706
Eqn. 39 follows by substituting eqn. 70 into eqn. 69.
13 G R A Y , A.H., JR., and M A R K E L , J.D.: Digital lattice and ladder 102 Continuous time-domain pseudopassive systems
filter synthesis', / £ £ £ Trans.. AU-21, (12), pp. 491-500
14 G R A Y , A.H., JR.: 'Passive cascaded lattice digital filters', IEEE
We first show that a continuous time system (eqn. 3) is
T
Trans.. 1980, CAS-27, (5), pp. 337-344 pseudopassive if -(A + A ) is non-negative. Set J = 0 in
15 D E W I L D E , P , and D E P R E T T E R E . E : Orthogonal cascade reali- eqn. 11. Then the time-domain solution is given by
zation of real multiport digital fillers'. Int. J. Circuit Theory Appl.,
1980,8, pp. 245-277 x{t) = exp (At)x 0 (71)
16 B U T T E R W E C K . H.J., V A N M E E R . A C P.. and V E R K R O O S T ,
G.: 'New second-order digital filter section without limit cycles',
where x is the initial value vector. Take the derivative of
0
T
/ £ £ ' £ Trans., 1984, CAS-31, (2), pp. 141-146 e(t) = x [t)x{t)
17 V A I D Y A N A T H A N , P.P., and M I T R A , S.K.: Low passband sensi- T T T T
tivity digital filters: a general viewpoint and synthesis procedure'.

de/dt = x exp (At) (A + A )t exp (A t)x 0 (72)
Proc. / £ £ £ , 1984, 72, (4), pp. 404-423 e(x(t)) is monotonically decreasing if de/dt ^ 0, or equiva-
18 V A I D Y A N A T H A N , P.P., and M I T R A , S.K.: Passivity properlies
lent^, the system in eqn. 11 is pseudopassive if
of low-sensitivity digital filler structures', / £ £ £ Trans.. 1985, T
CAS-32, (3|, pp. 217-224 — {A + A ) is non-negative.

l
19 B A R N E S , C.W., and F A M , A T . : 'Minimum norm recursive digital Let a state space system X = s~ AX + L^J be con-
filters that are free of overflow limit cycles', / £ £ £ Trans.. 1977, structed from eqn. 11 by
CAS-24, (10), pp. 569-574
20 P I N G , L , and S E W E L L , J.I.: 'The L U D approach to switched X c
capacitor network design', IEEE Trans., 1987. CAS-34, (12), pp. X = (73)
1611-1614
21 P I N G , L , H E N D E R S O N , R.K., and S E W E L L . J.I.: Matrix with
methods for swiiched-capacitor filter design'. Proceedings of I E E E
ISCAS. Espoo. Finland, June 1988, pp. 1021-1024 C = (74a)
22 P I N G . L., and S E W E L L , J.I.: 'Filter realisation by passive circuit
simulations', Proc. IEE C. 1988, 135,(4). pp. 167-176 and
23 S E D R A . A S, and B R A C K E T ! ' , P.O : Filter theory and design T
active and passive' (Portland. O R . USA, Matrix, 1978)

Lc'GLc
A = IT f T (14b)
24 G H A U S I . M.S.. L A K E R , K.R.: Modern filter design: active R C 0
IEE PROCEEDINGS. I'ol. 1.16. Pt C , No. 6. DECEMBER 198V 335

It is easily seen that According to the definition of wave variables: incident
wave vectors are
r
-{A + A ) = 2 (751
0 0
is non-negative. The pseudopassivity of eqn. 73 follows

immediately.
10.3 Wave variables

When eqn. 11 is derived f r o m a passive ladder by nodal and reflected wave vectors are
f o r m u l a t i o n , the matrices can be generated by topological
means [ 2 6 ] Wch = V - [- D ) l
c c c
T
C = ADA C C C (76«)
•>•->
T = A D Al
v r (766) - A l - Y = : l
W c l
(80a)
where D and D care diagonal branch-admittance r
matrices w i t h entries consisting of the corresponding

capacitance or inverse inductance values. A and A are C T
the corresponding incidence matrices. Let V , / , V and c c T
/ be vectors of the voltages and currents of the capac-

r
(806)
itance and inductani : branches, respectively, then the 1 - .
voltage vectors are related to the nodal-voltage vector V
by By comparing eqns. 50, 76 and 80 it can be found that
yc = T
A V
C (77a) 2
x'(n)x(n) = - O >»' «(")
c c
V T = A\V (lib)
The current vectors are related to the nodal-voltage

vector by + »f.l»)yflr»r«(») (81)
2 1 T When the branch admittance matrices D and D are

-DA V
X C C (78a) c r
T 1+ z diagonal w i t h positive element values, the magnitude

r o u n d i n g of h' and >v w i l l have the same effect as
cr rR
1
T 1 + *~ magnitude r o u n d i n g on x(n) to cause a reduction of
(786) T
x {n)x(n).
336 IEE PROCEEDINGS. Vol. 136. Pi. G. No. 6. DECEMBER 1989

1 5 9
PAPER 40
16 0
400 M H z SWITCHING RATE GaAs behaviour and stability in all switching states. The filter archi-
SWITCHED CAPACITOR FILTER tecture is shown in Fig. 1. where capacitors C,,. C and C f c
have been introduced as a result of the optimisation pro-

cedure.
Indexing terms: Fillers, Gallium arsenide. Integrated circuits
The letter presents experimental results for a second order

switched capacitor bandpass filter designed to operate with a
250 MHz switching frequency and implemented using
gallium arsenide (GaAsI technology. Measurements on a chip
fabricated in a 0-5 ton GaAs process confirm that the filter
design, amplifier and switching components meet the desired
performance specifications. The filter operates with high pre-
cision at 300 MHz and bandpass filtering at a switching fre-
quency of 400 MHz is demonstrated.
0 2361 FD
nput 39 0 IpF 0 lpf(F3s
Introduction: Gallium arsenide (GaAs) technology has an
n — m
important role in the realisation of high speed analogue
1 01?668pF "T " J _ 0V
sampled data systems. Reference 2 describes the design and C7C:06p
optimisation of a second order switched capacitor (SC) LpF j. -
0V OV
bandpass filter for implementation using GaAs technology
and with a maximum design switching frequency of 250 MHz. Fig. 1 Second order SC filter for implementation
Since Reference 2 was published, the filter chip described has
been fabricated and very encouraging experimental results The circuit was layed out using M A G I C with a specially
obtained. The objective of this paper is to report these results. written technology file for the Anadigics 0 5/rm GaAs process
and a layout plot is shown in Fig. 2 The size of the chip,
Switched capacitor filter design: The second order switched which was fabricated by Anadigics, is 3 3 x 2 6 mm and the
capacitor bandpass filter was designed to realise a Q-factor of power consumption is 440 mW.
16, midband gain of unity and midband frequency of l/25th of
the switching frequency for a maximum switching frequency of Testing and experimental results: The chip was bonded within
2
250 M H z . The circuit used the single-stage, double-cascode, a dual-in-line package, which was mounted in a dual-in-line
double-level-shifting operational amplifier design of Reference socket on a circuit board. The input signal level for all tests
3, which had a simulated gain of 60 dB, typical gain- was + 7 d B m , o r 0 5 V R M S .
bandwidth product of 3-5 GHz and a minimum settling time The filter was found to operate very accurately up to and
of 630 ps. The switch control circuit used is that of Reference beyond its design maximum switching frequency of 250MHz.
4, which features low power consumption and low signal The amplitude/frequency response was measured for switch-
dependence of clock feedthrough. The switch capacitor circuit ing frequencies of 300 MHz, 350MHz and 400MHz. The
was optimised for high frequency operation using the tech- responses for 300 M H z and 400 M H z are shown in Figs. 3a
nique of References 2 and 5, whereby amplifier load capac- and b, respectively. Expanded passband plots for the above
itances are introduced to maintain acceptable settling switching frequencies are shown in Figs. 4a and b. Peak gains,
0 1696J2 I
Fig. 2 Layout plot for GaAs switched capacitor filter
Total size = 3 3 x 2 6 mm
460 ELECTRONICS LETTERS 29th March 1990 Vol. 26 No. 7

— 3 d B frequencies and calculated midband frequencies and strated. In spite of the results achieved, the operational ampli-
<2-values are (abulated in Table I. Midband frequency accu- fier used in the design is relatively slow compared with more
racies range from less than 1% to about 2°o and represent a recent designs and advanced designs implemented using
8
state-of-the-art technology. This opens up future
opportunities for S C systems operating with gigahertz clock
rates.
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the

support of the United Kingdom S E R C , Hewlett-Packard, the
cn-30 Nuffield Foundation and the invaluable help of numerous col-
leagues.
C. T O U M A Z O U Ist February 1990

frequency, MHz
Imperial College
London SW7 2BT. United Kingdom
D. G . HA1GH
University College
London WCIE 7JE, United Kingdom
S. J . H A R R O L D
UMIST
Manchester M60 1QD. United Kingdom
10 20
K. S T E P T O E
frequency, MH z
b Cadence Ltd.
Fig. 3 Measured amplitude/frequency response offilter Maidenhead, Berkshire. United Kingdom
a 300 MHz switching frequency J. I. S E W E L L
b 400 MHz switching frequency University of Glasgow
Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom
R. B A Y R U N S
Anadigics Inc.
Warren. New Jersey 07060. USA
References
1 ALLEN, p. E., and BREEVOORT, C M . : 'An analogue circuit perspective
of GaAs technology'. Proceedings of 1987 I E E E ISCAS, Phila-
delphia, USA, May 1987
frequency, MHz 2 H A I G I I , D . G „ TOUMAZOU, C , HARROLD, S. J., SEWELL, J. 1., and
STEPTOE, K.: 'Design and optimisation of a GaAs switched capa-
citor filter'. Proceedings I E E E 1989 International Symposium on
Circuits and Systems, Portland, Oregon, USA, June 1989
3 TOUMAZOU, c , and HAIGH, D. G.: 'Design of a high-gain, single-
stage operational amplifier for GaAs switched-capacitor filters',
Electron. Lett.. 1987, 23,(14), pp. 752-754
4 HARROLO, s. J.: 'Switch driver circuit suitable for high order
switched capacitor filters implemented in GaAs', Electron. Lett.,
1988, 24, (15), pp. 982-984
5 H A I G H , -D. G., TOUMAZOU, c , and BETTS, A . K . : Chap. 10 in H A I G H ,
frequency, MHz
D. G., and EVERARD, J. K. A. (Eds.): 'GaAs technology and its impact
on circuits and systems' (Peter Peregrinus, 1989)
6 HARROLD, s. j . , VANCE, l. A. w., and H A I G H , D . G.: 'Second order
Fig. 4 Measured expanded passband response
switched-capacitor bandpass filter implemented in GaAs', Elec-
a 300 MHz switching frequency
tron. Lett., 1985, 21, (11), pp. 494-496
b 400 MHz switching frequency 7 HAIGH, D. G., and TOUMAZOU, C : 'Fast settling high gain GaAs
operational amplifiers for switched capacitor applications', Elec-
Tsble 1 M E A S U R E D F I L T E R P E R F O R M A N C E D A T A tron. Lett., 1989, 25, (1), pp. 734-736
8 LARSON, L . E., CHOU, c. s., and DELANEY, M . J. : 'An ultra high speed
-3dB frequencies F 0 Q-factor GaAs M E S F E T operational amplifier', IEEE J., 1989, SC-24, (6),
Switching Peak pp. 1523-1528
frequency gain
MHz dB MHz MHz MHz

300 -015 11-7 12-5 12 1 15
ON T H ERELEVANCE O F T H E STRICT
350 -0-20 13 5 14-7 14-1 12
400 -015 146 169 15 7 7 AVALANCE CRITERION
considerable improvement over the previous results presented Indexmg terms: Codes, Boolean functions
in Reference 6. The Q-factor accuracy is reasonable for a
Some recent work concerning the strict avalanche criterion
300 M H z switching frequency, but the Q-factor is reduced for
for a Boolean function has been motivated by the claim that
the higher switching frequencies. The noise at the output of
a certain cryptographically useful property will be true of any
the filter was measured for a measuring bandwidth of 10kHz function satisfying the criterion. In the letter it is observed
The peak noise is at — 75 dB relative to the maximum signal that not only is this claim untrue, but that possession of the
level. Observation of the filter output signal at the resonant property in question is in fact precluded by satisfaction of the
frequency indicated a DC offset voltage of less than 50 mV strict avalanche criterion.
and reasonably low levels of clock feedthrough. Future testing
on an improved jig could improve these results.
1
Definitions and motivation: Webster and Tavares introduced
Conclusions: A significant increase in the maximum switching the strict avalanche criterion (SAC) for a Boolean function to
frequency for switched capacitor filters has been demon- combine the concepts of completeness and the avalanche
ELECTRONICS LETTERS 29th March 1990 Vol. 26 No. 7 461

1 6 2
PAPER 41
1 G 3
Active and digital ladder°bas@d aiBpass filters
Li P i n g , M S , P h D
P r o f . J . I . S e w e l l , B S c , P h D , C E n g , FIEE
Indexing terms: Filters and filtering. Circuit theory and designs
between the different ladder-based structures and w i t h

Abstract: Ladder-based allpass filters are cascade biquads. I t w i l l be demonstrated that the sensiti-
extended for active RLC, active RC, SC and vities of the amplitude responses of ladder systems are
digital realisations. The resulting circuits have the much lower than those of cascade biquad structures and
attractive properties of parallel structure and very that the sensitivities of the delay responses are similar for
low amplitude sensitivity to component changes. all realisations. L o w capacitance spreads are also
The analogue implementations are canonical w i t h observed for ladder-based methods.
respect to the number of op amps and the digital
ones are multiplier canonic. Detailed examples are
given f o r SC designs and these are critically 2 Continuous domain allpass ladders
assessed f o r capacitance spread and sensitivity.
It can be shown [ 6 ] that an allpass f u n c t i o n in the s-
domain
1 Introduction HJLs) = ± (1)

P(s)
Allpass filters are p r i m a r i l y designed to provide phase can be rearranged as
characteristics and any interference w i t h an existing mag-
nitude response should be avoided. However, i n practical 1 - V(s)
H„(s) (2)
realisations, the amplitude response will inevitably be 1 + Y(s) + Y(s)
influenced by component variations, l i is i m p o r t a n t where
therefore to use circuits w i t h l o w amplitude sensitivity
EvP(s)
characteristics. Because allpass functions are non- if n is even (3)
m i n i m u m phase by definition, low-sensitivity ladder- OdP(s)
V(s) =
based design remains an open problem. Instead, cascaded OdP(s)
biquad sections are typical i n active and digital realis- if n is odd (4)
EvP(s)
ations, and such topologies are highly sensitive to com-
ponent deviations, especially in high-Q cases [ 1 - 3 ] . for the H u r w i t z p o l y n o m i a l
A novel method f o r allpass digital filter design has P(s) = EvP(s) + OdPLs) (5)
recently been proposed [ 4 , 6 ] . The allpass transfer func-
A signal f l o w graph (SFG) is given i n Fig. 1 for the realis-
tion is decomposed i n t o t w o terms: a constant and a
ation of eqn. 2, where the transfer f u n c t i o n I + Y(s) can
f u n c t i o n realisable as the d r i v i n g point impedance of a
be synthetised by a singly terminated LC ladder. I t is
passive network, which is, i n t u r n , simulated by a digital
well-known that, i f P(s) is H u r w i t z , then Y(s) - EvP(s)/
circuit. The resulting system is structurally allpass, that is,
OdP(s) can be expanded i n continued f r a c t i o n f o r m and
wordlength truncation w i l l not introduce any distortion
realised according to the ladder circuit of Fig. 2.
i n t o the amplitude response. Switched capacitor (SC)
simulations of the Foster I I structure used i n Reference 4
are also k n o w n [ 5 ] .
I n this paper, a ladder-based approach is presented for
the design of prototypes. The op amps can be made
canonical in number f o r SC implementations, if the
allpass equaliser and amplitude filter are considered
together (this can also be insured i n f u l l y differential
active-RC circuits). The new configurations are also very
Fig. 1 Realisation of allpass function
suitable for parallel digital circuit implementations and For s-domain. a = b = g = l.h = -2
lead to circuits canonical i n the number of delays. For 2-<lomain. a = b = g = \,h = - ( I + z)
M a j o r emphasis w i l l be placed on SC circuit realis-
ations. Design examples are given and comparisons made Traditionally, passive allpass filters are realised as cas-
caded lattice-derived bridged-T structures. T w o m a j o r
Paper 753IG (E10). first received 14lh December 1989 and in revised disadvantages are associated w i t h this method. First, the
form 29ih May 1990 amplitude response is sensitive to all components, and,
Prof. Sewell is. and Li Ping was formerly, with the Department of Elec- secondly, the circuits are not canonical, requiring approx-
tronics and Electrical Engineering, University of Glasgow. Glasgow imately 2.5n reactance elements in their implementation.
G12 8QQ. United Kingdom For the scheme shown in Fig. 2, the amplitude response
Li Ping is now with the Department of Electrical and Electronics
is completely insensitive to the deviation in the reactance
Engineering. University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3052. Aus-
tralia
elements (Section 4) and only n reactance elements are
I EE PROCEEDINGS. Vol. 137. Pt. C. No. 6. DECEMBER 1990 439

1 6 4
required. The summing amplifier and several resistors are summation stage reactive *.wc c<y'
3
an extra cost. ,
summation stage c» »-c *-

-0 I T -_» ,y , jv_
reactive two Dor'. V
V,„ J,'W. W; W,
passive iaGtier stage
summation
passive ladder stage staae reactive two port
Fig. 2 Actiue-RLC allpass circuit
.• = « " ' L , . y , = * ~ ' C ,
i
For s-domain, i^=s ~', <1> = s '\h

l
For 2-domain, ill = z~ '/(! - |, <] 1/(1 -z-\h= -(1
-0
2.1 Active RC ladder design
The passive ladder network part of the circuit of Fig. 2
can be simulated by active RC circuits. The nodal admit-
tance m a t r i x equation for the passive ladder subnetwork W, w w 3
2
is
passive ladder stage
sC + -r + G)y = j (6)
Fig. 3 SFGs for allpass realisation
a LUD type
where J = [ - ghv , 0 , . . . , 0 ] and C, T and G are admit-
in
Case A: 5-domain
tance matrices f o r m e d by the contributions of capacitors, » = * = s " ' . a > = » . i i = j = l . . i = 2,/I=0
inductors and resistors, respectively. V is defined as V = Case B: ;-domain
* = 1/(1 - zl"',* = ;-'/(! - ; '|. i = b = d = g = i. I = 2.0 = I
[ft . ] , where alternate signs are i n t r o - Case C: 2-domain
duced to insure that all entries in eqn. 6 are positive. <J> = 1/(1 =-'"'/(! -z'),a = 3 =d - g - l,b= I +z.fi = 0
The matrix decomposition method f o r active RC b Leapfrog type
Case A: 5-domajn
network design described i n References 9-11 can be l
®^ti/=s~ .a = b = d = g= ],tt = 2
readily applied here. Eqn. 6 can be written in the L U D Case B: z-domain
1
4> - 1/(1 - z " ) , ill - 2" 7(1 - r"'),h= I + :"'.u =* = d = g = 1
f o r m , (because all of the capacitors in F i g . 2 are con-
nected to earth, C is simply diagonal and no real decom-
position of C is necessary)
W = —(s~ ' f + G)V + J (7a)

(lb)
T
or, f r o m the topological decomposition of T = ADA ,
L L L
the leapfrog f o r m results:
( C + s~ G)Vl
= s~ (- A W
l
L + J) (8a)
l T
tV = s DA y L L (86)
B o t h eqns. 7 and 8 are linearised w i t h respect to s~' so
that they can be realised directly w i t h active-RC circuits.
For a sixth order circuit, the signal flow graphs (SFGs) of
Figs. 3a and b (case A) and the simulation circuits of
Figs. 4a and b (incorporating the summation stages) can
be obtained. Inversion i n the output stage is incorporated
in the simulation part. Notice the different termination
stages in L U D and leapfrog realisations.
The summing amplifier employed in the output stage
in Fig. 4 need not be realised explicitly i n delay equalised
filter systems. Provided the allpass filter is succeeded by
an amplitude filter stage, the virtual earth of the input
Qa=1 Qd=
integrator of the amplitude stage can be directly con-
nected to P,. to realise the summation f u n c t i o n . I n a fully
differential implementation, separate inverters are not
required and thus realisations w i t h a canonical number
of op amps are possible.
3 Discrete domain allpass ladders

Fig. 4 Active-RLC allpass fillers [elements in fiF and fiS)
There are several approaches to the derivation of allpass a LUD type
ladders in the z-domain. In particular, it has been f o u n d b Leapfrog type
IEE PROCEEDINGS. Vol. 137. Pt C . No. 6. DECEMBER 1990

I B S
most efficient t o use the so-called b i l i n e a r - L D l method, where 1 = 2. jJ = 1. This can be again represented by an
as it is both exact in frequency response and efficient in SFG, Fig. 3rt (case B), including the output stage. Notice
terms of implementation cost. Such a structure could be that the corresponding digital implementation is canon-
derived by the technique of Reference 11, which places ical w i t h respect to both multiplier coefficients and
real zeros in the ladder prototype to introduce the cancel- delays. The SC realisation is straightforward, but this
lation of capacitors after bilinear transformation. method results in a large capacitance spread. There is
However, a more straightforward derivation is presented another realisation of eqn. 13, by choosing 2 = 1 + z
here, which uses a continued fraction expansion f o r z- and P = 0, Fig. 3a (case C) results. Note that % and b can
d o m a i n transfer functions [ 6 - 8 , 12]. be exchanged w i t h o u t affecting the overall transfer func-
tion. The corresponding SC circuit can be obtained by
3.1 LUD method for SC and digital ladder design replacing the branches in the S F G by SC elements, see
For an alipass function i n z-domain Fig. 6a. The singie z~' of eqn. 10 is realised by a
rearrangement of switching in the sample-and-hold and
1 + . other i n p u t / o u t p u t circuitry. The sampled input f r o m an
zP(z)±z"P(z->) even phase is transferred to the output summing a m p l i -
I + fier d u r i n g the subsequent odd phase. The unit delay is
P(z) + z"P(z-
realised when the output is sampled in the even phase of
1 + z the next clock period. This scheme usually results i n a
= 1 - (9)
1 + Y(z) lower capacitance spread than f o r case B.
{— sign for n — 2m, + sign f o r n = 2m 4- 1) L U D type SC circuits will always require an even
number of op amps, which is canonical f o r even order
T o avoid the noncausal term z in eqn. 9, the transfer cases, but not f o r odd cases.
f u n c t i o n is modified to
+ z
l
z~ HJ z)
< = z' 1
(10) 3.2 Leapfrog method for SC and digital ladder design
1 + Y(z)
Use of 13 to derive directly the leapfrog type circuit
which introduces only a single extra delay. Define causes difficulty in realisation o f the termination terms.
Instead, it is easy to verify the equivalence between eqn.
1
(D = T = (11) 13 and the f o l l o w i n g system:
1 -z-'
The digital realisations of 4* and <1> are shown in Fig. 5.

The continued fraction expansion o f Y(z) can be achieved
(L c + vr + Gy (15)
1 1
in terms o f *P " and <t> ~ alternately [ 1 2 ] :
1
y l
Y(z) = V' C i +
V 'C, +
<J>~'L, +
(12)
4- 'C„ +
0>-'L„
where
C = C - G (16)
1 1
y=0x x " — y = yx The right m a t r i x decomposition structure can be derived
Fig. 5 Digital realisations of<t> and 4* [ 9 - 1 1 ] by rewriting eqn. 15. as
For n odd, eqn. 12 w i l l terminate w i t h a 4*" ' C term. m + 1
\C + ®G)V = <D(- (17a)
'J)
Positive values of {C,} and { L , } are guaranteed [ 1 2 ] . By T
W=*VD A V (17b)
analogy w i t h eqn. 2, it can be seen that a ladder simula- L L
t i o n is appropriate. The passive ladder part in Fig. 2 can The S F G of F i g . 3b (case B) can be used t o represent eqn.
again be used t o realise eqn. 12 by means of a 'passive 17 and an illustration of SC replacement is given i n Fig.
network", w i t h admittance y ^ f ' C , and impedance 6b, which is comparable to an independently reported
1
z, = (J>~ L . A l t h o u g h physically unrealisable, it can be
j
1
realisation [ 7 ] . Notice that the z " factor in eqn. 17a
used as prototype f o r SC and digital simulations. A nodal cancels the noncausal factor of 1 + z i n eqn. 10.
description can be set up f o r the ladder section of Fig. 2 Leapfrog SC simulation can always realise a circuit
in terms o f f and Q>: w i t h a canonical number o f op amps, provided the a m p l i -
tude and allpass stages are considered together. However,
-C + ®r + G)V = (\ +z)J (13) for narrow band SC design, it will result i n a larger total
capacitance than the L U D method.
L U D SC and digital circuits can be obtained [ 9 - 1 1 ] by F r o m Fig. 3b (case B), i t is seen that there is a delay-
rewriting eqn. 13: free loop at the termination stage: v -*—g t
- » J , -••P/ci F o r a digital realisation this can be

W = -(d>r + G)V + aJ (14a) eliminated by the equivalent circuit transformation
(14b) shown in Fig. 7. The resulting circuit is highly parallel
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, Pi G, No. 6. DECEMBER 1990

16 6
and requires only a canonical number of multipliers for racies in the values of {C \. { L , [ and all unity-valued ele-
{
digital implementation. The number of additions ments of Figs. 4 and 6 w o u l d affect the sensitivity.
summing stage
"C
S/H stage
summing stage
" C
5/H stage
Fig. 6 SC allpassfilters
It will be proved that the amplitude response of the
a LUD lype b Leapfrog type
structures introduced i n this paper, unlike their biquad
counterparts, are completely insensitive w i t h respect to
deviation of most o f the element values and are bounded
\_ 1
for a few terminating elements. The transfer functions o f
C,l-z-' Figs. 2 , 4 and 6 have the f o r m
bav,/J l
bo- — = H a = +| a (18)
I + dvJJ,
Fig. 7 Network transformation to eliminate delay-free hop
For Figs. 2 and 4, a=b=d=g= 1, and a = 2 , and, f o r
1
Fig. 6, b = b, + b z~ and a = fc, =b =a
2 = d = g= 1. 2
required is also relatively small (roughly 2n). The digital
leapfrog realisation requires one more delay than the
Remark : For the circuits in Figs. 2 , 4, and 6, i f a, b (or fc,,
equivalent canonical L U D realisation (case B).
b ) and a are fixed, then \H \ = 1, regardless of all other
2 a
parameters, even the unity valued elements.

4 Sensitivity estimations
Proof: I n the s-domain (Figs. 2 and 4), eqn. 18 becomes
In the fabrication process, nonideal factors will inevitably
lead to deviation i n the system parameters. In the digital 1 - v J J i
case, the nonideal factor w o u l d be the truncation of 19)
1 + t),/J,
multiplier coefficients to . nite wordlength, which will
affect only {C,} and [ L , ( . For analogue cases, inaccu- It is easily seen that | H \ = 1 if D , / J , is imaginary.
a
442 IEE PROCEEDINGS. Vol. 137. Pi. C . No. 6. DECEMBER 1990

For the circuit in Fig. 2, is certainly imaginary, b c\H \_ A 1 c\H A + 2
being the admittance of a reactive network. <c 2
\H \
A ch \H„ 1 + ! Y(j(o)\2
F o r the circuit in Fig. 4a, we can apply the Mason

f o r m u l a [1 J ] to derive uJJ : t (24b)
d c\H„
I (9k K ) (201 -2 < • (24r!
Ji all forward
\H„\ cd 1 +1 y < y a j | | 2
paths
Similar formulas can be derived for the circuits of Fig. 6.
with
A = 1- I Pml + I Pm2 ~ I P m3 + (2!) 5 Examples and Comparisons
The design procedure presented above has been incorpo-

where g is the product of edge weights f o r fcth f o r w a r d
k
rated i n t o the filter design software package P A N D D A ,
path. P„ is the product of l o o p transmissions for the mth
R
where cascade biquad structures are also available [ 1 4 ] .
set of vertex-disjoint feedback loops and A is the value of t
As an example, a sixth order allpass SC filter (case C) is
A for the part of the graph w i t h no vertices in c o m m o n
designed to achieve an equiripple correction of the delay
w i t h the /cth f o r w a r d path.
distortion caused by a sixth order SC bandpass filter, see
Every loop i n the subnetwork of the reactive two port
Table 1. The design data given in Table 2 relate t o the
in Fig. 3a (case A ) involves exactly one 4* term and one $
two ladder-based equaliser structures, L U D and leapfrog
term. I n the s-domain, *¥<t> = (jm) -o) and, there-
of Fig. 6. Each of these circuits can be f o l l o w e d by the
fore, P = n O F / C . X - O / L ; ) w i l l be real, and so w i l l all A
M
amplitude stage i n Fig. 8. designed as a sixth order ellip-
and { A } . There is only one f o r w a r d path f r o m J , to u,,
k
9 i = 4 7 C , = jo>/C , hence, f r o m eqn. 20, v J J is imagin-

t t
ary and I H \ = I . A similar p r o o f can be applied to Fig.

A
4b.
F o r the z-domain circuit o f Fig. 6a, note that all A and
{ A } are, again, real. Referring to Fig. 3a (case C),
k
for z = e*" (22)

(1 ') 2
i f
Since the only f o r w a r d path is g, — 4 7 C , , f r o m eqn. 20,
v J J w i l l have the f o r m vJJ,
l = t f , w i t h £ real. Hence,
the f o l l o w i n g identities are derived:
1 + z
1 + •/,/!>,
1 z 2 Ji/fi 2\ 1
1 +• 1 + 1 +
1 +Z 1 +z 1 + z
(23) Fig. 8 Sixth order bandpass SC elliptic LUD filter
2 2 JJvi 2\ 1
1 +• 1 + 1 +
1 + z 1 + z + z
tic L U D - t y p e SC circuit, see Table 1. A l l of the circuits
As (1 — z)/(l + z) = j tan (OJT/2) is imaginary for z = have been scaled f o r m a x i m u m dynamic range. The P„
e i a T
, one can see that \H \ = 1. A similar result can be A
point o f either circuit of Fig. 6 can be directly connected
proved f o r the circuit in Fig. 6b. to the input of the circuit o f Fig. 8. The amplitude and
The sensitivity formulas for the remaining elements in delay responses are shown in Figs. 9a and b.
the circuits of Fig. 4 can be derived (since Y(ju>) = J\/v l
The f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a is used to measure the overall
is a pure imaginary number) as system sensitivity:
1
_a_d\H A
= +•
IWI € 1 (24a) (26)
da l+\Y(joj)\ \H \ CI dc,
Table 1: Design date for sixth order bandpass SC elliptic filter

Specification for amplitude filter
Lower passband edge 8000 Hz Upper passband edge 10000 Hz

Lower stopband edge 7200 Hz Upper stopband edge 10800 Hz
Passband ripple <0.3dB Stopband attenuation >25dB
Approximation type elliptic Filter order 6
Sampling frequency 150000 Hz
Component values for LUD S C ladder
C, 1000 C 2 1 000 C, 10.83 C 2.769

4 C 5 1.000 Ce 2.182
C 5.041
7 C„ 1.000 C, 1 335 C , 1.356
0 C , , 10.76 C 1 2 4.055
C , 1.794
3 C,„ 3.733 C , 5.873 5 C 2.573
1 6 C , 1.263
7 C 1 8 1.000
C , 7.265
9 C2Q 3.285 C 1 000
2 1 C 2 4 30
2 2
Total capacitance 74 units Capacitance spread 10 units

Number of switches 25 Number of capacitors 22
Number of op amps 6
I EE PROCEEDINGS. Vnl 137. Pi. C, No. 6. DECEMBER l"90 443

1 6 S
The system delay sensitivity can be denned in the same parameters are listed in Table 3. As in Reference 3, t o p o l -
way. F o r comparison, t w o cascade biquad SC circuits are ogy 1 has quite a small spread, but very high sensitivity,
designed f o r the delay equalisation stage, using b i q u a d whereas topology 2 has an i m p r o v e d sensitivity at the
topologies 1 and 2 o f Reference 3. The resulting design cost of high spread, see F i g . 10. Other biquad topologies
Table 2: Design data for SC delay equalisers

Specification for delay equaliser
Lower equalisation edge 8000 Hz Upper equalisation edge 10000 Hz

Approximation type equiripple In-band ripple <0.00014 s
Filter order 6 Sample frequency 150000 Hz
Poles of normalised allpass transfer function in s-domain
-0.0518242 + y1.01293 -0.0518242 - / 1 . 0 1 2 9 3

-0.0482866 + j\.08983 -0.0482866 - / 1 . 0 8 9 8 3
-0.0458278 + y0.93370 -0.0458278 - / 0 . 9 3 3 7 0
Component values for the LUD S C ladder
C. 1.000 C ,
t 1.023 C b2 1.023 C , 2.333 C„ 2.386
C, 9.903 C 2 2.380 C 3 3.273 C, 1.000 C 1.000
5 C„ 1.011
C, 24.22 C B 2.478 C, 8.660 C , 1.000
0 C , , 1.000 C, 1 000
2
C, 3 29.29 C,, 2.651 C, 5 10.99

Number of op amps 6
Component values for the leapfrog S C ladder
C, 1.015 C„, 1.000 C 6 3 1.000 C , 1.015 C d 1.000

C, 8.878 C2 9.546 C 3 3.289 C„ 3.982 C 1.000
5 C 6 1.000
C1 20.34 C 8 22.19 C, 8.305 C 7.565
1 0 C , , 1.000 C, 2 1.000
C, 3 29.21 C 1 4 2.660 C 1 5 1.000

Number of op amps 6
Table 3: Comparison of various SC delay equalisers

LUD Leapfrog Biquad topology 1 Biquad topology 2
Total capacitance 109 units 138 units 102 units 311 units
Capacitance spread 29 units 29 units 26 units 62 units
Number of op amps 6 6 6 6
Number of switches 27 28 32 32
Number of capacitors 21 21 24 24
S/H and summation stages excluded
frequency, Hz x 1 0
combined
0 3
response
12
20
1.0
40
equalisation stage
60 08
78 84 90 10 2
01
0 1
-80
0i
^ 06
10
100
04
1 9
1 20
passband
28
140
8.1 90 108
frequency, kHz frequency, kHz
Fig. 9 SC circuit responses

a Amplitude response of sixth order S C L U D filter h Delay response of equalised S C filter system
+44 I EE PROCEEDINGS. Vol. 137. Pi. G. No. 6, DECEMBER 1990

[ 3 ] show some tradeoff of sensitivity and spread between amplitude sensitivity, as well as other advantages, such as
these t w o extremes. However, it is seen that ladder-based high parallelism for digital realisation and l o w total
structures demonstrate the significant advantage o f b o t h capacitance f o r SC realisation. It is shown that L U D
low sensitivity and low capacitance spread. ladder-based structures can be implemented w i t h a
canonical number of multipliers and delays for digital cir-
cuits or w i t h a canonical number of op amps f o r ana-
logue circuits.
AO A f o r m a l sensitivity analysis o f the ladder-based all
biquod
topology I
pass structures has indicated that a m p l i t u d e sensitivities
are strictly bounded, and this is c o n f i r m e d by detailed
e x a m i n a t i o n of example circuits.
32
The allpass ladder-based networks have direct applica-
t i o n in delay equalisation and also i n the realisation o f
biquad
a* I' \ topology 2 general a m p l i t u d e f u n c t i o n s by a sum of allpass functions
a* 2A [ 1 5 ] to achieve low-sensitivity and low-noise properties.
16 7 Acknowledgements
/
The authors wish to thank R.K. Henderson f o r his
invaluable help and suggestions. H e l p f u l discussions w i t h
8 B. N o w r o u z i a n are also gratefully acknowledged.
leapfrog LLUD
UD
/ /
N /' /' ••
I.'' i - ^' i ^ -,. ~- / I ~r- 8 References
72 81 9.0 9.9 10 8
frequency. kHz
1 S E D R A , A.S., and B R A C K E T T , P.Q.: 'Filler theory and design:
active and passive'. Matrix, Portland O R , USA, 1978
2 G H A U S I , M.S., and L A K E R , K.R.: 'Modern filler design: active
R C and switched-capacitor' (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs. New
Jersey, USA, 1981)
3 L A K E R , R.K., G A N E S A N , A., and F L E I S C H E R , P.E.: Design
LUD
and implementaion of cascaded switched-capacitor delay equalizers',
15 IEEE Trans.. 1985, CAS-32, (7), pp. 700-711
biquad f c 4 N O W R O U Z I A N , B., and L E E , L.S.: 'Minimal multiplier realisation
i of bilinear-LDI digital allpass networks', IEE Proc. G, Circuits,
Devices and Systems, 1989, pp. 114-117
5 SV1HURA, M X , and N O W R O U Z I A N , B.: A new approach to the
12
design of bilinear-LDI switched-capacitor filters having low pass-
leapfrog ^ / / band sensitivities'. Proceedings of I E E E Pacific Rim Conference on
Communications, Computers and Signal Processing, Victoria,
3i
\ /
7
I
'
t t
t tl
t
Canada, June 1989, pp. 193-197
6 N O W R O U Z I A N , B., and B R U T O N , L.T.: 'Novel approach lo ihe
exact design of digital L D I allpass networks'. Electron Leu., 1989,
25, (221, pp. 1482-1483
btquad
topology 2 7 N O W R O U Z I A N , B.: 'A new synthesis technique for the exact
design of switched-capacilor L D I allpass networks'. Proceedings of
/ \ I I E E E International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, New

Orleans, USA, May 1990, pp. 2185-2188
8 P I N G , L . , and S E W E L L . J.I.: 'Switched capacitor and active-RC
allpass ladder filters'. Proceedings of I E E E International Sympo-
/ sium on Circuits and Systems, New Orleans, USA, May 1990, pp
2833-2836
72 8 90 10 8 9 P I N G , L . , and S E W E L L , J.I.: T h e L U D approach to switched-
f r e q u e n c y , kHz capacitor filter design', IEEE Trans. 1987, CAS-34, (12), pp. 1611-
1614
b 10 P I N G , L . , H E N D E R S O N , R.K., and S E W E L L , J.I.: Matrix
Fig. 10 £i;ua/iser seniitinKics methods for switched capacitor filter design'. Prodceedings of I E E E
o Amplitude b Delay International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Helsinki,
Finland, June 1988, pp. 1021-1024
11 P I N G , L . , and S E W E L L , J.I.: 'High performance circuit structures
T h e a m p l i t u d e sensitivities f o r ladder-based circuits, o f and symmetric matrix systems', IEE Proc. C. Circuits, Devices and
the type shown in F i g . 6, are mainly determined by five Systems. 1989, 136,(6), pp. 327-336
parameters, i.e. a = CJC,, b, = C / C , b = C / C , M S 2 b 2 s
12 DAVIS. A.M.: 'A new z domain continued fraction expansion'.
IEEE Trans. 1982. CAS-29, (10), pp. 658-662
at = C / C , a n d d = CJC . Provided these ratios are care-
c X
13 S E S H U , S., and R E E D , M.B.: 'Linear graphs and electrical net-
f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d , good allpass properties can be expected. works' (Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Inc., Reading, Massa-
chusetts, USA, 1961)
14 H E N D E R S O N , R . K . , P I N G , L , and S E W E L L , J . I . . A design
6 Conclusions
program for digital and analogue filters: PANDDA'. Proceedings of
the European conference on Circuit Theory and Design, Brighton,
A systematic approach has been proposed f o r active and U K , Sept. 1989, pp. 289-293
d i g i t a l allpass ladder-based design and novel L U D struc- 15 G A Z S I , L . : 'Explicit formulas for lattice wave digital filters', IEEE
tures have been developed that demonstrate very low Trans., 1985, CAS-32, (1), pp. 68-88
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, Pt. G. No. 6, DECEMBER 1990 445

1 7 0
PAPER 42
1 7 1
,jjt©flid©€B aflg@ir!itfhims fer filter amplitude and
R.K. H e n d e r s o n , B S c , P h D
Li P i n g , M S , P h D
Prof. J . I . S e w e l l , B S c , P h D , C E n g , F I E E
Indexing terms: Mathematical techniques. Filler amplitude. Group delay functions
Methods for the a p p r o x i m a t i o n of p o l y n o m i a l filter

Abstract: Various Remez-type algorithms f o r the functions w i t h i n arbitrarily weighted amplitude specifi-
computation of rational filter functions o f a cations are considered. Several new algorithms are pro-
general f o r m are proposed. They allow filter posed, which bear interesting relationships to the Remez
amplitude and g r o u p delay functions to be arbi- minimax a p p r o x i m a t i o n technique [ 1 1 , 12]. The concept
trarily shaped and tapered. Such functions can be of m a x i m u m flatness is generalised to allow compromises
applied to predistort for undesirable effects in between equiripple and Hatband properties. The compu-
communication systems such as sine (x), transmis- tational aspects of the algorithms are discussed. As accu-
sion line weighting or d i s t o r t i o n due to nonideal racy is particularly critical i n the a p p r o x i m a t i o n of filter
components. High-order touch points are i n t r o - functions in finite w o r d length computer arithmetic,
duced as a generalisation of the concept of methods to preserve accuracy without recourse to the
m a x i m u m flatness. They are used to trade o f f complications o f transformed variables are given [ 1 , 2 ] .
between the amplitude, group delay and passive The design of m i n i m u m phase rational functions w i t h
sensitivity properties of a filter. The high-order arbitrary passband and stopband tolerance schemes is
touch points can be used directly to design a investigated. These functions are of particular importance
passive ladder prototype by an iterative a l g o r i t h m . because they can be efficiently realised as the transfer
functions of linear analogue networks, including
switched-capacitor filters (SCFs). Numerator and
1 Introduction denominator polynomials have special properties which
The paper is concerned w i t h computational methods for are best designed by a c o m b i n a t i o n of t w o different
the design of rational filter functions. Classical functions methods.
which approximate ideal filter amplitude specifications The a p p r o x i m a t i o n discussion so far has considered
are c o m m o n l y k n o w n . These functions have special only filter amplitude functions and has ignored their
properties of symmetry and constant equiripple attenu- associated group delay. M o d e r n digital communications
ation in passband or stopband. T h e i r coefficients can be and signal-processing systems often require filters which
conveniently calculated by explicit formulas or simple satisfy simultaneous specifications on amplitude and
iterations [ 1 , 2 ] . However, classical approximations are group delay. A c o m m o n practical design approach is to
not suitable for highly asymmetric specifications or separate the t w o a p p r o x i m a t i o n problems by employing
amplitude equalisation tasks which are often encountered an all-pass f u n c t i o n to equalise the group delay of a
in modern communications systems [ 3 ] . A p p r o x i m a t i o n m i n i m u m phase amplitude function. The latter f u n c t i o n
methods f o r such specifications are not well developed. should first be optimised to reduce the peaking of the
They are usually highly specific to a given filtering task delay towards the passband edges, either by smoothing
and are not flexible enough f o r a general, easy-to-use the passband amplitude function (e.g. Butterworth) or
software package [ 3 - 7 ] , A l t h o u g h genera) multiple- reducing the r o l l o f f into the stopband. The general a m p l i -
criterion optimisation techniques can certainly be tude a p p r o x i m a t i o n methods offer various ways to trade
applied, they tend to involve a large amount of computa- o f f between the amplitude and group delay character-
tion and d o not always guarantee convergence [ 8 - 1 0 ] . istics. High-order touch points can be introduced i n t o the
This is frequently because they do not make enough use passband and notches can be placed to tailor the stop-
of the special properties of filter functions, which are par- band rolloff. A l t h o u g h the demands on the group delay
ticular cases of rational functions w i t h well-confined correction can be reduced in these ways, it is still costly
root locations. Moreover, the a p p r o x i m a t i o n problem is to use allpass functions. They are k n o w n to offer a non-
often not expressed conveniently f o r a filter designer canonic solution to the combined amplitude and group
w i t h o u t detailed knowledge of optimisation theory. delay a p p r o x i m a t i o n problem. Greater efficiency can be
achieved by employing a general n o n m i n i m u m phase
Paper 7762G IE10). firsl received Isl March and in revised form 17th function [13, 14]. However, these functions cannot be
August 1990 simulated by low-sensitivity SCFs at present. The argu-
R.K. Henderson is with C S E M , Case Postal 41, CH-2007, Neuchatel, ment f o r all-pass equalisation is strengthened by the
Switzerland recent development of low-sensitivity all-pass SC ladder
Li Ping is with the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineer- structures [ 1 5 ] .
ing, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
Prof. J.i. Sewell is with the Department of Electronics and Electrical A method is presented whereby the techniques devel-
Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland. oped to approximate the amplitude of a transfer f u n c t i o n
United Kingdom can also be applied to the group delay of an allpass func-
IEE PROCEEDINGS-G, Vol. 138. No. 3. JUNE 1991 289

tion. Unfortunately, when this group delay function is (Fig. 2). For convenience we fix the two endpoints by
interpolated, a system of ill-conditioned nonlinear equa- p{a) = A !{a) s: A ^ u{a)
tions arises which becomes very difficult to solve with
increasing order [ 1 6 ] , Since N e w t o n - and Remez-type pib) = B Hb) « S S u{b) (3)
approximation methods depend on an efficient inter- where A and B are usually fixed to the upper and lower
polation step, they are difficult to apply w i t h efficiency or boundaries, but could be assigned to some arbitrary
reliability [ 1 7 ] . Alternative methods based on opti- values in between. In total there arc N specifications on c
misation techniques have therefore been studied [18, 19]. the values and the derivatives of p( v) where
A new algorithm is proposed which permits direct w
application of Rernez-type a p p r o x i m a t i o n methods to the N = 2 + Lijij + 1)
c (4)
problem [ 2 0 ] , By observing the similarity between the i = i
group delay f u n c t i o n and a filter amplitude function, the The aim of the curve-fitting problem is to find the lowest
techniques and theorems for amplitude approximation order a p p r o x i m a t i n g polynomial which fits the specifi-
are still valid. A stable, accurate algorithm is then devel- cations in eqns. 2 and 3.
oped for arbitrary group delay correction.
p(x)
2 Filter amplitude approximation
A transmission f u n c t i o n is designed by w o r k i n g w i t h a
magnitude squared f u n c t i o n . It has the f o l l o w i n g pro-
perty:
T(s)T(-s) T(x) (1)
The phase i n f o r m a t i o n has been removed and the func-

tion has been linearised in terms of a single real variable,
avoiding the use of complex arithmetic in later computa-
tions.
2.1 Curve-fitting problem

Consider the problem of fitting a p o l y n o m i a l p(x) = a„ x°
+ • • • + a in a minimax sense to some prescribed lunc-
0 Fig. 2 Bilateral approximation
tion m(.x) on the interval [ a , b] such that the m a x i m u m
error max | p(x) - m(x)| is minimised. A variant of this 2.2 Interpolation
problem is of interest to filter designers (Fig. 1). T w o The u n k n o w n positions of {.x„} provide M degrees of
freedom, which can be used to reduce the order of the
p(x)
polynomial f r o m the nominal problem order N . Thus c
N — M of the specifications can be chosen as constraints

c
to f o r m a p o l y n o m i a l of order N, where
N + 1= N { - M (5)
The remaining M specifications must be met by adjusting
the M positions of the touch points.
The relation between the behaviour and the order o f a
polynomial is a complicated issue. T o decide the
m i n i m u m order is a difficult problem and some theoreti-
cal discussion can be f o u n d in Reference 2 1 ; however, i n
most cases the order determined by eqn. 5 is satisfactory.
A N t h order p o l y n o m i a l can always be interpolated by
N 4- 1 constraints. Osculatory N e w t o n interpolation [ 2 2 ]
can be used to interpolate a number of derivatives w i t h
certain computational advantages over other inter-
Fig. 1 Solution of minimum curve-fitting problem by polynomial pix) polation methods [ 2 3 ] .
curves, u(.x) = m(x) + 6 and f(.x) = m(.x) — <5, can be seen
2.3 Bilateral method
as boundary functions and p(.x) is sought to fit between
Assume that, f o r the specifications
them. A t a series of points, the so-called touch points, p(x)
(i) all fi-, are odd
will touch u(x) and l(x) alternately, which implies that
(ii) the touch points are assigned alternately to u(x)
p(.x) w i l l have the same zero- and first-order derivative
and l(x), i.e. {x„\i = 1, 3 M„} and {x \i = 2, 4,
values of u(.x) or /(.x). I n a general sense, u(x) and /(.x) can ti
M , } are the set of touch points on u(x) and l(x), respec-

be any functions satisfying u(.x) > l(x) on [a, b~\ and the
tively (where M , = M and M, = M — 1 i f M is odd and
order of tangency at the touch points can be greater than
M = M — 1 and M , = M if M is even).
one. A t M points (the touch points) on the upper and the u
lower function, \x : a < x„ < x + , < b)

ti u These assumptions are true for a Chebyshev f u n c t i o n
1
where all fi are equal to 1 (osculatory points) and are
(
p " ! ^ ) = u">(.x„) or H.xJ r = 0, 1, 2, . . . , M i (2)
valid for most filter functions. The Weierstrass poly-
where i = I , 2, 3, . . . , M and the superscript (r) signifies nomial a p p r o x i m a t i o n theorem guarantees that, i f the
the r t h derivative w i t h respect to ,x. The exact locations filter order is high enough, a solution lying between the
of {.x„} are u n k n o w n but the sequence {//,} is specified two boundary functions will exist [ 2 1 ] ,
290 Z E E PROCEED!NGS-G, Vol. US. No. 3. JUNE 1991

1 7 3
Interpolate p(x) such that Theorem I: Define a A'th order p o l y n o m i a l q(x) subject
1
to the f o l l o w i n g A' + 1 interpolation conditions
p "!*,,-) = u"%x„) r = 0, I , • H, ~ 1
<7(x ) = e(x ) mi mi \= 1. 2, (llfl)
= 1, 3, 5, M, (da)
lr|
q (.\„.) = 0 r = 0, 1 2, ; = 1,2, M (116)
p'"(x„.) = /<"(x„.) 0, I . . . . , f t - 1
:
and
2, 4, 6, . . . W, (661
and (x - x )q(x) H .
<V.x) 1, 2, M (Hi)
MiHx)
p(fl) = A n(b) -. (fir)
then the N e w t o n system (eqn. 9) can be solved for the
Thus, exactly N — M specifications are met by inter-
c touch point increments { A x , . j by
polation. It now remains to adjust {.\„} to make
{p^'\x„)} satisfy the other M specifications. Ax„ = lim <5,-(x) (12)
Definitions
Proof of theorem I: Consider the solution of the N e w t o n
upper error f u n c t i o n e„(x) = p(x) — u(x) system for touch point movements Ax„ by interpolation
of q(x). T w o remarks are necessary f o r the proof.
lower error f u n c t i o n ej(x) = l(x) — p(x)
mid-function m(x) = (l(x) + u(x))/2 Remark 1: Suppose u(x) or l(x) (and so e(x)) are differen-
tiable up t o /i,th order at all the touch points. The func-
search f u n c t i o n s(x) = max [e„(x), efcx)] tion gJ(x), formed by differentiating the interpolated
p o l y n o m i a l p(x) w i t h respect to a touch p o i n t x „ , is
combined error -e (x)u if p(x) > m(x)
e(x) = therefore itself an N t h order p o l y n o m i a l of x. I t can be
function e^x) if p(x) ^ m(x) calculated by interpolation subject to the f o l l o w i n g con-
F r o m assumption (i) above, { f i , — 1} are restricted to be straints:
even, so, i n general, the touch points are now points of 1
?!"(x,;) = 0 r = 0, 1 , .
inflection ( F i g . 2) and s(x) w i l l change sign in the neigh-
b o u r h o o d o f each touch point {x„}. I f the p o l y n o m i a l is ; = 1,2,. , M
manipulated such that p(x) does not cross u(x) or l(x) at
(13a)
these points, p(x) must possess an extra order of tangency
to u(x) or l(x), having then up to the ftth order tangency fl!*- >(xj 1
= e<*>(x .) 11 r = 0, l , . . . , / v (136)
at {x„} required f o r p(x) to be a solution. A t this stage,
max [s(x)] = 0 i n the neighbourhood of {*„•}. Notice that Proof: Eqn. 13a is evident as the fij interpolated deriv-
f r o m assumption (ii) there must be at least one m i n i m u m atives of p(x,j) are fixed w i t h respect to another touch
of e(x), denoted as x ,,,on [ x „ _ , , x , J.Therefore, i f
m i + point x„, i ^ / The p r o o f of eqn. 136 follows. Suppose
that one of the touch points on u(x), x„, changes to x' = ti
i = 1, 2, 3, M (7) x„ + h and the ordinate f r o m u(x„) to u(x„ + h). Define

is achieved, p(x) is a solution. A n a p p r o x i m a t i o n scheme the new p o l y n o m i a l interpolated f r o m {x,,, x , , x' , 2 H
can be adopted to generate an adjustment {Ax,,} • • •. m} by P*W- As the p o l y n o m i a l is interpolated up to

ft — 1 th tangency to u(x) at this touch point.
:
{x„-} - {x„ + Ax,,} i= 1 , 2 , 3 , . . . , At (8)

p^( Xli + h) = u<"(x„. + h) r = 0, 1, 2 , . . . , ^ - (14)
to reduce {<Kx„,)}.
Expand p (x) at x' by a T a y l o r series and evaluate p%\x)
ft ti
2.4 Newton's method at x = x„ and notice (eqn. 14)

Obviously, { A x , , } can be generated by a technique based
on Newton's method w h i c h is f o u n d by solving a Jaco- r,
Pi, (*„) <
bian system [ 2 2 ]
9i(x„i) 9i(x m 9**(x ) ml

AX,! = u"\ Xli + h ) - r "(x„ + h)h +
P
2
0(h ) (15)
3.(0 for r = 0, 1, 2, - 1.
Ax, 2
dp"'(x)
0 x
Af( mM)
Sx
Ax, M j ti
e(x ) ml
e{xm
lim P r(x„.) - p<"(x„.) (16)
(9) d-0
[^'''(x,, + h)
|r 2
where - u »(x„) + Q(h )

• lim • (17)
*-0
9,{x) = (10)
dx„ (18)
+
The computational cost of setting up the Jacobian m a t r i x Eqn. 136 follows by n o t i n g that l i m p } , ' " ( x „ + 6) =
,r+ u
J and solving the N e w t o n system is usually large (0(n )). 3
p ( x „ ) as h - » 0 and the definition of e(x) f o r r = 0, 1,
Efficient methods to obtain the derivatives g {x ) and to t mj
2, . . . , (ij: — 1. I n general, the above p r o o f can be applied
solve for the touch point increments {Ax,,} are now pre- to all {x„}, which may be touch points on either u(x) or
sented. /(x).
/££ PROCELDINGS-G. Vol. 138. No. 3. JUNE 1991 291

Remark 2; The Newton system can be solved for the In the special case of the curve-fitting problem with all
touch point increments [Ax,,' by ix • = I, eqn. 26 results in the well-known Remez method
t
„ ( « - >>f
which updates the variable vector by
A.x„
1
3 /"-"(.*„•) {*.,-}«-{**.} /=1.2,...,Af (27)
This indicates that the interpolation ordinates are simply
<?""-"(*„•)
I, 2. (19) exchanged with the locations of the extrema and reinter-
e?"'{x ) u polated (Fig. 2). It may be expected that ordinates
separated by an excessively large ripple will be brought
Proof: A single row of the Jacobian system (eqn. 9) is together and those separated by an insufficiently large
ripple will be moved apart. When the {x„} are close to
X i/iU^.) A.v„ = e(x ) mJ j - \ , 2 , M (20) the solution, the {x \ are also close to {.x,,}, and the
mi
adjustment given by eqn. 26 becomes similar to that

and define given by a Newton method. This confirms that the
Remez method achieves the good convergency of Newton
(21) iteration on approach to the solution. Convergency of
this algorithm is guaranteed [21] for sufficiently large N,
and it has been widely adopted in F I R and I I R digital
From theorem 1, q(x) is also a polynomial and meets the
filter design [24-26]. F o r the case of /i, > 1, the simple
constraints of eqn. 11. Substitute x = x into eqn. 21 and tj
exchange process of eqn. 27 is unsuitable. Instead, the
adjustment given by eqn. 26 is applicable
{*„• [x, + ( x
t ml - x )IHi}
n i'=l,2, M (28)
= gf\x t j ) Ax, ;
( 2 2
>
This can be seen as a generalisation of the Remez method
Eqn. 19 follows. of eqn. 27 in which, instead of moving the abscissa all the
From eqns. life and 6a, x„ is a (/ij — 2)th order zero of way to the extremum, it is moved by a fraction of the
q{x) and (/i, — l)th order zero of e{x). They can be distance dependent on the order of the touch point.
expanded by a Taylor expansion at x„ as
1
2.6 Unilateral method
q(x) = A (x - X / "
q + 0[(x - x„H (23)
In most filter applications, emphasis is given to one of the
e{x) = A (x-x r e li + OUx-x, r*î
(24) bounding functions. F o r example, in the passband region
of a filter, u(x) is most important as it determines the
From eqns. 19, 23 and 24,
points of maximum transmission. All the high-order
touch points (with / i > 1) could be assigned to u(x) for
(
greatest effect. In a unilateral method the N — M specifi- c
e""'(x„) cations can be met by directly interpolating p(x) to ^,th

_ /4, order tangency at all the touch points on u(x). The lower
(25) curve /(x) is used only as a bound for the ripple, so that
"ft-4. all touch points on l(x) should be adjusted to = 1 (Fig.
From eqns. 23, 24 and 25, it is easily seen that eqn. 12 is 3). The difference between p(x) and l(x) is used as the
true. objective function. Only half of the touch points are kept
As both numerator and denominator of eqn. 19 tend as variables compared with the bilateral method.
to zero at x „ , each touch point increment Ax can only I(
p(x)
be calculated from the limiting values of the increment
polynomial q{x) and error function e(x) in the proximity
of the touch point, x„ + h. The distance h must be chosen
suitably according to word length and order of touch
6
point. A suggested rule is x 1 0 ~ / N for double preci-
sion arithmetic.
The computational cost of the whole procedure is very
3
small as it involves only repeated interpolation. The 0(n )
step of solving the Newton system has been reduced to
2
an 0 ( n ) interpolation. Each evaluation of the inter-
polated polynomial costs 0(n) multiplications.
2.5 Generalised Remez methods

As has been shown, Ax„ can be approximately evaluated
by <5,(x) at a point close to x„ . If this point is selected as 10 "m0
x = x, mia very simple adjustment to the touch point Fiq. 3 Unilateral approximation
positions is revealed (notice eqn. 1 la)
A.x„ = <M.x ) mi
2.7 Computer algorithm
The approximation methods proposed in Section 2.6 can
= (Xml - x
M x
m i ) be implemented on a computer by the following algo-
rithm:
Step I Read the boundary functions u(x) and /(x) as
(26) piecewise linear functions on range [a, t>]. Read the
number of touch points and specified orders / j , .
292 I EE PROCEEDINGS-G, Vol. 138, No. J.JUNE 1991

Step 2: Distribute j x , j uniformly over [a, ft] assigning with continuous derivatives, these search methods can
x = a and x,„ = b.
l 0 mislead and may determine the extrema erroneously. A
Step 3: Interpolate jx,,} alternately to boundaries u(x) combination of the reliability of the linear search with the
and l(x). speed of gradient search methods is discussed by Anton-
Step 4: Set x = a m 0 iou [27].
i = 0, 2, 4, n; choose x , to maximise m
2.8.3 Cluster method: In most cases, the boundary func-
{p\x) - u(.v), x _ , sS x $ x
m i I i + ,} tions are only given by values and the derivatives are not
available. Although the derivatives can be calculated by
i = 1, 3. 5, . . . , n — 1; choose x , to maximise m numerical differentiation, this is notoriously inaccurate
for high orders. The polynomial obtained by a Newton
{((x) - p(x), x _ , ^ x s S . v , , . * , }
m i
interpolation may become totally unreliable in the neigh-
Step 5: Compute improved touch point estimates by bourhood of a high-order touch point. A better condi-
one of the methods in Section 2.3. The extended Remez tioned method is to interpolate the polynomial at a
method indicates that cluster of points with first-order tangency to the bound-
ary function. A /i,th-order touch point with ft odd t
X„ = X„ + ((x - X„)/fli)
mi
requires (/i, + l)/2 first-order touch points distributed in
Step 6: Compute convergence estimate for klh iter- the neighbourhood of x „ . In practice, it is found that a
6
ation as spacing of 10" (with normalised passband width of 1)
can be chosen. The error caused by this approximate
method can be controlled and made much smaller than
Z «<*-> the allowed ripple [the separation of u(x) and /(x)].
E
* = ~; —
2.8.4 Damping: The term damping is used for the
X|u(.x„,)-/(x .)| m l
process whereby the step sizes determined by Newton's
method may be reduced to avoid divergence. A form of
Terminate if e < tolerance or e„ > e
t k+ , (divergent) damping can be useful where Newton's method is used to
predict adjustments A x „ , and the touch points would
2.8 Software considerations cross one another or move entirely outside the approx-
2.8.1 Interpolation : The interpolation of the polynomial imating region [a, ft]. In these cases (usually far from
at Step 3 can be done by oscillatory Newton inter- solution), it is found useful to limit the movement of the
polation. This is an extended form of the well known touch points to half the distance in the direction of their
Newton interpolation, whereby a number of derivatives closest neighbour. In this way, no touch point may cross
can be matched to the specified function. or escape the region [a, ft], and yet the direction required
It is particularly important in a filter problem to take to reduce the extrema is observed.
care with the accuracy of construction and representation
of the polynomials within finite word length arithmetic. 2.8.5 Convergency, accuracy and storage: Computa-
Cancellation errors are particularly severe as the touch 2
tion costs are 0{n ) for passband approximation. Stop-
points of a filter function become closely spaced near a band approximation requires solution of a matrix system
band edge. A typical calculation would be 3
with 0 ( n ) efficiency. Convergence is quadratic near solu-
tion, a property of algorithms based on Newton's
/[.x,o.-X ] = / ( X
' o )
'{ - ( X l l )
(29) method. Divergence occurs only in those cases where the
M
boundary functions are too severe for the selected order

of the function. The accuracy of the algorithm is limited
where cancellation errors occur in numerator and
solely by the fineness of the search grid used to determine
denominator as x , approaches x,,. 0
the positions of the extrema. Storage is dominated by the
The effects of these cancellation errors can be mini-
matrix system and Newton interpolation tables and is of
mised by calculating interpolated values by the zig-zag 2
0(n ) size.
path method [22]. T h e principle is that a path is taken
through the Newton table, such that the coefficients with
the largest errors are multiplied by abscissae with the 3 Rational approximation
smallest differences. By using this accurate interpolation
3.1 Approximation method for rational functions
and representation of polynomials, high-order functions
In this section, a design technique for rational filter trans-
can be obtained (up to length 110 F I R designs). This
fer functions will be considered. The filter amplitude spe-
avoids the complications of transformed variable
cifications need not be ideal and can have arbitrary
methods [ 1 , 2 ] .
weightings in both passband and stopband. The approx-
imating function can be designed in a minimax fashion,
2.8.2 Searching: At Step 4 a search must be made for with high-order touch points assigned to certain posi-
the touch point extrema. F o r reliability, the best method tions in each band. Classical functions result as special
is found to be a single linear search over a uniform grid cases from a general algorithm.
of points. Normally only 10-20 points are required per
For simplicity, a lowpass filter specification will be
touch point for a terminating accuracy better than 1%.
considered first. The filter specification is defined as a
The linear search requires a fairly large number of func-
piecewise template of attenuation in dB against frequency
tion evaluations for higher order approximation. Faster
in Hz. The following parameters must be specified by a
searching is available by applying cubic, quadratic or
designer.
golden section search methods which require only five or
8
six steps per touch point for very high accuracy (10~ %). fpivfpu'- passband edge frequencies (Hz)
However, when the attenuation boundaries are specified f,io<fshi- stopband edge frequencies (Hz)
in piecewise linear form and not by a smooth function NN, ND : numerator and denominator orders
f £ £ PROCEED! NGS-G. Vol. 138. No. S. JUNE 1991 293

The transfer function to be designed is 3.1.2 Stopband design: The numerator polynomial is of
(he following particular form:
N[x)
T{x) = (30)
D(x) N(x) = K.v"» f l (* - • (31)
The zeros of T(x) are contained in the numerator poly- This corresponds to a special case of the unilateral
nomial. In a filter transfer function they are most effec- method where all touch points are tangential to the lower
tively assigned to the imaginary axis of the s-plane (real boundary which is zero. It remains to compute the
x-plane locations) and placed in the stopband region for attenuation margin 0 (Fig. 4). Two methods can be
maximum attenuation. By making this restriction, the p(x)
rational function becomes a minimum phase function.

The denominator polynomial contains the complex pole
locations which must be positioned to control the pass-
band transmission characteristics.
The following procedure is used to design a rational
filter approximation.
Step I: Read N D , NN, f , /„,, /„„ J , touch point p l o M
orders {(!,#}, {M, i} and piecewise linear descriptions of

P
L(o>) and U(a>). U M

Step 2: Initialise {x } in the passband region [ x ,
lpi p ( o
Xpj,] and {x, } in the stopband region [ x , x ] , equidis-

si s l o sJll
tantly spaced. Set N(x) to 1.

Step 3: Solve the passband approximation problem on
u s i n D s u c h t h a t
O p i . . -V>] B M
u(x) = N(x)/Ux)
X X X x x X x x x
lp0 tp' tp2 tp3 tpi phi ts! ls2 ts3
l(x) = N(x)/U(x) x
tp5 s l ox
*ts0
and compute initial convergence estimate e, . p Fig. 4 Scheme for approximation of an arbitrary lowpass /titer specifi-
Step 4: Solve stopband approximation problem on cation by a rational function
I X i a . *,*,-] using N(x) such that
applied: the heuristic method [26] permits the approx-
u(x) = PV(X)ID(X) imation methods of this section to be used. However, a
variant of the method of Temes and Smith [1] has
l(x) = 0Ux)/D(x) proved to be more stable and more easily extended to
multiband approximations. A Jacobian matrix of the
and compute initial convergence estimate e,. peak positions with respect to the touch points must be
Step 5: Terminate if £_ and £, < tolerance or set up and solved.
k > maxiter.
S^lxô) • 3r(x„ ) 0
Ax
Owing to the special properties of the numerator and dx.,o
M 0
denominator polynomials, two different approaches are

appropriate for solving steps 3 and 4. Note that a multi-
plying factor p is introduced in step 4 so that the stop- -U( )
band attenuation will only be met to a constant dB error.
In general, it is not possible to meet the stopband and
Sx, „ s
X m 3 n
L P _
passband specifications exactly and some error margin

must be allowed in either passband or stopband, or both.
In this approach, the passband specifications will be met (32)
as closely as possible, and the stepband attenuation char-
acteristics will have some error above or below the speci-
fied attenuation. This expression of the filtering problem and because
is useful in practice, as good control of the passband
8T(x)
characteristics is usually of greater importance than the T(x) (33)
stopband. Note that if the factor fi is less than 1, then the dx, si (x - x,,,)
specifications have been exceeded and it may be possible Eqn. 32 can be rearranged and evaluated as
to reduce the order of the function or the number of
zeros. Conversely, if p > 1 the order must be increased or V( ) Xm30
more zeros should be introduced. x

( msO x
- uo) X,J r
(*,™o)
Vix^)
3.1.1 Passband design: Any of the methods of Sections
2.3-4 are suitable for the design of the passband function msn -*isnr
D(x). It is found that the bilateral method has very good
global convergence. The unilateral method is then useful Ax, s0
1
to ensure that the function does not exceed maximum
transmission (i.e. 0 < T(.x) < 1) for passive filter realis- (34)
ation. The touch points are all fixed to the upper bound- Ax,„
1
ary. P _
294 /££ PROCEED1NGS-G. Vol. 138, No..?. JUNE 1991

The touch points are updated as 3.3 Computed examples
A series of computed approximation examples is now
x
* . s i = ,si + & „iX 35
<' given to illustrate the power and flexibility of the above
methods. Fig. 5 shows a polynomial ( F I R ) approximation
and some damping may be necessary. Note that the con- to arbitrarily shaped boundaries. A touch point of fifth-
stant K must also be determined. A good method of order tangency is seen at the centre of the function. F I R
assigning a value to K is to fix the passband edge posi- approximations up to length 110 (N = 55) have been
tion between passband and stopband iterations. obtained using double precision arithmetic.
K = L{x )/T{x )phi pki (36)
0 96
3.2 Passive ladder design

Often the transfer function designed by the methods of
h i g h - o r d e r touch point
previous sections will be decomposed into a passive
ladder prototype for later simulation by active circuits.
This is an error-prone numerical procedure. In this
section, it will be demonstrated that the ladder can be
-5 0 80
designed directly from the touch points to provide high
accuracy at the ripples that characterise the filter
response.
0 72
Orchard has proposed a very simple but efficient algo-
rithm to design an R L C ladder from a given reflection
function p(co) [28], The structure of the ladder is pre-
scribed and only the component values remain to be 0 64
determined. A set of real and imaginary parts
{Re [/Kto,,)], Im W c o J ] } are used to set up the objective
function vector F for Newton-type iteration, and com-
ponent values { y } form a vector of variables Y [22]. The 00 02 Oi. 06 08 10
t
x
core of Orchard's algorithm is an elegant, well condi-
tioned method to compute F and the Jacobian matrix of Fig. 5 Length 51 FIR approximation to arbitrary boundaries
derivatives
Arbitrary rational function (IIR) filter responses are
Re and Im shown in Figs. 6-7. An llth-order function is fitted
. 3y t . touching the passband boundaries and meeting the stop-
band boundary to within some constant dB error (Fig. 6).
by chain matrix calculations. A bandpass approximation with asymmetric stopband
In the case of certain classical approximations, where and sagging passband is shown in Fig. 7. High-order
the points of maximum or minimum transmission touch points can be placed in the passband to trade off
(pO'cu) = 0 or p(j<o) = 1) are known, the explicit calcu- between group delay, stopband attenuation and passive
lation of p(jw) is not necessary for Orchard's algorithm. sensitivity properties. A series of such passbands is shown
However, in general, Orchard's method requires the for- in Fig. 8, including inverse Chebyshev and elliptic forms
2
mation of p\jo)) by Hurwitz factorisation of \p\ as in as special cases. The effects on stopband attenuation and
classical synthesis, which is an ill-conditioned procedure group delay is shown in Table 1. As high-order touch
[1]. A n extension of Orchard's method is described points are introduced into the response, there is a signifi-
1
below which works with more general forms of \p\ but cant reduction in the peaks of the group delay, which
eliminates any root-finding requirement. follows from the progressive smoothing of the amplitude
2
The value of |/>| and its deriatives at the touch points characteristic. There is also an accompanying improve-
{*„} can be chosen as the objective function for the ment in sensitivity behaviour of the resulting passive filter
Newton scheme. The derivatives of \p\ with respect to 2
realisation, as would be expected from Orchard's cri-
the element values {y } are required for the construction
k
terion [29], since the higher order touch points ensure
of the Jacobian matrix and are given by (let *„• = tuj-) adherence to maximum transmission over a wider inter-
val. This property is inherited by active simulations,
j^(d'\p(u, )\ i
where sensitivity considerations are of major concern.
2
Re (37) There is some attendant cost, with a corresponding loss
dx' dco'
in stopband attenuation. Trade-off between these factors
must be considered in design. It is obviously not possible
for r = 0 , . . . , //, and i = 1, 2 , . . . , M.
to dictate the location, sequence and order of the touch
Notice that here p (the conjugate of p) and dp/Sy are k
points in a general manner, but it is recommended that
obtained from the approximate network with guessed
they are deployed in regions where the filter character-
component values, which can be generated by Orchard's
istic is most critical.
algorithm and then the remaining part of eqn. 37 can be
calculated by a numerical differentiation. Here it is also Practical examples of the use of amplitude-shaping
found to be efficient to use the 'cluster' method men- capabilities are given in Figs. 9-10. In Fig. 9 a length 69
1
tioned in Section 2.8.3. The objective function \p(w,i)\ differentiator is designed with a high-order touch point at
and derivatives are obtainable from a unilateral passband 0 H z for increased D C linearity [4]. A 14th-order wide-
approximation of Section 2.6. This provides a direct link band S C filter with 200 k H z clock frequency shows a
between approximation and ladder design procedures, 1 dB passband droop due to sine (x) weighting The orig-
bypassing the traditional Hurwitz factorisation step. inal 0.1 dB flat equiripple passband behaviour can be
I EE I'ROCEEDINGS-G, Vol. I3H. No. J.JUNE 1991 295

17 8
restored by prewarping the filter response upwards.

Attenuation line-weighting and L D I ladder termination
distortion can be treated in a similar manner. This tech-
-20
nique is used in a more general sense (Fig. 11) to compen-
sate for distortion caused by switch and amplifier
c -60
-80
-100
-120
0.0 0.4 0 8 12 16
u
frequency, Hz x 10
0 0
0.4 06
frequency, Hzx 10 -0.6
-1.2
0.00
-005 8. -18
-010
-2.4
-0.1 5
-3 0
9.0 95 10.0 10.5 110

-0.20 3
frequency, Hz x10
-0.25 Fig. 7
a lOth-order asymmetric bandpass filter with sagging passband
b Passband detail
-0.3 0 L
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
f r e q u e n c y H z x 10
0 6
B
Fig. 6 8.-0.8
a I llh-order lowpass filler with arbitrary passband and stopband specifications
b Passband detail 12 15 18 3 12 15 18 < 12 15 18 2
frequency.HzxlO frequency.HzxlO frequency.HzxlO
2 5
nonidealities in a lOth-order S C l e f t - L U D ladder filter
ifl
00 , ^
[30]. In fact, the optimisation process involves a few iter-
ations of circuit analysis and redesign to inverse weighted
specifications. However, it is significantly more efficient
-1.2
T a b l e 1: C o m p a r i s o n of g r o u p delay a n d stopband attenu- -1.5 12 15 18 3
a t i o n o f f i l t e r s in F i g . 8 12 15 18 3 frequency, Hzx10
frequency.HzxlO
Filter Name G r o u p delay Stopband 3 6
number variation, ms rejection. d B -0.0B 0.0.
-03
1 inverse 0.7 22 -06
Chebyshev -09
2 2-10-2 1.35 43 -1.2
3 4-6-4 1.4 47 -1 5
4 2-2-6-2-2 1.9 53 12 15 18 3 12 15 18 3
5 6-2-6 1.3 48 frequency.HzxlO frequency.HzxlO

6 4-2-2-2-4 1.6 55 Fig. 8 Sequence of Nth-order filter passbands employing high-order
7 elliptic 2.2 58 touch points
296 1EE PROCEEDINGS-G, Vol. 138, No. 3, JUNE 1991

179
than a full circuit optimisation as the computation is

90
dependent on the order of the filter rather than the
number of components in the circuit (e.g. a lOth-order
80L filter will be realised as a circuit with 40 components).
70
'e so
X
CD correc.ee
~°. 50
c
b
30
20
sincCx) distorted
10
predistorted
00 02 04 06
o frequency. H z
Fig. 9A Length 69 FIR differentiator
-1 0
c o m p a r i s o n of linearity at D C
frequency, Hz xlO^
Fig. 1 0 B Sine (x) correction
9.4 9 8 10 2
optimised
0.00 005 0.10

frequency Hz
pre-distorted distorted
frequency, Hz
Fig. 9 B Length 69 FIR differentiator with l3th-order touch point at 0

Hz (linearity comparison shown as inset)
f r e q u e n c y , Hz x 10
F i g . 11 Optimisation of distortion in left-LUD SC filler due to op-amp
and switch nonidealities
-20
4 Group delay approximation by allpass functions
-40
The allpass function in the continuous time s-domain is
m -60 X{-s)
x> T(S): (38)
c" X(s)
o
and the group delay function can be expressed as

°> -80
dX(-s)
-100 2 Re <X(s)
ds
T(W) = • (39)
X(s)X(-s) DM
-120
As the denominator of eqn. 39 is a magnitude-squared

-140 200 400 600 800 function, it can be designed by standard Remez-type
f r e q u e n c y , H z x 10 methods. The numerator function is an even function of s
which can be formed by Hurwitz factorisation of the
Fig. 10A Wideband bandpass SC filter with sine (.t) distortion denominator polynomial.
IEE PROCEEDINGS-G. Vol. 138. No. 3. JUNE 1991 297

18 0
4.1 New Remez-type algorithm Using Muller's quadratic interpolation method, this typi-
Consider now the problem of fitting the delay function to cally only requires two to three iterations per root [31].
lower and upper boundaries L(a>) and V(<.o) in a minimax Accuracy is preserved in the algorithm by avoiding
sense over a frequency interval w to io (Fig. 12). It is io ki representation of polynomials in coefficient form. Instead,
required that Newton interpolated form is used at step 3 and factored
form at step 4. Both forms are well conditioned on the
N(w) approximation region, allowing high-order functions and
Lieu) + C ^ $ Uivj) + C (40)
X{j(o)X(-ja)) narrow band allpass functions to be designed.
No theoretical proof has been obtained of con-
vergence. However, experience has shown that con-
vergence is good and that five or six cycles will generally
u(oj) suffice. The mechanism of the algorithm is dependent on
the similarity between the group delay function t(co) and
the denominator magnitude function D(w) in eqn. 39. The
numerator is observed to be a smooth function over the
approximating region, which warps the delay function of
I 00 the denominator. Further theoretical investigation is
being undertaken.
Digital allpass functions can be obtained by bilinear
transformation. The delay specifications must be pre-
2
warped by a factor of cos (coT/2) ,
Group delay equalisation can be performed by com-
bining Um) and V(w) with the additive inverse of the
group delay function of the amplitude filter. In this case,
the total group delay of the allpass and amplitude filter
stages will meet the desired specifications.
Fig. 12 Approximation scheme for allpass group delay

4.3 Computed examples
High-order touch points can be introduced into the delay
where the unknown constant delay offset C is necessary function by the approximation methods of Section 2. Fig.
to ensure that 13 shows a 12th-order maximally flat group delay
response (llth-order touch point). Fig. 14 shows a
T(O>) da> = nn (41) stepped form of group delay. Fig. 15 shows a 28th-order
Jo stepped group delay response with a 5th-order touch
The constant C can be added without affecting the rela- point at the lower band edge. Finally, a 28th-order
tive delay variation over the approximating region. allpass function is employed to equalise the delay of a
lOth-order elliptic amplitude filter to a variation of
The allpass approximation method may be sum-
+ 50 fis over the passband (Fig. 16).
marised by the following steps .
Step I: Read lower and upper delay boundaries as
piecewise boundaries L(co) and U(o>) and equaliser order 4.4 Advantages
n. An iterative design procedure which works on the group
Step 2: Set numerator function N(a>) = 1 and guess delay function and employs Remez-type approximation
constant C = nn/(a> — co,J ki
has been proposed. Advantages of this algorithm are as
Step 3: Apply Remez approximation techniques to follows:
solve (1) G o o d initial guesses of parameters are not required
for convergence. As with the Remez approximation the
u(w) = NM/(L<w) + C )
/(co) = N((o)/{U{w) + C)
oveT the range a) -w using D(x).
h hi
Step 4: Recalculate C as average delay constant

1 2
between specified and approximated T(CO) over cu^to .
Step 5: Form numerator function by Hurwitz factor-
isation of D(w). Let the roots be s, = — a, + j'ft,, then the 10
delay function is
2
"' { a - a ) 08
2 2
\af + (OJ + ft,) af + (cu - ft,) J
06
The numerator function can be calculated from eqns. 43
and 44
OA
N(u>) = D M x T(O>) (44)
Step 6: Repeat from step 2 until converged.

0.2
4.2 Computer implementation
100 200 300 400 500 600
The factorisation at step 5 can be made very efficient by
frequency.HzxlO
utilising root positions from the previous factorisation as
good initial guesses of roots for the present factorisation. Fig. 13 12th-order maximally flat allpass group delay approximation
298 IEE PROCEED1NGS-G, Vol. 1J8. No. J. JUNE 1991

1 81
interpolation abscissae can be arbitrarily spaced on the it draws on the same numerical methods of interpolation
approximation region (normally equidistantly). and factorisation.
0 1 2n
60
corrected response
0 !0: equansei response
0 08
I/I
n
<" 0.06
o
004 20
0.02 10 original fitter

response
_j i i— i
90 180 270 360 100 200 300 400 500 600
]
f r e q u e n c y . H z x 10
f r e q u e n c y . Hz xlO
Fig. 14 28lh-order stepped allpass group delay approximation
h i g h - o r d e r touch point
equaliser r e s p o n s e
corrected response
oto
008
" 0.06
004
20 2.5 30 353 40
002 b f r e q u e n c y , Hz x 10
Fig. 16
a Equalisation of lOth-order elliptic filter delay response by 28th-order allpass
function
90 180 270 360
b Passband detail
5
f r e q u e n c y . H z xlO
Fig. 15 28th-order allpass group delay approximation with high-order

5 Conclusions
touch point
The amplitude and group delay response of filters can be

(2) The algorithm is well conditioned. Accuracy is
designed with great flexibility by a series of extended
maintained by representing the design polynomials in
Remez exchange algorithms. The amplitude response can
either Newton or factored form, instead of the ill condi-
be weighted arbitrarily in passband and stopband. High-
tioned coefficient form. High orders (>40) and narrow
order touch points have been introduced as a gener-
band design can be obtained. High-order designs are of
alisation of the idea of maximum flatness. They are
some interest for digital filters where a very selective
shown to offer the designer freedom to influence the filter
linear phase filter is required, which would be too expen-
characteristic in critical regions, when trade-off in the
sive in nonrecursive form.
properties of group delay, passive sensitivity and stop-
(3) Stability of the solution is guaranteed at all stages
band attenuation can be effected. Similar manipulations
of the algorithm. The roots of the denominator of the
are possible in the group delay of an allpass function. The
allpass function must lie in the left-half plane because of
new algorithms are fast and efficient and have found suc-
the Hurwitz factorisation step.
cessful application in the P A N D D A filter compiler [30].
(4) Computational requirements are light. The process
only involves the fast Remez exchange and a factor-
isation step. 6 Acknowledgments
(5) The convergence of the algorithm is good.
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial
In computer terms, this algorithm can be conveniently support of G E C Hirst Research Centre and the U K
combined with amplitude approximation software, since Science and Engineering Research Council.
IEE PROCEED1NGS-G, Vol. 138, No. 3, JUNE 1991 299

7 References 15 L I P I N G , and S E W E L L . J . I . : Active a n d digital ladder-based
alipass fillers'. / £ £ Proc. G. Circuits. Devices and Systems. 1990. 137.
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- D A N I E L S . R . W . : ' A p p r o x i m a t i o n methods for electronic filter digital a n d a n a l o g all-pass circuits'. / £ £ £ Trans.. 1978. C A S - 2 5 .
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3 N A K H L A . M . S . . ' A p p r o x i m a t i o n of lowpass niters with frequency 17 D E C Z K Y . A . G . ; ' E q u i r i p p l e and m i n i m a x ( C h e b y s h e v t a p p r o x -
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13), pp. 198-202 (2), pp. 98-111
4 M E D L I N . G . W . : 'A new design technique for m a x i m a l l y linear dif- 18 C H A R A L A M B O U S . C , a n d A N T O N I O U . A . : E q u a l i s a t i o n of
ferentiators'. Proceedings of the I E E E I C A S S P . G l a s g o w . J u n e 1989, recursive digital filters'. / £ £ Proc. G. Circuits. Devices and Systems.
pp. 8 2 5 - 8 2 8 1980, 127, (5), pp. 2 1 9 - 2 2 5
5 F 1 L H O . S . N . , S E A R A . R , and B E R M U D E Z . J . C . M . : A new 19 J I N G . Z H O N G Q 1 : 'A new method for digital all-pass filter design'.
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time to c o n t i n u o u s time signal conversions'. Proceedings of the 20 H E N D E R S O N . R . K , and S E W E L L . J I . : A design algorithm for
I E E E I S C A S , P o r t l a n d , O r e g o n , M a y 1989, pp. 1668-1671 all-pass delay equalisers'. Digest of I E E S a r a g a C o l l o q u i u m o n E l e c -
6 D E Q U E 1 R O Z , A C M , and C A L O B A , L . P . : Physically symmetri- tronic F i l t e r s , L o n d o n , 1989, pp. 11/1-11/8
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Proceedings of the 30th M i d w e s t S y m p o s i u m on C i r c u i t s and F I R digital filters', / £ £ £ Trans.. 1978, C A S - 2 5 , (11), pp. 893-901
Systems, S y r a c u s e , N Y , 1987, pp. 6 3 9 - 6 4 3 22 C O N T E , S . D , and D E B O O R , C : E l e m e n t a r y n u m e r i c a l analysis'
7 V A I D Y A N A T H A N , P . P . : ' O p t i c a l design of linear-phase F I R i M c G r a w - H i l l . N e w Y o r k . 1980)
digital filters with very flat passbands a n d equiripple stopbands'. 23 H I L D E B R A N D , F . B . : Introduction to numerical analysis'
IEEE Trans., 1985, C A S - 3 2 , (9), pp 9 0 4 - 9 ) 7 ( M c G r a w - H i l l , N e w Y o r k , 1974. 2nd edn.)
8 C H A R A L A M B O U S , C , a n d K . H R E I S H 1 , H . : ' M i n i m a x design of 24 R A B I N E R , L . R . , M c C L E L L A N , J H , a n d P A R K S , T . W . : F I R
o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l recursive di^ .al filters of a given a p p r o x i m a t i o n digital filter design techniques using weighted C h e b y s h e v a p p r o x -
type: a closed form a p p r o a c h ' , I EE Proc. G, Circuits, Devices and imation', Proc. IEEE, 1975, 63, (4), pp. 5 9 5 - 6 0 9
Systems, 1 9 8 7 , 1 3 4 , ( 1 ) , pp. 3 8 - 4 4 25 L I A N G , J . - K , a n d D E F I G U E I R E D O , R . J . P . : A n efficient iter-
9 S T E I G L I T Z , K . : ' C o m p u t e r - a i d e d design of recursive digital filters'. ative algorithm for designing o p t i m a l recursive digital filters', / £ £ £
IEEE Trans., 1970, A U - 1 8 , (2), pp. 123-129 Trans., 1983, A S S P - 3 1 , (5), pp. 1110-1120
10 T E M E S , G . C . , and C A L A H A N , D A : ' C o m p u t e r - a i d e d network 26 M A R T I N E Z , H . G , and P A R K S , T . W . : 'Design of recursive digital
o p t i m i s a t i o n : the state-of-the-art'. Proc. IEEE. 1967, 53, pp. 1832- fillers with o p t i m u m magnitude a n d attenuation poles o n the unit
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a p p r o x i m a t i o n ' . A t o m i c E n e r g y T r a n s l a t i o n 4491, K i e v U S S R , 1957, weighted-chebyshev, nonrecursive digital filters', / £ £ £ Trans., 1983,
pp. 1-85 C A S - 3 0 , 0 0 ) , pp. 7 4 0 - 7 4 8
12 L I P I N G , H E N D E R S O N , R . K , a n d S E W E L L , J . I . : ' A new filler 28 O R C H A R D , H . J . : ' F i l t e r design by iterated analysis'. / £ £ £ Trans,
a p p r o x i m a t i o n and design algorithm'. Proceedings of the I E E E 1985, C A S - 3 2 , (11), pp. 1089-1096
I S C A S , P o r t l a n d , O r e g o n , M a y 1989, pp 1063-1066 29 O R C H A R D , H . J . : i n d u c t o r l e s s filters'. Electron. Leu.. 1966, 2, pp.
13 C O R T E L A Z Z O , G , a n d L I G H T N E R , M R . : ' S i m u l t a n e o u s design 224-225
in both magnitude a n d g r o u p delay of I I R a n d F I R filters based on 30 H E N D E R S O N , R . K , L I P I N G , a n d S E W E L L . J . I . : A design
multiple criterion optimisation', IEEE Trans., 1984, A S S P - 3 2 , (5), p r o g r a m for digital a n d analogue filters: P A N D D A ' . Proceedings of
pp. 9 4 9 - 9 6 7 E C C T D 89, B r i g h t o n , U K , Sept. 1989, pp. 2 8 9 - 2 9 3
14 R H O D E S , J . D . . a n d Z A L A B A W 1 . I . H . : Design of selective linear- 31 M U L L E R , D . E . : ' A method for solving algebraic equations using
phase filters with equiripple amplitude characteristics'. IEEE Trans.. an a u t o m a t i c computer'. Math. Tables and other Aids for Compula-
1978. C A S - 2 5 , (12), pp. 9 8 9 - 1 0 0 0 tion, 1956, 10, pp. 2 0 8 - 2 1 5
300 /££ PROCEED INGS-G, Vol. 13H. No. 3. JUNE 1991

18 3
PAPER 43
Canon sea i design of integrated ladder filters
R.K. Henderson, BSc, PhD

Li Ping, MS, PhD
Indexing terms: Active fillers. Ladder fillers. Simulation
ward active simulation would be unstable [2]. Hence it is

Abstract: Necessary conditions are given for the of both theoretical and practical interest to develop a
existence of a one-opamp-per-pole (canonical) procedure for canonical ladder design for general forms
realisation of a transfer function by an active of transfer function.
ladder filter designed by operational simulation A necessary condition is derived to assess whether a
methods. The parity of the transfer function is given transfer function possesses a canonical ladder
shown to be critical. Some new design methods realisation. The outcome is shown to be dependent on
are applied to guarantee canonical low-sensitivity the parity of the numerator. This condition is also
realisation of hitherto problematic filter types. believed to be sufficient, although a rigorous proof has
These ensure a uniform progression of circuit not been obtained. F o r transfer functions with the wrong
structures with filter order. Hybrid matrix parity, a novel method is introduced to realise canonical
methods are shown to be useful to minimise th; ladder circuits by changing the parity of the numerator
use of opamps in the simulation of arbitrary and compensating for the distortion in the simulation
prototype ladder topologies. procedure. Thus a wide family of hitherto problematic
transfer functions can be realised by canonic active cir-
cuits. A regular progression of circuits with increasing
1 Introduction order is now possible, in the same way as for biquadratic
cascade realisations. The simulation of arbitrary forms of
Low-sensitivity integrated active RC or switched-
ladder prototype which do not belong to the minimum
capacitor (SC) filter structures based on passive ladder
node type is considered. Hybrid matrix methods are
simulation have been widely used for more than three
shown to be useful to ensure canonical realisations in
decades [1, 2]. Among many alternatives, the most
these cases.
popular are the leapfrog and coupled-biquad circuits by
virtue of their stray insensitivity [3, 4 ] . However, the
advantages of these circuits have always been compro- 2 Standard ladder simulation methods
mised by their relatively complicated design procedures,
requiring different design techniques to meet different A passive ladder can be described by the nodal equation
filter specifications. F o r this reason, matrix methods have YV = J (1)
been introduced to regularise the design procedures,
ensuring that the steps involved do not change signifi- where
cantly according to the form of prototype and system Y(s) = (sC + s ' T + G) (2)
order [5, 6]. Some inconsistencies still remain, and it is and where C , T and G are matrices formed from the con-
the purpose of this paper to address these. tributions of capacitors, inductors and resistors respec-
An efficient integrated filter design will normally mini- tively, V is the vector of node voltages and J is the input
mise the use of opamps, since these consume power and vector. A design procedure has been developed to realise
are sources of noise. Realisations with less than one eqn. 1 by active RC and S C circuits [ 8 ] . This is done by
opamp per pole are normally sensitive to component creating a set of intermediate variables and decomposing
deviations and, in particular for S C circuits, to top and the system eqn. 1 into two interrelated systems. For
bottom plate stray capacitance. Therefore, it is generally example, in active RC circuits this decomposition can be
accepted that one-opamp-per-pole realisations are canon- performed in the following ways.
ical for low-sensitivity ladder circuits. However, this is
not always achievable. F o r example, a 'pure' even-order 2.1 Left matrix decomposition
lowpass elliptic function cannot be realised by a proto- Factorise the matrix C i n t o
type passive ladder, unless the function is modified at the
C=C,C r (3)
cost of poorer attenuation in the stopband [7]. Another
problem exists for bandstop or highpass functions where, The following pair of equations is equivalent to eqn. 1:
although a prototype can be synthesised, its straightfor- C W =(-s~ r l
-G)y-(-J) (4a)
X
x
P a p e r 7 7 6 0 G ( E 1 0 ) . received 1 I t h J u n e 1990 CV
r = s' W (4b)
Prof. Sewell is with the D e p a r t m e n t of E l e c t r o n i c s a n d E l e c t r i c a l E n g i n -
where W is the vector of intermediate variables.
eering. U n i v e r s i t y of G l a s g o w , G l a s g o w G 1 2 8 Q Q . U n i t e d K i n g d o m
R . K . H e n d e r s o n is with C S E M , C a s e P o s l a l e 41. C H - 2 0 0 7 N e u c h a t e l .
2.2 Right matrix decomposition
Switzerland
r can also be factorised as
L i P i n g is with the D e p a r t m e n t of E l e c t r i c a l and E l e c t r o n i c s E n g i n e e r -
ing. U n i v e r s i t y of M e l b o u r n e , P a r k v i l l e . V i c t o r i a 3052, A u s t r a l i a r = r,r r (5)
222 IEE PROCEEDINGS-G, Vol. 138. No. 2. APRIL 1991

The following pair of equations is equivalent to eqn. 1 (a) C. r and G are all tridiagonal matrices. So Y is also
tridiagonal.
CV = '[r,>f + GV + (-/)] (6a)
(b) J has only one nonzero element, i.e. J = [ J , , 0
l
iw = s r, v (6b)
or.
The details of the design procedure can be found in [5, 6. (c) G has only two nonzero elements g lt = gin and
8, 9], covering the well known leapfrog and coupled- Q<m — 3L- s
general o l n a t m
biquad methods together with some new ones, notably sc

(7)
V i * 1.1 — i± i., s '/,-- 1.1
those obtained by adopting L U decompositions [10]. As
system eqn. 1 with size n can at most realise a 2nth-order (d) The output is the nodal voltage L-„
or a (2n — Uth-order transfer function for an even-order
or an odd-order system respectively, then: The constraints for a transfer function to be realisable by
a canonical doublv-terminated ladder are as follows:
Definition I: System eqn. 1 with size n is said to represent
a canonical ladder prototype if it realises a 2nth-order or Theorem 1:
a (2n — l)th-order transfer function. (a) The numerator of the transfer function vJJ, of a
canonical even-order doubly-terminated ladder is an odd
In [10] it has been shown that system eqn. 1 can always polynomial.
be simulated by an active RC or S C ladder with 2n (b) The numerator of the transfer function u„/J, of an
opamps; alternatively, if the transfer function is of order odd-order doubly-terminated ladder is an odd poly-
2n — 1 a simulation with 2n — 1 opamps is possible. nomial if | C | is nonsingular or an even polynomial if | T |
Therefore the problem of finding a canonical standard is nonsingular.
ladder simulation becomes that of finding a canonical
ladder prototype.
Proof: From remark 1 the nodal admittance matrix of a
doubly-terminated ladder is tridiagonal. By Cramer's rule
3 Canonical iadder prototypes
[12] it can be found for the output v„ that
In the following, conditions will be derived for a ladder
prototype eqn. 1 to be canonical. First some properties of (8)
the prototype eqn. 1 are stated as follows: A(s)
Remark I: The nodal description of a doubly-terminated where A(s) is the determinant of Y and A l n is the appro-
ladder synthesised from the minimum node two-port sec- priate cofactor. It can be shown that
tions in Fig. 1 has the following properties: n -1
n o .
(9)
A(s)
where T — and C - Let vJJ t be expressed in

the form of a rational function
N(s)
(10)
D(s)
D(s) and N{s) are the denominator and numerator poly-

nomials respectively, and they contain only non-negative
powers of s. Consider first the case of an even canonical
realisation. Notice that by using the Laplace expansion
[12] repeatedly the determinant of A(s) can be expanded
as follows, where n is the size of the coefficient matrices:
A(i) = | C | s " + a„
+ ••• + «_ '+ ir|a- (11)
A ladder realising a 2«th-order function must have a

shunt C nonsingular T, and so the denominator can be rear-
ranged to be a 2nth-order polynomial as
D(s) = s"A(s) (12a)
o—
II
h and the numerator becomes
ii - t
N(s) = s"]~I [ s c ( + l i , - 5~')',• + , . , ] (12fc)
Here c l+ and
l i(for all i) cannot both be zero,
+
otherwise the transfer function would be zero. Suppose

shunt C . s e r i e s IX s h u n t L , s e r i e s LC
c, , , are nonzero for all i; then it can be seen that N{s) is
+
Fig. 1 Minimum node two-port sections a (2n — l)th-order polynomial with only odd terms. If
I EE PROCEEDINGS^. Vol. LIS. No. APRIL IW1 223

any c, + is zero then N{s) will reduce to a (2»i - 3)th-
1 ; make a canonical realisation impossible. In the suc-
order polynomial (since in this case y , , must be i T ceeding sections it will be seen that a noncanonical
nonzero) and N(s) will stay odd. It is easy to deduce that ladder prototype will lead to an integrated circuit simula-
N{s) will remain odd for cases of more zero J c , _ , } . The i+ tion of excessive size, unless some complicated procedure
same reasoning can be applied to the cases that some is adopted. It will also be shown that the wrong parity of
{}>,,, ,} are zero.
+ numerator can be easily corrected, and a simple tech-
Now consider the case of odd-order design, where nique is introduced to eliminate the error caused by this
either C or T must be singular to make D(s) in eqn. 12a modification. This results in a unified procedure, with
odd. If T is nonsingular, exactly the same reasoning as very regular structures, to realise a wide family of transfer
for the even case can be used to show that N{s) must be functions. There is a uniform progression in the form of
odd. If C is nonsinguiar then the circuit structures regardless of the type of specifi-
cation or order.
D(s) = s""'A(s) (13(j)
N(s) = s"-' n W i . i - * " ' y i + i.J H36) 4 Canonical ladder simulation by modified
prototype
i= 1
and it is easily shown that N(s) must be an even poly- The numerators of the transfer functions considered in
nomial.
this paper are restricted to be polynomials with purely
Theorem 1 establishes some necessary conditions for a even or odd terms. This means their zeros are restricted
transfer function to have a canonical realisation. It to lie on or have quadrantal symmetry about the imagin-
appears that these conditions are also sufficient for reali- ary axis. Such a constraint is valid for most filter design
sability provided that the transfer function is stable. problems. With this constraint and from theorem 1 the
problem concerned in this paper has been greatly simpli-
It is seen from theorem 1 that the constraint on the
fied : whether a given transfer function can be realised by
parity of the numerator is related to the singularity of the
a canonical standard ladder depends solely on the
matrices C and T. The singularities, however, cannot be
numerator parity.
arbitrarily chosen.
The most common example of a transfer function with
the wrong parity is an even-order 'pure' elliptic function
Theorem 2: A doubly-terminated ladder has a nonzero with an even-order numerator. It is well known that this
response at co = oo only if C is singular and has a kind of function cannot be realised by a doubly-
nonzero response at co = 0 only if T is singular. terminated ladder [13], Traditionally the solution to this
problem is to modify the numerator by moving a pair of
Proof: Let s = j<o. From eqn. 12 it can be seen that when finite zeros to infinity [7], which incurs the penalty of a
CO -> OO,
loss of stopband attenuation (Fig. 2).
1
A(s)-|r|s" + „_ a l X "- (14)
xlO
and from eqn. 9 the numerator is at most to the power of
1
s"" . Therefore if | C | is not zero then eqn. 9 must be
zero. Similar reasoning can be used at co -> 0.
It is mandatory that lowpass transfer functions have

nonzero values at co = 0 and highpass and bandstop
functions at co = o o . This indicates that the singularity of
the matrices is predetermined by the filtering types, and CQ
therefore the parity of the numerators of odd-order cases

is also constrained. modified pure
Since the singularities of C and T mean that their rank o> . 5
can at most be n — 1, according to eqn. 14 a list of the

upper bounds for various filtering types by a ladder with
order n is obtained in Table 1.
T a b l e 1: U p p e r b o u n d s o n s y s t e m o r d e r for v a r i o u s classes 8
of ladder filter w i t h n n o d e s
Classes Constraint U p p e r b o u n d of
s y s t e m order 100 200 300 400 x l 0 2
f r e q u e n c y , Hz
Lowpass W(O) # 0 T singular 2n -1
Bandpass 2n Fig. 2 Modified and 'pure' eighth-order bandpass elliptic functions
Highpass H ( ° o ) / 0 C singular 2/7 - 1
Bandstop H(0) / 0 W(co)#0 In - 2
both C a n d V singular
A new scheme is introduced here to realise the transfer
function exactly without any sacrifice of filtering quality.
Let H(s) be a transfer function with all its zeros on the
It is easily seen that canonical designs can be achieved imaginary axis or at infinity. If the constraints of
only by bandpass, odd-order lowpass and odd-order theorem 1 are not met, or more precisely if N{s) has the
highpass. F o r other cases, constraints given in theorem 2 wrong parity, some simple manipulation of the transfer
224 / E E PROCEED!NGS-C. Vol. 138. No. 2. APRIL 1991

function can be made to cope with the problem. Consider The system can be rearranged as
three possibilities:
(a) The numerator of H is a constant. 1
A + <DB+ D \y ico? + ') ^ + 4<D(u? (21a)
(b) The numerator of H has a single root at M, = 0.
(c) The numerator of H has a pair of imaginary roots
A = 2 TC + T'lr + G 5= 27T
at + a>,- (cu, can be zero).
x ,
T o change the parity, manipulate as follows: D = 2G V = z' '(\ (21b)
(a) Let tf'(s) = H(s)s. ] 0) = 1/(1/:"')

(b) Let tf'(s) = H(s)s or H'(s) = W(s)/s| (15)
2
(r) I,el H'(s) = H{s)s/{s + cof). j
Then the parity of H' is opposite to that of H, and W(s) c , o c CIS
can now be realised by a canonical prototype ladder

••xA/ i rA/' ' »iAy . TJ>
described by the nodal equation
(sC+ s " T + G)F =J (16)
4.1 Canonical ladder simulation by active RC circuits

A system realising the original transfer function H(s) can
be obtained by multiplying the input vector / by the
inverse of the modification function. For case (c) we have
(sC+s' rl
+ G)V = {s + tufs^V (17)
This system can now be expressed in realisable form by
matrix methods [5, 6],
4.1.1 Left matrix decomposition form: Let C = C,C .

f
Then the system can be written as

G Gg G G,7 G G?$
c, w= -s-'iry + Gv + ojfi-j)-] (18a)
5 1 3 ? 1
l
cy
r = s~ w-c,-\-j) (186)
Fig. 4 Canonic eighth-order active RC ladder filters
a L e f l - U L D active RC circuit
4.1.2 Right matrix decomposition form: Let r = r,T .
r b Right-ULD active R C circuit
Then the system can be written as
cv= -s-\r,w + GV)~(-J) (19a)

,
}v = s - i r y + ,
w?rr (-J)-] (19b)
r
Â+QB+Djf ((of + l ) - + 44V \J (21c)
Active RC networks can be obtained directly from these
two equations. It is found that the most efficient method A = 2/TC + T/2r — G fl = 27T
in either case is to use U L factorisation, which minimises
the required number of input branches (only two). D = 2G y = : 'A1 - 1
z' ) (2\d)
The prototype in Fig. 3 is simulated by the two canon- 4> = 1/(1 - * " ' )
ical eighth-order left-ULD and r i g h t - U L D active RC cir-
cuits shown in Fig. 4. These canonical designs differ from The above equations can be linearised respectively as
standard ones in the position of the input stage branches. follows.
4.2.1 Left matrix Decomposition

A W=t —(<t)B + G)y- <D4<o 2(-/) i (22a)
1
A,y=VW-Ar (<of+\)/(-J) (22b)
4.2.2 Right matrix decomposition
Fig. 3 Eighth-order prototype ladder designed from partitioned trans- Ay=-<t>(B,H' + Gy)-((of+\)(-J) (23a)
fer function
x
W = V(B y + 4w?B[ ' X - y >
r (23b)
4.2 Canonical discrete ladder simulations The prototype in Fig. 3 is simulated by the two canonic
The design of a discrete ladder simulation starts from the eighth-order left-ULD and r i g h t - U L D S C circuits shown
modified prototype system eqn. 17, which after bilinear in Fig. 5. The sensitivity behaviour of the new structures
transformation becomes must be examined, as they are no longer strictly ladder
simulations and would seem to depart from Orchard's
low-sensitivity criterion [1], From the following exam-
r + G)V ples, and many others studied by computer simulation,
T 1 + :"' 2 1- z'
the sensitivity for the new structures has been confirmed
to be much better than their biquad counterparts, and
J + ~ cjfJ (20)
T 1+ . 2 1 very close to traditional ladder simulations.
IEE PROCEEDINGS-G. Vol. 138, No. 2. APRIL 1991 225

18 8
T4^ ^
c 2 8
left - U L D
9 0 9 5 10 0 11 0
1 <-l | C 5 I C 9 I C13 4 C, 7 I C; ? | L 2 5 |
t r e q u e n c y . Hz x!0 3
Fig. 6 Passband sensitivity comparison for canonic eighth-order

bandpass fillers
Fig. 5 Canonic eighth-order SC ladder filters
a L e f t - U L D S C circuil
h R i g h l - U L D S C circuil Xl02
5 C i r c u i t design examples
-0 2
The circuits of Fig. 5 are generated by the P A N D D A
filter compiler [14] to realise the 'pure' eighth-order ellip-
tic bandpass function of Fig. 2. The design data are given
in Table 2. A passband sensitivity comparison is shown
in Fig. 6 with a corresponding cascade biquad desi n. A 6
l e f t - U L D realisation proves preferable in all respects,

having lower sensitivity and total capacitance.
Table 2 : D e s i g n data f o r e i g h t h - o r d e r b a n d p a s s fitter realis-

ations
modified
C o m p a r i s o n of c a n o n i c a l l e f t - U L D l a d d e r a n d b i q u a d S C filters
ULD Biquad
- 1 0
Total c a p a c i t a n c e 188.03 193.91
C a p a c i t a n c e spread 57 38 41.54
Average capacitor 5.88 6.46
N u m b e r of c a p a c i t o r s 32 30 200 WO 600 800
N u m b e r of s w i t c h e s 34 36 f r e q u e n c y , Hz KlO'
N u m b e r of o p a m p s 8 8
Fig. 7 Modified and 'pure'eighth-order lowpass elliptic functions
C a p a c i t o r v a l u e s of l e f t - U L D S C ladder filter in Fig 5a
c, = 18.20 c,=57.38 2.28 c . = 7.69 c = 3.825

T a b l e 3 : D e s i g n data for eighth-order l o w p a s s filter realis-
c = 1.05 c,= 1 00 c„ = 4.80 C , = 14.09
6
c „ = 3.12 c, = 10.72 C , = 1.00

c, = 5.25
c,« = 1.12 c, =
0
1.36 ations
2 3 5
C,6 = 5.36 c„ = 3.96 C, = 12.66

B c „ = 1.00 c„= 2 2.87 C o m p a r i s o n of c a n o n i c a l r i g h t - U L D ladder a n d b i q u a d S C filters
c„ = 1.00
c = 11.05
c„ =
c„ =
2.01
1.00
c = 1.26
3 3
c = 2.16
c „ = 3.21
c = 2 05
c =
c =
2 5 2.57
1.00 ULD Biquad
J 6 3B 2 3 3 0
c „ = 1.00 C 3 2 = 1.00
Total c a p a c i t a n c e 189.43 107.83
Clock f r e q u e n c y = 200 k H z ; P a s s b a n d ripple < 1 d B ; S t o p b a n d Capacitance spread 75.16 14.08
attenuation > 50dB; L o w e r p a s s b a n d e d g e = 9 k H z ; Upper pass- Average capacitor 5.92 3.59
b a n d e d g e = 11 k H z N u m b e r of c a p a c i t o r s 32 30
N u m b e r of s w i t c h e s 34 36
The passive ladder of Fig. 3 can also be used to realise N u m b e r of o p a m p s 8 8
the partitioned transfer function of an eighth-order
C a p a c i t o r v a l u e s of r i g h t - U L D S C ladder filter in F i g . 5 6
lowpass function in Fig. 7. The circuits of Fig. 5 are once
again employed. T h e design data for a r i g h t - U L D S C c, =13.15 c 2 = 7516 c 3
= 2.21 c. = 7 96 c = 13.99 5
realisation are given in Table 3. A sensitivity comparison 1.04 c 7 = 1.00 = 6.15 c, = 2.19 C.o = 11.61
is shown in Fig. 8. The l e f t - U L D has a serious peak c,, = 1.00 c, a = 6.33 = 2.30 c , = 1.27 c„ = 1.04
4
towards low frequency, a known problem for lowpass

c,.= 1.72 c„ = 1.10 c „ = 5.86 c,„ = 1.00 c „ = 6.72 2
c, =
2 1.00 c„ = 1.66 c 2 3 = 6.01 c . = 1.45 c = 2.49
2 2 5
design, and would not normally be considered. The right- c = 3.11 c = 1.00 c = 4.27 c = 2.61 c „ = 1.00
3 6 2 7 2B 2 s 3
U L D design has very low sensitivity, well below the c, = 1.00
cascade biquad realisation. In this case, the ladder has a
3
c 31 = 1.00
Clock frequency = 2 0 0 kHz; Passband edge = 10 kHz; Passband
larger total capacitance. ripple < 0.1 d B , S t o p b a n d a t t e n u a t i o n > 7 0 d B .
IEE PROCEED INGS-G, Vol LIS, No. 2. APRIL 1991

However, if a single mesh current /„ is selected as a vari-
able to replace r„. ,. the last two row equations will have
the following form :
left - U L D
0
to 12
+ s
J (24)
nghl -ULD The output is now i„, which differs from [;„+, by only
a constant g . The rank of matrix T will be n — 1 since
L
the contribution of the mth inductor is now moved to

the first matrix. If a r i g h l - L U D decomposition method
40 60 80 r = LV is used, two zero rows will appear in matrix LI.
frequency,Hz According to eqn. 6b the intermediate variable vector
1
Fig. 8 Passhand sensitivity comp -ison for canonic eighth-order W = s ~ U V contains two variables which can be deleted.
lowpass filters This means that the total number of variables is 2rt and
only n opamps are necessary, providing a canonical solu-
6 Hybrid matrix approaches tion.
The same technique can be applied to the left decom-
The above techniques, which guarantee the existence of a position designs for a 2n-order bandpass prototype (Fig.
canonic ladder simulation, require restrictions to be 96) derived from an nth-order lowpass reference with n
made on the structure of the passive prototype. Given a even. There are n + 1 nodes in the ladder, so a nodal
prototype which does not have this structure, how can a description is not efficient. If a single mesh current /„ is
canonic simulation be obtained? The restrictions were selected as a variable to replace v„ and u „ , , the last two +
made in order to provide an efficient matrix nodal row equations can be arranged into the following form,
description. F o r arbitrary prototypes, more general providing a canonical solution:
hybrid matrix descriptions can be adopted to minimise
the size of the matrix systems and their resulting simu-
lated circuits. The drawback of the hybrid method is that £.-„_, + c _ m 2 0
there is no unified rule. The exact design method depends
on the individual prototype structures and the selection
of the internal variables, which can be seen from the fol-
lowing examples. + s , L l,
m 0
An even-order lowpass circuit shown in Fig. 9a has
n + 1 nodes but the filter order is 2n. The rank of T is n
as there are n inductors in the circuit, making the total
number of opamps required 2n + 1; so even a leapfrog 0 I J (25)
design cannot directly provide a canonical circuit. -1
L2
C |
J9,n T
1-2
era
m- 3 m-2
Vn-l Lm n.
/-YV\
l
C 3 m-3 m-2
J c. m-U L m- m-
\
8
9
UL
Fig. 9 Canonical simulation scheme

a Even-order lowpass prototype
b 2nth-order bandpass prototype
1EE PROCEEDINCS-C. Vol. 138, No. 2, APRIL 1991 227

7 Conclusion 9 References
A n objection to the use of active ladder simulation filters 1 S E D R A . A.S.. and BRACKET"!'. P.O.: Filler theory and design:
is the difficulty of guaranteeing a canonic filter circuit. By active and passive' (Pitman. London. 19791
2 G R E G O R I A N . R., M A R T I N . K.W.. and T E M E S . G.C.: 'Swiiched-
standard methods, a passive ladder realisation may not
capacitor circuit design'. Proc. IEEE. 1983. 71. pp. 941-965
exist or the simulation of the ladder w o u l d yield non- 3 L E E , M.S.. and C H A N G . C . : 'Switched-caparitor filters using the
canonic circuits. This paper has presented a set of condi- LDI and bilinear transformations'. IEEE Trans.. 1983. CAS-30. | I 2 | .
tions on the transfer function and prototype structure pp. 873-887
whereby a canonic simulation is obtainable. For the A M A R T I N . K.. and S E D R A . A S . : Exact design of switched-
capacitor bandpass filters using coupled biquad structures'. IEEE
exceptions, a new design method and new canonic ladder Trans.. 1980. CAS-27. |6|. pp. 469-474
structures are proposed. These circuits are applicable to :' LI P I N G : 'Theory and methodology for integrated ladder tiller
all active technologies and are stray insensitive in design". PhD Thesis. University of Glasgow. 1990
switched-capacitor implementation. Despite departing 6 LI P I N G . H E N D E R S O N . R.K.. and S E W E L L . J.l : Matrix
f r o m the strict conditions for low-sensitivity passive methods for switched capacitor filter design'. Proceedings I E E E
ISCAS. Helsinki. June 1988. pp. 1044-1048
ladder simulation, the circuits are shown to have very
7 D A N I E L S . R.W.: 'Approximation methods for electronic filler
good sensitivity properties. A l t h o u g h competitive w i t h design' (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1974)
biquad cascade realisations for certain types of transfer 8 L I P I N G , and S E W E L L , J.I.: 'Filter realisation by passive ladder
function, there is some cost in component spread for simulation', IEE Proc. G, Circuits. Devices & Svst.. 1988, 135, (4), pp.
others. The design is formulated i n a very regular manner 167-176
9 L I PING, H E N D E R S O N . R.K , and S E W E L L , J.I.: A method-
in terms of m a t r i x equations, m a k i n g i t highly suited to ology for integrated ladder filter design', submitted for publication
computer implementation. The problem of o b t a i n i n g a 10 LI P I N G , and S E W E L L , J.I.: 'The L U D approach to switched-
canonic simulation of an arbitrary ladder sturcture is capacitor filter design', IEEE Trans.. 1987. CAS>-34, (12), pp. 1611-
demonstrated t o be one of properly choosing the system 1614
variables t o ensure a sparse matrix description. Some 11 L I P I N G , and S E W E L L , J.I.: 'High performance circuit structures
and symmetric matrix systems', I EE Proc. G. Circuits. Devices and
example techniques are illustrated for symmetric Syst.. 1989,136, (6), pp. 327-336
bandpass elliptic ladder filters. 12 Pearl, M.: 'Matrix theory and finite mathematics' (McGraw-Hill.
New York, 1973)
13 H E R R E R O . J . L . . and W I L L O N E R . G . : 'Synthesis of fillers'
8 Acknowledgment (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs. NJ. 1966)
14 H E N D E R S O N . R.K., L I P I N G , and S E W E L L . J.l.: A design
The authors w o u l d like to acknowledge the support of program for digital and analogue fillers: PANDDA'. Proceedings
the U K Science and Engineering Research Council. E C C T D '89, Brighton, September 1989, pp. 289-293
228 IEE PROCEED INGS-G. Vol. 138. No. 2. APRIL 1991

19 1
PAPER 44
19 2
I E E E TRANSACTIONS ON C I R C U I T S AND SYSTEMS, VOL. 38, NO, 8, A U G U S T 1991 825
Design Optimization and Testing of a GaAs

Switched=Capacitor Filter
D a v i d G . H a i g h , Senior Member, IEEE, C h r i s T o u m a z o u , Member, IEEE, S t e p h e n J . H a r r o l d ,
K . S t e p t o e , J o h n I . S e w e l l , Senior Member, IEEE, a n d R o b e r t B a y r u n s , Member, IEEE
Abstract—This paper is concerned with the design uf high silicon nitride, was used, and novel switching circuits with
frequency switched-capacitor filters implemented using GaAs the introduction of diodes to reduce the signal depen-
M E S F E T technology. The design techniques developed are illus-
dence of clock feedthrough were explored. Excellent filter
trated by means of a 2nd-order switched-capacitor bandpass
filter designed to operate at a switching frequency of 500 MHz. results for switching frequencies up to 100 M H z were
The design incorporates a recently proposed operational ampli- obtained.
fier architecture with a simulated gain of 60 dB and a recently T h i s paper is concerned with the design, optimization,
proposed switch driver circuit Amplifiers are characterized in and testing of a G a A s 2nd-order bandpass filter using a
terms of settling time performance and a general procedure is
presented for optimization of the switched-capacitor circuit to recently proposed high-gain operational amplifier [8],
majdmize switching frequency. Measurements on a fabricated which can have a low frequency gain of over 60 d B , and a
chip confirm the design of the filter and its components. recently proposed switch control circuit [9]. T h e amplifier
is characterized in terms of its minimum settling time and
the S C circuit is optimized for maximum possible clock
I. INTRODUCTION frequency. T h e design procedure is evaluated by measure-
H IGH-precision tunable sampled-data analog filters

can be integrated using the switched-capacitor ( S O
circuit approach. Using presently available C M O S tech-
ments on a fabricated chip. Some of the work described
in this paper has been reported in [10], [11], and [12].
nology, switching frequencies up to 30 M H z have been II. FILTER ARCHITECTURE

achieved [1] and an absolute maximum frequency limit of
A well-demonstrated approach for the realization of
130 M H z has been predicted [2]. T h e higher peak elec-
high-order S C filters is to interconnect a number of
tron velocity and resulting higher lowfield electron mobil-
parasitic insensitive integrators according to a leapfrog
ity of G a A s have been exploited for high-speed analog
configuration that simulates a low sensitivity L C R filter
sampled-data signal processing applications [3]. In [4] and
[13]. F o r the evaluation of S C filters realized in G a A s
[5], a switching frequency of 2S0 M H z has been achieved
technology, a 2nd-order bandpass filter consisting of two
for a G a A s 2nd-order bandpass filter with midband fre-
such integrators was chosen as shown in Fig. 1 [5]. T h e
quency of 10 M H z and Q-factor of 16. T h e accuracy of
circuit requires a nonoverlapping clock as shown in F i g . 2
the midband frequency was only a few percent, which is
with two phases ( E and O ) and guard intervals ( I N T )
inadequate for precision applications. T h e errors were
where all switches are open. T h e capacitor values shown
attributed to low amplifier gains of 40 dB; low capacitor
provide a Q-factor of 16, a midband gain of unity, and a
Q-factors were due to the use of polyimide dielectric and
midband frequency equal to l / 2 S t h of the switching fre-
suspected back-gating effects [7],
quency, which is a typically chosen value taking into
Larson et at. [6] have accepted a low value for amplifier
account the problems of aliasing and imaging [13].
gain and have proposed the use of finite gain insensitive
S C circuits. A more suitable capacitor dielectric, namely
I I I . SWITCH DRIVER CIRCUITS
Manuscript received February 7,1990; revised December 1, 1990. This
When S C circuits are implemented in C M O S technol-
work was supported in part by the Science and Engineering Research ogy, the switches can be realized by M O S F E T ' s , the gates
Council. This paper was recommended by Associate Editor M. Ismail. of which may be driven from the negative to the positive
D. G . Haigh is with the Department of Electronic and Electrical
Engineering, University College, London W O E 7JE, U K .
power supply rails to open and close the switches. This is
C. Toumazou is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, possible because in C M O S technology the gate is sepa-
Imperial College, London SW7 2BT, U K . rated from the channel by an insulating layer (oxide). T h e
S J . Harrold is with the Department of Electrical Engineering and
Electronics at U M I S T , Manchester M60 1QD, U K .
situation in G a A s technology is quite different In that the
K. Steptoe is with Cadence Ltd, Maidenhead, Berks, U K . gate forms a Schottky diode with the channel, and there-
J. I. Sewell is with the Department of Electronics and Electrical fore, large gate currents will flow if the gate voltage
Engineering) University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, U K .
exceeds the voltage at the source or drain by more than
R. Bayruns is with Anadigics, Inc. Warren, NJ.
I E E E Log Number 9100873. about 0.5 V , resulting in a failure of normal F E T opera-
0O98-4O94/9l/080O-O825$01.0O ©1991 I E E E
19 3
I E E E T R A N S A C T I O N S ON C I R C U I T S A N D S Y S T E M S . V O L . JK. NO. S. A U G U S T l<W|
GND GND MI R
MO-/-6V
M 0 9
Q-° 'P
-8V
(b)
Fig. 3. Switch control circuits for GaAs technology, (a) Basic architec-
ture, (bl Circuit adopted (Gatewidths: Ml—>0 fim: M2—IS um: M3.
M4—24 m ) .M
switch is in the closed state. It may appear that the gate

diode of M l might become f o r w a r d biased i f the voltage
GND GNO
at Y is significantly less than that at X at the start of a
Fig. 1. 2nd-order S C filler circuit ( C „ = 1. C P = C \ , = 15.W7. C , closing transition. In fact, this does not occur because,
C ; = 63.330).
well before the voltage V reaches the critical 0.5 V , the
CY
switch would start to go into its closed state, tending to

SWITCHHj PERIO0 T make the voltage o f V change towards that at X. A l -
CUBED though several SCC circuits have been proposed, they
Hi OPEN have several deficiencies including voltage b u f f e r gain
errors, large chip area, high power consumption, and high
C l 0 S £ D levels o f signal-dependent clock feedthrough. Thus the
01?
02
OPEN design of SCC's remains a critical step in the realization
of sampled data systems in GaAs.
Fig. 2. 2-phase clock waveforms.
Some of the problems associated w i t h the voltage b u f f e r
in Fig. 3(a) can be avoided by replacing it w i t h a short
tion. Thus we cannot apply the simple switching arrange- circuit with the consequence that the circuit now draws a
ment used i n C M O S SC circuits. f i n i t e dc current at switch node X, when the switch is
The switches in Fig. 1 may be divided into two cate- in the open state [6]. This can be accepted when the
gories. T h e switches adjacent to the amplifier inputs (e.g. operational amplifier driving this node can supply the
S1-S4) are switching signals close to ground and they may current. In any case, the voltage at this node when the
be realized as a M E S F E T with gate voltage switched switch is in the open state is not sampled. The circuit to
between 0 V (on-state) and K l , where V\ <VT (off-state). be used in this work is an example of this approach and is
The remaining switches in Fig. 2 (S5-S10) are associated shown in Fig. 3(b) [9]. M E S F E T ' s M 2 and M 3 constitute
w i t h the integrator input terminals. Four o f these switches the inverter; diodes, as in [6], make clock-feedthrough
(S7-S10) are switching large analog signals, and it is signal independent, and signal dependence is f u r t h e r re-
necessary to introduce a switch control circuit ( S C O for duced by the use o f inverter cascode device M 4 [9].
them in order to limit the high-level voltage on the Having considered the realization of the switches in the
switching M E S F E T gate to track the analog voltage so SC circuit, we now t u r n our attention to the operational
that the switching M E S F E T ' s gate Schottky diode is not amplifiers.
forward biased [5]. T h e remaining two switches (S5 and
S6) are switching signals at around 0 V and, therefore, do
not strictly need the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f SCC's; they were, IV. TRANSCONDUCTANCE AMPLIFIER
however, included in order to obtain balanced drive sig- SETTLING BEHAVIOR
nals f o r each pair of switches. A m p l i f i e r settling time is the most important dynamic
A number of SCC circuits have been previously em- performance parameter for sampled data circuit design
ployed [ 4 ] - [ 6 ] , [9], [12], all of which can be derived f r o m because it determines the maximum frequency limit and
the general architecture shown in Fig. 3(a). The digital affects response accuracy [14]. Suitable amplifiers are
input is f e d to an inverter, the output of which drives the generally of the single-stage, transconductance type, f o r
gate o f the switch M E S F E T M l . The output of the which settling time is critically dependent on load capaci-
inverter switches between the inverter negative supply tance [13]. Since, in general, the amplifiers in an SC filter
voltage - V , which opens the switch, and the inverter
s
experience d i f f e r e n t capacitative loads, the settling time
positive supply voltage. The inverter positive supply is of each amplifier has to be assessed separately. Most SC
derived f r o m the output of a unity-gain voltage b u f f e r , the circuits, like that in Fig. 1, operate with a 2-phase switch-
input voltage o f which is the voltage on one of the switch ing scheme. Thus, as shown in Fig. 2, there are three
terminals X. As a result, the voltage on the gate of M l is distinct states ( " E , " " O . " and " I N T " ) f o r which an ampli-
equal to the voltage at node X, as required, when the fier's settling characteristics have to be considered.
19 4
HA1GH el at.: D E S I G N O P T I M I Z A T I O N 827
2O0r 70
— gan.dB
--phase, deg
Fig. 4. General amplifier embedding.
2 0 L
' ° i k 10k KX* 1M 10M10CM16 DG100G
frequency, Hz
Fig. 6. Simulated amplifier frequency response.
TABLE I
K E Y PARAMETERS FOR J F E T M O D E L O F G A A S MESFET
Parameter Name Value Units
VTtJ -1 V
BETA 0.067E-3 mAV" 2
LAMBDA (LF) 0.06 v-'

LAMBDA (HF) 0.3 v-'
RD 2920 Ohms
RS 2920 Ohms
CGS 0.39E-15 F
CGD 0.39E-15 F
PB 0.79 V
IS 0.075E-15 A
constant T is given by
T = [Ci + CL + C i C L / C f ] / g m . (2)
Fig. 5. High gain double cascode amplifier {V = 5 V ) .

s
Thus a m p l i f i e r settling time ( t o w i t h i n 0.5% settling value
tolerance) may be expressed as
I n order to investigate the e f f e c t o f switching state on r, = 5.3 C L e f f / g m (3)

settling time, we initially make t w o simplifications. Firstly,
where
we begin by assuming that the switches are ideal, i.e.,
open or short circuit, depending on switching state. Sec- CLef( = Ci + CL + C i C L / C f . (4)
ondly, whereas i n certain switching states some o f the
amplifiers are coupled together, as f o r example in Fig. 1 As well as describing the dependence o f settling t i m e o n
in the " E " phase, we investigate the settling characteris- an a m p l i f i e r ' s external embedding, (3) also describes the
tics o f each a m p l i f i e r in t u r n under the assumption dependence o f settling time o n the a m p l i f i e r circuit itself
that the remaining a m p l i f i e r s are ideal. T h e validity o f via the transconductance gm. I n this paper, the r e q u i r e d
these simplifications w i l l be c o n f i r m e d by simulation in transconductance values are o b t a i n e d by u n i f o r m scaling
Section V I I I . of the gatewidths o f all the M E S F E T devices i n the
a m p l i f i e r . Thus we may write
U n d e r the above assumptions, each a m p l i f i e r i n an SC
filter may be considered to have an embedding o f the gm = Kgx (5)
general f o r m shown in Fig. 4 f o r each switching state. I f
the a m p l i f i e r is modeled as an ideal transconductance where x ( i n fim) is a reference gatewidth factor that
gm, the system i n F i g . 4 is first order and has a settling scales the gatewidths of all the devices i n the amplifier,
time given by and K„ is a constant. Thus we have
5.3 CL e f f
(6)
f.-rinO/d) (1) Kg
where T is a time constant and d is the settling value T h e t e r m CL e f f / x is referred to as the amplifier " l o a d -
tolerance. M a t s u i et al. [15] have shown that the time ing f a c t o r . "
828 I E E K TRANSAC1"10NS O N i. I I U '. I ! S A N D S Y S T E M S . V O L . Vi. N O . s. A I X . L ' S T 1W1
V. A M P L I F I E R C I R C U I T AND CHARACTERIZATION Cf
G a A s M E S F E T ' s have a number of disadvantages for
the design of high gain operational amplifiers, including
the lack of a suitable P-channel device, the general lack
OA
of enhancement mode devices (depletion mode devices WOT
are easier to manufacture), and a low value f o r the 1„ AnpUfor
ifder Its!
open-circuit voltage gain (transconductance/output con- N Luriwit pulse
ductance) of the device, typically only 20. The require-
ment f o r high b a n d w i d t h and voltage gains of the order of
60 d B has led to the development of a range o f circuit Fig. 7. Test setup for amplifier characterization.
techniques [16]. H i g h voltage gain is achieved by introduc-

ing double cascode techniques and biasing the M E S F E T ' s 1000
using a "double level-shifting" approach. Performance is PS
optimized f o r a given power consumption and chip area 900 Ve seming
by using a single-stage p u s h - p u l l architecture based on a
high performance G a A s current m i r r o r [17]. 5 800
T h e a m p l i f i e r circuit to be used is shown in Fig. 5. [8].

700 * Ve settling
It is a single-stage double cascode p u s h - p u l l transconduc-
tance a m p l i f i e r design using double level-shift biasing. 600 |
The gatewidths o f the M E S F E T ' s i n Fig. 5 are specified
in terms o f the reference gate w i d t h factor x. A m p l i f i e r 500 U i
performance is simulated using S P I C E via a M I N N I E 0 05 10 15 20
Load Capacitance pF
graphics interface [18] w i t h a J F E T model f o r the GaAs
M E S F E T ' s . For the f i l t e r to be designed, the model Fig. 8. Settling lime characterization curves for amplifier in Fig. 5.
parameters shown in Table I [8] were assumed. For an

a m p l i f i e r gate w i d t h factor x of 100 fi and a load capaci- lar a m p l i f i e r design by simulation in a test circuit such
tance o f 0.8 p F , the simulated gain and phase frequency that the embedding (see Fig. 4) satisfies both
responses are shown i n Fig. 6. Key performance parame-
ters, taken f r o m these curves, are given in Table I I . Ci-^CL (7)
U n l i k e previous amplifiers [ 4 ] - [ 6 ] used in SC filters, the
C7«C/ (8)
amplifier in Fig. 5 has a single-ended input (rather than a
d i f f e r e n t i a l - i n p u t ) and the quiescent input voltage is equal in which case we have f r o m (4) that CL e f f = CL. Settling
to the negative power supply voltage. These features lead time may be simulated f o r a range of load capacitance
to m i n i m u m circuit complexity, since internal d i f f e r e n t i a l values CL, which may be interpreted as CL e f f values,
and level-shifting circuitry is avoided, and hence provide and hence used via (4) to predict settling behavior w i t h i n
o p t i m u m high-frequency performance. The use o f a the SC f i l t e r f o r the capacitative embedding correspond-
single-ended input a m p l i f i e r w i l l result in a nonopti- ing to a particular switching state.
m u m power supply rejection ratio and, therefore, a well- The characterization test circuit is shown in Fig. 7. The
regulated power supply is required. D i f f e r e n t i a l input ideal unity gain b u f f e r a m p l i f i e r is included i f required in
amplifiers, i f required, can be realized using d i f f e r e n t i a l order to establish inequalities (7) and (8), depending on
to-single-ended converters in conjunction w i t h single- the a m p l i f i e r input capacitance [22]. T h e excitation is a
ended input designs, but settling time is increased [16]. f i n i t e charge AQ applied to the inverting a m p l i f i e r input
We have already seen in (3) and (4) that f o r the ideal using a pulsed current source to give a required output
single-stage transconductance type o f amplifier, settling voltage step AV = AQ/Cf. The voltage step AV is nor-
time is proportional to effective load capacitance value mally chosen to be the m a x i m u m voltage step the ampli-
C L eff. For real a m p l i f i e r implementations this linear fier is to experience in a particular sampled data applica-
relationship is not strictly observed [20], [21]. O u r ap- t i o n . Settling time is determined using S P I C E w i t h the
proach is to characterize the settling time of the particu- G a A s M E S F E T parameters of Table I . For characteriza-
tion o f the a m p l i f i e r in Fig. 5, the value o f Cf was 0.7 p F
and the b u f f e r a m p l i f i e r in Fig. 7 was o m i t t e d . The input
current pulse was of amplitude 1.36 m A and d u r a t i o n 200
T A B L E 11 p= giving an output voltage step f o r Cf = 0.7 p F o f
O P E R A T I O N A L A M P L I F I E R PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
( G A T E W I D T H FACTOR x = 100 n)
0.37 V .
Parameter Value Units

The settling time versus load capacitance f o r the ampli-
fier of Fig. 5 w i t h gatewidth factor x o f 100 f t is shown in
dc Gain 6.1 dB
Fig. 8. I t can be seen f r o m Fig. 8 that, f o r CL greater
G B Product 3.1 GHz
Phase Margin 64 deg than about 1 pF, settling time increases linearly w i t h CL
Load Capacitance 0.8 pF as expected f r o m (3) and (4) w i t h inequalities (7) and (8)
H A I G H el a/.: D E S I G N O P T I M I Z A T I O N 829
satisfied. However, f o r CL of about 1 pF, there i i a T A B L E III

EXPRESSIONS FOR C I R C U I T OPTIMIZATION
t u r n i n g point, and settling time increases for smaller
loading leading to instability f o r very small loading. This _ CLeff ()i-a )-CLeH (l+^)
) t 1
is due to high-frequency poles in the amplifier transfer +

/.U «»)-A(I + a j (
f u n c t i o n , w h i c h represent a deviation f r o m ideal transcon-

CLeUJ, -r/.p(f. f
ductance behavior and reduce phase margin f o r light ±CL, = A C / . , = — ""'
loading [20], [21]. The m i n i m u m , or fastest, settling time +
/ , ( l a » ) - A ( l + ",)
of about 630 ps is obtained f o r a load capacitance of
0.8 p F .
Since f o r an ideal transconductance a m p l i f i e r settling
time is p r o p o r t i o n a l to loading factor (effective load ca-
pacitance divided by gate w i d t h factor—see (6)) we divide switching states, which we denote ; and fe. Equation (11)
the load capacitance scale i n F i g . 8 by gatewidth factor x for these two switching states allows us to solve f o r
(in this case, 100 n) to o b t a i n a graph o f settling time A C L , = A C L . and x. A C L f o r the remaining switching
A
versus loading factor, w h i c h forms the starting point f o r states may t h e n be determined f r o m (11) for these re-
o p t i m i z a t i o n o f the SC f i l t e r circuit. maining states. The expressions obtained f o r x and the
A C L , are given in Table I I I . I t can be seen that i f / • = f k
VI. H I G H - F R E Q U E N C Y C I R C U I T OPTIMIZATION and either C L e f f , = C L e f f or a = a , then the values o f

k ( k
Switching states may be divided into critical and non- x or A C L = A C L w i l l become indeterminate. Thus it is
y t
critical switching states. C r i t i c a l switching states are those important to choose carefully the two switching states f o r
in w h i c h the a m p l i f i e r is receiving charge at its input or which A C L is the same.
conveying charge to a subsequent integrator. It is desir- T h e addition o f a m p l i f i e r load capacitance w i l l not
able that i n a critical switching state, the operating point increase m i n i m u m settling time because the a m p l i f i e r
on the a m p l i f i e r characterization curve should be close to gatewidth factors are adjusted to remain at prescribed
that f o r m i n i m u m settling t i m e . Other switching states are operating points on a m p l i f i e r characterization curves. T h i s
denoted noncritical and usually include the guard I N T w i l l , however, increase chip area and power consumption
state. Effective load capacitance CL eff, as defined in (4), and therefore, the values o f added load capacitance must
is frequently close to zero i n noncritical switching states be carefully optimized. The application o f the expressions
since Ci and CL are usually very small i n practice. I t can in Table I I I to optimize an SC circuit w i l l be illustrated i n
be seen f r o m the characterization curves i n Fig. 8 that this Section V I I I .
leads to possible unstable oscillation. W e now present a
technique f o r avoiding such instability and m a i n t a i n i n g
control of a m p l i f i e r settling behavior by specifying the VII. E F F E C T OF AMPLIFIER PARASITIC
a m p l i f i e r operating point in all switching states. This CAPACITANCES
control is achieved by the i n t r o d u c t i o n of grounded capac- A m p l i f i e r i n p u t and o u t p u t capacitances can each be
itance at the a m p l i f i e r o u t p u t terminals. considered as the sum o f two contributions. One, w h i c h is
For each switching state, denoted ;', let the values o f primarily due to interconnections, is independent o f am-
C L e f f and Ci / Cf before a d d i t i o n o f load capacitance be p l i f i e r gatewidth factor and can be included i n the capaci-
denoted CZ, e f f , and a,, respectively, and let the value o f tances Ci and C L o f the embedding circuit in F i g . 4, and
added load capacitance be A C L / . F r o m (4), the aug- hence allowed f o r i n the circuit o p t i m i z a t i o n . T h e other
mented effective load capacitance f o r the ;'th switching c o n t r i b u t i o n derives f r o m M E S F E T model capacitances,
state may be w r i t t e n which are proportional to gatewidth factor x. A m p l i f i e r
input capacitance is related to M E S F E T gate-source ca-
CL eff, = CL e f f ; + ACL,(1 + a,). (9)
pacitance, w h i c h is typically much larger than the gate-
D e n o t i n g the loading factor required i n this switching drain capacitance, which determines a m p l i f i e r o u t p u t ca-
state as / , and the a m p l i f i e r gate w i d t h factor x, we may pacitance. W e therefore now extend the above circuit
write o p t i m i z a t i o n procedure to allow f o r a m p l i f i e r i n p u t capac-
CL eff) = x f . (10) itance, which scales w i t h the gatewidth factor o f the
t
a m p l i f i e r . A method f o r d e t e r m i n i n g a m p l i f i e r input ca-

Thus combining (9) and (10), we have pacitance by computer simulation is presented in [23].
xf, = C L e f f , + A C L , ( l + a , ) . (11) W e denote the a m p l i f i e r input capacitance as x fee,
where fee is a constant and x is the a m p l i f i e r gatewidth
This equation may be w r i t t e n f o r each switching state. We
factor. It may be shown that the augmented effective load
require to solve this set o f equations f o r the a m p l i f i e r gate
capacitance f o r the i t h switching state, previously given by
w i d t h factor x and f o r the added load capacitances ACL^
(9), becomes
for i=\,2 - n. Since the number o f variables n + \
exceeds the number of equations n by one, we may
constrain the added load capacitances to be equal in two C L eff; = C L eff, + A C L , ( 1 + a, + xb ) t (12)
830 I E E E T R A N S A C T I O N S O N C I R C U I T S A N D S Y S T E M S . VOL. 38. NO 8. A U G U S T 1991
T A B L E IV OUTPUT
EXPRESSIONS FOR C I R C U I T OPTIMIZATION INCLUDING A M P L I F I E R
INPUT C A P A C I T A N C E
2
Ax + Bx + C = 0
••••here A = f,b k - f b,
k
B = Ml + a ) - + a,)+ b,CLeff
k - b CL k k eff,
C - CL e f f ( l + a,)-CL
t eff/l + a) k
x f j -CL eff,
ACL, = ACL, =
1 + a, + xb.
xf.-CLeff,
ACL, = INPUT S9
1 + a, + xfc,
• — B
O7O206P OT7M8P
where b denotes k c / C f . F r o m (10) and (12), we have
t t
ov ov
j/ f = C L e f f + A C L , ' 1 + <!,. +**>,•)
f (13)
Fig. 9. 2nd-order S C filter for implementation.
which may be w r i t t e n f o r each switching state. Constrain-
ing, as before, the added load capacitances to be equal i n
which the a m p l i f i e r behaves like an ideal transconduc-
two switching states, j and k, we again solve f o r A C L , =
tance, but the computer simulations to be given i n Section
A C L and x. I n this case, x is given by the solution to a
t
I X c o n f i r m that reasonably accurate prediction o f settling
quadratic equation, which is given i n Table I V . Having
time is obtained using the transconductance approxima-
obtained the value o f x, the added load capacitance in
tion f o r these operating points. T h e settling curves f o r the
the and k switching states A C L , = A C L is given by the t
three operating points to be used are shown i n Fig. 10(b),
expression given i n Table I V . Finally, (13) f o r the remain-
illustrating the d i f f e r e n t degrees o f damping. T h e settling
ing switching states gives the added load capacitances
times f o r a 0.5% settling value tolerance are given in
A C L , f o r these states according to the expression i n
Table V . W e now apply the optimization method o f
Table I V . 1
Section V I .
V I I I . O P T I M I Z A T I O N O F A N SC FILTER
A. General Considerations
B. Amplifier I
W e now describe the o p t i m i z a t i o n o f the G a A s 2nd-
The values o f Ci, CL, and Cf (as d e f i n e d i n F i g . 4) f o r
order bandpass f i l t e r in Fig. 1. T h e circuit is shown again
amplifier 1 in the three switching states are given i n Table
in Fig. 9 w i t h some modifications; capacitor C I 1 has been
V I . The values o f C L e f f (as defined i n (4)) and a = Ci /Cf
replaced by an equivalent capacitor "T" network i n order
are also given. I n the case o f a m p l i f i e r 1, the " E " phase is
to reduce capacitor spread; we have added a b u f f e r am-
the critical phase, and its loading factor f is to corre- e
p l i f i e r f o r driving o f f - c h i p loads; capacitors Co, Cb, and
spond to the o p t i m u m operating point on the characteri-
Cc w i l l be discussed later. T h e circuit uses the high-gain
zation curve. W e assume that the operating points i n the
p u s h - p u l l a m p l i f i e r o f Fig. 5. T h e switch c o n t r o l circuit to
noncritical " O " and " I N T ' switching states are identical
be used is that shown i n Fig. 3(b).
and we denote the corresponding loading factor f . T h i s a
Since the a m p l i f i e r in Fig. 5 has the property that the makes all parameters i n the " O " and " I N T " switching
quiescent input voltage is equal to the negative power states identical (see T a b l e V I ) and therefore, they may be
supply voltage, the ground connections f o r switches SI treated f o r optimization as a single switching state. A p p l i -
and S3 i n the f i l t e r o f Fig. 9 have to be connected to the cation of the equations i n Table I I I ( w i t h j = e and k = o)
negative power supply. The settling time characterization to the data i n Table V I yields added load capacitor value
curve f o r the a m p l i f i e r has already been shown i n Fig. 8 and a m p l i f i e r gatewidth factor given by
and it is shown again in F i g . 10(a) w i t h the a d d i t i o n o f
chosen operating points (note that the horizontal scale is
/.CL eff.
now loading factor as mentioned in Section V ) . Since ACL, = ACL„ (14)
points to the l e f t of the m i n i m u m settling time point / , - / „ ( ! + «.)
correspond to underdamped behavior it was considered
safer, i n view of process tolerances, to select the o p t i m u m CL eff.
operating point f o r the critical switch phases to the right (15)
/ . - / . ( ! + ««)'
of the m i n i m u m corresponding to a loading factor o f
0.012 pF/nm, indicated " O p t " i n F i g . 10(a). For noncriti-
cal switching states, we shall adopt operating points corre- Table V I I shows values o f A C L and x f o r a range o f " O "
sponding to loading factors o f 0.004 and 0.006 p F per j i m ,
indicated " P I " and " P 2 " in F i g . 10(a). Points " P I " and 'The optimization technique (including scaled amplifier input capaci-
tances) had not been developed at the time the integrated filter was
" P 2 " are strictly outside the range o f loading factor f o r
designed.
H A I G H el ai: D E S I G N O P T I M I Z A T I O N 831
Ve sefUrg
ve settling
ooo5 <H»W o-oir oxeb

Loading factor pF/pm
(a)
ivp(Votts) o/pivwrsl
o/plW>lrsl fr5
Ofcr
01
M
<»
02 02
01
0-1
•OPT- 0
• P 2 .
0
-M
-0-1 -02
075 >» V75 225 275 075 >K V7S 22S 275 0-75 125 >75 225 215
Tnt(ns) Traa (ns) Time tnsl
(b)
Fig. 10. Amplifier settling characteristics, (a) Characterization curve with operating points, (b) Transient settling curves for
"OPT," " P I , " and "P2" operating points.
TABLE V TABLE VII

AMPLIFIER SETTLING TIMES E F F E C T O F "O" PHASE LOADING F A C T O R FOR A M P L I F I E R
! ( / , = 0.012 p F / > m )
Negative Settling
Operating Point Positive Settling Time (ps) Time (ps) f0 (pF/Mm) ACT. (pF) x (/im) 7s (ps)
Opt 670 778 0 0 50 oo

PI 881 910 0.002 0.129 65 5000
P2 615 643 0.004 0.366 90 900
0.006 0.930 155 700
0.008 4.190 524 600
T A B L E VI
S C F I L T E R L O A D I N G FOR A M P L I F I E R 1 IN F I G . 9 TABLE VIII
SC F I L T E R LOADING FOR A M P L I F I E R 2 IN F I G . 9
Phase Ci (pF) C/(pF) CL (pF) O - e f f (pF) a( = Ci/C[)
Phase a (pF) Cf (pF) CL (pF) CZeff(pF) a( = C//C7)
E 0.2545 0.7131 0.2545 0.5998 0.3569
O 0 0.7021 0 0 0 E 0 0.7021 0.1767 0.1767 0
Int 0 0.7021 0 0 0 O 0.1767 0.7021 0 0.1767 0.2517
Int 0 0.7021 0 0 0
phase loading factors f for the o p t i m u m / , o f 0.012 pf

Q
loading factor / , ) . Table V I I I indicates that f o r these two
per micron. From Table V I I , a value of / „ o f 0.004 p F per
phases, the values of CL eff are also the same and there-
nm, corresponding to operating point " P I " in Fig. 10(a),
fore, as discussed i n Section V I , the added load capaci-
provides a reasonable amplifier device w i d t h factor x of
tances in these switching states cannot be made equal.
90 fi and a bCL value o f 0.366 pF, which is indicated as
Selecting the " O " and " I N T " phases as the phases for
Ca in Fig. 9.
which the load capacitances are equal and denoting the
loading factor in the noncritical " I N T " phase by / , the i n l
equations in Table 111 yield:

C. Amplifier 2
C L eff /
T h e relevant parameters f o r amplifier 2 in the three A C L „ = ACL„, =
0 t a
(16)
switching states are given in Table V I I I . In this case, /,-/.•.(!+ 0
phases " E " and " O " are both critical phases, and the
CL e f f „
required loading factor should be the same and corre- (17)
spond to the o p t i m u m operating point (we denote the
19 9
I E E E T R A N S A C T I O N S O N C I R C U I T S A N D S Y S T E M S . V O L . 38, NO. 8, A U G U S T 1991
T A B L E IX
S I M U L A T E D AND D E S I G N F I L T E R S E T T L I N G T I M E S (ps)
E-phase E-phase
Amp Sign Int-phase O-phase Isolated Coupled
Al + Simulated 778 778 689 935

Design 381 881 670 -
1/p •
Al Simulated 797 797 739 894
Design 910 910 778 -
A2 • Simulated 605 658 652 811
Design 615 670 670 -
A2 _ Simulated 507 747 772 865
Design 643 778 778 -
SAMPLE
WP
Fig. 11. Output buffer circuit.
m 0
I
I
Fig. 12. Macromodels for S C filter, (a) Amplifier macromodel. (b) Switch macromodel.
CL erf,/. computer simulation. A t this stage, we still assume that

ACL. - C L eff,. (18) the switches in the filter of F i g . 9 are ideal; the effect of
nonideal switches will be considered in Section X I .
Whereas up to now we have considered amplifiers settling
A value for /;„, of 0.006 p F per fim (operating point " P 2 "
in isolation, we now consider the settling behavior of the
in Fig. 10(a)) gave an amplifier gatewidth factor x of 40
whole filter. W e thus consider the filter in each of the
Mm and values for A C L „ and A C L , of 0.2361 p F and
three switching states " E , " " O " and "Int." For each
0.2955 p F , respectively. These load capacitor require-
switching state, the filter degenerates to an amplifier-
ments are met by adding the 0.2361-pF capacitor Cb
capacitc: subcircuit. For these subcircuits, S P I C E was
directly to the output of amplifier 2, as shown in F i g . 9,
used to simulate the settling times of the transient output
and a 0.0594-pF capacitor Cc to the node "x." If the load
capacitances had been made equal in the " E " and " I N T " voltages of the two amplifiers for positive and negative
switching states, then the equations would still have been output voltage steps [24]. T h e excitation, consisting of
soluble, but then A C L ^ , , would have been greater than current pulses applied to the amplifier virtual ground
A C L „ ; this would have made implementation difficult as nodes, and the initial conditions were chosen to give
no switches are closed in the " I N T ' switching state. realistic amplifier output voltage steps of 0.37 V . The
results of the simulation are shown as "Simulated" in
Table I X . T h e settling times denoted "Design" are the
I X . SIMULATION OF SETTLING BEHAVIOR design settling times of Table V for the chosen operating
Having optimized the S C filter for prescribed settling points. In the " E " phase, the two amplifiers in Fig. 9 are
behavior of the two amplifiers in each time slot, we now coupled by a capacitor; thus in reality there is interaction
verify the settling behavior of the circuit as a whole by between the amplifiers during settling, which was not
2 00
HA1GH et ai: DESIGN OPTIMIZATION 833
F l t o m ) I HHl) Fr«»nncy IhWi)
Fig. 13. Simulated amplitude response of integrated filter with ideal curve, (a) 250-MHz switching frequency, (b) 500-MHz
switching frequency.
H Q * ] ® 0
Fig. 14. Layout plot for GaAs S C filter, total size 3.3 mm x 2.6 mm.
allowed for in the above design procedure. F o r the results an appropriate clock signal to the digital input, the buffer
denoted "Isolated" in Table I X , the interaction was bro- acts as a sample and hold circuit where the sampling
ken by replacing the other amplifier by an ideal voltage instant may be freely chosen. Alternatively, with a dc
source. T h e results denoted "Coupled" include the inter- digital input, the circuit acts as a nonsampling buffer.
action. It can be seen that the interaction between ampli- S P I C E simulation of the circuit in switched and non-
fiers increases settling times by about 3 0 % . F o r the " O , " switched modes showed that in both cases there is negligi-
"Int," and noncoupled " E " cases, there is reasonable ble performance deterioration over the required fre-
agreement between design settling times and those ob- quency band.
tained by simulating the filter.
XI. SYSTEM VERIFICATION

X. OUTPUT BUFFER The frequency response of the final S C filter system is
The design for the output buffer of Fig. 9 is shown in simulated using a sophisticated S C system analysis pack-
Fig. 11. It consists of two unity gain sections separated by age, which can simulate resistive effects, thus allowing for
a switching circuit and hold capacitor. T h e unity gain nonideal switch resistance to be included. T h e package
sections are very high-quality modified source followers used is the University of Glasgow S C N A P software suite
derived from the operational amplifier of Fig. 5 . T h e [25]. T h e analysis is based on the use of small signal
switching circuit is similar to that in Fig. 3(b). By feeding macromodels for the amplifiers and the switches.
I E E E T R A N S A C T I O N S U N C I R C U I T S A N D S Y S T E M S . V O L . 38. NO. 8, A U G U S T 1991
The gain and phase responses of the amplifier are

analyzed using the stead-state analysis facility of SPICE M l "
to give results o f the kind already shown in Fig. 6.
Examination o f these curves indicates that they can be
approximated to a sufficient accuracy over the frequency
range o f interest by a linear macromodel possessing two
poles and a single zero. The circuit diagram o f the macro-
model chosen is shown in F i g . 12(a). The component
values are adjusted by trial and error to give the best f i t to
the gain and phase characteristics and to give correct
input and output impedances. F o r the switches, SPICE
transient analysis o f the step response o f a single switch fnajsici Irtttl
device connected to a capacitor allows the determination
(a)
of on-resistance and off-resistance, leading to a switch
macromodel o f the f o r m shown i n Fig. 12(b). The SC
f i l t e r system o f F i g . 9, w i t h its amplifiers and switches
replaced by macromodels consisting o f capacitors, ideal
switches, resistors, and c o n t r o l l e d sources, is analyzed
using the SC system simulator S C N A P . T h e amplitude
response curves are shown i n Fig. 13 f o r switching fre-
quencies o f 250 M H z and 500 M H z .
X I I . LAYOUT AND FABRICATION

T h e 2nd-order SC filter based o n Fig. 9 was laid out
using M A G I C w i t h a specially w r i t t e n technology file f o r
the Anadigics G a A s process, which provides 0.5-fim gate-
length M E S F E T ' s and silicon n i t r i d e m e t a l - i n s u l a t o r -
Fig. 15. Measured amplitude response of filter, (a) 250-MHz switching
metal ( M I M ) capacitors. Separate lines and pads were frequency, (b) 500-MHz switching frequency.
used f o r the analog and digital grounds and power sup-
plies. Reasonable precautions were taken to avoid back-
gating effects. A plot o f the circuit layout is shown in Fig. T h e measured a m p l i t u d e / f r e q u e n c y response o f the
14. T h e size o f the chip is 3 . 3 x 2 . 6 m m and the power filter for switching frequencies o f 250 M H z and 500 M H z
consumption is 440 m W . F r o m the simulation results in are shown i n Fig. 15(a) and (b), respectively. These re-
the previous section, it was expected that the circuit sponses are insensitive to power supply voltage variations.
would operate w i t h high precision at a switching f r e - Expanded passband plots f o r the above switching f r e -
quency o f 250 M H z and that operation w o u l d still be quencies are shown in F i g . 16(a) and (b). T h e peak gains,
possible up to 500 M H z . The f i l t e r had been designed to midband frequencies, and Q-factors f o r 250 M H z and 500
realize a Q-factor o f 16, a m i d b a n d gain o f unity (0 d B ) , M H z switching frequencies are + 0 . 2 d B and - 0 . 4 d B ,
and a switching frequency to midband frequency ratio 10.02 M H z and 20.01 M H z , and 15.1 and 16.7, respec-
of 25. tively. These frequency response accuracies represent a
considerable improvement over the previous results o f [4].
T h e zero-input noise measured at the o u t p u t o f the filter
XIII. TESTING AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS is shown i n Fig. 17 f o r a measuring bandwidth o f 100 k H z
For testing, the chip was thermo-compression gold-wire compared w i t h the response f o r an input signal level o f
bonded w i t h i n an 18-pin ceramic dual-in-line package. + 7 d B m ; the average noise at the midband frequency is
For measurements at a 2 5 0 - M H z switching rate, the pack- about - 7 0 d B relative to the signal level used giving a
age was mounted i n a dual-in-line socket, which was dynamic range of about 76 d B . Observation of the filter
placed on an insulating circuit board. For measurements output signal at the resonant frequency indicated a dc
at a 5 0 0 - M H z switching rate, the package was mounted offset voltage o f less than 100 m V and reasonably low
directly on a copper-clad board, which f o r m e d a ground levels o f clock f e e d t h r o u g h .
plane. B N C sockets were provided f o r the two switching
signals and the input and output signals. T h e signal input
and the switching inputs were terminated in 5 1 - 0 resis- X I V . CONCLUSIONS
tors as close to the chip as possible. For the tests to be A significant increase i n the maximum switching f r e -
described here, the output b u f f e r a m p l i f i e r was operated quency f o r S C filters has been achieved and good re-
in continuous, nonsampling mode w i t h a dc sample volt- sponse precision demonstrated at these frequencies. This
age o f - 10 V . T h e input signal level f o r all tests was + 7 work has c o n t r i b u t e d towards demonstrating the engi-
d B m , or 0.5 V r m s . neering feasibility of G a A s technology f o r sophisticated
HAIGH €l al.: DESIGN OPTIMIZATION 8.15
CvtnloBI
z
12
» 12
(a)
OanldBI
-12
20 22
b)
Fig. 16. Measured expanded passband response, (a) 250 MHz switching frequency, (b) 500 MHz switching frequency.
-U -
_.
o a
9
m
FmiHlcy IHHl)
Fig. 17. Measured noise of filter.
analog applications. Comparison o f the computed and are also applicable to other technologies, including
measured response curves indicates a need f o r more CMOS.
realistic computer simulation o f the integrated system,
perhaps along the lines proposed in [24]. I n spite o f the
results achieved, the operational a m p l i f i e r used i n the ACKNOWLEDGMENT
design is significantly less fast than more recent designs T h e authors g r a t e f u l l y acknowledge the invaluable help
[26] and advanced designs i m p l e m e n t e d using state-of- o f numerous colleagues, i n particular, Heloisa Facanha o f
the-art technology [27]. Thus f u t u r e o p p o r t u n i t i e s are University College L o n d o n , w h o wrote the GaAs layout
opened up f o r SC systems operating w i t h gigahertz clock technology f i i e ; B r i a n W i s h a r t o f Glasgow University, w h o
rates. I t is thought that the techniques f o r a m p l i f i e r carried out S C N A P simulations; Steve Newett and L i z a
characterization and o p t i m i z a t i o n o f an SC circuit f o r W o n g o f S E R C R u t h e r f o r d A p p l e t o n Laboratory, w h o
m a x i m u m switching frequency that have been presented carried out additional design rule checking; Steve H a r t ,
2 0 3
I E E E T R A N S A C T I O N S O N C I R C U I T S A N D S Y S T E M S . V O L . JR. N O . K. A U G U S T l<NI
David Goldsmith, and Shiva Carver of Interactive Solu- [24] D. G . Haigh and C . Toumazou. "On computer simulation of
integrated switched capacitor circuits." in Proc. 1989 European
tions, L t d . , w h o helped w i t h M I N N I E ; and Graham
Conf. Circuit Theory and Design. Sept. 1989.
Johnson o f Imperial College, w h o provided C A D support. [25] J . I. Sewell. Li Ping, and R. K. Henderson. "Matrix methods for
switched capacitor filter design." in Proc. 1988 IEEE Int. Symp.
Circuits mid Systems. June 1988.
REFERENCES
[26] D. G . Haigh and C . Toumazou. "Fast settling high gain GaAs
operational amplifiers for switched capacitor applications," Elec-
[1] S. Masuda et al., "CMOS sampled differential push-pult cascode
tronic Letters, vol. 25. pp. 734-736, May 1989.
operational amplifier," in Proc. 1984 IEEE ISCAS, pp. 1211-1214.
[27] L . E . Larson el al., "A 10 G H z operational amplifier in GaAs
May 1988.
M E S F E T technology," Digest 1989 IEEE Int. Solid State Circuits
(2] D. G . Haigh and J . T . Taylor, "High frequency switched capacitor
Conf.. pp. 72-73. Feb. 1989.
filters for C M O S technology," in Proc 1988 IEEE ISCAS. June
1988.
[3l P. E . Allen and C . M. Breevoort, "An analogue circuit perspective
of GaAs technology," in Proc. 1987 IEEE ISCAS, May 1987.
|4) S. J . Harrold, I. A. W. Vance, and D. G . Haigh, "Second-order
switched capacitor bandpass filter implemented in GaAs." Elec-
tronics Letters, vol. 21, pp. 494-496, May 1985. ,
David G . Haigh (M'69-M'70-SM 90) received
[5] GaAs Integrated Circuits, J . Mun, E d . Oxford: BSP Books, 1988.
the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from
[6] L . E . Larson, K. W. Martin, and G . C . Temes, "GaAs switched Bristol University, Bristol, England, in 1968, and
capacitor circuits for high speed signal processing," IEEE J. Solid the Ph.D. degree from the University of London
State Circuits, vol. SC-22, pp. 971-981, Dec. 1987. in 1976.
{7} W. S. Lee, "Sensitivity of GaAs integrated circuit building blocks to From 1968 until 1972 he worked in the Cir-
the effect of backgating," Electronics Letters, vol. 23, pp. 587-589, cuit Theory Group at the G E C ( U K ) Hirst Re-
May 1987. search Centre on the design of microelectronic
[8] C . Toumazou and D. G Haigh. "Design of a high-gain, single-stage active filters. In 1972, he moved to Imperial
operational amplifier for G a A s switched-capacitor filters." Elec- College (London), where he became a research
tronics Letters, vol. 23, 2nd pp. 752-754 July 1987. fellow in 1980, becoming responsible for a group
[9] S. J . Harrold, "Switch driver circuit suitable for high order switched working on integrated high-precision filters. He left Imperial College in
capacitor filters implemented in GaAs," Electronics Letters, vol. 24. 1986, becoming an independent consultant, principally to British Tele-
pp. 982-984, July 1988. com. In 1987, he joined the staff of the Electronic and Electrical
[10] D. G . Haigh, C . Toumazou, S. J. Harrold. J . 1. Sewell. and Engineering Department of University College London, where he is
K. Steptoe, "Design and optimisation of a GaAs switched capacitor specifically interested in the field of analog integrated circuit design with
filter," in Proc. IEEE 1989 Int. Symp. Circuits and Systems, June applications to signal processing and particularly in high-frequency GaAs
1989. circuits.
(11] C . Toumazou, D. G . Haigh, S. J . Harrold, K. Sleptoe, J . 1. Sewell, Dr. Haigh is secretary of the Circuits and Systems Chapter of the U K
and R. Bayruns, "Design and testing of a GaAs switched capacitor and Republic of Ireland Section of the I E E E . He is also editor of
filter," in Proc. IEEE 1990 Int. Symp. Circuits and Systems, May Proceedings of the Institute of Electrical Engineers, Part G , covering
1990. circuits, systems, and devices, and he is editor of the I E E Books Series
112] D. G . Haigh, C . Toumazou, and A. K. Bens, GaAs Technology and on Circuits and Systems. He was a co-recipient (with R. Jeffers) of the
its Impact on Circuits and Systems, D. G . Haigh and J . K. A. 1973 J . J . Thomson Premium of the 1 E E and also a co-recipient (with W.
Everard, Eds. London: Peter Peregrinus, 1989, ch. 10. Saraga and R. G . Barker) of the 1979 Darlington Award of the I E E E
|13] R. Gregorian and G . C . Temes, Analogue MOS Integrated Circuits. Circuits and Systems Society.
New York: Wiley, 1986.
(14] H. C . Yang, J . R. Ireland, and D. J . Allstot, "Improved operational
amplifier compensation techniques for high frequency switched
capacitor circuits," Proc. 30th Midwest Symp. Circuits and Systems,
pp. 952-955, Aug. 1988.
Chris Toumazou (M'86) received the B.Sc. de-
[15] K. Matsui et at., "2-micron C M O S switched capacitor circuits for
gree in engineering and the Ph.D. degree in
analog video L S I , " in Proc. 1982 IEEE ISCAS pp. 241-244, May
electrical engineering from Oxford Polytechnic,
1982. Oxford, England in 1983 and 1986, respectively.
[16] C . Toumazou and D. G . Haigh. "Design of GaAs operational
From 1986 to 1987 he was a postdoctoral
amplifiers for sampled data applications," IEEE Trans. Circuits
research fellow in the Information Engineering
Syst., vol. 37, pp. 922-935, July 1990. Section of the Department of Electrical Engi-
[17] , "Design and applications of GaAs current mirror circuits," neering, Imperial College, London, England,
Proc. Inst. Elec. Eng.. Pan G . vol. 137. pp. 101-108, Apr. 1990. where his research was high-frequency precision
(18] R. Spence el al., "Minnie—The way ahead for analogue C A D . " analog filter design in GaAs technology. In 1987
Silicon Design, p. 6, Mar. 1986. he was appointed lecturer in the Department of
[19] C. Toumazou and D. G . Haigh, "Level-shifting differential to Electrical Engineering at Imperial College, where both his lecturing and
single-ended convenor circuits for GaAs M E S F E T implementa- researcii activity are in the area of analog integrated circuit design. His
tion." Electronics Letters, vol. 23, pp. 1053-1055, Sept. 1987. research interests include current-mode analog signal processing, high-
[20] "Some designs and a characterisation method for GaAs frequency analog integrated circuit design in bipolar and GaAs technol-
operational amplifiers for switched capacitor applications." Elec- ogy, and artificial intelligence applied to analog circuit design.
tronics Letters, vol. 24, pp. 1170-1172. Sept. 1988. Dr. Toumazou is European Laison Officer for the Analog Signal
[21] C . A. Makris and C . Toumazou. "Operational amplifier modelling Processing Committee of the I E E E Circuits and Systems Society and is a
for high-speed sampled-data applications. Proc. Inst. Elec. Eng.. Member of the Circuits and Systems Chapter of the U K and Republic of
Part G , vol. 137, pp. 333-339. Oct 1990. Ireland Section of the I E E E . He is also a member of the I E E Profes-
[22] A. K. Betts, D. G . Haigh. K. Steptoe, and J . T. Taylor. "Design sional Group E10 Committee on Circuits and Systems. He is co-editor of
techniques for switched capacitor filters using GaAs MSI technol- Analog IC Design: The Current-mode Approach, and has co-organized a
ogy," in Proc. IEEE 1990 Int. Svmp. Circuits and Systems. May number of special sessions and a workshop on the topic of current-mode
1990. analog design at various I E E E Symposia. He has also contributed
[23] A. K. Betts, J . T. Taylor, and D. G . Haigh. "An improved charac- several chapters to various books in the field of analog I C design. He
terisation technique for amplifiers used in high-speed switched has authored or co-authored some 80 technical publications in the area
capacitor circuits." in Proc. 1989 European Conf. Circuit Theory of analog circuit design and currently runs a short course to industry in
and Design. Sept. 1989. this area.
2 0 4
H A I G H ei nl : D E S I G N OPTIMIZATION
Stephen Harrold received the B.Sc degree in From 1%6 to I96S he was a senior research
applied physics and electronics from Durham associate at the University of Newcastle upon
University. England, in 1978. and ihe Ph.D. Tyne. From 1%8 to 1985 he held faculiy posi-
degree in engineering science from Exeier Uni- lions at ihe University of Hull, England. In 1985
versity. England, in 1982. 4 J'JB^^Km n e w a s
appointed as Professor of Electronic
From 1982 (o 1985 he was a senior research d "r^^^^M Systems in ihe University of Glasgow. Scotland.
engineer with S T C Technology Lid. Harlow. M ^B^BÊ a n
5'
d n n c D e c a
Dean of Engineeringm e
England. From 1985 lo 1987 he was a project IB JJ™*^^C, N' research inieresis are concerned with the
officer in the Department of Electrical Engi- ^•T development of C A D design tools for front-end
neering & Eleclronics at UM1ST. Manchester. M ^pkV signal processing including Si and GaAs imple-
England. Since that date he has been a Lecturer mentations, integrated fillers, and signal con-
in the Department of Electrical Engineering & Electronics. UMIST. His verters.
current research interests include high-speed IC design, with particular Dr. Sewell has served on the U K R 1 Chapter Committee of the C A S
emphasis on III-V technologies, and automated testing of analog and Society since 1975. in ihe positions of Vice Chairman (1978-1980) and
mixed-mode IC's. Chairman (1980-83). He was also a member of Ihe U K R I Section
Committee from 1980 to 1983.
Dr. Harrold has published work and filed patents in various topic
areas, and he received the I E R E Marconi Premium in 1987.
Robert J . Baymns ( S 7 7 - M 79) received the B.S.

K. Steptoe received the B.Sc. degree from the degree from Spring Garden College, Chestnut
University of Essex, England, in 1983. Hill. PA. in 1979, and the M.S. degree from
In 1979, he completed an engineering appren- Rutgers University, New Brunswick. NJ, in 1983.
ticeship with British Telecomm P L C . From 1983 both in electrical engineering.
to 1984, he was with the BBC. He was then with From 1979 to 1985, he was with A T & T Bell
University College, London, as a research assis- Laboratories as a member of the Technical Staff
tant and lecturer in the area of V L S I design. He in the High Speed MOS Design Group. At Bell
is currently with Cadence Design Syslems ( U K ) Labs, he worked on the design of high perfor-
Ltd. mance digital and analog circuits fabricated with
submicron channel MOS technology, which in-
cluded the design of an NMOS 12:1 M U X and 1:12 D M U X circuit
which operated up to 3 Gbs. He joined Anadigics, Inc., Warren, NJ. in
1985. and is now Director of R F and Digital Product Development. His
present work involves the design of GaAs digital, analog, and fiber optic
John I. Sewell ( M 7 4 - S M 7 7 ) received the B.Sc degree in electrical integrated circuit products.
engineering from Ihe University of Durham, England in 1963 and the Mr. Bayruns has authored or co-authored 25 published technical
Ph.D. degree from the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, England in papers. He is a member of the 1989 ISSCC Technical Program Commit-
1966. tee He has one circuit related patent and one pending.
2 0 5
PAPER 45
2 06
I E E E TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS. VOL. JK. NO. 8. AUGUST ! « 1 853
A Methodology for Integrated Ladder

Filter Design
Li Ping, Member, IEEE, Robert K..Henderson, Member, IEEE,
and John I . Sewell, Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract—The design procedures for integrated ladder niter Some constraints will first be stated to define a class of
design by operational simulation are regularized in terms of matrix equations that are directly realizable. These equa-
matrix operations. This provides a systematic framework for the
derivation of standard circuits, such as leapfrog and coupled- tions are linear in s~' so that op-amp circuits can be used
biquad, as well as several novel structures. Each circuit is now to perform additions, multiplications, and integrations.
seen to belong to a certain family, dependent on the type of Techniques are then introduced to render the matrix
matrix factorization employed. A detailed comparison of the description of the ladder prototype realizable, by decom-
properties of the different structures is undertaken for a range posing it into several linear subequations. A large family
of filter specifications, demonstrating that ladder filters offer of circuit structures is revealed depending on the choice
good solutions to several hitherto difficult filtering problems.
The methods are applicable to all active filter technologies of matrix decomposition, including the existing leapfrog,
including active- RC and switched capacitor (SO. coupled biquad, and L U D ones as specific cases. A l l
circuits are insensitive to parasitic capacitance in SC
implementation.
I. INTRODUCTION
LDI-transformed SC ladders are discussed initially [3]
I ntegrated active filters designed by passive ladder sim-

ulation have long been known to have the property of
low sensitivity to fabrication errors [l]-[3]. Among various
and it is shown that the design procedure for the active-HC
ladders is nearly the same. However, since LDI design
requires a complicated procedure to eliminate the distor-
design approaches the leapfrog ladder and coupled bi- tion caused by improperly realized terminations [7], so-
quad methods are the most popular [4], [5]. A recent called bilinear-LDI methods will be adopted to develop
alternative is the LUD ladder simulation technique, which exact z-domain SC circuits. In many cases, the L D I and
has the notable feature of being free from capacitor- bilinear-LDI structures are identical except for different
coupled op-amp loops [6]. However, the advantages of input stages. However, for prototypes with purely induc-
adopting ladder simulation methods have always been tive branches (without a parallel capacitor) the LDI struc-
compromised by their complicated design procedures and ture is simpler than the corresponding bilinear-LDI one.
overheads such as chip area, which are highly dependent A technique is introduced in this paper to cancel excess
on proper selection of the prototype and simulation tech- components in the bilinear-LDI structures, hence combin-
nique. ing the advantages of simplicity of the L D I structure and
This paper provides a comprehensive study of inte- exact frequency response of bilinear transformations.
grated ladder filter design by operational simulation Finally, a detailed comparison of various circuit struc-
methods. A unified matrix form is introduced, which tures is presented for different applications. With the
permits the design procedures to be expressed in terms of help of a filter compiler, PANDDA [8], some studies of
a series of matrix operations. This provides a systematic the various structures over a range of relative bandwidths
basis for design of filters with different prototype struc- (for bandpass designs) and transition bandwidths (for
tures and response specifications. Most existing opera- low-pass designs) are undertaken. This provides guide-
tional ladder simulation and cascade biquad approaches lines as to the suitability of each structure to a given filter
are described, as well as several novel strategies. specification.
Manuscript received July 15, 1990; revised March 27, 1991. This work II. D I R E C T L Y R E A L I Z A B L E M A T R I X SYSTEMS
was supported in part by the Science and Engineering Research Coun-
cil, U K . This paper was recommended by Associate Editor T. T. Vu. The basic building blocks for active-/?C and SC net-
L. Ping was with the Department of Electronics and Electrical Engi- works are shown in Fig. 1, realizing the elementary trans-
neering. University of Glasgow. He is now with the Department of fer functions of feedthrough, inverting, and noninverting
Electrical and Electronics Engineering, University of Melbourne, Mel-
bourne, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia. integration.
R. K. Henderson was with the Department of Electronics and Electri-
cal Engineering, University of Glasgow. He is now with Centre Suisse
d'Electronique et de Microtechnique SA, Neuchatel. Switzerland.
Directly Realizable Matrix Systems
J. I. Sewell is with the Department of Electronics and Electrical
Engineering, University of Glasgow, G I 2 8QQ. Scotland. U K .
Matrix methods are known to be an efficient means of
I E E E Log Number 9100871. representing large interconnected networks. The inverse
O098-4094/91/080O-0853$0I.OO C1991 I E E E
854 I E E E TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. 38, NO. 8. AUGUST 1991
considered to be directly realizable if it meets the follow-

ing assumptions.
i) The matrix equation is linear with respect to the
transfer function of the basic building blocks.
ii) In each matrix equation only one variable vector and
associated coefficient matrix will be written on the
left-hand side.
t<»> •V!(s) V (s)
2 Vj(s)
iii) The coefficient matrix on the left-hand side is square
R
« 1 4 C
>R C 2 4
(a)
and nonsingular with all the diagonal elements
nonzero.
With the above assumptions a directly realizable matrix
equation will have the following form:
°\ 1°
(2)
X1° k
where [X ) are vectors of variables, [J ] are input vectors,
k k
[A ) are connection matrices, and { ( ] and { ( ) are the

jk i k k
transfer functions of the building blocks.

The following rules are used to derive S F G ' s and
v
ou«(*> Vi(z) — V (z)
2 V (z)
3
circuits directly from matrix equations throughout this
1 - z-1 C 2
1 - 2" 1
Cft paper.
(b)
1) Every entry in the variable vectors is represented by a
Fig. 1. First-order building blocks, (a) Active-/?C building block, (b) nodal variable in the SFG and by an output of an
S C building block.
op-amp in the circuit. The input variables are repre-
sented by independent voltage sources.
2) The ith row equation represents the linear relationship
at the node corresponding to or, for the circuit,
the input - output voltage relationship of the op-amp
4> corresponding to x . {
3) Each diagonal entry a„ is realized by an integrating

element. Every other nonzero entry in a matrix repre-
sents the connection of a circuit element between
op-amps.
Notice that Assumptions i)-iii) are only sufficient con-
(a) (b)
ditions for readability. I f •* matrix system meets these
assumptions, then using the above rules its realization
Fig. 2. Representations of a linear systems, (a) Signal flow graph, (b)
becomes straightforward and unique. The major task of
S C circuit realization.
this research is to develop systematic procedures to real-
ize matrix systems which initially fail to meet these as-
procedure is how to construct an active-i?C or SC circuit sumptions.
from a set of predetermined matrix equations. If the
equations are linear with respect to the transfer functions I I I . CONTLNUOUS-TLME AND L D I TRANSFORMED
of the basic building blocks, then the problem becomes D I S C R E T E L A D D E R SYSTEMS
most simple. For example, consider the following single
algebraic equation: A passive ladder can be described by the nodal equa-
tion [9]
C„„D„ + C.
(1) (sC + s-'T + G)V=J. (3)
1- Z"
To ensure that all the entries in C, I \ and G are positive,
This equation can be directly represented by the SFG in
we introduce alternating signs in V, i.e., let V -
Fig. 2(a). Let the variables {u,} and {w,} be the voltages of
[ r „ - L ' , i : - v , • ].
op-amp outputs, then the SFG can be replaced by the SC 2 3 > 4
network shown in Fig. 2(b).

A. LDI Transformed Systems
This simple example can be generalized to the case of
constructing an SFG and an SC circuit from a set of The L D I transformation is defined as j - » ( 2 / 7 " X O _
algebraic equations in matrix form. A matrix equation is 1 /2

z~ )/z~' ] (T is the sampling period) and a pair of L D I
2 08
PING el at: A METHODOLOGY 855
integration operators are TABLE I

V A R I O U S M A T R I X DECOMPOSITIONS
<t> = 1/(1 - (4a) Category Name Matrix Decompositions
4 b
* = z " 7 ( l - ( ) Left
Applying the L D I transformation to (3) a"d introducing Decom- Left-LUD A = LJJ, A. = U.
positions Left-direct (1A) A = \K A,= \ A, = A
an extra half-period delay at the terminations for stability
Right
[10], (3) becomes
Decom- Right-LUD B = L„V b B, = L„ B, = f »
Y(z)V =J (5a) positions Right-direct (BI) B = BI B, = B B," /
Leapfrog B = 4A D A r r
r
r B, = 4 / ) r B, = D A\ T
1 >/2
2 1-z" T z~ l / 7 1
J
± /2
K(z) = T73-C + -T + z ' C (5b)
T z" 22 1 1-- 2z~"
l / 2 ]
multiplying equation (5a) through by ,1/2

z' gives
^ A + <&B + G^V = f (6a)
A = (2/T)C,
B = (T/2)T, Fig. 3. 6th-order bandpass ladder prototype.
(6b)
Multiply (5a) through by z ~ 1 / 2
to get D. Right Matrix Decomposition
1 B can also be factorized as
(6c)
B = B,B f (8a)
A = (2/T)C,
B = (r/2)r, The following pair of equations to (6c):
i / 2
f=z- J. (6d)
Since the transfer functions from J and J' to the output AV= - < D [ B , H ' + GV + ( - / ) ] (8b)
differ only by a delay of a half period, we will not
distinguish between them in the following discussion. (8c)
As system (6) can be made identical to (3) by replacing
\jr = <j> = j - ' there is virtually no difference between
f From the rules given in Section I I , (7) and (8) can be
active-/?C and L D I transformed ladder design, apart from realized by SC circuits, provided that the relevant matri-
replacing a pair of LDI integrators by a pair of inverting ces are obtained by certain decompositions. The one-to-
and noninverting continuous domain integrators. For this one correspondence between the circuit elements and the
reason, only L D I SC ladder design will be detailed, as- matrix entries indicates that the efficiency of the SC
suming that all the techniques can be used directly for implementation in terms of numbers of capacitors is re-
active-/?C design. lated to the sparsity of the system matrices. Consequently,
a good simulation of a prototype by matrix methods will
B. System Linearization by Matrix Decompositions attempt to maintain the sparsity property of (3).
Equation (3) contains nonlinear combinations of the

basic functions ¥ and <t>; therefore, it does not meet E. Further Matrix Decompositions
Assumption i). It is more convenient to linearize the
The following methods are commonly known to pre-
system into the form of (2). This can be done by creating
serve the sparsity of the matrices to be decomposed: the
a set of intermediate variables and decomposing the sys-
L U D method [6], the topological method [11], and, sim-
tem of (3) into two inter-related systems. This decomposi- plest of all, the direct methods that decompose matrix A
tion can be performed in various ways. into Al or IA; see Table I . There are also some dual
systems, which can be obtained by replacing L U decom-
C. Left Matrix Decomposition position by U L decompositions, or by replacing A = IA
Factorize the left hand matrix A into and B = BI by A = AI and B = IB, respectively. The
dual methods are useful in realizing a family of canonical
A = A,A . r (7a) structures [12].
The following pair of equations is equivalent to (6a): From network topology it is known that D A V = I is r
T
T L
\A,W=(-<t>B-G)V-{-J) (7b) the current vector of the inductance branches. This con-
firms that topological decomposition of B, derived as
\A V = VW
r (7c) shown at the bottom of Table I , yields the same structures
where W is the vector of intermediate variables. as those by a conventional leapfrog method. In general, if
2 09
856 I E E E TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS. VOL 38. NO. 8. AUGUST 1991
y-4_Y Y-\i—\' I h M
S—II £—I'
A
41 li-
ft)
Fig. 4. Various S C niter realizations, (a) Left-LUD type S C circuit, (b) Left-direct ( I A ) type S C circuit, (c) Right-LUD
type SC circuit, (d) Right-direct (BI) type SC circuit.
topological decomposition is applied to the left-hand ma- IV. O T H E R SYSTEM LINEARIZATION APPROACHES
trix A, it cannot be assured that the resulting A, and A r
A. Inverse Matrix Approaches
will be square. Consequently, the resulting system (6) may
violate Assumption (iii) in Section I I . I f A, and A , r If a left-direct decomposition is used, i.e., A, = I, A-r
obtained from a topological decomposition, are square, A, then (7) is equivalent to

then in most cases they are identical to those derived by
LU decomposition. Therefore, the topological decomposi- /W=(-<UB-G)K-(-y) (9a)
tion will not be considered for left-hand matrices. IV = VA~ W.1 (9b)
Similarly, if a right-direct decomposition B = IB is used,

then an alternative realization of (8), by inverting B,
F. Examples of Various Circuit Structures results
The passive ladder prototype of Fig. 3 is simulated by AV = -4>[lW+GV +( - J ) ] (10a)
left-LUD, left-direct, right-LUD, and right-direct SFG's l
BW = VIV. (10b)
and circuits of Fig. 4.
Interestingly, it is found that the circuits in Fig. 4(b) The significant properties of these inverse matrix methods
and 4(d) resulting from direct decompositions can be occur in the continuous-time domain, when ¥ = <I> =
identified as a coupled type-E and type-F biquad circuit, A = C and B = T, (9) is a minimum capacitor realization
respectively [5]. By comparing the intermediate variables while (10) is a minimum resistor realization. This is be-
introduced in the two approaches it can be shown that cause the nonzero entries of the matrices in the left-hand
they differ only by voltage scaling factors. side require only capacitors for realization while those of
PING a at: A M E T H O D O L O G Y 857
C, Jo C, J° C,, J« C,4 J-
—II—\—II—T—ii—k-Hi—i
o Vo \o <jfV \o
"V.
> Ci> Vo c,, \
(d)
Fig. 4. (Continued)
l
the right-hand side with coefficient ¥ = <P = s~ require requirements of preserving matrix sparsity and maintain-
resistors. The identity matrix / on the right-hand side has ing a canonical number of variables, derivations for such
the fewest nonzero entries and hence requires a minimum structures are not straightforward and are explored in this
number of resistors. Minimum capacitor or resistor prop- section. Rearrange (3) as
erties are useful for certain fabrication technologies such
as continuous-time transconductance-C [13]. ^ A + <t>B + zD + D y 1 n = (l + z)J' (1
la)
The disadvantage of this method is that even when C
or T is tridiagonal, C - 1 l
or T~ is usually a full matrix, A = 2 / TC + T/2T - G, + G„
representing a fully interconnected system. This will cost B = 1TT
extra elements, the number increasing with the square of D = 2G
l l
the matrix order. For high-order filters with multiple D = 2G (lib)

n n
zeros at infinity, C or T can be made a block diagonal
matrix with 2 x 2 blocks and the realization will not incur and let
any extra cost. A block diagonal C ( D means that there A = VL a a (12a)
must be pure series jnductor (capacitor) branches in the B-L U„. b (12b)
prototype which realize transmission zeros at infinite
Define
(zero) frequency. Another restriction of the inverse
1
method is that C~ or P ' may contain negative entries
1
= V- {L V 0 + U - j)
a
l
(13a)
whose realization is efficient only if differential signals w„ = V„V (13b)
are available.
G, = d i a g [ g , 0 , - - , 0 ] 11 (13c)
B. UL- LU Approaches G„ = diag[0, ••,0,g„„] (13d)
1
D = 2G,t; (13e)
U L and LU factorizations can be applied to both the u
left- and right-hand matrices of (3). Restricted by the D , = 2G„t/ r .

n (
1
(13f)
858 I E E E TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS. VOL. X. NO. 8. AUGUST 1WI
C. ^0 C, T T
I f—II f—U
\°
X
V!"
J. " ).
1 I 1
Fig. 5. U L - L U type S C circuit.
The upper triangular matrix and lower triangular

matrix L are defined (Appendix) to satisfy the identity
bs
C, 1 + Z -'
UL as c = L U.
bs b (13g)
C, 1-z-'
Also let
f=-(l+D A-')J ls (13h)
Then (11a) can be linearized as r. I
fV,W. = -{(<t>L + D„ )W + <t>D W \ b s b ls a
l
(14a)
-{2+D V; )j is
(14b) M 1
—
l
\L ,w -vv.,w.-u„u; j.
b b
Notice now that the output is w . As U bn b is upper

i i
triangular, w differs from the original output
bn u by only
n
Fig. 6. SC realization of bilinear input functions.
a constant factor. An example of a U L - L U circuit is
shown in Fig. 5. Such circuits are found to be useful for Equation (16) can be rearranged as
special wide-band filtering problems [14].
—A + <PB + (17a)
V. B I L I N E A R - L D I LADDER DESIGN
In L D I transformed ladders, a z factor is intro- ± 1 / 2

A = 2/TC + T/2T +G
duced to represent the improperly realized terminations B = 27T
and to ensure stability, causing a distortion of the de-
D = 2G
signed frequency response. The bilinear transformation,
on the other hand, has the advantage of both stability and r=(i +z)j (i7b)
exactness. Unfortunately, bilinear integrators are sensitive
to the stray capacitance and are not practically useful.
Instead, an equivalent SC ladder utilizing L D I integrators A + <t>B + (17c)
can be formed.
After bilinear transformation $ - » ( 2 / r X l - z~ )/(\ + l
A = 2/TC + T/2T-G
1
z ' ) , (3) becomes B = 2TT
2 1 T 1 + z" D = 2G
-r +G V =J (15)
J"-(l l
+ z~ )J. (17d)
r i + z- 2 1-z
and multiplying the system through by (1 + z~')/(l - z ') A. Termination Problem
gives
Although system (6) is derived by L D I transformation
2 1
2 T l + z-'' l+z- 1
1+ z" while system (17) arises from the bilinear transformation,
-C+- V= jJ- they both have the same appearance apart from the input
T 2 1 - z"'
terms. This equivalence makes it possible to design bilin-
(16) ear ladders using L D I integrators, a fact indicated first by
2 12
PING el at.: A M E T H O D O L O G Y
T T T T
W' MM' HI
r r
-ih
T
1 1
v" —M—i h si
(a)
T T T T T T
II f—lh
3BT 5
c
» v T
M l r-ir—+MI ]„ it )1 I I )
1 1 1 1 1 1 '
(b)
Fig. 7. Exact bilinear-LDI S C fillers, (a) Left-ULD type S C circuit, (b) Right-ULD type S C circuit.
C) Cj Ct Ci Ci CM CI; Cu
II I
II
3
1
10 13
Fig. 8. A 20th-order bandpass ladder prototype.
Lee and Chang [4] from a topological basis for SC cir- Alternatively, the following systems can be used for left
cuits. Application of the methods of Section I I to (17) and right decompositions:
results in a similar range of circuit structures.
The input of (17a) has a (1 + z) or (1 + z ) multiplier. _ 1 A,W = -(<t>B + D)V-2(-J) (18a)
The realization of the noncausal factor ( 1 + z ) can be AV = V W - A f \ - J )
r (18b)
- 1 _ 1
accomplished by multiplying by z giving (1 + z ) , and
introducing a delay of one period. Several realizations are lAV= -<t>(B,W+ DV)- ] (19a)
possible. l
1
\W =VB V-2Br J-
r (19b)
Direct realizations of (l + z ' ) for left-decomposition
l
designs and (1+ z " ' ) / ( l - z~ ) for right-decomposition It can be verified that (18) and (19) are equivalent to the
designs can be achieved by using some special circuit original system (16), respectively. They can be directly
arrangements [15], Fig. 6. simulated by SC circuits with L D I type integrators. Notice
860 I E E E TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS. VOL. 38. NO. 8. AUGUST 1991
5- 6 7 0 12 3 IS 7 22
ft>l i>i •Oi rOi IOI

0 0
e
la
43 47 1 53 55 00 57 106 59 12
44 65 71 46 77 SO 61 52 69 54 56 97 5fl 03 60 62
95 09
o e o e o e o e o e o i
r- r r r r f~ f"~ t B—U-
\ Ja 'o >o 'o ?Q *e 'o ?e ro e
<J <F
kP k j kP
24 23 26 25 28 27
k j k? kF kh
30 29 32 31 34 33 36 35 38 37 40 39 4
out
Fig. 9. L e f l - L U D S C ladder simulation with broken loops.
if J has only one nonzero input, i.e., J = [y,,0, • • • 0], it is Frequency IkHzl
l 5 8 11 It 17
preferable to have the first column of A f and Bf' with
as few nonzero entries as possible. This number is mini-
l 1
mized to one when Aj~ and B," are upper triangular
matrices, which occurs when U L or IA or IB decomposi- -30 -
tions are selected. Fig. 7 shows examples of exact left-and
right-ULD circuits.
Both the above methods require some extra compo- -50 -
nents that may introduce a significant layout overhead for
low-order filters. They may be simply dispensed with by
replacing the 0 + z ~ ' ) factor in the numerator function 2 -70 -
by 1 or z ~ \ resulting in the same circuit structures as a
LDI ones. However, this incurs a penalty warping func-
- 1 l/2
tion of (1 + z ) or z" cos"'(<u7y2), and a zero at half 90
the sampling frequency is lost. The distortion introduced
in the passband by cos(<o7"/2) can be corrected by pre-
warping the original prototype ladder. This can also be
conveniently combined with sin(^r)/jr correction resulting
in a x / t a n ( * ) function, which can then be superimposed
on the frequency response specifications [16]. If the sam-
pling frequency is very high compared with the center
frequency, as is often the case in practice, x / t a n ( j : ) = 1
110
-130 -
Si (a)
and no real compensation is necessary.

Frequency IkHzl
101 107 11.2 11.6 12.2
B. Modification of Bilinear Discrete Ladders
9 55
In some cases matrix A in (17) has more nonzero
entries than its counterpart matrix in (6), costing more
circuit elements in realization. This happens when there -9 63 -
are inductance branches without corresponding parallel
capacitance branches in the prototype, and consequently
A is less sparse than C after adding the nonzero entries of
-9 7 1 -
(T/2)T to the zero entries of ( 2 / D C . The pure induc-
tance branches are normally used to realize poles at 5
infinity. Since the entries in (T/2)Y are usually much c

smaller than those in ( 2 / D C , addition of (7"/2)r to 5 - 9 79 -
( 2 / D C also causes an uneven distribution of values in A
and results in a large capacitance spread in the SC
implementation. (b)
The difficulty can be overcome by placing a negative Fig. 10. A 20th-order bandpass filter, (a) Overall response, (b) Pass-
capacitor, C,, in parallel with the purely inductive branch. band response.
PING el al: A METHODOLOGY 861
TABLE II
D E S I G N D A T A FOR A 2 0 T H - O R D E R S C L A D D E R FILTER
Normalized Data for the RLC Ladder

Sin 1.0 G L
0.51020
c, 2.4200 L, 0.39346 C, 9.1911 L, 0.084942
c 5
7.9789 1-3 0.16361 c; 8.5633 L~
4 0.11936
c 5
•0.001237 L 5
2.5595 1.4699 L„ 0.99020
c, 10.453 L, 0.09341 c 8
3.2603 L 0.23531
8
c , 0.59787 c,„ 10.308 L,o 0.095873
c „ -0.0016599 L,, 1.9075 C 1 2
3.1240 L P 0.42852
C,3 7.6061 0.14009 C„ 3.04204 L, 0.23821
4
C,5 0.51578
lower passband edge 0.9075 upper passband edge 1.1065
lower stopband edge 0.877 upper stopband edge 1.132
passband ripple < 0.03 dB
lower stopband atten. >95dB upper stopband atten. >85 dB
Component Values for the SC Ladder
NODE1 NODE2 VALUE NODE1 NODE2 VALUE NODE1 NODE2 VALUE NODE1 NODE2 VALUE
4 3 24.38 4 5 10.37 6 5 9.095 6 7 40.92
8 7 39.09 10 9 47.51 10 11 6.576 12 11 25.31
12 13 4.401 14 13 5.049 14 15 4.493 16 15 43.78
18 17 46.54 18 19 7.795 20 19 14.39 20 21 4.113
22 21 2.712 24 23 16.32 26 23 18.05 26 25 28.15
28 25 18.62 28 27 30.77 30 29 28.71 32 29 9.335
32 31 22.63 34 31 9.969 34 33 34.52 36 33 3.243
36 35 31.09 38 37 32.58 40 37 15.40 40 39 28.45
2 39 6.541 2 41 30.91 43 44 1.000 45 46 1.000
47 48 1.000 49 50 1.000 51 52 1.000 53 54 1.000
55 56 1.000 57 58 1.000 59 60 1.000 61 62 1.000
63 64 3.764 65 64 4.341 63 68 1.670 65 68 3.558
71 68 1.000 65 74 6.805 71 74 13.62 77 74 1.000
71 80 1.000 77 80 10.02 83 80 2.349 77 86 1.000
83 86 5.139 89 86 2.533 83 92 1.000 89 92 1.852
95 96 10.65 97 96 1.000 95 100 1.000 97 100 10.70
103 100 4.128 97 106 1.463 103 106 4.049 109 106 1.000
103 112 1.243 109 112 1.000 24 3 2.993 2 21 1.383
115 3 1.000
total capacitance 814 units capacitance spread 47.5 units
capacitance unit lpF clock frequency 800 kHz
number of capacitors 73 number of switches 81
number of op-arnps 20
lower passband edge 10.1 kHz upper passband edge 12.45 kHz
lower stopband edge 9.18 kHz upper stopband edge 13.00 kHz
Lj, of value nonzero entries in A, and therefore, break the unfavor-

T2
1 able unswitched capacitor op-amp chains that influence
( 2 0 ) op-amp settling times. A 20th-order bandpass ladder (Fig.
C — TL,- 8) is simulated by the left-LUD circuit (Fig. 9). The
Then from (17) the contributions of C, and L, will cancel structure is very regular and the long unswitched capaci-
each other. This reduces both the number of capacitors tor op-amp chains have been broken by introducing two
and spread of capacitance values. The resonant frequency negative elements into the prototype. The response of the
of the pole due to C, and L, is given by circuit is shown in Fig. 10; note that special approxima-
tion techniques have been used to taper the ripple at the
^ = 7^- = 72=(±2/,) 2
(21) band edges and hence improve sensitivity in these re-
gions. The component values for the circuit are listed in
where / , is the sampling frequency. If JL, is a series Table I I .
inductance branch in a ladder, s will become a zero of
r
the transfer function. The response error thus caused can VI. COMPARISONS AND APPLICATIONS
be eliminated in the approximation procedure, by replac- Two notable novel categories of ladder simulations
ing poles at infinity by ones at - 2 f on the real axis. The
s presented in Table I are left-LUD and right-LUD (and
negative capacitance required can then be incorporated in their duals by U L decompositions) circuits. Both have
the synthesis of the passive ladder prototype [16]. The some characteristic features.
low-sensitivity properties are not influenced by the intro- In the left-LUD method the below-diagonal and
duction of negative elements [17]. above-diagonal elements of A are separated to matrices
T
For high-order S C filters, these inductor and negative L and L , respectively, effectively removing all capaci-
a a
capacitor pairs can be used to cancel the off-diagonal tor-coupled op-amp loops. They also demonstrate excel-
2 15
I E E E TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. 38. NO. 8, A U G U S T 1991
lent properties regarding component spread and dynamic and d((o) over the passband
T
range for bandpass design. However, since Z.„ and L a
must be square, the dimension of the intermediate vari- 5=- s(w)do> (23a)
able vector W is n (the number of nodes), and so alto- width of passband Vssband
gether W and V contain 2n variables. Sometimes this is 1
more than necessary. For instance, the left-LUD simula- J
width of passband •'passbandd(u>)dw. (23b)
tion of Fig. 4(a) could also be used to realize a fifth-order
low-pass function. Alternatively, right-LUD methods Normally the chip area required for fabrication of an
would use only 2n - 1 variables, a canonical number for SC filter is measured by
an odd order prototype. T=
c E c f (23c)
For right matrix decompositions, B and B can be all capacitors
t r
made rectangular and the dimensions of V and W are not but to reflect the influence of capacitance spread the
necessarily equal. Consequently, the dimension of W can following index will also be used
be smaller than that of V. In the case of a low-pass filter
simulated by L U D methods, it is mandatory that T be C-f E c/]' . / 2
(23d)
singular [17] so that a zero column in L will appear after
r all capacitors
LU decomposition. It can be then deleted, making L an r An overall performance index of an SC filter can be
n x ( n - l ) matrix. Thus one variable is saved in form- defined by
ing W.
CS
There are also sensitivity problems in Iowpass design /»« — (23e)
for all the methods mentioned above except right-LUD.
Deviation in the entries of B, caused by the inaccuracy of For these indices, it is desirable to have lower S, T , C, e
the element values associated with these entries, may and P (the lower limit is 0). The maximum op-amp output
cause B to become nonsingular, introducing a zero at will always be assumed to have been scaled to 1, so that
ft) = 0. Extra zeros introduced at the origin can be viewed D will always be a positive number less than 1. It is
either as an advantage or disadvantage; for instance, desirable to have D close to 1. which means that all the
low-frequency noise suppression can be facilitated by op-amps have equal output swing in the passband.
these zeros. The right-LUD method does not have this For a bandpass filter, the relative bandwidth is defined
problem as it involves multiplication of matrices with only by
(« - 1 ) rows or columns. The resulting matrices can never +
RBW=(a> -a>-)/a, , a> = (a <o~ ) ' + / 2
(24)
m m
have a full rank n. +
where a i and a>~ are the upper and lower band-edge
The right-LUD method, however, does have the draw-
frequencies, respectively. It is known that RBW has a
back of possessing capacitor-coupled op-amp loops. Un-
great influence on the system performance. For sixth-order
desirable large component spread and poor dynamic range
elliptic designs, let the passband ripple be fixed as 0.1 dB,
are also observed for certain bandstop designs.
stopband attenuation 50 dB and f , / f ratio 25 ( 2 i r / = m m
These arguments indicate that right-LUD is a good <o ,f, is the sampling frequency). Computations of S, T ,
m c
candidate for low-pass design. It is more complicated to D, and P are displayed against relative bandwidth (Fig.
reach any conclusion about bandpass designs as the per- 11). The same analysis has been performed for higher
formances the circuits vary dramatically according to the order elliptic type designs and similar trends are ob-
relative bandwidth. This can be seen from some compara- served.
tive studies.
B. Narrow Bandpass Filter Design
A. Comparison of Bandpass SC Ladder Designs
From Fig. 11 it can be seen that the left-decomposition
The following indices are used as global measures of
designs have very good total capacitance over the
system sensitivity and dynamic range, respectively:
narrow-band range, but the biquad method is better
1/2 around R B W = 1 . Regarding the sensitivity index S, all
ux
:,- d\H(u>)\ the ladder designs are much better than the biquad
*(«)- E (22a)
\H(io)\ Be, method over the whole range as expected [1]. The plots
l/M for cascade biquads are occasionally discontinuous; this is
< * ( « ) - { n i * u / « » ) i } (22b) due to the fact that E-type and F-type biquads are se-
lected according to Q-factor required, and discontinuity
where (c,) and (W ) are the sets of capacitances and
m
of internal nodal voltages may take place when the design
op-amp output voltages, respectively, and M is the num- is switched from E-type to F-type or vice versa affecting
ber of op-amps. the dynamic range index. Another reason is that the
As the passband behavior is of most interest to filter pairing of biquadratic sections is carried out to achieve
designers, define two indices for system sensitivity and minimum total capacitance, which does not take into
dynamic range, which are the average measures of s(a>) consideration voltage levels.
PING el at: A METHODOLOGY
863
LEFT-DIRECTIIAI
n LEFT-LUD
UL-LU
B I QUAD
1 RIGHT-LUD
1 S
LU-UL
ie i—i—i—i i i 111
io i o
Relative bandwidth
a)
B I QUAD
LEFT-DIRECT!IA)
10
UL-LU
LU-UL •
LEFT-LUD
I—' I I I I I i — i — r r-t- h l J
1 0 1
Relative bandwidth
<b
Fig. I I . Performance comparison of 6th-order bandpass filter realizat ions, (a) Dynamic range, (b) Sensitivity, (c) Total
capacitance, (d) Performance index.
I E E E TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS. VOL. 38, NO. 8. AUGUST 1991
/
/
RIGHT-LUD
/
/
LEFT-LUD /
/
LU-UL
1 0
.'/
J.
UL-LU
FX
B I QUAD
• a
LEFT-DIRECT(IA)
r 1
Relative bacdwduj
(c)
10 3 B I QUAD
LU-UL
LEFT-DIRECT(IA)
\ UL-LU
10
RIGHT-LUD
LEFT-LUD
1
I I I I I—I 1 I I 1 I
Relative bandwidth
(d)
Fig. I I . (Continued)
2 18
PING €t al: A M E T H O D O L O G Y
IQUAD
tinjls pbue input
RIGHT-OiRECTtBll
Me ptuts Input
RIGHT-LUD
LeFT-DIRECT(IA)
U)
BIQUAD
RIGHT-DIRECT!BI)
RIGHT-LUD
LEFT-LUC
LEFT—DIRECT!IA>
(b)
Fig. 12. 6th-order asymmetric bandpass filler realization, (a) Overall response, (b) Passband response, (c) Sensitivity, (d)
Dynamic range.
T A B L E III TABLE IV
D E S I G N D A T A FOR A W I D E - B A N D PROTOTYPE L A D D E R O F F I G . 3 D E S I G N D A T A F O R W I D E - B A N D S C L A D D E R SIMULATIONS
C, 0.3465 c 2
0.1580 1-2 0.2484 Left- Left- Right- Right-
C, 0.6119 c. 0.0596 0.3006 LUD Direct (LA) LUD Direct (BI)
C 5 0.4836 Ls 4.0362
G i n 1.0000 0.8802 c, 1.000 1.000 3.147 3.147
Sampling frequency 100 kHz c 2
9.174 9.174 9.392 9.392
Lower passband edge 300 Hz c, 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
Upper passband edge 3400 Hz c. 3.620 3.620 9.821 9.821
Passband ripple < 0.2 dB 1.615 1.615 3.387 1.615
Lower stopband edge 10 Hz c 6
1.266 1.266 1.266 1.266
Lower stopband ait. >30dB c. 4.445 3.435 3.435 3.435
Upper slopb'and edge 5000 Hz c a
1.375 1.375 4.044 4.044
Upper stopband att. >45 dB c, 3.736 3.736 2.391 5.433
21.697 25.451 22.474 22.474
c„ 4.632 5.433 1.690 3.736
21.169 22.474 11.201 25.451
c„ 1.573 1.573 2.935 1.000
1.000 1.000 1.000 1.573
A comparison of the overall performance indices indi- c 1 5
1.612 i.oob 2.074 1.473
cates that the left-LUD method is the best candidate for 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
narrow-band design RBW < 1 and the biquad method is C,7 1.000 1.000 1.000 2.137
c 8.326 9.325 9.953 7.070
best for bandpass design with RBW around 1. C,
1 8
1.000 1.265 1.000

9 1.000
4.804 5.475 51.232 10.686
c 2 l
3.907 3.907 1.252 1.252
c„ 4.999 4.999 1.407 1.000
C. Wide Bandpass Filter Design 3.120 3.120 1.000 1.000
c a
From Fig. 11 it is seen that both ladders and biquads total 111.199 117.373 150.109 123.014
are far from ideal for a very important area of filtering spread 21.697 25.451 51.232 25.451
866 I E E E TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS. VOL. 38. NO. 8. AUGUST W l
UL-LU
EIQUAD
RIGHT-LUD
1
LU-UL /
LEFT-DIRECT!IAI /
LEFT-LUD
I I I I I i—i i i i' 14n I I ' • •'' I

1 o 1 0 1 0
Relative bandwidth
Fig. 13. Performance comparison of 8th-order asymmetric bandpass filter realizations.
RIGHT-DIRECT BI
LEFT-DIRECT 1AI
a
UL-LU
! 10
LEFT-LUD
o
B I QUAD
\ RIGHT-LUD
I
8
Transition band ratio
Fig. 14. Performance comparison of 5th-order low-pass filter realizations.

220
PING el at: A METHODOLOGY
applications, that is, for the voice band application with narrow and very wide passbands; the leapfrog method is
passband from 300 Hz to 3400 Hz whose R B W > 3. It is the best choice for sharp transition low-pass filter design;
found that for this type of wide-band design the most and cascade biquads are the best choice for moderately
significant factor causing the deterioration of all designs selective low-pass and bandpass filter design. Some spe-
is the location of lower band finite zeros, which approach cial design techniques can be applied to produce efficient
zero as the RBW increases. Realization of these zeros circuits in other technologies such as continuous-time
requires large capacitance spread. The deterioration pro- transconductance-capacitor filters.
cess can be reduced if the lower band finite zeros are
replaced at the origin. Since the zeros in the lower stop- APPENDIX
band are very close to origin anyway, this shifting will
When A and B are tridiagonal, L and U are also a b
have only a slightly deleterious effect on the characteris- tridiagonal as well as triangular. Separate the diagonal
tic. The performance of a 6th-order design of this t>pe is and off-diagonal parts of the matrices
shown in Fig. 12. The design data of four SC circuits are
given in Tables I I I and Table IV. The left-LUD has the La = L ad + L ao (25a)
lowest capacitance spread and best dynamic range. V „ ' V + U (25b)
M b o
A sweep of an 8th-order design is done over a range of

relative bandwidths comparing the performance with four where L and L
ad are diagonal matrices, L
bd has aB
alternative ladder circuits with cascade biquads (Fig. 13). nonzero entries only on the first lower off diagonal, and
This result echoes the conclusions for the previous spe- V has nonzero entries only on the first upper off-diago-
bo
nal,
cific example—that left-LUD design is still the best choice
for this family of filtering applications, exceeding all oth- 0
ers over the whole bandwidth range. 0
I' .1., —
D. Low-Pass Design
Fig. 14 shows a sweep of performance index P against
transition bandwidth ratio (passband edge/stopband
edge) for various 5th-order elliptic low-pass filters. The
passband ripple is fixed at 0.1 dB; the passband edge is U„ = b (26)
1 kHz and the sampling frequency is 200 kHz. Note that
only cascade biquad and right-LUD circuits provide one- 0
op-amp-per-pole realizations; the others require six op-
where * stands for the nonzero entries.
amps. Overall, the right-LUD is the best choice followed
by biquad. The low sensitivity and good dynamic range of In (13) assume that U and L are also tridiagonal as bs
the right-LUD are its main advantages despite the lower and triangular matrices. Separate U and L as as bs
total capacitance of the biquad. A sensitivity peak at the V „ - V ^ + U (27a) m
origin mitigates against the left-decomposition circuits for

L -L + L . (27b)
low-pass design. b s b s i bso
Equate the different parts of (13) according to the posi-

E. Software Development tion of the nonzero entries:
The matrix scheme discussed in this paper is also highly (28a)

suitable for software development. A wide range of circuit A„ (28b)
structures, including both ladders and cascade biquads,
U . (28c)
can be represented in a unified format. The PANDDA b ! 0 b o
software package [8] has been developed employing this Since in (28a-c) the number of constraints is less than the
scheme together with many other sophisticated approxi- number of variables, we can assign
mation, ladder synthesis, and optimization algorithms.
L„st = l (29)
V I I . CONCLUSIONS
which guarantees the readability of system (14). From
(28) and (29) we have
A methodology has been developed for the design of
acWe-RC and SC ladder simulation filters. A wide range ^ d - ( L a d - L a o V j U b o y x(U -U LjL. )
bd bo a (30)
of circuits can be derived by adopting different matrix
and remaining variables can be solved from (28):
factorizations, notably L U and U L decompositions, in-
cluding both existing and novel structures. A detailed Lbso ~ Uasa-LaoUbd (31a)
comparison of various SC circuit structures has been
(31b)
undertaken and some notable conclusions are: the left-
LUD method is the best choice for filters with very The matrices in (30) and (31) may be singular and the
868 1F.F.F TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS. VOL. 38, NO. 8. AUGUST 1991
normal inverses do not exist. In these circumstances, [15] T . - H . Hsu and G. C. Temes. "Improved input stage for bilinear
switched-capacitor ladder filters." IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst., vol.
Moore-Penrose's generalized inverse can be used [18]. As CAS-30, pp. 758-760. Oct. 1983.
the matrices in (30) and (31) are all diagonal, the proce- [16] R. K. Henderson, "Computer-aided design of switched-capacilor
dure to obtain their Moore-Penrose inverse is very sim- filters," Ph.D. dissertation. Univ. Glasgow, 1989.
[17) Li Ping, "Theory and methodology of integrated ladder filter de-
ple. The Moore-Penrose inverse of a diagonal matrix sign," Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. Glasgow, 1990.
D = d i a g [ d , - • -,d ] is also a diagonal matrix given by
n nn [18] C. R. Rao and S. K. Mitra, Generalized Inverse of Matrices and Its
M = d i a g [ m , - • • ,m ] with
u nn
Application. New York: Wiley, 1971.
I/da, iftf„#0 (32a)

0, if d = 0.
u (32b)
Li Ping (S'88-M 91) received the B.S. degree in
telecommunication engineering from Nanjing
REFERENCES Institute of Posts and Telecommunications,
Nanjing, China, in 1981, the M.S. degree from
[1| A. S. Sedra and P. O. Bracket), Filter Theory and Design: Active and Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China,
Passive. London: Pitman, 1979. in 1984, and the Ph.D. degree from Glasgow
[2) R. Gregorian and G . C . Temes, Analog MOS Integrated Circuits [or University, Glasgow, U.K.. in 1990, both in elec-
Signal Processing. New York: Wiley, 1986. tronic engineering.
[3] R. Gregorian, K. W. Martin, and G . C . Temes, "Switched-capacitor He was an assistant lecturer at Shanghai In-
circuit design," Proc. IEEE, vol. 71, pp. 941-966, Aug. 1983. stitute of Railway Technology from 1984 to 1986
[4] M. S. Lee and C. Chang, "Switched-capacitor filters using the L D I and a Royal Society-British Telecom Research
and bilinear transforms," IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst., vol. CAS-28. Fellow at Glasgow University in 1987. After half-year post doctoral work
pp. 265-270, Apr. 1981. at Wolfson Microelectronics, Edinburgh, U.K., in 1990, he joined the
15] K. Martin and A. S. Sedra, "Exact design of switched-capacitor Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of
bandpass filters using coupled biquad structures," IEEE Trans. Melbourne, Australia, where he is presently a lecturer. His research
Circuits Syst., vol. CAS-27, pp. 469-474, June 1980. interests are in analog electronics, signal processing, and telecommuni-
16] Li Ping and J . I. Sewell, "The L U D approach to switched-capacitor cations.
filter design," IEEE Trans. Circuits Sysl., vol. 34, pp. 1611-1614,
Dec. 1987.
(7] A. Kaelin and G. S. Moschytz, "Exact design of arbitrary parasitic-
insensitive elliptic SC-ladder filters in the z-domain," in Proc.
ISCAS. pp. 2485-2488, June 1988. Robert K. Henderson (S'87-M"90) received the
[8] R. K. Henderson, Li Ping, and J. I. Sewell, " A design program for B.S. (Hons.) degree in electronics and electrical
digital and analogue filters: P A N D D A , " in Proc. ECCTD '89, pp. engineering with computing science and the
289-293, Sept. 1989. Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering in 1986
(9) K. Singhal and J. Vlach, Computer Methods for Circuit Analysis and and 1990, respectively, both from the University
Design. Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1983. of Glasgow, Scotland.
[10] S. O. Scanlan, "Analysis and synthesis of switched-capacitor state From 1989 to 1990 he was engaged at the
variable ladder filters," IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst., vol. CAS-28, pp. University of Glasgow as a research assistant.
85-93, Feb. 1981. He is currently a Research Engineer at the
[11] Li Ping and J. I. Sewell, "Filter realisation by passive ladder Centre Suisse d'Electronique et de Microtech-
simulation," Proc. Inst. Elec. Eng., part G . , vol. 135, pp. 167-176, nique S. A., Neuchatel, Switzerland. During his
Aug. 1988. doctoral work he co-authored a compiler for analog filters called
|12) R. K. Henderson, L i Ping, and J. 1. Sewell, "Canonical design of PANDDA. His research interests are in the areas of analog signal
integrated ladder filters," Proc. Inst. Elec. Eng., part G , vol. 138, processing, numerical algorithms, and computer-aided circuit and sys-
pp. 222-228, Apr. 1991. tem design.
|13] N. P. J. Greer, R. K. Henderson, Li Ping, and J . I. Sewell, "Matrix
methods for the design of transconductor ladder filters," in Proc.
ISCAS, June 1991.
114) L i Ping, R. C . J. Taylor, R. K. Henderson, and J . I. Sewell, "Design
of a switched-capacitor filter for voice band signals," in Proc. John 1. Sewell (M'74-SM'77) for a photograph and biography, please
ISCAS, June 1991. see page 837 of this issue of this TRANSACTIONS.
2 2 2
PAPER 47
IEEE JOURNAL O F S O L I D S T A T E C I R C U I T S . V O L : • . NO 1. S E P T E M B E R 199:
Design of a Switched-Capacitor Filter for a Mobile Telephone Receiver

L i Ping. R . C . J . T a y l o r . R . K . Henderson, and J . I . S e w e l l
Abstract—Conventional S C realizations of wide-band filters ments of the amplifiers and switches compared to other
demand large capacitance spread and exhibit serious sensitivity solutions [ 7 ] . The strategy is to retain E-type damping
problems. The U I . - L U structure is a ladder type simulation
which demonstrates superior sensitivity performance and (low capacitance spread) simultaneously with right-hand
maintains low capacitance spread. The design illustrates how matrix decomposition (low sensitivity), which is not read-
the facilities of a modern filter compiler can be utilized to solve ily available with existing approaches. A modern filter
some quite difficult practical problems in a real application. compiler | 9 ) has been used and exercised considerably to
Results from fabricated devices confirm the predicted proper- provide an optimum solution.
ties.
I I . W I D E - B A N D F I L T E R DESIGN
I . INTRODUCTION
An audio receiving filter for mobile telephony appli-
T H E voice-band frequency range normally extends

from 3 0 0 H z to 4 k H z . The difficulty of designing
filters in this range is that the relative bandwidth, defined
cations typically has a wide passband extending from 3 0 0
Hz to 3 k H z and exhibiting a - 2 0 - d B / d e c a d e slope for
frequency de-emphasis. A notch is included to remove
by unwanted mixed down frequencies which are close to the
upper passband edge. The template can be seen in F i g . 1.
x 1 2
RBW = ( - cj")/tj„„ u> = (w* x a)") ''
u m
If the specification is met by a function with an elliptic-
type zero distribution, a very large capacitance spread will
has a typical value of 3 . 5 . which is quite high. Switched-
be incurred. The finite zeros in the lower stopband create
capacitor ( S C ) realizations of such wide-band filters will
very large time constants that require large capacitors. A l -
have a large capacitance spread and serious sensitivity
ternatively, if these zeros are avoided by choosing an all-
problems. In general, ladder-based realizations are known
pole approximation with zeros at zero and infinite fre-
to produce low sensitivity solutions [ 1 ] , though computer
quency, the required order will be very high. A compro-
simulations ( 2 ) have shown that capacitance spread is par-
mise is to use a function with all lower band zeros at
ticularly serious for bandpass leapfrog circuits [3] that use
zero frequency and elliptic-type zeros in the upper stop-
F-type damping. The sensitivity problem for cascade bi-
band. Since the lower band edge of the filter is at low
quads is well known. It is also observed that coupled bi-
frequency, the movement of the lower band zeros to the
quads [4] and L U D methods [ 5 ] suffer from high sensitiv-
origin has only a slightly deleterious effect on the filter
ity at very low frequencies; in the case of low-pass filter
characteristic [ 2 ] . Such a transfer function which meets
filter designs, it has been proven [6] that this property will
the required template is shown in F i g . 1. It is a tenth-order
always result when the so-called right-hand matrix is not
function with a third-order zero at the origin, a zero at
decomposed. Similar reasoning can be extended to the
infinity, a pair of imaginary axis zeros, and two pairs of
bandpass case.
mirror image real axis zeros. T h e latter zeros are spe-
In this paper, a practical voice-band filter design for a
cially placed to cause negative element values in the pas-
mobile telephone application is presented. A novel vari-
sive prototype which cancel components in the S C simu-
ant of the L U D method is utilized. It combines a low
lation 12]. T h e number of capacitors required to realize a
capacitance spread with low sensitivity, which are impor-
pair of mirror image real axis zeros at + 2 / , ( / is the s
tant in reducing silicon area and easing the design require-

sampling frequency) is less than that to realize a pair of
zeros on the imaginary axis. T h e capacitance spread can
Manuscripl received August 27. 1991: revised Apr'' 10. 1992. This work also be greatly reduced this way. S i n c e / , is much higher
was supponed in pan bv Ihe Science and Engineering Research Council.
U.K. than the passband frequency, a pair of zeros at + 2 / , has
L. Ping is with the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering. the same function as those at infinity. The approximator
Universiu of Melbourne. Parkville. Victoria .1052. Australia. tidies up after these forcing modifications and ensures that
R. C. J. Tjvlor is with Wollson Microelectronics Ltd.. Bernard Terrace.
Edinburgh EH8 9NX. Scotland.
the original specifications are still satisfied.
R. K. Henderson is with C S E M . Seuchatcl, Switzerland. A comparison of sensitivities is available from the filter
J. 1. Sewell is with the Department of Electronics and Electrical Engi-
neering. Unixersilv ol Glaseou. Glascmv GI2 t*QQ. Scotland. compiler P A N D D A [ 9 ] . This has been made for a number
I E E E Log Number 9201996. a different realizations | 3 ] - | 6 ] and the results are shown
0018-9200 92S03.00 : 1992 I E E E

2 24
I E E E JOURNAL O F S O L I D - S T A T E CIRCUITS. V O L 27. NO. 4. SEf'TEMRF.R \WZ
Template
Frequency (kHz)
Fig. I. Template and frequency responses of tenth-order filter.
Cascade - biquad
Coupled - biquad
Leapfrog
3 -
a i i
21
Fr«qu«ncy (Mi)
FIJI. 2. Passband sensitivity comparison for tenth-order filter realizations
in Fig. 2. The sensitivity measure being used is It can be seen that both l e f t - L U D and coupled-biquad
circuits suffer from a low-frequency sensitivity peak,
Mu'l = i s whereas the leapfrog and cascade-biquad circuits exhibit
H(u) | dc poorer sensitivity performance at the higher band edge.
I E E E J O U R N A L OF S O L I D - S T A T E CIRCUITS. V O L . SO ') SEPTEMBER I'M:
TABLE I
:
COMPARISON or CAPACIFANCT. COSTS F OH FII.IT:K R F ATION
Structure Total Capacitance Capacitance Spread
UL-LU 746.4 1 IM
LUD 703,3 1 12.5
Couplcd-E-Biquad 756.4 1 12.5
Leapfrog 1 714.7 957.8
Biquad 728.8 122.5
"6
"j rYYY\-_-3~
J G
,„tw U , ?>-,
Fig. 3. Tenth-order passive prototype.
Fig. 4. U L - L U SC circuit realization.
The new U L - L U structure (detailed in the next section) troid to help with matching and to reduce offsets. The
maintains a low sensitivity over the whole passband. T a - area-to-perimeter ratio of unit to nonunit capacitors is kept
ble I gives a comparison of capacitance cost and high- constant so that parasitic peripheral capacitance effects are
lights the penalty of choosing a leapfrog realization. The cancelled. The size of the filter is 3027 jim x 8 9 4 nm.
conclusion of these studies is that the U L - L U structure which is relatively small considering the complexity of
offers the best solution to this filtering problem. F i g . 3 the response. Passband details of the measured frequency
shows the structure of a passive prototype synthesized response can be seen in F i g . 5. The response meets the
from this transfer function. Note that the position of a template very well and over a number of devices there
series capacitor between the first and second nodes is re- was hardly any deviation. T h i s illustrates the low sensi-
quired to ensure E-type terminations [7] in the S C circuit tivity of the filter to process variations and hence the ro-
realization shown in F i g . 4. The simpler structure of the bust nature of the design. For commercial production this
filter towards the output is due to the cancellation of is an important factor in ensuring an increased yield and
feedthrough capacitors by the specially positioned real reliability of the devices. T h e noise floor at 1 k H z was
axis zeros (capacitors C and C in F i g . 3 therefore have
h s - 6 0 dB and was approximately level at this value over
negative values). ihe entire passband: no harmonic level could be detected
The circuit uses a clock frequency of 128 kHz and has above the noise floor.
been fabricated onto silicon using a 3-^m single-metal,
double-poly. 5-V process. The amplifiers used are single-
stage folded cascode without compensation capacitors, III. DERIVATION OF THE U L - L U STRUCTURE
stability being ensured by the capacitors in the filter: the The derivation utilizes a U L - L U decomposition to-
input devices are laid out as cross-coupled common cen- gether with a bilinear-LDl ladder design | 2 ] . Starting from
2 26
I REE JOURNAL O F SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS. VOL NO 9. S E P T E M B E R 199 1:9
9
/
Simulated
i: x
Measured
Frequency (KHX)
Fig. 5. Passband detail of tenth-order niter
the nodal equation of a passive prototype ladder damping at the input of the S C realization and this is con-
sistent with E-type damping already implicit at the output.
(sC + s r + G)V = J, _ l
(1)
The virtue of E-type damping is to reduce capacitance
applying a bilinear transformation, and separating out a spread in the termination sections of the S C realization.
pair of L D I integration operators * = 1 / ( 1 - ; " ' ) and Notice now that the output is w „: as U is the upper tri- h h
]
• = z ~ / ( \ — z ~ ' ) . equation ( 1 ) becomes angular. w differs from the output by only a constant. hn
The realization procedure for (3) by an S C circuit follows
A + <t>B +(Jj; = (I + z)J (2)

matrix methods [2], [9) and yields the circuit shown in
fljv
F i g . 4 . A further point of interest is to note that the input
factor 1 + in (3a) has been implemented implicitly
where A = 2/TC + T/2T + G.B = 4 7 T , and D = 2 G by prewarping the original specification by a 1 + c~'
A simplified U L - L U form has A = U L„, B = L U, function. This is conveniently combined with the sin (x)/x
u h h
W = V-'L
a V. W = U V, and D = DU ~
a h h Again the correction, resulting in tan (x) / x prewarping.
s h
]
upper triangular matrix f j and lower triangular matrix m
Lhs are defined to satisfy the identity U £.„ = L , U. us

I V . CONCLUSIONS
h h
Then (2) can be linearized in terms of the L D I operators

In this paper we have examined the problem of design-
as
ing voice-band S C filters with wide-band specifications.
V W = - ( * L „ + D,)W„ - (I + z~*)J (3a) Such filters do not have satisfactory realizations by con-
a a
ventional design techniques due to excessive area require-

ments or sensitivity to component value deviations. L o w -
L W„ = t Vhs W„. us (3b)
frequency notches, which cause the large component
The scheme described by (3) is a variation on those spread, are eliminated by designing a transfer function
derived in [2]. In general D is less sparse than D. as the K
with lower band zeros at the origin. A new ladder sim-
entry D when multiplying the first row of (/,,"'. which is
u
ulation structure has been proposed to overcome the sen-
the upper triangle, would produce a full nonzero row. sitivity and capacitance spread problems of other real-
However, in this design, the first row of L',,"' has onlv one izations. A tenth-order filter with sloping passband
nonzero entry, resulting from the fact that the first in- response has been fabricated and the measured results
ductance L , in the prototype is separated from the other verify that difficult audio frequency responses can be met
inductors. The beneficial effect of this is to ensure E-type practically using a relatively small area of silicon. This
1298 IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS. VOL. :7. NO. 9. SEPTEMBER 199:
particular design illustrates the potential of modern filter pass filters using coupled biquad structures." IEEE Trans. Circuits
Syst.. vol. 27. no. 6. pp. 469-474. June 1980.
compilers and their application to difficult practical design
[5] Li Ping and J. 1. Sewell. "The L U D approach to swiiched-capaciior
problems. filter design." IEEE Trans. Circuits Svst.. vol. 34. no. 12. pp. 161 I -
1614, Dec. 1987.
[6) Li Ping and J. 1. Sewell. "Filter realisation by passive ladder simu-
REFERENCES lation." Proc. Inst. Elec. Enu.. Pt. G. vol. 135. no. 4. pp. 167-176.
Aug. 1988.
(1) H. J. Orchard. "Induciorless fillers." Electron. Leu., vol. 2. pp. 224- |7] P. Korhonen and J. Korhonen "An analogue CMOS circuit for mobile
225,June 1966. radio base station signal processing." in Proc. ESSCIRC '89. pp. 196-
(2] Li Ping, R. K. Henderson, and J. i. Sewell, "A meihodology for in- 199.
tegrated ladder filler design." IEEE Trans. Circuits Svst.. vol. 38. no [8] P. E . Fleischer and K. R. Laker. " A family of active switched capac-
8, pp. 853-868, Aug. 1991. itor building blocks," Bell Svst. Tech. J., vol. 58. no. 12. pp. 2235-
[3] M. S. Lee and C . Chang, "Swiiched-capaciior fillers using ihe LDI 2269. Dec. 1979.
and bilinear transforms." IEEE Trans. Circuits Svst.. vol. 28. no. 4, [9] R. K. Henderson, L i Ping, and J . I. Sewell. "A design program for
pp. 265-270. Apr. 1981 digital and analogue filters: P A N D D A . " in Proc. ECCTD (Brighton.
[4] K. Martin and A. S. Sedra. "Exact design of switched-capacitor band- U . K . ) . Sept. 1989, pp. 289-293.
2 2 8
PAPER 48
2 29
Analog Integrated Circuits and Signal Processing 3. 217-228 (1993)

S 1993 Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston. Manufactured in The Netherlands.
Analog Integrated Filter Compilation
R.K. HENDERSON
Centre Suisse d 'Eleclronique el de Microtechnique, Neuchatel, Switzerland
L I PING
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
J.I. S E W E L L
Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ Scotland
Abstract. A review of the progress in automated design of analog integrated filters is presented. Such tools are
ahead of other analog circuit automation in terms of the acceptance by designers and practical applicability. A
survey of the present-day commercial and academic systems is made and the range of facilities available is com-
pared. The problems faced in the design of this type of software are typical of the problems of analog design systems
in general; lack of openness for introduction of new design knowledge, difficulties of dealing simultaneously with
expert and novice users, poor integration in design environments, and user-interface problems. The structure of
a typical system is studied and the computer methods used within are discussed with regard to such issues as speed,
flexibility, and ease-of-use. Some future directions for analog filter compilers are proposed.
1. Introduction tedious numerical design steps. These increase greatly

with order, quickly exceeding the scope of manual
Synthesis and compilation tools for analog circuits have design but ideally suited to the capabilities of the com-
been slow to develop compared to their digital counter- puter. Second, the filter technologies (for mainstream
parts. This has been in part due to the greater difficulty applications) are now very well mastered, allowing a
in identifying the rules involved in analog design and sufficient degree of assurance in "what you design is
a certain reluctance on the part of the designer to accept what you get" to permit computer aids to take over.
automation of his or her highly knowledge-intensive What are the main aims in the development of C A D
skill. Tools that do exist fall mainly into the categories tools for filters?
of design capture, analysis and verification. Filter de-
sign is an exception; a set of clearly defined hierarchical 1. To reduce design time and cost. Filter design turn-
steps backed up by a large body o f vvell-established around is reduced f r o m months to a matter of days.
mathematical theory renders the discipline amenable Quick estimates of silicon area and power allow
to automation. The earliest design programs were devel- designers to make important trade-offs at system
oped in the 1950s and 1960s for passive RLC filters and level. Filters synthesized by compilers come with
demonstrated the feasibility of automatic circuit synthe- a "correct-by-construction" guarantee (meaning that
sis [1]. The domain witnessed the earliest application i f there are no errors in the C A D software then the
of several computer techniques to circuit design prob- network connectivity and component values must
lems (notably optimization). When the modern inte- be correct!). N o errors means no costly redesign.
grated filter technologies such as active-/?C, switched- 2. To provide optimal designs. Filter attributes can be
capacitor (SC), and continuous-time arrived in the 1970s tailored to specifications reducing wasted area and
and 1980s they were followed up quickly by computer power. Computer assistance is essential in this com-
automation [ 2 ] . Moreover, these tools were successful putationally expensive task.
in gaining acceptance by designers. There are two main
3. To adapt quickly to changes in the technology. Now
reasons for this confidence. Unlike other analog blocks,
that filter design tools are accepted the challenge is
high order filter circuits are a common requirement,
to make them more capable to absorb new techno-
demanding a considerable number of trade-offs and
logical developments, new circuit topologies and
57
2 30
218 Henderson, Ping and Sewell
design methods. This need has been made particu- between levels is accomplished by a synthesis step
larity evident by the continual emergence of new which converts a design f r o m a behavioral to a struc-
technologies, recently switched-current and tural description. For example, filter synthesis com-
MOSFET-C circuits [ 3 - 5 ] . mences with the description of the design in terms of
a frequency response and terminates with a netlist of
Several filter compilers are now offered commer-
parameterized building blocks, e.g., op amps, transcon-
cially and many more reside in academia. Filter design
ductors, capacitors, resistors, and switches. Several syn-
aids are also increasingly found as extensions to digital
thesis steps follow before we finally arrive at silicon;
signal processing packages, standard circuit analyzers,
for example an analog ceLl generator w i l l translate from
and mathematics and systems simulation languages.
building block to sized device schematic and a layout
This article w i l l look at some of the issues faced in the
tool f r o m sized device to layout geometry. A typical
design of this kind of software as a small illustration
organization of such a system is shown in figure 1 and
of the problems facing the current generation o f analog
the "state-of-the-art" is summarized in table 1 which
CAD tools. One particularity significant issue, in view
compares some of the most reputed systems (this list
of the rapid technological developments over the past
is by no means exhaustive).
30 years, is the extent to which "technology indepen-
dent" filter design can be achieved. This means the Some pertinent comments follow:
degree to which the shared design methodology of filter 1. There is a very dominant forward path in the com-
in various technologies can be exploited to provide pilation process. Most compilers adopt the principle
reusable programs (a major goal of present-day com- of making fast synthesis modules and placing the de-
puter science). Good design software must not only be signer in control of a "weak" optimization (manual
flexible enough to adapt easily to the changing possi-
bilities offered by the technology but must also be able System Specriicaion
to incorporate the increasing base o f knowledge of cir-

cuit structures. Versatile databases and algorithms are
essential to provide this flexibility and some important
contributions to this are reviewed. C A D , in general, is
Fitter Speedica!
encountering increasingly the problem o f tool integra-
tion; tools which were developed as stand-alone entities
Circuit
are being asked to work together to build larger systems. Appfoiimalion ) ( Analysis
Filter compilers are no exception and their lack o f inte- \veaK
gration is hindering the development o f mixed analog/ Transfer Funcicn

optimisation
digital filter systems. Another theme w i l l be the extent

to which automation techniques can hide complexity
Prototype Synthesis
f r o m the user to provide simpler design decisions.
There is always a tension between offering an excessive
Filter Prototype
number of options to a designer and hiding too much
("push-button design"). The former risks bewildering
the newcomer and the latter risks losing the confidence Net wort Comcxlal
of the expert. A continuum between these two extremes

needs to be offered by well-designed software with a
sufficiently uniform view of the design process. These Optimise;
strong
optimisation
themes w i l l be illustrated by developments and exam-
ples drawn f r o m the X F I L T filter compiler [ 6 ] . Anatys
2. Background
Layout Synmesu
Integrated filter compilation is the translation of a filter (, I = Filler Descf'puqn (0
from a high level design description into layout [7], Layout - Design Tool iDau
There is a hierarchy of levels of description, involving

more and more detail as we approach layout. Moving Fig. I. Design flow in automated filter synthesis.
58
Analog Integrated Filter Compilation 219
Taole 1. Comparison of integrated filter design software.

approximations
Continuous-time/
Switched-capacitor
Passive RLC
approximation
Commercially
Equalisation
synthesis
Extended
synthesis
available
Cascade
Classical
biquad
Ac.tive-RC
Layout
Special
Allpass
Ladder
Name features/
comments
S/F1LSYN
filtorX
•• m • •• • • 9 m m m m
•• •
m m m
The original passive filter synthesis program. New extended
to various filter implementations and design methods |8],
A compendium of programs written by graduate students at
• •• • • the University of Toronto.[9-12|

Fairly complete commercial package. Z-domain approximation and
• • •
VITOLD synthesis. Sensitivity and THDoptjmoation.(13]
Commercial package from Mentor Graphics [14],
•• • •
AutoFilter
High order touch point approximations.VVide variety of
#
•
PANDDA m m m m filter structures including new topologies, Non-ideal optimtsation.fl7]
m Exact z-domain ladder synthesis. Leapfrog simulation
• m • •• •• •
IMSYS ANACAD product. Good practical design options .[15].
First OTA-C filter synthesiser (16).
••
FIESTA
Gate-array SC filter synthesiser. Unified design of biquad
• • •
SCSYN and ladder structures. Noise and capacitance optimisation.(18J
One of the earliest SC filter compilers. Cascade biquad trade-offs. [2]

AROMA
Simulated annealing design algorithm. Anti-alias filter design. [19]

MASFIL e
• •
e
Dedicated SC filter layout synthesis tool. Amplifier and
•• •
CAST/ALEX
• ••
switch sizing.|20]
Japanese contribution to filter automation. [21]
•• • •• •• • •• • ••
SCULPTOR
Promising PC synthesis tool in popular environment of
PSpice SPICE analysis tools.
Belt Northern Research SC synthesis toolplus University of Waterloo
SCDS analysis software market ad by Cadence [22]
iteration round the tools, viewing circuit simulation decomposition is rarely automated leaving this step to
results and altering specifications). The alternative be performed by rule-of-thumb and system designer's
"strong" optimization approach consists of a core cir- expertise. This is a prospective area for future auto-
cuit simulator, a multivariable optimization package, mation. The aim would be to help system designers to
and a graphical user's interface for viewing simulation set-up realistic specifications and to obtain quickly a
results. In this case, an ideal design is taken as a start- feel for the trade-offs involved between blocks and the
ing point and circuit element values are manipulated possibilities offered by the technology.
by the optimizer to improve the circuit response i n the 3. A t each o f the filter description levels there is a
presence of nonidealities such as switch resistance or potential to save the state of the design in some data
amplifier bandwidth. However the "weak" approach format. There is very little standardization o f these for-
is more efficient since there are generally many fewer mats (except at netlist or layout level) leading to a d i f f i -
filter specifications than circuit element values, but it culty in porting information between systems. For ex-
relies on designer expertise to interpret simulation ample, a standard frequency domain specification
results and modify specifications accordingly. The format or transfer function description format would
"strong" approach trades speed for generality and ease- allow much more shareable and extendable use of ap-
of-use tending toward the "push-button" end of design proximation software. A t present however, advanced
automation. Both (and a range of possibilities i n be- approximation techniques become an inaccessible part
tween) are necessary for a complete system. of a single system and there is very poor reuse of even
2. Very few existing compilers offer the complete standard software. Standard simulator formats for ana-
cycle as depicted in figure 1. In particular, the system log and switched-capacitor circuits are emerging by
59
2 32
default as SPICE and SWITCAP. Layout descriptions allow the digital tool to claim " f u l l mixed analog/digital
have already the GDSII and E D I F formats available. synthesis capability" while protecting the analog tool's
In certain cases this is the domain of analog behavioral
modeling languages such as the projected analog exten- interests.
sion to V H D L .
4 . Compilers are normally devoted to only one 3. Computer Methods f o r Analog Filter Compilation
design strategy and technology. Commercial compilers
in particular restrict themselves to the mainstream The previous section has taken an external view of the
design flow of cascade biquad designs in switched- existing filter compilers and the trends in their develop-
capacitor technology derived from classical approxima- ment. The present section w i l l take an internal view
tions (Butterworth, Chebyshev, etc.). This limits the and w i l l examine some of the computer techniques
designers ability to combine and compare technologies being used inside such systems.
(e.g., active-/?C and SC) and the benefits of different
topologies (e.g., biquad and ladder). Not enough work
has been put into an open framework of description for 3.1. Approximation
the design methods and the networks.
5. The importance of having more powerful approx- In filter approximation a realizable transfer function
imation software is emerging [23]. As the design steps must be computed to meet specifications of amplitude
close to the fabrication technology are optimized the and delay in time or frequency domains. Obtaining a
"room for improvement" shifts toward the higher levels good approximation is a struggle between conflicting
of design (see also point 2) such as approximation. For demands of filter selectivity, group delay variation, time
example, traditional approximations based on classical domain response, and transfer function order. Approx-
functions (Butterworth, etc.) yield fruitions w i t h e r imation software can either help or hinder this process
passbands which are suitable for frequency division depending on its flexibility, speed and ability to satisfy
multiplexing applications. However, filters with shaped both advanced and beginner users.
frequency response can also compensate for signal dis- Table 2 shows a survey of the most successful algo-
tortions f r o m other parts of a communications system rithms for filter approximation. From a software per-
(typically antialiasing and transmission line losses). spective, a major remaining issue is simply the degree
Compared to a standard equalizer/filter solution the in- of accessibility to the user. Entering the specs and view-
corporation of an equalizing capability in the filter ing the responses of classical filters such as Butterworth
results in smaller circuits and better overall perfor- or elliptic is a fairly simple matter of entering fixed
mance. Approximation for such designs is increasingly parameters and viewing the approximated solution. The
being recognized as a necessary utility in a compiler order of the response can be determined from passband,
and several packages offer some facility to optimize a stopband ripple, and frequency edge specifications (in
frequency response to an arbitrarily shaped template fact any one o f these can be left open, to be determined
[17, 19, 22]. automatically f r o m the specs on the other three). There
Instrumentation and data communications require is usually very little exploration of responses to be done
approximations based on phase and time domain re- (often the specification w i l l even define the order and
quirements. There is very little software available for
such tasks and mostly designs are either "handcrafted" Table 2. Comparison of different filter approximation algorithms.
or cast in terms of problem to be solved by an optimiza- Uu' Speed Flexibility
Approximation
Mat hod
Props/lie*
tion package. NOVICE FAST LESS CLASSICAL Butterworti Chebyahey etc Rat past [24]
FLEXIBLE and stopband frequency domain
amplitude specs.
6. The majority of compilers originate from univer-
'Pole ptaoer* aloonftm family,
sities. As with all analog C A D software it covers a very REM6Z ataws M i n t e d lroc*>artcy dorrsun
pastband and sopbend ipecs
[24]
narrow and highly specialized group of users. The ratio Equrippia group delay i poofcabora
ALLPASS GROUP
Remvi-type algonffim* appWaWe [25|
of difficulty of development of the software to poten- DELAY
EQUALISATION
Lost »ftoa*il ten joint ampkrude/
group delay opemMOon.
tial market is high, making it commercially unattrac-

LEASTp* Simultaneous specs on ampi&jd*.
group oWay and t*ne domain [26]
tive. One solution to this problem is to place the soft- OPTIMISATION
ratponte.
ware under the "umbrella" of digital C A D tools (i.e., QUADRATIC

PROGRAMMING
At above but flow witt convergence
problems
make use of the schematic capture, layout, database, MORE SIMULATED Slewresi but avoids local mi rum a
EXPERT SLOW FLEXIBLE ANNEALING problem* and a very fleiib'e [19]
and user-interface standards). Closer integration would
60
2 33
type of approximation to choose) and menu-driven input

is quite satisfactory.
Design of more complex responses is quite another
matter, the designer has great freedom to vary the char-
acteristics of the filter in the passband(s) and stop-
band(s) by exploring different pole and zero placements.
Here, graphical specification aids are important for the a(s) = -l/(sRC)
designer to visualize the response in the different

domains of interest (frequency, time, and group delay). — I I — i
Often a problem is to view superimposed filter response ais) = 1/isRC)
plus a distortion function f r o m another part of the sys-
tem or f r o m another cascaded filter. Easy manipulation
of the plots and feedback into the pole placer algorithm
aiz) = - C / C ,
is needed (e.g., the ability to select and place zeros or 2
to interactively edit the shape of the template). Usually,

a graphical input needs to go hand in hand with textual
specification for detailed manipulation. atz) = -C /C,/<l-z •')
:
H h
3.2. Prototype Synthesis
a(x) = C z-7C,<l-z->
2
Prototype synthesis is the process of decomposition of

the transfer function into simple terms corresponding
to a realizable circuit building block. It is here that the a(s)=-g C /C, m J
basic topology of the filter begins to be seen. The algo-

rithms are essentially numerical and are divided into
the two principal categories of cascade biquad design
a(s) = -g„AsC)
and passive ladder synthesis (see table 3). The algo-
rithms themselves are now well known. The problem
is now largely how to present the bewildering (combi-
natorial) number o f possible deompositions to the a(s) = gro /(sC)
8m
designer. Each decomposition o f the transfer function
w i l l result i n a circuit with different noise, dynamic
XT
range, area, and sensitivity. T
* o n l y v u l d w h e n a special l o w impedance i n p u t i i available i n the u a i u c o n d u c t o r
Ladder synthesis is particularly difficult to automate

satisfactorily because it requires an understanding of Fig. 2. Filter building-block library in different technologies.
a number of theoretical conditions on the types o f de-
composition allowable, yet is worth the bother because Table 3. Comparison of different filter prototype design methods.
of the higher quality circuits it generally provides. For Prototype Design

Method
the "push-button" user a default ladder structure can RULE-OF-THUfcffl Cascade biquad of cunt Choose i
fixed sequence o< polo* and nros
POLE ZEBO FWRINC acaxtfog to pre-dofinoQ' rule
normally be proposed using inbuilt knowledge of the
allowable synthesis steps. For the expert who wants to Cascade bulged c r c u a Te»t al
COMBINATORIAL
improve on the silicon area, or who needs a special POLE-ZERO
PAIRING
structure of prototype the ladder synthesizer can pro-
pose a prioritized choice of structures. ITERATIVE Design a fixed iftvour* ol ladder
LADDER by maidwg n> trmrittei (unction
DESGt: itBratr>e<y with deeired one
Cascade biquad design requires a choice of a pole
sequence and corresponding zero sequence ("pole-zero t
Syntheu* a taddtt by decofflpeting
ftt r a n i tor hincson using polynomial
PASSIVE menpuiaBon. Accuracy probfem*
pairing") of which there are a factorial number. It is EXPERT
LADDER
SYNTHESIS
Oten neecta expert but very
general
feasible up to around 14th order filters to investigate
61
2 34
all possible combinations. However the assessment 1. The netlist can be generated directly from the matrix
needs to be based on some performance measure of the form by representing each ,v variable by an active
filter, e.g., area and sensitivity. A compiler can have
a built-in performance measure or can allow a user to device (op amp, transconductor. etc.) output and
supply his own based on access to analysis results. The linking the appropriate block as represented by an
expert should also be permitted to enter a user-defined a„ f r o m output ito input /'. The y vector represents
pairing while the "push-button" user can be offered
an input signal (normally only one), and they should
default pairings based on reasonable rule-of-thumb
choices, e.g. increasing Q factor for lowest noise be linked to the corresponding .v input via the blocks
transmission. indicated by the b terms.
2. A library of the standard cells and their block trans-
fer functions can be set up and modified according
to changes in the technology or development of new
cell topologies, e.g., low offset integrator structures.
3.3. Network Compilation 3. Being based on a matrix representation the scheme
is ideal for computer implementation and storage.
Network compilation is the stage at which a filter proto- A library of matrix manipulation routines can be
type is decomposed into a netlist of ideal linear net- made available to allow quick coding of new designs.
work blocks (capacitors, transconductance amplifiers, 4. The matrix can be analyzed directly by substituting
switches, op amps, etc.). There is very little standard- the numerical values of the block transfer functions
ization here, and the algorithms used are often rewritten and solving by conventional L U decomposition
for each different structure of filter. Yet a certain degree methods. This provides a quick first check before
of technology independence can be maintained at this an external circuit simulator is called and can supply
level so that the designs do not need to be recoded when estimates of sensitivity and dynamic range. Note that
the implementation of the building blocks change. The since the matrix rank is normally dependent on the
main task at this stage is the construction of a linear- order of the filter rather than the number of compo-
ized flow graph of the circuit in terms of the building nents in the eventual circuit that the analysis is very
blocks. The flow graph structure itself stays essen- efficient. The matrix is built up f r o m the transfer
tially constant between implementations. The basic functions of the building blocks rather than those
integrator or resonator building blocks do change in of the individual components inside them (as it
implementation (switched-capacitor, switched-current, would in a standard M N A scheme). This avoids
transconductor-D, active-RC). reanalyzing each occurrence of a building block in
A convenient and portable representation of a flow the circuit to determine its transfer function.
graph is a matrix system. Several authors make use of 5. The matrix allows scaling for minimum area and
such a system but no convention has emerged [30-32]. maximum dynamic range to be performed with ease.
One possible form is a pseudostate space description Simple row and column multiplications are required.
X = AX + BY (1) Both cascade biquad and ladder structures in a vari-

ety of technologies can be represented by the above
a\\(p) a (p)
n a\^P) *1
scheme. The designer is then faced with problem of
*2 = «2i(p) aitip) <J23(P) *2
choosing an appropriate topology of cascade biquad or
_*3 _ . «3l(P) a (.P)
32 «33vP) . X
-3 . ladder. There are many possibilities such as single op
' b (p)
n bn(P) MP) " )'\ amp biquads, E or F-type biquads, low C-spread
+ *2l(P) bjjip) ^23(P) }'2 biquads as well as leapfrog, coupled-biquad, L U ,
. b \(P) MP) . _-V3 .
gyrator-based ladder simulations [29-30]. Each struc-
3
ture has its own characteristic properties of noise,

where p can be either s or z and where the functions
dynamic range, sensitivity and area requirement. The
fly(p) and bjj{p) represent the transfer function of the
choice is strongly dependent on
building block (typically but not necessarily integrator
or resonator transfer functions). Figure 2 shows exam- 1. The class of filtering (bandpass, low-pass, all-pass,
ples of possible block functions plus their realizations. etc.)
Note that such a scheme has several advantages for 2. The bandwidth or g-factor f the filter (narrow-
0
computer implementation: band, wide-band)
62
Input Itoda | ftpproMinaction | Circuit. bendpftst SC f i l t e r

Iattpl«te editing
F i l t e r Class
[l.290OOOft»05
Weighting Function -J.uGe*01
Senplina Froquancy f o r Uf j [g.000000^03
u n d Definition
eouiripple
Ij.OOOQOOeHK -3.0Oe*0i - -
End E a s e Frtxp icy [j.OOOOPOe-Oi
lenplete Editor ?,50e*03
K-T D e f i n i t i o n Cleer Editor

J Frequency Lower U n i t Linlt
O.OOOOOOe+00 -l.SOOOOOe+02 500000e*01 Start Frequency Clear iUndeu
i.000000e-01
0O00«0e*O2 -i.zooooo*i*oe -3. 500000o+0i
3.000OO0e*O2 -5.00000OO-01 0 Stop Fre<fuency 5.000000e*OJ Plot Delay
3.0OO0O0e*O3 -2.0S0OO0**Ol -2, OOOOOOe+Ol Kunber of Points Plot Phase
6.0O0O00**O3 - l . » 0 0 0 0 « * 0 2 -5. G00O00o*Ol
1.SOOOOOo+04 -1.200000«W02 -6 OOOOOOo+Ol twin -120. ami
6.400000e*64 ~,.2O00O0e*C2 -5 ,0©0000e*01 YMN O.OOOOOOeO'O Set finis Fornat
CI oca- Template Hdd Template Points Hdd Point Finish
Add Group Template Points Erase Tenplcto Points Erase Point Finish
HIGH PERFOSMfWCE IMEGSflTEO reSLOGUE-TO-OIGllRl IHTERFftCE
F i l t e r Design Softwere version 1.4 20/06/9?

I f any problem found, please contact Itr. Lu Vue
Departnent of Electronics end ElecLricel Engineering
University or Glss-ou. Glaseov 612 890, U.K.
I e l : ( 0 4 1 l 339 6865 C*t.SZ37, Fan: <041> 330 4907
Fig. 3. Screen shot of X F I L T showing template specification of lower passband and approximation of eighth order filter.
3. The order of the transfer function (particularly for layout tools. These have been the slowest parts of the
ladders) design cycle to automate because they deal with d i f f i -
cult nonlinear design problems and are near the fast-
It is difficult to make general rules but usually some
changing demands of the technology. Nevertheless, sev-
helpful defaults can be proposed, e.g., leapfrog struc-
eral systems have been presented dedicated to switched-
tures are good for low-pass odd order designs, coupled-
capacitor filters [33]. These programs interpret the
biquad, and L U D are best for bandpass, whereas cas-
loading demands and required charging times from the
cade biquads excel at bandstop designs. Based on exper-
netlist as specifications on amplifier and switch designs.
imental running of a compiler over a range o f specs
They then dimension the devices in order to minimize
a rule base can be established to make a reasonable sug-
the power and area of the circuit either by an optimizer
gestion of a structure. I t is as important to preserve
or by using rearranged device equations. This is nor-
knowledge o f successful as well as unsuccessful trial
mally the least accessible part of the process. Analog
designs to avoid repreating the same mistakes. Other-
block generators are making efforts to become more
wise this involves the "weak" optimization of a designer
open to the designer but are still evolving [34-35].
comparing possibilities by repreatedly rurLning the com-
Often the solution is just to use a handcrafted standard
piler. This is not necessarily a bad thing in terms of
amplifier cell and to accept the overspecification of the
designer "psychology" as it keeps him or her as a
design.
valuable part of the design process.
Analog routers capable of taking into account special
requirements o f sensitive and noisy nets, power sup-
3.4. Module Synthesis and Layout plies and variable analog transistor sizes and styles have
been developed [ 3 6 ] . The inherent regularity of the
The interface between tho jlock-level network descrip- filter topologies makes this a more amenable task than
tion and silicon is filled by analog cell generators and for more general classes of analog network. Several
63
2 36
dedicated layout strategies for switched-capacitor net- form of the transfer function are specified band by band
works have been reported [18-21]. Normally a fixed (in this case the passband). Passbands can be assigned
topology is adopted (as in random logic layout), row of forms anywhere between equiripple and maximally flat
op amps, row of capacitors, row of switches. The routing and stopbands can have user-defined zero distributions.
problems are greatly simplified and dedicated algorithms Of particular note is the 20 dB/decade slope in the pass-
can be used. Sensitive nets such as the connections to band for preemphasis. Three zeros have been placed
the virtual ground of the op amp are known in advance at the origin to reduce capacitance spread over an
and crosstalk can be avoided. Capacitors are designed elliptic-style zero distribution. Two notches are placed
in units with constant area-perimeter ratios for high- in the upper stopband but are not seen because of the
accuracy matching. The user can often control the rela- frequency range of the plot. Figure 4 shows the designer
tive positions of switches, op amps, and capacitors. evaluating different realizations of the filter. Depending
on the designer's level of expertise so-called automatic,
interactive or expert modes of design offer progressively
4. Automated Filter Synthesis Example more possibility for user intervention and customiza-
tion of the circuit design. For example, capacitance
In this section an example of a complete synthesis of spread can be reduced by different pole-zero pairing
a nonstandard filter w i l l be illustrated f r o m the X F I L T algorithms. I n automatic mode, all possible combina-
compiler. Figure 3 shows a screenshot of a filter fre- tions are tried, in interactive mode the designer chooses
quency response being defined to the filter compiler. f r o m among certain simple preprogrammed pairing
The response characteristics are defined in stopband rules aimed at making certain specific trade-offs while
and passband by a piecewise template of lower and in expert mode he chooses the sequence by hand. The
upper bounds on amplitude and delay. The order and designer w i l l normally also try a number of different
Input Hone | frproxljMtlari | C i r c u i t Oosien | SC f i l t e r

C i r c u i t dee 11set ion C i r c u i t Analysis Circuit Optlnlsation «*9 (dfi>
Circuit T i t l e ptr&en St f i t t e r D.OOe-00

F11tar St*c» anplitude
F i l t e r Iiyleaaantafclon tuitched-capecit or
F l l t a r Tup* biquad
OuLput for net sonp
J.OOe'Ol
Circuit I d e a l U H
ideal
Unit Capacitor ( p f ) J.rXJ000Or»01
tlSMliwn CepecltAnce Sproad J.000000a*04
Input Sta«e ttMi-phau
6.00e*01
Scselint Per*w t e r tttnu

Scale Conponent capacitor
Voltace Scale i.000O00tt*O0
Scale Error P.00UMOB*00 9.0Oe*01
OtfMnlc rant* s t a r t froo. ooooooo*oo

DjaMnic ranee atop fro*} l.<xocme*o*
Hunter of Points 200.
.20e*02
F i l t e r lyptft Design l.25**0i 2.50e-03
F l l t a r Design node type—•
Blqued Dealer. Node autonotic
filouad Polo P e i r i n * Rule none 5tert Frequency J.000OOOe-01
5.0O»00e'03
of Points
1.200O0Oe*O2
O.OOOOOOe'OI Set feiis Fernet.
Md Tenplete Points Add Point Finish
nod Group fenpleto Points Erase Point Finish
HIGH PEBFOBWCE MIEGBflTEO RMOGUE-lD-OIuIfFl [MTEWHCF.
F i l t e r Oesivn Software
If any problem found, pleese contest
university of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 H N , U.K.

lel:<0*l> 339 B855 Ewl.WS?, Fee: ( M l ) 330 490?
Fig. 4. Screen shot of X F I L T showing circuit design of eighth order S C biquad.
64
circuit structures, comparing component area, power, has been established. More work is now necessary on
dynamic range, noise, and sensitivity before arriving unifying the framework and offering better access to
at a final choice. A selection of ladder simulation and the design facilities. Integration with digital tool envi-
cascade biquad structures are available. For this filter- ronments and more standardization o f data formats is
ing problem, an eighth order cascade biquad circuit to be hoped for in this direction. Greater gains in terms
provides the best cornprornise between area and sensi- of design efficiency should now become available at a
tivity considerations. Normally the final structure w i l l system level. For example, by allowing the designer to
have been selected after a number of iterations between more easily observe trade-offs between different blocks
approximation and circuit realization stages. The meas- in his filter system design and offering more guidance
ured results o f the filter (figures 5 and 6) show excellent in the setup of reasonable specifications. This means
agreement with the original template and ideal using the compiler in fast first-cut design mode and by
response. Finally a filter layout is shown in figure 7. storing informaton about already explored design space.
The op amps and capacitors are standard cells taken Filter compilers should lead the way toward more inte-
f r o m a library. grated analog system design exploration tools.
5. Conclusions Acknowledgments
As regards the basic algorithms for filter design the field The assistance of Wolfson Microelectronics L t d . and
is now fairly mature. Moreover, the reliability with L u Yue at the University of Glasgow in producing
which filter compilers can produce good quality designs screen shots o f X F I L T is gratefully acknowledged.
7.2--
-7.2
.894 4 3 . 2
•eauency (KHz)
Fig. 5. Ideal passband response (solid) amd measured passband response (dotted) of eighth order S C filter.
65
238
I5
I3
e.e7 2835 59 6 1 .72

Frequency ( kHz )
Fig. 6. Overall ideal response (solid) and measured reponse (dotted) of eighth order SC fiiici
Fig. 7. Circuit layout of eighth order SC biquad filter.
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filters," IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Vol. SC-25, No. 6. pp.
1. G. Szentirmai, Computer-Aided Filter Design, IEEE Press: New 1360-1367, 1990.
York. 1973. 5. G.S. Moschytz, ed., MOS Switched-Capacitor Filters: Analysis
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Trans. Computer-Aided Design, Vol. CAD-14, pp. 296-303. 1985. of transconductor-capacitor filters and equalizers," Proc. IEE
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A n a l o g Integrated Filter C o m p i l a t i o n 22
7. N.K. Dutt and D.D. Gajski. "Design synthesis and silicon com- 28. H.J. Orchard. "Filter design using iterated analysis." IEEE Trans.
pilation," IEEE Design Test Computers, Vol. 7. No. 6. pp. 8-23. Circuits Systems, Vol. CAS-33. No. 11, pp. 1089-1096. 1985.
1990. 29. A.S. Sedra and P.O. Bracket!, Filter Tlieory and Design: Active
8. G. Szemirmai, S/FILSYN User Manual. DGS Associates. Santa and Passive. Pitman: London. 1979.
Clara. CA. 30. Li Ping. R.K. Henderson, and J.I. Sewell. "A methodology for
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4, pp. 5-8, 1988. 31. A. Muralt and G.S. Moschytz, "Performance optimization of
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"SICOMP: a silicon compiler for switched-capacitor filters," in in Proc. IEEE ISCAS, pp. 2205-2208, 1990.
Proc. IEEE ISCAS. pp. 321-324, Philadelphia, 1987. 32. W.M. Snelgrove and A.S. Sedra, "Synthesis and analysis of state-
1 1 C . Ouslis, M . Snelgrove, and A.S. Sedra, "A filter designer's space active filters using intermediate transfer functions." IEEE
filter design aid: filtorX, in Proc. IEEE ISCAS. Singapore, pp. Trans. Circuits Systems, Vol. CAS-33, pp. 287-301, 1986.
376-379, 1991. 33. T. Kaneko, Y. Akazawa, and M . Natagani. "Switched capacitor
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Design Package, Matrix Publishers: Illinois, 1979. in Proc. IEEE ISCAS. Singapore, pp. 2012-2015, 1991.
13. Y. Therasse, L. Reynders, R. Lannoo, andB. Dupont, "A switched 34. M G R . Degrauwe, B.L.A.G. Gofrart, C. Meixenberger, M . L . A .
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15. J. Assael, P. Senn, and M.S. Tawfik, "A switched-capacitor filter "Towards an analog system design environment," IEEE J. Solid-
silicon compiler," IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Vol. SC-23, pp. State Circuits, Vol. SC-24, No. 3, pp. 659-671, 1989.
166-174, 1988. 35. R. Harjani, R.A. Rutenbar, and L.R. Carley, "OASYS: A frame-
16. M R. Kobe, E. Sanchez-Sinencio, and J. Ramirez-Rodrigo, work for analog circuit synthesis," IEEE Trans. Computer-Aided
"OTA-C filter silicon compiler" (to appear). Design, Vol. CAD-8, No. 12, pp. 1247-1266, 1989.
17. R.K. Henderson, Li Ping, and J.I. Sewell, "A design program 36. J.M. Cohn, D.J. Garrod, R.A. Rutenbar. and L.R. Carley,
for digital and analogue filters: PANDDA," in Proc. ECCTD, "KOAN/ANAGRAM II: new tools for device level analog place-
Brighton, U K , pp. 289-293, 1989. ment and routing," IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Vol. SC-26. No.
18. R.P. Sigg, A. Kaelin, A. Muralt, W.C. Black, Jr., and G.S. 26, pp. 330-342, 1991.
Moschytz, "Automated SC filter generation with a CMOS gate-
array-type filter chip," in Proc. IEEE ISCAS, Helsinki, pp.
1725-1728, 1988.
19. K. Theqvist, H . Alarotu, P. Ylisirnio, and H . Kaskelma, "Adap-
tive simulated annealing used in the synthesis of switched-
capacitor filters," in Pmc. IEEE ISCAS, Helsinki, pp. 1729-1731.
1988.
20. M . Negahban and D. Gajski, "Silicon compilation of switched-
capacitor networks," in Proc. European Design Automation Conf.,
Glasgow, pp. 164-168, 1990.
21. A. Barlow, K. Takasuka, Y. Nambu, T. Adachi, and J. Konno,
"An integrated switched capacitor filter design system," in Proc.
IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conference, Boston, 1989.
22. Bell Northern Research, SWCAP Tools Reference Manual, 1990.
23. M . Ismail and J. Franca, ed., Introduction to Analog Design Auto-
mation, Kluwer: Boston, Chap. 6, 1990.
24. R. W. Daniels. Approximation Methods for Electronic Filter
Design, McGraw-Hill: New York, 1974. Robert K . Henderson received the B.Sc. (Hons.) degree in elec-
25. R.K. Henderson, L i Ping, and J.I. Sewell, "Extended Remez tronics and electrical engineering with computing science and the
algorithms for filter amplitude and group delay approximation," Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering in 1986 and 1990 respective-
IEE Proc., Part G. Vol. 138, No. 3, pp. 289-300, 1991. ly, both from the University of Glasgow, Scotland.
26. G. Cortellazo and M R. Lightner, "Simultaneous design in both From 1989-1990 he was engaged at the University of Glasgow
magnitude and delay of IIR and FIR filters based on multiple as a research assistant. He is currently a research engineer at the
criterion optimisation," IEEE Trans. Acoustics Speech Signal Centre Suisse d'Electronique et de Microtechnique S. A . , Neuchatel,
Process., Vol. ASSP-32. No. 5, pp. 949-967, 1984. Switzerland. During his doctoral work he co-authored a compiler
27. C. Xuexiang, E. Sanchez-Sinencio, and R.L. Geiger, "Pole-zero for analogue filters called PANDDA. His research interests are in
pairing strategy for area and sensitivity reduction in SC filters." the areas of analog signal processing, numerical algorithms and
in Proc. IEEE ISCAS, pp. 690-611, 1986. computer-aided circuit and system design.
67
2
L i Ping received the B.S. degree from Nanjing Institute of Posts and John I . Sewell received the B.Sc. (Hons.) degree in Electrical Engi-
Telecommunications, China, in 1981, M.S. degree from Shanghai neering from the University of Durham in 1963 and the Ph.D. degree
Jiao long University, China, in 1984, and Ph.D. degree from Glasgow from the University of Newcastle upon Tyne in 1966.
University, U.K., in 1990. From 1966 to 1968 he was a Senior Research Associate at the
He was a research associate at Shanghai Institute of Railway Tech- University of Newcastle upon Tyne. During the period 1968 to 1985
nology from 1984 to 1986 and a Royal Society-British Telecom he held faculty positions at the University of Hull. In 1985 he was
Research Fellow at Glasgow University in 1987. From 1988 to 1990 appointed as Professor of Electronic Systems in the University of
he was a consultant and later an engineer with Wolfson Microelec- Glasgow and in 1990 he became Dean of Engineering. His research
tronics, Edinburgh, U.K. Since 1990 he has been a lecturer at the interests are concerned with the development of CAD design tools
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, the University for front-end signal processing including Si and GaAs implementa-
of Melbourne, Australia. His research interests are in analog inte- tions, integrated filters and signal converters.
grated circuits and telecommunications. Dr. Sewell has served on numerous IEEE committees in the UK
and also on the IEE Professional Group on Circuit Theory. He has
been involved with organizing committees for a number of Confer-
ences, Colloquia and Workshops under the auspices of IEEE and
IEE. He is Fellow IEE and Senior Member IEEE.
68
2 41
PAPER 5 2
2 42
x methods !©(r the dtesigp @f trapsoooidyctoir

w foflters
N.P.J. G r e e r , P h D
R.K. H e n d e r s o n , P h D
Li P i n g , P h D
J.I. S e w e l l , P h D , C E n g , F I E E
Indexing terms: Fillers. Transconduclor ladder
tor currents [13, 14]. Examples of such filters are leapfrog

Abstract: Matrix-based methods f o r the design of and coupled-biquad ladders, as well as circuits obtained
transconductor ladder filters are presented. These by simulating inductors using gyrators [ 1 5 ] . These
allow the realisation of any bandpass or lowpass methods have been applied successfully to the design of
prototype using only one or t w o values of trans- lowpass transconductor ladders but they cannot gener-
conductance. The new methods are illustrated by ally be applied to bandpass ladders without the use of
experimental results f r o m a 1 M H z elliptic ratioed transconductor inputs. This is because, when the
lowpass filter, a 400 k H z elliptic bandpass filter, a voltages of a coupled-biquad bandpass filter are scaled
400 k H z Chebyshev bandpass filter, and a P L L for dynamic range, the summing coefficients between
frequency-control loop, all fabricated in a 1 j i m biquads take values which are lower than the coefficients
C M O S process. within each biquad by a factor typically close to the frac-
tional b a n d w i d t h of the filter. The conventional coupled-
biquad bandpass structure can only be used for
1 Introduction transconductor ladders having an all-pole response o f
moderate selectivity [ 1 6 ] . The problem described above
I n recent years, much research has been directed towards is compounded f o r highly selective filters which require
the development of continuous-time transconductor large transconductance ratios, and for prototypes con-
filters [ 1 - 7 ] as an alternative to switched-capacitor (SC) taining inductor loops as these lead to noninteger ratios
filters [ 8 ] , particularly i n the frequency range 100 k H z to that cannot be implemented by combinations of a unit
10 M H z . A l t h o u g h many linear transconductor circuits transconductance [ 8 ] .
have been presented i n the literature [ 9 - 1 2 ] , less pi ogress I n this paper, we present matrix-based methods for the
has been evident in the development of filter structures design of transconductor ladder filters [17, 18], which
that are well suited to transconductor realisation. can be applied to many more response types than con-
A significant problem has been h o w to design ladder ventional techniques. Ladder filters are considered to be
filters w i t h o u t recourse to ratioed transconductances. preferable to those formed f r o m cascaded biquad stages,
Ratioed transconductors are undesirable because the the latter typically having much greater passband sensi-
transistors which determine the value o f a particular tivity. The objective of this w o r k is to be able to realise
transconductor can vary in size w i t h i n only a small range any passive ladder as a canonical transconductor filter
without suffering f r o m poor matching i n one extreme or using only a single value of transconductance, or a small
producing significant parasitic capacitance and high number of values i n simple integer ratios.
power consumption i n the other. Moreover, it is Similar m a t r i x methods have already been developed
inconvenient f o r a designer to have to produce a different for the design o f switched capacitor and active RC filters
set of ratioed transconductors f o r each new filter design. [19, 2 0 ] . As well as formalising the design procedure and
This problem is specific to transconductor filters as the providing a f r a m e w o r k f o r computer-aided design tools,
corresponding variables i n RC and SC filters (resistors the use o f matrices has facilitated the discovery o f
and sampling capacitors, respectively) can be scaled rela- superior active filter structures which are not intuitively
tively freely. obvious. The same advantages are f o u n d for trans-
Most methods used to derive active R C and SC filters conductor filters.
f r o m passive prototypes have been based, explicitly or
otherwise, on the simulation of nodal voltages and induc-
The authors wish to thank Wolfson Microelec-

© I E E , 1994 tronics L t d . for permission to publish the experi-
Paper 972IG (EIO), firsl received 17th December 1992 and in revised mental results. The filters were laid out by
form 7ih June 1993 Cameron A i t k e n of Wolfson Microelectronics and
N.P.J. Greer was with Wolfson Microelectronics Ltd., Edinburgh. EM8 fabricated by G E C Plessey Semiconductors. The
9NX, United Kingdom and is now with Temic M B B Mikrosysleme
GmbH, 73230 Kirchheim-Nabem. Germany
photomicrographs were taken by Alan G u n d l a c h
of E d i n b u r g h University. Financial support was
R.K. Henderson is with C S E M SA, 2007 Neuchatel, Switzerland
provided by the Department of Trade and
Li Ping is with Telecom Research Laboratories, Clayton, Victoria 3168,
Australia Industry ( U K ) and the Science and Engineering
J.I. Sewell is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, University Research C o u n c i l ( U K ) .
of Glasgow. Glasgow G12 8 L T . United Kingdom
IEE Proc.-Circmls Devices Sysl., Vol. 141, No. 2, April 1994 89

2 43
The design procedure can be summarised as follows: and

(i) A set of equations (derived by K i r c h h o f f ' s laws)
which describe the passive prototype are combined to — 0
form a matrix equation
l
-1 1 1 -1
J = (G + sC + s~ r)V (1) (2a-e)
where V is a vector representing the nodal voltages - I I
(and/or branch currents), J is a vector representing the 0
input current source and G, C, and T are matrices whose L4 - J
elements are simple algebraic combinations of the passive
In genera!, where the L C pairs in a ladder are parallel, it
component values.
is best to use the (•'-representation. As an example, Fig. 2
(ii) The nodal voltages and branch currents of the
prototype can be scaled i f required by performing simple C ..00882 C 4 | | 0 239
multiplication operations upon eqn. 1.
(iii) The second-order m a t r i x equation is decomposed
3 = "oul
into t w o first-order design equations by the introduction
of a vector of auxiliary variables, X. A large number of 225 1 079
decompositions are possible, of which we present those
most useful for transconductor filters. The choice of 1 383 2.050 1.253 T1
decomposition f o r a particular filter design is dictated by
the type o f building b.ock available and the nature of the
desired response. Fig. 1 Fifth-order elliptic lowpass RLC ladder
(iv) T o f o r m the active filter, each row of each design
L 8.793 L 4 917
equation is implemented by a first-order transconductor/ 2 4
capacitor section.
C 0 2032
C 0.1184
(v) Finally, the filter is scaled in frequency by the 1 2
appropriate choice of transconductor and capacitor unit I Ml iH-
values. V:„/R
Ti2 "joe
1 758 ?1 319
.1 763 ?1.430 TlZ
2 M a t r i x representation o f the passive p r o t o t y p e Fig. 2 Sixth-order elliptic bandpass RLC ladder

ladder
For a given passive prototype ladder, various forms of shows a sixth-order elliptic bandpass prototype w i t h
the second-order matrix equation (eqn. 1) can be con- 0.1 d B passband ripple and 50 d B stopband attenuation.
structed, depending on the choice of variables used to In the ^-representation this is described by the matrices
f o r m the vector V. We use the terms ^-representation,
/-representation and ^/-representation to refer to the use 1 0 o\
of nodal voltages, branch currents and mixed variables, 6 =±l0 0 0 ,
respectively, i n V. The choice of representation is * V
0 0 1/
governed mainly by t w o factors. First, the order of the
matrices (which equals the number of variables i n V)
should be kept to a m i n i m u m so that the resulting active
circuit is canonical, i.e. has one integrator per pole of the c =
desired transfer function. Secondly, a representation
should be chosen which leads to the matrices C, C and T
and
being as sparse as possible, as the sparsity of these
matrices is reflected in the complexity of interconnect in
the resulting active circuit. +
Li L,
Each R L C ladder has a ' m i n i m u m inductance' and a
' m i n i m u m capacitance' version. Identical matrices are 1 I 1
r = + +
obtained if the K-representation is used f o r the former
and the /-representation f o r the latter. However, the
L 2
rT r
correct representation must be used f o r a particular 0 '-2 L
J L
4
prototype to ensure canonicity. Fig. 1 shows the -1
m i n i m u m inductance version of a fifth-order elliptic Another example is the asymmetric Chebyshev bandpass
^4
lowpass prototype w i t h 0.28 d B passband ripple and ladder shown i n Fig. 3.

60.5 d B stopband attenuation. I n the K-representation, It will be demonstrated i n Section 4 that the complex-
this ladder is described by the matrices ity of a symmetric bandpass transconductor ladder can
be reduced if the condition C = T is satisfied. This is the
0 0\
I
G = — I0 0 0 C 0.0949
2 C. 0.0949
"1
Mo 0 I
l,Rl J_Ci JjLi _|_C 3 !>L 3
flQ ~jo.942PO.969 ~[o.850j'0.969 ~jo.942|o.969 J10
Fig. 3 Sixth-order asymmetric Chebyshev bandpass RLC ladder
90 IEE Proc.-Circuils Devices Syst., Vol. 141, No. 2, April 1994

case if the bandpass prototype is obtained by transform- consumption, particularly as the opamp will need a very
ation of each component of a lowpass ladder individually high b a n d w i d t h for video frequency operation. However.
[13, 14] and i f the (//-representation is used. For
example, the sixth-order elliptic ladder shown in Fig. 4 is
0 627
1 59^ 2(C-2C,
C 0116
2 L,8 508 2(C-2C,)
20.80)00481
20.80 ) 0 0461
1
Fig. 4 Another sixth-order elliptic bandpass RLC ladder
obtained by transforming each component of a t h i r d -

order elliptic prototype. I n the ^/-representation, this
ladder is described by
• , o\
0 - l , Fig. 5 First-order section using conventional transconductor
(Ci + c 4
2C
I-
and
,2Cj '2C
I L,t +
L 4
. 2C:
0 (4a-e)
2
CR2 2C
-1
0
T o maintain dimensional consistency, the current I is 2

1
represented by the voltage variable V , the m u l t i p l y i n g12
Fig. 6 First-order section with transconductor and opamp
factor being the termination resistance R. I n this VI-
representation, the C and T matrices are identical these problems are offset by the fact that the design of the
because by d e f i n i t i o n L , = 1/C . f
transconductor itself can be somewhat simplified because
it is only d r i v i n g i n t o the virtual earth and does not need
3 Transconductor-capacitor building blocks a very high o u t p u t impedance. I n the extreme, the trans-
conductor can be reduced to a pair of M O S F E T s oper-
The general first-order transconductor-capacitor build- ating i n triode mode, giving a so-called ' M O S F E T - C
ing block has the transfer f u n c t i o n circuit [ 2 2 ] .
A n alternative solution is to use a recently reported
(5) transconductor w i t h low-impedance inputs [ 2 3 ] . The
first-order section using this circuit is shown i n Fig. 7.
It is desirable that only one value of 3, be used in a par-
ticular filter, but where more than one value is used, they
should be in low-integer ratios. Using a conventional
transconductor only, eqn. 5 is implemented by the circuit
shown i n Fig. 5. I n this case, the capacitors C, represent
bidirectional coupling paths [ 2 1 ] when driven by internal
t ^ 2 C
v i -A-
0U
nodes, as these nodes are all high-impedance. This can be ,2C,
a serious restriction, as many o f the techniques available
to maintain low-integer capacitor ratios in a filter
1
"12C
(Section 4) rely on the use of unidirectional capacitive 2C
X
paths. | ,-1
v
,.i
I
T o obtain unidirectional capacitive coupling paths, a
first-order stage w i t h a low-impedance input and/or Hr|I 2 C H
output is required. The most obvious realisation of this

requires the a d d i t i o n of an o p a m p to create a virtual Fig. 7 First-order section using transconductor with low-impedance
earth (Fig. 6). This is expensive i n silicon area and current inputs
IKE Proc.-Circuits Devices Syst., Vol. 141, No. 2, April 1994 91

The output current of the transconductor is the sum of a K-representation), and A is a conventional incidence
the transconductance multiplied by the voltage at high- matrix. The auxiliary variables are defined by
impedance input (V + , V—), and the current entering the l T
X = {sg) ~ DA V (7)
low impedance input (Z + , Z-). The circuit diagram of a
transconductor w i t h low-impedance inputs is given in where g is a scaling factor w i t h the dimensions of con-
Fig. 8. ductance, Eqns. 6 and 7 are substituted into eqn. 1 to
obtain
l
CV = s' [_J -GV - gAX] (8)
300/5 ir'SO/S
Substituting the matrices (eqn. 2a-e) into llie design eqns.
7 and 8, and implementing each row with a conventional
300/3 |T50/3 IT300/3 ir50/3 transconductor stage (Fig. 5) gives the active filter shown
50pA I 50M A
in Fig. 9, which is equivalent to a standard leapfrog
c, c.
300/3 300/3
100/5
L
II 1 600/5 i | "l
<
1
f 1 1
L100/5
100/5 1L 100/5
AGNDO-i
agorg-g
v(r)D-|[io/5 AO/S]\ |[io/5 Ao;|][-c]v(r)
Fig. 9 Lowpass elliptic ladder using conventional transconductor
ladder. U s i n g transconductors w i t h low-impedance

inputs instead, we obtain the circuit shown i n Fig. 10.
100/5 l—jPioo/S The advantage of the first realisation is that there are
fewer capacitors and the transconductors are simpler.
The advantage of the second is that b o t t o m plates o f the
Fig. 8 Folded cascade transconductor with low-impedance inputs {a) floating capacitors can be connected to the low-
and common-mode feedback circuit (b) impedance inputs, so the associated parasitic capac-
itances do not need to be estimated and subtracted f r o m
the grounded capacitors [ 4 ] ,
4 Matrix decompositions
Five ways of obtaining an active ladder f r o m the general

second-order equation (eqn. 1) are now given, together
w i t h design examples. The first is recommended for
lowpass and the remaining four for bandpass responses.
For clarity, single-ended ladders are shown. However,
practical transconductor circuits (including those pre-
sented i n Section 5) are normally fully differential, for
several reasons: to obtain linear transconductance func-
tions, to allow the realisation of negative floating capa-
citors, and to maximise power supply rejection.
In each decomposition, a scaling factor (g or co ) is 0
introduced in the definition of the vector X. This factor CtqOiqZ -g gZ. - « g

may be used to perform nodal »oltage scaling between
the .V and V voltages in the transconductor ladder. The
scaling o f the voltages w i t h i n each of X and V is deter-
mined by the design of the passive prototype. This may
also be optimised by matrix techniques, as shown on F i g . 10 Lowpass elliptic ladder using transconductor with low-
pages 127-128 of Reference 18. impedance inputs
This topological decomposition is most applicable to
4.1 Topological decomposition lowpass ladders. I t is less satisfactory for highly selective
The r m a t r i x is factorised as bandpass filters, in which case nodal voltage scaling
7
forces high-transconductance ratios, and it cannot be
r = ADA (6)
applied to prototypes containing inductor loops as the
where D is a diagonal matrix whose elements are the resulting active circuits are unstable. For bandpass
reciprocals of the inductances in the prototype (assuming ladders, the following f o u r decompositions are proposed.
92 IEE Proc.-Circuits Devices Syst., Vol. 141, No. 2, April 1994

246
4.2 Left-inverse decomposition type 1 (LID1) serious problem for the sixth-order elliptic ladder of Fig.
The auxiliary variables are defined by 11, but for higher-order filters care should be taken with
the choice of prototype. Essentially this means placing
gX = sCV (9)
capacitors such that long chains of directly connected
where g is again a scaling factor w i t h the dimensions of inductors are avoided. Some passive prototypes also exist
conductance, and eqn. 9 is substituted into eqn. 1, giving whose F m a t r i x may not be inverted at all, due to the
determinant being zero. The only examples of such filters
gX = J - GV - s Ty (10) k n o w n to the authors are bandstop. A question yet to be
The L I D 1 design equations are obtained by rearranging investigated is to what extent an inverse matrix filter pre-
eqn. 9 and m u l t i p l y i n g eqn. 10 by the inverse of T : serves the low-passband sensitivity properties of its
passive ladder prototype.
g-'CV-- r'-x in)
l 4.3 Left-inverse decomposition type 2 (LID2)
gr~ x= -s- (12)
The auxiliary variables are defined by
F r o m eqns. 11 and 12, the main features of L I D 1 can be
co„x = y s (13)
deduced. First, both integrated terms (i.e. those contain-
ing the factor s~') are vectors, so only a single value of where io is a scaling factor w i t h the dimensions of angu-
0
transconductance is required in the active ladder. Sec- lar frequency, and eqn. 13 is substituted into eqn. I ,
ondly, both nor.integrated terms on the right-hand side giving
of eqn. 12 are generally asymmetric, so they must be real-
ised using unidirectional capacitivc coupling paths. In
m,cx = j - GV - s 'ry (14)
other words, the dependence of V u p o n X is not the same Rearranging eqn. 13 and m u l t i p l y i n g eqn. 14 by r 1
as the dependence of X upon V in these terms, so each gives the L I D 2 design equations
branch must be realised by a separate capacitor, rather
than symmetric branches being realised by a single capa- cu„r 'cx= r ~ ' J - r x
GV - s~'y (15)
citor connected between the nodes concerned. A single and
capacitor can be used for symmetric nonintegrated
branches arising f r o m off-diagonal terms on the left-hand y= t (16)
sides of eqns. 11 and 12, as long as first-order sections As i n the other left-inverse decomposition, only one value
w i t h high-impedance outputs are used. of transconductance is required, together w i t h unidirec-
Fig. 11 shows the L I D 1 realisation of the sixth-order tional nonintegrated paths. The distinguishing feature of
elliptic prototype of Fig. 2. This was obtained by substi- L I D 2 is the term f ' C , which gives the o p p o r t u n i t y to
t u t i n g the K-representation matrices, (eqn. 3a-e), i n t o obtain a relatively sparse transconductor ladder is a
eqns. 11 and 12 and translating each row of each equa- prototype can be used for which T = C. As shown in
tion i n t o a first-order section of the type shown i n Fig. 7. Section 2, this c o n d i t i o n is satisfied for a symmetric
A general feature of inverse m a t r i x decompositions is bandpass filter derived by the transformation o f each
that the number of components and the density of inter- component o f a lowpass ladder individually. Fig. 12
connect may be high in the transconductor ladder i f the shows the sixth-order bandpass elliptic transconductor
sparsity of T (or C) is lost upon inversion. This is not a ladder obtained by substituting eqns. 4<j-e into eqns. 15
2 1 3 2
0.225 0.225 0 294 0.294
_L
.g Z-Z- g Z-Z g Z-Z'
1* I* 1*
- 0 658 - 0519 - 0.626
'1 u
ns— TT 6
0 707 0 515 0 777
Hki_
i* r
z" z"-g z' z~ -g Z* Z- -g
I T T 1 ±X 111T1111
0 045 0045 0 003 0 335 0060 0013 0 013 0 011 0 335 0 266 0003 0003 0 045 0 080 0 266
1 3 5 6 1 3 4 6 1 3 4 5
' , n O
F i g . 11 Elliptic bandpass ladder obtained by LI decomposition type I
IEE Proc.-Circuits Devices Sysl., Vol. 141. No. 2. April 1994 93

i* r
4HH
0.636 0 917 0.836
1 000 1 00C 1 000
HK
Z Z" -g Z Z" -g V Z" -g
lljo0 116
0 045 | 0 045 0 042 0.003 1 0 003 0 003 0 042 0 045
\rf=>
F i g . 12 Elliptic bandpass ladder obtained by LI decomposition type 2
0.225 0.244
and 16 and implementing each row of each design equa-
tion w i t h the first-order section of Fig. 7.
g
4.4 Right-inverse decomposition (RID)
For the R I D , X is defined by
i
gX=s~ rV (17) "0.707 "0 515 "0.777
This is substituted into eqn. 1 to give r-ov ,o u
0.720 0.519 0.685

J=(G + sC)V + gX (18)
The design equations are obtained by m u l t i p l y i n g eqn. 17
by r - 1
and rearranging eqn. 18:
l l
/-«g ttg-g \ [A -uq 3
gr~ x = s- v (19)
GV)-X] (20)
-0 335 -0.266
Conventional transconductors can be used to implement
eqns. 19 and 20 because the only nonintegrated terms are -0.080
1
those arising f r o m the offdiagonal elements o f F ~ and
F i g . 13 Elliptic bandpass ladder obtained by Rl decomposition
C, which represent bidirectional coupling paths. Neither
V nor X is premultiplied before integration, so no unreal-
isable summing coefficients are introduced. T o scale the Eqn. 21 is substituted i n t o eqn. 1 to give
filter correctly f o r dynamic range, a second (smaller) l
J = GV+gX+s- rV (22)
value of transconductance is usually required to realise
the input branch and filter terminations. This use of a and the design equations are obtained by rearranging
second transconductance value is acceptable because it eqns. 21 and 22:
can be chosen to be i n integer ratio to the first and it is x
CV = s~ gX (23)
used only to represent the termination resistors which are
the least sensitive components o f the prototype. Such a X= - ( s g y ' r y - g ' G y + g ^ J (24)
realisation compares favourably w i t h a coupled-biquad
ladder i n which high and/or noninteger transconductor The principal features of the L D decomposition are as
ratios can occur throughout the filter. follows. First, the matrix T should be diagonal to avoid
the requirement f o r summing integrators which w o u l d
Fig. 13 shows the R I D transconductor ladder obtained
imply the use of randomly ratioed transconductor values.
f r o m the sixth-order elliptic prototype of Fig. 2, using the
Secondly, the damping and coupling branches (as rep-
K-representation.
resented by the term g~'GV) are nonintegrated. These
branches are unidirectional, as they describe a depend-
ence of X upon V which is not matched by an identical
4.5 Left-direct decomposition (LD)
dependence on V upon X. Therefore, transconductors
The vector of auxiliary variables X is defined by
w i t h low-impedance inputs (Fig. 7) or opamp-based
gX = sCV (21 integrators (Fig. 6) must be used in a left-direct filter.
94 IEE Proc.-Circuits Devices Syst.. Vol. 141, No. 2, April 1994

Fig. 14 shows the L D ladder obtained f r o m the sixth- and 18. The compact layout is achieved by dividing the
order asymmetric Chebyshev prototype of Fig. 3. using larger transistors into units 100 / j m wide so that the tran-
the (/-representation. Transconductors with low- sistors of each polarity can be assembled in rectangular
impedance inputs are used only for the termination capa- areas, supplied by the respective power lines. Between the
citors. two sets of transistors lies a r o u t i n g bus, which occupies
area that w o u l d have to be used anyway due to the
,0.0949 , 0 0949 relatively large 'p-well to n + d i f f u s i o n ' design rule. The
input and o u t p u t ports r u n over the V D D line (to the
.0 0969 ,0.0969
right in the photograph). Including the bias lines in the
central bus enables the transconductors to be butted
directly. A photomicrograph of the complete lowpass
filter is given in Fig. 19. The transconductors are laid out
in a single r o w , and the capacitor bank ( w i t h units of
0.5 pF) is shaped to have approximately the same length.
1 v 2
-
H I
- Another bus is used to provide efficient r o u t i n g between
• 0 872 •0.969 0969 - C 3 V 0 U , the transconductors and capacitors.
0.845 0.850 0.845

5.2 Elliptic bandpass filter
Fig. 20 shows the schematic of the experimental elliptic
bandpass filter, which is a fully differential version of the
/ filter shown i n Fig. 13, scaled to a centre frequency of
/- ; \
1
1 400 k H z . Table 2 summarises the specification and meas-
ured performance. Fig. 21 shows the measured amplitude
response. A p h o t o m i c r o g r a p h is given in Fig. 22. The
v
.n<=H, noise spike i n the stopband at 1.9 M H z is breakthrough
' 0 0969
f r o m the c o n t r o l loop used to set the centre frequency
Fig. 14 Chebyshev bandpass ladder obtained by LD decomposition
automatically w i t h respect to a reference clock (see
below).
Left- and right-decomposition filters employ capacitive
and resistive damping, respectively, hence we can refer to
them as 'E-type' and 'F-type' circuits by analogy w i t h the Table 2: S p e c i f i c a t i o n and measured p e r f o r m a n c e of elliptic
terminations and terminology used for SC biquads [ 2 4 ] . bandpass f i l t e r
Parameter Designed Measured

5 Experimental results Order 6
Centre frequency 400 kHz
To verify the methods described above, a set of high- Tuning range of centre freq. 100kHz-525kHz
frequency transconductor ladder filters has been designed Bandwidth 10% 10%
and fabricated o n a I double-poly double-metal Stopband attenuation 50 dB 49.5 dB
Noise density in passband 920 nV/^Hz
C M O S process. I n this Section, results are given f r o m Intermodulation distortion -43.8 dB
three filters: one lowpass elliptic, one bandpass elliptic, Common mode rejection 72 dB
and one bandpass Chebyshev. Each o f the bandpass Power supply rejection 40 dB
filters includes a phase-lock frequency-control loop, a Current consumption 11.3 mA
description of which is also given here. The operating fre-
quencies and selectivities of these filters are not high
enough for amplitude-control loops [ 3 ] to be required. 5.3 Chebyshev bandpass filter
Fig. 23 shows the schematic of the experimental Cheby-
5.1 Elliptic lowpass filter shev bandpass filter. This is a fully differential version of
Fig. 15 shows the schematic of the experimental lowpass the left-direct filter shown i n Fig. 14, scaled to a centre
filter, which is a fully differential version of the filter frequency of 400 k H z . T o the knowledge of the authors, i t
shown in Fig. 9, scaled to a c u t o f f frequency of 1 M H z . is the first example of a transconductor ladder filter that
Table 1 summarises the specification and measured per- is capacitively terminated and has only a single value o f
formance. Fig. 16 shows the measured amplitude transconductance (100 /iS). Table 3 summarises the spe-
response. cification and measured performance. F i g . 24 shows the
The circuit diagram and a photomicrograph of the measured amplitude response. A p h o t o m i c r o g r a p h is
double-input transconductor used are shown in Figs. 17 given in Fig. 25.
Table 1 : S p e c i f i c a t i o n and measured performance of Table 3: S p e c i f i c a t i o n and measured performance of

lowpass filter Chebyshev bandpass f i l t e r
Parameter Designed Measured Parameter Designed Measured

Order 5 Order 6
Cutoff frequency 1 MHz Centre frequency 400 kHz
Tuning range of cutoff Iraq. 250 kHz 12 MHz Tuning range of centre freq. 100kHz-550kHz
Passband ripple 0.28 dB 0.4 dB Bandwidth 10% 10%
Stopband attenuation 60 dB 61.5dB Noise density in passband 920 nV/VHz
Noise density in passband 97 nV/,/Hz Ref. signal breakthrough 200/JV
THD (200 mV rms input) -67.7 dB Intermodulation distortion -48.7 dB
Common mode rejection 71 dB Common mode rejection 72 dB
Power supply rejection 43 dB Power supply rejection 46 dB
Current consumption to m A Current consumption 11.6 mA
1EE Proc.-Circuits Devices Syst., Vol. 141, No. 2. April 1994 95

2 4 9
IN' IN'
V -
^
N V^ ^ /FCGQ
FCGQD >|| |C, b
\JajfWy
400pF
39 00pF
39.00pF F C G D
FCGQD
2 80pF
65T0pF
V
2' "OUT
6510pF
34 35pF
I OUT" V,
FCGQD
FCGQD 5 b
7.60pF 34.35pF
T39.40pF
V 'OUT"
39.40pF
OUT OUT
F i g . 15 Fully differential lowpass transconductor ladder filter [bias lines omitted)
s 50/4 V B P ~1300/5 300/5
300/3 300/3
900 u A 900 u A
900/5 p 900/5^
2 3
frequency, MHz
Fig. 16 Measured amplitude response of elliptic lowpass filler F i g . 17 Schematic of double-input folded cascode transconductor
96 IEE Proc.-Circuits Devices Syst.. Vol. 141, No. 2, April 1994

250
F i g . 19 Photomicrograph of elliptic hwpass filler
being that here a triangle-wave oscillator is used instead

of a harmonic oscillator.
The triangle-wave oscillator is illustrated i n Fig. 27.
F i g . 18 Photomicrograph of double-input folded cascade trans- A n analogue switch selects either + A K or — A ^ as the
conductor input to the transconductor and, respectively, + A K / 2 or
— A K / 2 as one of the inputs of the comparator. I f + A K
is selected, the voltage across the capacitor w i l l slew up
5.4 Frequency-control loop linearly at a rate (AVg/C). When this voltage exceeds
The frequency-control l o o p fabricated w i t h the test filters A K / 2 , the comparator changes state so that the output of
is a phase-lock loop (Fig. 26). Based o n a voltage- the analogue switch changes to — A K Then the o u t p u t of
controlled oscillator. This is similar i n principle to those the transconductor slews d o w n u n t i l its value reaches
described i n References 9 and 22, the main difference — A K / 2 and the comparator changes state again. I n each
V
I N " 'oiff
g/W
V I N - I O U I
n7l.9pF
63.25pF
H
birr* V*
b FCGQ
11.55pF 11.55pF FCGQ ,|Lj63.25pF 14 2pF
V* loin
32.1pF
89A0pF
FCGO
89 40pF
FCGQ10
7.95PF 7 95pF
75.25pF
OUT V
FCGQ
i|| |53.55PF
OUT" OUT'
F i g . 20 Fully differential elliptic bandpass filler [bias tines omitted)
IEE Proc.-Circuils Devices Syst., Vol. 141. No. 2, April 1994 97

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
F i g . 22 Photomicrograph of elliptic bandpass Jiher
frequency, MHz
F i g . 21 Measured amplitude response of elliptic bandpass filter

The output of the comparator is, of course, a square
period, the transconductor o u t p u t has to slew twice wave at the same frequency.
through a range of magnitude AV, so the frequency of The phase of the V C O o u t p u t is compared to that of a
oscillation is reference square-wave clock by an X O R gate followed by
a single-order lowpass filter. The result of the phase com-
AVg/C _ g parison is used as the control voltage for the trans-
(25)
2AK 2C conductor i n the V C O . W h e n the P L L reaches lock, the
CT 1 b [CT, 0
V ' O U T
V" 'OUT
1 0
69.35pF
7 55DF 7 55pF
H i ii—
67.15pF
OUT" V
FCGQ
FCGQ 'i ; rc R h
77.05pF
__66.8pF 5 b
7 55 pF 7 55pF
V" I
5 0
66.8pF
77.05pF
77.05pF
OUT OUT
F i g . 23 Fully differential Chebyshev bandpass filler tbias lines omitted)
98 IEE Proc-Circuits Devices Syst., Vol. 141, No. 2, April 1994

reference and V C O frequencies are identical, and so The operation of the c o n t r o l l o o p is illustrated in Fig.
according to eqn. 25 the time constant o f the trans- 28 which shows the measured a m p l i t u d e response of the
c o n d u c t o r and capacitor i n the V C O are set. The same elliptic bandpass filter for three different values of clock
control voltage is used for each transconductor in the frequency (865 k H z . 965 k H z and 1.065 M H z l .
'slave' filter. Therefore, w i t h i n the accuracy of trans-
conductor and capacitor matching, the frequency
or
response of the filter is scaled w i t h respect to the refer-
ence clock.
\\
fir
20
40 60
60
-80
200 300 400 500 600 700 800
80 F i g . 28 Measured elliptic bandpass filler response for three values of
reference clock frequency
0 05 10 1.5 20
a 865 kHz
f r e q u e n c y , MHz [3 965 kHz
Fig. 24 Measured amplitude response of Chebyshev bandpass filter 0 1.065 MHz
6 Conclusions
1 A matrix-based m e t h o d o l o g y f o r the design o f trans-

conductor ladder filters has been presented. M a n y alter-
native design routes are possible, depending u p o n : how
Table 4 : C o m p a r i s o n o f d i f f e r e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f RLC
prototype
Name Variables of Comments

prototype used
V voltages Best for a 'minimum inductance'

prototype containing only
parallel L C pairs
VI voltages and currents Best when prototype contains
p both parallel and series

LC pairs
1 currents Best for a 'minimum capacitance'
prototype containing only
Fig. 25 Photomicrograph of Chebyshev bandpass filter
series L C pairs
Table 6: C o m p a r i s o n o f d i f f e r e n t decompositions of
second-order matrix equation
Name Defining Comments

(acronym) equations
Topological 7, 8 Most applicable to lowpass filters.

phase (TD) When conventional uansconductors
detector loop filter are used, gives standard
leapfrog filters
Left-inverse 11,12 Applicable to any bandpass filter.
type 1 Only one value of transconductance
(LID1) needed per filter. Requires
transconductor stages with
F i g . 26 PLL control loop unidirectional nonintegrating
paths
Left-inverse 15,16 Similar to LID1, but gives sparser
type 2 active circuit if a prototype is
(LID2) used, for which the condition
r = C is satisfied
Right-inverse 19, 20 Applicable to any bandpass filter.
(RID) Conventional transconductors may
be used, with up to two
values required
Left-direct 23. 24 Applicable to all-pole bandpass filters
(LD) Only one value of transconductance
needed per filter.
Requires transconductor stages
with unidirectional nonintegrating
paths
Fig. 27 Triangle-wave voltage-controlled oscillator
IEE Proc.-Circuits Devices Syst., Vol. 141, No. 2. April 1994

Table 6 : C o m p a r i s o n of d i f f e r e n t f i r s t - o r d e r t r a n s c o n d u c t o r OTA tiller structures'. / £ £ £ Trans. Circuits Svst, 1988. CAS-35, p p .
stages 936-946
7 T A N . M.A.. and S C H A U M A N N . R.: 'Simulating general-parameter
Active circuit Comments LC-ladder filters for monolithic realizations with only trans-
used conductance elements and grounded capacitors', IEEE Trans. Cir-
Conventional Best for VHF, due to simplicity. cuits Svst . 1989, CAS-36, (2), p p . 299-306
transconductor Unidirectional nonintegrating paths 8 C H O I . T.C., K A N E S H I R O , R.T., B R O D E R S O N . R.W., G R A Y ,
(Fig. 5) are not available. P R . J E T T , W . B . , and W I L C O X . M.: High-frequency C M O S
Parasitic input and output capacitance switched-capacitor filters for communications application*. / £ £ £ J.
must be compensated for. Solid-State Circuits. 1983, SC-18, pp. 652-664
Cpamp plus Parasitic capacitance does not 9 K R U M M E N A C H E R . F . and J O E H L , N.: A 4 MHz C M O S
conventional affect filter, tn first order. continuous-time filter with on-chip automatic tuning'. IEEE J.
transconductor Presence of low-impedance Solid-State Circuits. 1988, SC-23, (3), pp. 750-758
or MOSFET nodes makes unidirectional paths 10 N E D U N G A D I . A.P.. and V I S W A N A T H A N . T.R.: Design of
resistor' available. Opamp dominant pole linear C M O S transconductance-elements'. / £ £ £ Trans. Circuits
(Fig.6) must be much higher in Syst.. 1984, CAS-31, (10), pp. 891-894
frequency than filter poles 11 S E E V I N C K . E . , and W A S S E N A A R . R . F . : A versatile C M O S
Transconductor with Combines good high-frequency linear transconductor/square-law function circuit'. / £ £ £ J. Solid-
low-impedance performance of conventional State Circuits. 1987, SC-22, (3), pp. 366-377
inputs (Fig. 7) transconductor with usefulness 12 W A N G , Z., and G U G G E N B U H L , W.: A voltage-controllable
of unidirectional paths. linear M O S transconductor using bias offset technique', / £ £ £ J.
But parasitic capacitances have Solid-State Circuits, 1990, SC-25, (1), pp. 315-317
first-order effect 13 V A N V A L K E N B U R G , M.E.: 'Analog filler design' (Holt Saunders,
New York, 1982)
14 SAAL, R„ and E N T E N M A N N , W.: 'Handbook of filter design'
the prototype ladder is represented by a second-order (AEG-Telefunken, Berlin and Frankfurt, 1979)
matrix equation, the way this equation may be decom- 15 M O U L D I N G , K„ Q U A R T L Y , J R., R A N K I N , P J , T H O M P S O N ,
R.S, and W I L S O N , G.A.: 'Gyrator video filter I C with automatic
posed i n t o first-order equations, and the type of trans-
tuning'. Proc. I E E E ISSCC, 1980, pp. 86-87
conductor stage that is used to realise the first-order 16 K R U M M E N A C H E R , F , and V A N R U Y M B E K E , G . : 'Integrated
equation. The choices available and their relative merits selectivity for narrow-band F M I F systems', / £ £ £ J. Solid-State
are summarised in Tables 4 to 6. The u t i l i t y of the tech- Circuits, 1990, SC-25, (3), pp. 757-760
niques described is demonstrated by results f r o m three 17 G R E E R , N . P J , H E N D E R S O N , R . K , P I N G , L , and S E W E L L ,
J.I.: 'Matrix methods for the design of transconductor ladder filters'.
high-frequency C M O S transconductor ladder filters. Proc. I E E E ISCAS, Singapore, June 1991, pp. 1355-1358
18 G R E E R , N . P J . : T h e design of high frequency transconductor
ladder filters'. PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1992
7 References 19 P I N G , L , H E N D E R S O N , R . K , and S E W E L L , J.I.: A method-
ology for integrated ladder filter design', / E £ £ Trons. Circuits Svst,
1 T A N , K . S , and G R A Y , P R.: 'Fully integrated analog filters using 1991, CAS-38, (8), pp. 853-868
bipolar-JFET technology', / £ £ £ J. Solid-Stale Circuits. 1978. 20 P I N G , L , and S E W E L L , J.I.: "The L U D approach to switched-
SC-13, (6), pp. 814-821 capacitor filter design', / £ £ £ Trans. Circuits Syst., 1987, CAS-34,
2 C H I O U , C.-F., and S C H A U M A N N , R.: 'Design and performance (7), pp. 1611-1614
of a fully integrated bipolar 10.7-MHz analog bandpass filter', IEEE 21 K H O R R A M A B A D I , H , and G R A Y , P R . : 'High-frequency C M O S
Trans. Circuits Syst., 1986, CAS-33, pp. 116-124 continuous-time filters', IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits. 1984, SC-19,
3 P A R K , C.S., and S C H A U M A N N , R.: 'Design of a 4 MHz analog pp. 939-948
integrated C M O S transconductance-C bandpass filter', / £ £ £ J. 22 B A N U , M , and T S I V I D I S , Y . : 'An elliptic continuous-time C M O S
Solid-State Circuits, 1988, SC-23, pp. 987-996 filter with on-chip automatic tuning', / £ £ £ J. Solid-State Circuits.
4 P E N N O C K , J., F R I T H , P J , and B A R K E R , R . G . : C M O S triode 1985. SC-20, (6), pp. 1114-1121
transconductor continuous time filters'. Proc. I E E E custom integ- 23 G R E E R . N . P J , and D E N Y E R , P.B.: 'New folded cascode trans-
rated circuits conf., 1986. pp. 378-381 conductor for bandpass ladder filters', / £ £ Proc. G. Circuits Devices
5 N A U T A , B : ' C M O S V H F transconductance-C lowpass filter', £/«•- Syst., 1991,138, (5), pp. 551-556
iron. Lett., 1990, 26, (7), pp. 421-422 24 F L E I S C H E R , P.E., and L A K E R , K . R . : 'A family of active switched
6 S A N C H E Z - S I N E N C I O , E , G E I G E R , R . L . , and N E V A R E Z - capacitor biquad building blocks'. Bell Syst. Tech. J., 1979, 58, pp.
L O Z A N O , H.: 'Generation of continuous-time two integrator loop 2235-2269
100 /££ Proc.-Circuits Devices Syst., Vol. 141, No. 2. April 1994
2 5 4
PAPER 54
2 5 5
711
Eroc. I.E.E.E. Interratuxal S^tposiurt an Circuits and Sy^tsrs, VbL.5, Icrrkn, Nfery 1994.
A COMPARISON STUDY OF SC BIQUABS

IN THE REALISATION OF SC FILTERS
LuYue and J.I.Sewell
Department of Electronics and Electrical
The University of Glasgow
Glasgow G12 8LT, UJC, Email: Sewell@uk.ac.gla.elec. luvue@uk.ac.gla.elec
ABSTRACT No.C Total C C Spread

TypeE 22 144.27 45.85
A comparison for S C filter realisation based on different TypeF 22 130.49 44.58
biquads is given. The total capacitance, capacitance spread. LGF 21 181.10 43.91
sensitivity, non-idealities and dynamic range of the SSGI 27 170.87 21.96
designed filters are presented. Some conclusions are SSGH 27 170.87 21.96
obtained as very useful guidelines for the choice of a G-T 21 145.09 43.91
suitable biquad structure according to die nature of the filter M-S 21 151.39 43.91
problem. Nagaraj 27 199.25 43.91
Table 1.6th-order lowpass filter realisation
1. I N T R O D U C T I O N b) Wide bandpass filter: The filter frequency response is
During the past decade several S C biquads have been No.C Total C C Spread
reported and used in practical applications. Most of the
TypeE 22 315.90 78.49
biquads proposed have been analysed individually and the
TypeF 22 706.13 191.48
investigations have been based on the characteristics of the
L G F Type 21 329.02 95.09
biquad itself. However the various filters proposed are
SSGI 27 351.27 94.78
intended for different applications, frequency ranges,
SSGII 27 351.27 94.78
sensitivity requirements, dynamic range etc., therefore it is
G-T 21 329.02 95.09
difficult to judge the suitability of the biquads. By using
M-S 21 328.95 95.16
X F I L T filter compiler! 1], a systematic comparison for the
Nagarai 27 213.24 47.11
realisation of S C filters using most popular S C biquads is
given in this paper based on filter system realisation. Table 2. Bandpass filter design results
c) Narrow bandpass filter. The filter response is given in
Although the software has the facility to design a SC system
with combined biquads. we restrict cur comparison here to
systems only composed of one kind of SC biquad, in order No.C Total C C Spread
to simplify the question and make the guidelines of TypeE 20 1150.40 333.81
selecting S C biquads more practical for the S C filter TypeF 20 1112.97 332.04
designer who does not have an SC filter compiler or only a L G F Type 20 1126.48 337.18
compiler with limited biquad structures. SSGI 25 1235.07 168.60
SSGII 25 1152.21 168.59
2. BIQUAD C O N F I G U R A T I O N S G-T 20 1126.48 337.18
M-S 20 1126.40 337.20
The biquads that we adopt here are: Nagaraj 27 5795.65 1050JS1
Type-E:Fleischer and Laker's E-type biquad in [2]. Table 3. Narrow band bandpass filter design results
Type-F:Fleischer and Laker's F-type biquad in [2].
FGL Type: Modified Fleischer and Laker's biquads[3]. d) Highpass Filter: The higtipm» filter frequency response
G-T Type: Gregorian and Temes's biquad presented in [4].
M-S Type: Martin and Sedra's biquad in [5]. No.C Total C 1 C Spread
SSGI Type and SSGII Type: Sanchez-Sinencio, Silva- TypeE 18 538.77 156.35
Martinez and Geiger's type-I and type-II biquads in [6]. TypeF 18 318.89 62.88
Nagaraj type: Nagaraj's biquad proposed in [7]. L G F Type 18 484.69 137.61
SSGI 23 366.23 66.53
3. F I L T E R R E A L I S A T I O N C O M P A R I S O N SSGII 23 366.23 66.53
G-T 17 522.23 123.55
a) Lowpass Filter : A 6th-order elliptic filter response is M-S 17 458.29 135.93
shown in Fig. 1(a). The Table 1 shows the realisation Nasaraj 21 158.32 27.58
statistics of different biquad cascades. Table 4.4th-order highpass filter realisation
2 5 6
712
e) Bancistop Filter: The bandstop filter response is shown SSGI and SSGII biquads have very good dynamic range
in Fig. 1(e) and the design results are given in Table 5. performance and they are best candidates for narrow band
filters in total capacitance and capacitance spread. They also
No. C Total C C Spread give best capacitance spreads in lowpass filter realisations.
Type E 29 220.97 29.24 However, SSGI and SSGII structures usually have slightly
TypeF 29 1309.69 361.34 high sensitivity to component change.
L G F Type 28 219.72 33.18 G-T biquad has lowest sensitivity and small non-ideal
SSGI 36 259.41 25.45 effect in the filter realisation.
SSGH 36 259.41 25.45 Generally, type-E, L G F , M-S, and G-T structures have
G-T 28 555.12 107.12 similar total capacitance and capacitance spread, except in
M-S 28 213.04 22.88 bandstop, where G-T biquad needs large total capacitance
Nasaraj 36 142.55 22.66 and capacitance spread. They also have lower sensitivity
Table 5. 8th-order Elliptic bandstop filter realisation and good dynamic range, and small non-ideal effect.
Type-F biquad is good in total capacitance and capacitance
4. S E N S I T I V I T Y AND DYNAMIC R A N G E spread in highpass case, but poor in wide bandpass, and
COMPARISON bandstop cases. It has fairly good sensitivity performance
and dynamic range, and small non-ideal effect
The following indices are used as global measures of system
sensitivity S(co) and dynamic range D(C0), respectively ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Financial support by the Science and Engineering Research

Council and Department of Trade and Industry is gratefully
S(w) = 8.686. /100.0
|HM acknowledged.
REFERENCE
D(co) = -^£201og|H (cD)| M
Mm [1] Lu Yue, RK.Henderson, and J.I.Sewell."XFILT: an X -

window based modern filter and equaliser design system."
where Q and IH (co)t are the sets of capacitances and
m
11th European Conference on Circuit Theory and Design,
opamp output voltages, respectively, and M is the number 1993. Davos. Switzerland
of opamps. S(co) should be as small as possible. D(o>) is [2] P.E.Fleischer and K.R.Laker."A family of active
related to S C filter dynamic range. It is hoped that the switched-capacitor biquads building blocks". Bell Syst
dynamic index curve D(a>) is as flat as possible and as Tech. J.. voL58. pp.2235-2269. Dec.1979
close to zero or a fixed gain as possible in passband. [3] KJt.Laker. A.Ganssan, and P.E.Fleischer,"Design and
Because of the similarity of some biquads. the total implementation of cascaded switched capacitor delay
sensitivity index curves are sometimes very close to each equalisers". I E E E Trans. Circuits Syst., vol.CAS-32.
other. Fig.2(a)-(e) gives the comparison of sensitivities of pp.700-711, July 1985
the five designs and the comparisons of the dynamic index [4] R.Gregorian and G. C.Temes, Analog MOS integrated
curves are given in Fig.3(a)-(e). circuits for signal processing. John Wiley & Sons. 1986
[5] K.Martin and A.S.Sedra, "Exact design of switched-
5. F I N I T E G B AND S W I T C H R E S I S T A N C E capacitor bandpass filters using coupled-biquad structures,"
E F F E C T COMPARISON I E E E Trans, on Circuits and Systs.,vol.CAS-27, no.6,
pp.469-475, June 1980
The non-idealities of S C circuits is simulated by non-ideal [6] E.Sanchez-Sinencio, J.Silva-Martinez, and
SC analysis software SCNAP4[8]. For the comparison, we R.Geiger."Biquadratic S C filters with small G B effects".
choose the opamp with 2MHz G B . switch on resistance of I E E E Trans, on Circuits and Syst. vol.CAS-31. no.10.
lk £2. and switch off resistance of 1 M Q . Fig.4(a)-(e) show pp.876-883.Oct. 1984
the non-ideal circuit response of the designed circuits. [7] K.Nagaraj."A parasitic-insensitive area-efficient
approach to realizing very large time constants in switched-
6. C O N C L U S I O N capacitor circuits", I E E E Trans. Circuits & Systems..
Sept.,1989. pp. 1210-1216
Nagaraj's biquad has significant advantages for wide [8].Z.Q.Shang and J.LSewell. "Efficient sensitivity analysis
bandpass, bandstop, and highpass filter designs in total for large non-ideal switched-capacitor networks," Proc. of
capacitance and capacitance spread. It also has very good I E E E ISCAS'93. Chicago, May 1993, pp.1405-1407
dynamic range performance, but with comparatively large [9]Wing-Hung K i and G.C.Temes, "Area-efficient gain- and
non-ideality effect and slightly high sensitivity compared to offset-compensated very-large-time constant S C
,
other biquad realisations. Therefore the compensated biquaoV\IEEEProc.ISCAS 92,1992, pp.1187-1190

structure is critical in cascading Nagaraj biquad
realisation^].
713
Fig.1(a) Lowpass Filter Response Fig. 1(b) Wide Bandpass Filter Response
JO
40
x
a. -40
-to
200 joboo 00
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 1000 7 000
Fraoeact (H«)
Frequency ( H t )
Fig. 1 (c) Narrow B andpass Filter Response Fig. 1 (d) Highpass Filter Response
70
ao
GO
00
0000
Prcqococy ( H O
SOBoo ooco
3
• JO
40
•00 -
60
7 200 400 800
Frequency ( H E )
aoo i ooo
Fig. 1(e) Bands top Filter Response Fig.2(a) Comparison of Lowpass Filter Sensitivities
100
20
* I0D mm * Baou
I 00 IQP.Tikt-l, & T«pa-P
•t-O
2 OOO MO (OOO 1O0O 0000
<H»> ooo 3 WO
XI
Fig.2(b)Comparison of Wide Bandpass Filter Sensitivities Fig.2(c) Comparison of Narrow Bandpass Filter Sensitivities
too
000
V MO
600
s a-T, • - « , ry«*-e, T m - * a LOT
M*fl«'*l
200
• 700 •DO •aoo 2 OOOO 10100 Joioo 10SO0

4QO 1*00 J too
<Ha>
Fig.2(d) Comparison of Highpass Filter Sensitivities Fig.2(e) Comparison of Bandstop Filter Sensitivities
2O0
50
100 mot 4
Oj> ft M O >
£v -00
TVB*-l,U-t, ft LO
1
50
Jo IE J J two 80 3oo
714
Fig.3(a) Dynamic Range Index of Lowpass Filter Fig.3(b) Dynamic Range Index of Wide Bandpass Filter
T f p o - 6 4 Ty p o - F
SSGI4SSG
H .30
ISOO JOOG
1000 2000 3000 4000
Frequency (He)
Fig.3(c) Dynamic Range Index of Narrow Bandpass Fig.3(d) Dynamic Range Index of Highpass Filter
QT,a-8,aiOF
5
s
SSOI&SSQI ^ ^ ^ ^ aaoi.8saii.aa-T
Typo-EfiTypo-F
H 15-J
aa •
i 0
iio " *io " tto tfo 1060 u6o
1 0 7 0 0 1B0OO tSDOO 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 20300 Fw^xoej (Hi)
Frequency (Ha)
Fig.3(e) Dynamic Range Index of Bands top Filter Fig.4(a) Non-ideal Response of I owpass Filter
Fig.4(b)NcHi-ideal Response of Wide Bandpass Filter Fig.4(c) Non-ideal Response of Narrow Bandpass Filter
004111 T*OB-B.Q-S.a.T,at.OP
i0 I •003960
Fig.4(d) Non-ideal Response of Highpass Filter Fig.4(e) Non-ideal Response of Bands top Filter
2 5 9
'„ Network AimaiUvsis and C A D
Publication Page
[1] Table for the voltage transfer functions of single amplifier double ladder 261
feedback systems
[3] Table for the voltage transfer functions of single amplifier double ladder parallel
feedback systems 264
[4] Correction function techniques 268
[5] Matrix tables for the generalised 5-terminal amplifier 281
[9] Accumulant theory and applications 291
[13] Active circulator systems 302

[14] Symbolic analysis for computer-aided circuit design - The interpolative 306
approach
[15] Correction to Symbolic analysis for computer-aided circuit design - The 311
interpolative approach
[16] Symbolic analysis of networks by partitioned polynomial interpolation 312
[19] Network partition methods for use in symbolic analysis by interpolation 316
[20] Symbolic network sensitivities using partition methods 325
[24] Analysis of active switched-capacitor networks 334
[25] Inclusion of amplifier finite gain and bandwidth in analysis of switched- 337
capacitor filters
[26] Digital active network analysis 341

2 6 0
Page
[28] Compact matrix scheme for use in computer analysis of switched capacitor 348
networks
[29] Improved z plane polynomial interpolative analysis of switched capacitor 351

networks
[30] Analysis of active switched-capacitor networks See 334
[31] Symbolic analysis of ideal and non-ideal switched capacitor networks 355
[33] Efficient computer techniques for the exact analysis of all non-ideal effects of 360
switched-capacitor networks in the time domain
[36] General analysis of large linear switched capacitor networks 365
[49] Efficient sensitivity analysis for large non-ideal switched capacitor networks 372
[53] Efficient noise analysis methods for large non-ideal SC and SI circuits 376
2 6 1
PAPER 1
2 6 2
Tabic 1 This paper presents a / . 1'table from which

AI'I'KOMMATI: i.;.-\is-PKOPUC"r sr.ssi nvniES the voltage transfer ratio £•'£", for net-
works of the form of l-'ig. 1 may be
written down on inspection.
1
In this letter it will he assumed that the
l.N.l.C. SK 12. N . I.C. Sk gain M of the amplifier and its input
impedance are infinite, while its output
4 2 impedance is zero. Further, it is assumed
10 F..0
K ~ k that a virtual earth exists at the amplifier
input (point A ) .
It is. of course, possible in principle to
find the voltage transfer ratio by direct
analysis, but this is tedious unless the
l.N.l.C. E.N.I.C. value of n is small. The analysis reveals,
however, that it is possible to recognise
4(1- a,) 2 2(1 - a.) 1 the existence of a symmetrical pattern for
I 1 E. 1 the network elements in the voltage
II jd;. a
i 2 U
°i "i transfer functions. The essence of the
method resides in the recognition of this
4(1 - a.) 2u 2 2(1 - «,) 1 pattern and the arrangement of the ele-
1.2 E.2 -
"i aa t 2 a 1 ments in a suitable table, which can be
interpreted in a manner to be described.
2 i i
1.3 - 2 E.3 i a a,
a
i 2 Element numbering
The series input elements are all de-
fined as impedances and have odd suffixes;
The approximate gain-product sensi- T A B L E FOR T h e V O L T A G E i.e. Z„ where i is an odd integer. The feed-
tivities or all four e.n.i.c. circuits are T R A N S F E R F U N C T I O N S OF SINGLE- back elements in the upper ladder are
AMPLIFIER DOUBLE-LADDER defined as admittances and have even
listed in Table 1, alongside those for the FEEDBACK S Y S T E M S
respective dual i.n.i.c. circuits. The factor- suffixes. The elements in the lower
This letter presenis a Z Ytable f r o m which ladder, which are connected to earth, are
of-two enhancement in sensitivities of the the voltage transfcrfunctionj formulltpie-
circuits in the e.n.i.c. subclass compared loop feedback systems using one opera- defined as admittances with double-
with those in the i.n.i.c. subclass prevails tional amplifier may be written down. suffix notation. Thus the element from
The table is given, together with a recur- point B to earth is written Y , since
throughout. rence formula for the voltage transfer a
lL..:tion. Expressions are also given for point B is positioned between the Yi
Finally, it might be noted from Table 1 the product terms arising from the table. admittance and the Z impedance. The
3
that, if stabilisation and improvement in
It is well known that the burden of tedious circuit in Fig. 1 lacks symmetry, in that
sensitivity performance is to be effected by
calculations required to find the voltage the upper and lower ladders contain
use of Darlington-compounded transistors
transfer functions of networks having different numbers and arrangements of
(as in Fig. 3c). it suffices to do this only
certain regular forms may be much cased elements.
for transistor T . in each circuit, whether
or eliminated by the use of tabular forms When writing the suffixes to the ele-
i.n.i.c. or e.n.i.c., because the factor 1 — u,
in which the elements are set out in a ments, the following procedure is sug-
appears in four cases, whereas the factor
systematic array o l rows and columns. gested. Begin with the feedback elements
I — a, docs not appear at all, these being
1
One such array for the analysis of a single- in the upper ladder and denote these as
the significant factors.
ladder feedback network has been given Y>. Y . ) ' „ , where n is the order of the
•Breadboard' models of each e.n.i.c. by Aggarwal.'
4 ;
(Fig. 4) have been built and tested in the network. The Z elements should then be
In practice, it is often necessary to given the suffixes 1, 3, (2/i — 1), and
laboratory, and found to convert satis-
determine the voltage transfer ratio for finally the elententsconnectcd to earth in the
factorily. They have not yet been tested
exhaustively for stability and drift under lower ladder should be numbered as pre-
variable operating conditions and en-
vironment.
B. R. MYERS 21st April 1965
Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Notre Dame
Notre Dame, Ind., USA
(2n-5) 2n-3 I2n-1)
References
1 LARKY, A. 1.: 'Negative impedance con-
verters'. IRE Trans., 1957, CT-4, p. 124
2 HAKIM, s. s.: "Some new negative-impedance
convenors', Electronics Letters, ]y6i, 1, p. 9 l2n-4K2n-3) (2n-2)(2n-l)
Fig. 1 General double-ladder feedback network
multiple-loop feedback systems, which viouslyexplained from y ^ j t o Kim-sxtn-ii.

may be represented by the double-ladder In a particular feedback network, some
network and single amplifier shown in of the elements show n in Fig. I may not be
r i g . 1. This problem arises frequently in present. The general procedure should
the study of RC active filter networks. nonetheless be adopted and the missing
70 ELECTRONICS LETTERS M.iy 1965 Vol. t No. 3

2 6 3
elements subsequently omitted. (ft) Sets of four-component products ill The procedure is carried out until the
two Zs (mil in(/ }'\ last set for a particular M i l n e of n is
Derivation j)f table A l l Z . and Z . are multiplied by the sum reached, this having n factors in Zs and
(
It is possible to derive a recurrence of all the > between k and / and by the ii factors in Vs. The last term has only
formula to give the voltage transfer func- sum of the elements in the Y, row be- one factor.
tion front which the pattern for the table tween / ~ 1 and 2/i; i.e.
can be observed.
For a complete network with the first / - 1
series clement denoted as Z, and the last (5)
feedback element as >',, let the transfer z z,k
()', -i.)
(-/TI
ratio — EJE, be denoted as GO',/)
[/odd,/even,'/ < / ; if / > / , C ( / , / ) - 0], where k and / are odd. Concluding remarks
Initially assume a simple feedback system
A general pattern has been derived for
with one series input element and one (c) Sels of terms in three Zs and three Ys the terms which appear in the voltage
feedback element. Then, extending the
A l l Z Z,Z„, are multiplied by (i) the
k
transfer functions of single-amplifier
network towards the input three elements
sum of all Vs with suffixes between k and multiple-loop feedback systems. The Z >'
at a time (i.e. not disturbing the virtual
/, ( i i ) the sum of all Vs with suffixes table presented has been found exceed-
earth), the expression for the current at
between / and ///. and (iii) the sum of ingly convenient and labour-saving when
node B (Fig. 1) is given by the following
V,s, starting at m — 1, to 2//. Here applied to feedback networks intended for
recurrence relation:
k < 1 < m, and all k, I and in are odd, use as RC active filters.
Z r ' [ G ( 1,2/;) - G(3, lii)] beginning with 1, 3, 5, respectively; i.e.
= y , + (Y, + K, )G(3, 2/;)3
2n- 1 2/1-3 . -5
+ Z - ' [ C ( 3 , In) - G(5,2//)] . (1) (r, + y, )
z z,z„
3
( l r l l ( ^ * — Il)
-5 l=i k - \ t </-/+!
(6)
in which, for example, G(5. 2»i) is the same
as G ( l , 2 / i — 4) with all the suffixes
increased by 4. Continuing the above (d) Sets of terms in four Zs and four Ys The authors have pleasure in acknow-
expression, it becomes Multiply Z^Z,Z Z m t by (ii the sum of ledging the interest of Prof. R. L . Russell.
Professor of Electrical Engineering in the
G ( l , 2//) = Z,(Y. - Y, - . . . + r , „ ) - M l - Z^Y, -- Y,,)] G(3, 2n) University of Newcastle upon Tyne. It
is also a pleasure to acknowledge the sug-
-r [ Z , ( K , -J- Y )] is G(S, In) -'r t Z , ( } ' 6 -f >' )] G(7, 2//) - f
6; ...
gestion by an IEE referee of the particular
+ lAO'<*,-» + Y ,„. .. ,]G(2n
L M3 L - 1,2//) (2) recurrence relations in eqns. 1 and 2. The
financial support of the Department of
The transfer function can now be written down by inspection.
Scientific and Industrial Research is also
G ( l , 2) = Z,Y, acknowledged.
G ( l , 4) = Z , ( y . - >',) -r [1 - Z I Y , + Y )] A G(3, A) A. G. J. HOLT 13th April 1965
1. I . S E W b L L
= z , ( y , -r r ) -r [ i -r z , ( r
t 2 - y )]z y,
2 3 3
Department of Electrical Engineering

G ( I , 6) = Z , ( y , - K, + y . ) + [1 + Z , ( K + y ) ] G(3, 6)
3 ! 3
The University, Newcastle upon Tyne I
+ Z (Y 1 I + V )G(5,6)
<S England
= z ^ y , + Y + Y,) + [i + z , ( K , + y ) ] { z ( y , 4- y )
T M 3 8
Reference
+ 11 + z ( y s 4 J- y ) ] + z y,} - z,(y, +
u 5 y 4 5 )z y, . . .
5 (3)
1 AGGARWAL, G. K.'. 'ZY table for analysing a
ladder network', Froc. IEE, 1964, 111, p. 758
The following pattern emerges for higher all ys with suffixes between k and /»
values o f n: (ii) the sum of all ys with suffixes be-
There is a set of double product terms tween / and m, (iii) the sum of all Ks with
of the type ZY and a set of four compo- suffixes between /// and p, and (iv) the sum
nent products with two factors in Z and of y,s, starting with p — I , up t o ' 2 n .
two factors in Y etc. The last term has /< Here k < I < m < p ; all are odd.
factors in Z and n in Y. In Table 1 the 2/i-t 2/1-3 2/1-5 2/1-7
Zs and ys are so arranged that the voltage z,z,z z m p 'z (y, + y„
ratio - ( £ , / £ , ) can very easily be ob- p= 7 m= 5 1=1 k
j-k+l
tained. The forward transfer ratio £ / £ i a m- 1
P-l
can, o f course, be written down when s (y.+ y, {Y + r y r l r + 1 1 ) (7)
- ( £ , / £ , ) is known. -m+l
Table I
Use of the Table
ZY TABLE
The procedure for obtaining terms from-
the Table is as follows:
1
1 I 1
1 1 2 3
4
(a) Sets of double product terms of type Z Y

1
Each Z , is multiplied by the sum of the
Series Z, -z, z 3 Z 5 j z, ! Z'.n-l
element
elements in the Y, row, beginning with 1
}'(,.!> up to Y.„. The values of / are all Upper Y, Y y.

>'/ T
! : Y„
odd, going from 1 to 2/i — 1; i.e. ladder
i
S (Z, v >',) (4) Lower Y„ Y» ; y, s Y„ ^ (2n-3)(zn-l) !
1-1 j-i-t ladder i i

where / is odd. j i
ELECTRONICS LETTERS May 1965 Vol. I No. 3 71
2 6 4
PAPER 3
320 I K L T . THAN'••ACTION'S O S C 1 K C 1 1 T THEORY SKl'TKMUEK
Final]}-, erii li of the follcwinp. procedures may be used I•> [icnerato ui the amplifier are infinite, its output impedance is zero, and a
from other structures that also exhibit the phenomenon (2). virtual f-tirt 11 p.'int exisu at the point A.
The eViucnl numbeiinp; is earned out as shown in Y\^. 1, where the
Procedure J: Split, any node of 5 in any way and insert a resistor
last subscript of each clement denotes the double ladder to which
and an inductor in parallel combination between the two halves
it belongs.
of the node. Repeat this procedure as many times as desired on the
resulting structure. DERIVATION OF T A B L E
Procedure 2: Replace any resistor (inductor) of S by two resistors A recurrence formula for this system may be derived to give the
(inductors) in scries. Connect an inductor (resistor) between the voltage transfer function, and the application of this to various
node joining the two resistors (inductors) and any other node of the orders systems leads to the pattern from which the table may be
structure. Repeat the procedure as many limes as desired. derived.
Using a notation similar to that previously employed, let the
That Procedure 1 produces structures which exhibit phenomenon first series element be denoted as Z , where a is the respective 10
1
(2) follows frurn Theorem 7 of Lee . That Procedure 2 also produces double ladder suffix, and. the last feedback element as Y/i; the
such structures follows from the observations that latter sullix is always unity, since the system is arranged to have the
1) Inequalities analogous to (7a) and (Sa) can be written for final feedback component in ladder 1. The transfer ratio —Ei/E t
the new structure. is denoted as 0'(i, / ) [i odd, / even, »'</; if »>/, G(i, / ) = 0]. From
2) The following selection for the column matrices B and C, inspection of the system it can be seen that for both parallel branches
the network increases symmetrically three elements per node per
branch until the node (2n — 1) in each ladder is reached. The final
section can be regarded as the common adding circuit well known in
analog computation.
Considering a node such as B, but treating the elements for a
B and C = general node in the symmetrical pattern, i.e., node 2r + l i the
equation for continuity of current is
— «2r+i)2J '_i = ( er 2 r t l + e )l\

2n T + e 2 r t , Y 2 T i l r t l
+ (C2rtl — e i r ^ Z j V t l J (1)
and subsequent division of (7a) by (Sb), lead;- to a lower dividing by «*, and rearranging gives
bound on Isnun/smiaj similar to (9), the only dillerence being
that h, li, and f, (r r j , and r ) are replaced by sums of
Jf t
G(2r + 1, 2n), - G(2r+ 1,2/1), Y + 7 ,. ,
2r 2 2rt
inductances (resistances) of the new structure. ^2r-l,

3) Maximization of the bound with respect to i i and x , and 2
, 1 , 1 1 , g(2r + 3. 2n), _
subsequent minimization iviih respect to the /,, again leads + + 2 , 1 (2)
7 7 7 ~
to (2).
^2r-L ^2r-LJL *»2r + L ,
for r = 1,2,3 ... n — 1. These equations are repeated for lower
H. B. L E E
ladder with suffix 2.
Research Lab. of Electronics
The boundary conditions are as follows:
Mass. Inst. Tech.
Cambridge, Mass. (7(1. 2n) say, [
1) G(l,2n), = G(l,2n) 2 (3)
P . J . MURPHY
G(2n- 1, 2n), G(2n - 1, 2n) 2
Lowell Tech. Inst. = Y„ (4)
Lowell, Moss.
2) +
3) G(2n + 1, 2n), = G(2n + 1, 2n) = 0, 2
i.e., virtual earth assumed.

(5)
Using the recurrence relationship; on the appropriate successive
nodes and substituting the boundary conditions, the transfer
function can easily be obtained, since from the above i t can be seen
that there are 2n + 2 equations and 2n + 2 unknowns which will
Table for the Voltage Transfer Functions of Single result in a soluble set of equations.
Amplifier Double Ladder Parallel Feedback Systems The transfer function can be written down easily on the solution
of these equations and a pattern of terms in Z and 1" emerges which
This correspondence presents a method whereby the voltage is as follows.
transfer functions of single amplifier multiple ladder feedback
systems may be obtained from a suitable ZY table with a minimum Numerator
of calculation. I t extends an earlier result for single amplifier double
There is a set of three component products with two factors in
ladder systems [1] and includes what is believed to be the general case
Z and one in a set of five component products with three factors in
for this particular type of feedback system.
Z and two in Y, etc. The last term has 2n factors in Z and 2n —1
The circuit of order n and rank 2 is shown in Fig. 1. the term factors in Y.
order referring to the highest order polynomial appearing in the
transfer function, assuming all passive elements are resistors or Denominator
capacitors. The term rank refers to the number of parallel double
There is a set of terms which are a function of Z only, a set in oDe
ladders in the system, in general denoted by m.
Y and two Z's, etc. The last term has n factors in Z and n — 1
The basic assumptions made are that the gain and input impedance factors in )'.
The components are arranged as shown in Table I and the transfer
Mtuiusrrir.t MTcivnl l Y t . n u m 7. It'tx,: RTJRI.- -.1 May IS. 1:1
BTLL'PTI.'LEJ B Y LLIEfc'CIEN";ELLFJTCURCLI Couiwtl. voltage ratio — IC\/K% can be read olT immediately.
G 6
1066 C O R R E S P O N D E N C E 327
iawt
W<.;(U-J)
LZZ3
Fig. 1. General double-ladder feedback network of rank two.
T A B L E I
ZY TABLE
n 1 2 3 4
Series
Element Z.i Zn Z„ Zu Zn Zrhi - i),
1
Upper
Ladder Y„ Ya Kii Ya Yu
1
Lower
Ladder Y,H Ym Ym Ym Yin Y(U _ » (Jn - 1)1
1
Serin
Element Z» Z„ Zn Zi> Zn Zrta - n ,
2
Upper
Ladder Y„ Yn Ya Yu Y„
2
Lower
Ladder Y,u I'm K«i Ym Ym Y(tM - t) <t» - 1)1
2
U S E OF T A B L E Seta of Terms in Four Z'a and Three K's: AU Z,i Z.i Z«i are mul-
Following a procedure similar to that outlined in Holt and tiplied by
Sewell [1], the terms may be obtained from the table as follows. 1) all Z *
2) the sum of all W s with suffixes between q and v
Numerator 3) the sum of all Yi's with suffixes between v and w
Sets of Terms in Tim Z's and One Y: All Z<, and Z,i are mul- 4) the sum of Y/i's starting with w + 1 to In plus the sum of
l2
:
tiplied Ijy the. sir.n of the V/i's and Y s beginning with >' ui up
(>
Y/t's storting at p + I up to 2n; p,q,v,w are odd and q < v < w.
to Yi„ and + ,)•. up to }' „, respectively, w here i, j nre odd.
2 This is repeated with branch subscripts interchanged, and there
Seti of Tirms in Three Z's and Two Y's: All Z„ Z,, are multiplied is a finai set of terms in this group given as follows.
by AU Z \ Z,\ are multiplied by
r
1) all Z ; and by 1) all Z Z r t r f

P
2) the sum of all )Ys with suffixes lying between q and ii 2) the sum of all JYs with suffixes between p and q
3) the sum of Y.n'a starting at v + 1 to In plus the sum of 3) the sum of all Ki's with suffixes between v and u>
Y/i's starting at p + 1 up to 2«; 11,7,11 are odd and 17 < v. 4) the sum of Y;i's starting with q + 1 to 2n plus the sum of
Y/t's starting with w + 1 to 2n; p,q,v,w are odd and p < q,
This is repeated again with the branch subscripts interchanged. v < w.
2 6
328 II:EF. T R A N S A C T I O N S O N CIHCUIT T H E O R Y S K l ' T E M BLR
This procedure is continued until tlie hist term having 2;i factors in F r o m the above it can be seen that for each increase in rank of the
Z and 2n — 1 in ) ' is reached. network another Z multiplier appears. T h e above expressions are
continued until the last term is reached; in general there are
Denominator
mn — (m — 1) terms in the numerator.
Sits of Terms in Zs: This is just the sum of all Z,, and Z,., where
i is odd. Denominator
Sets of Terms in Tuo Z's and One Y: All Z , Z,, are multiplied p 'Verms in Z'.
by '.he sum of all the Y's lying between suffixes p and q; this is also
repeated for branch two; p,q are odd and p < q.
Sets of Terms in Three Z's and Tuo Y's: All Z,i Z,\ Z are (12)
A
k, - 1
multiplied by * j odd
(L - 1 • • - M - 1 )
1) the sum of all }"s with suffixes between p and q
2) the sum of all IVs with suUixes between q and o. Terms in Y:
This is repeated for branch two; p,q,v are odd and p < q < v.
This procedure is continued until the last term which has n factors
in Z and 2 iu Y is reached.
£
B-L
£ £ k.z. (3 2 , . . )
0-3 4
OI-1 0 odd p odd
(/-.•••M-2)
G E N E R A L SYSTEMS
11 > 0 i • " > A „ _ ,
I t is now possible to consider the general case which is of order n
and rank m. The recurrence relations are derived in a similar manner,
the boundary conditions now being
21-p+l
.,)}]
1) G(l,2n)„ = G(l,2n) for all m (6)
2) (13)
g(2n - l,2n).
2) = Y, (7) Terms in £K»:
r
EE £
2«-L 0-2 i-2 /»-3 \
i.e., assume that branch 1 is the highest order ladder.
3) G(2n + l , 2 n ) „ = 0 for all m. (8) (/-1 • E E E

- 3 P odd r odd
0 odd
z^z^z^zJUz^,)
Using these and the recurrence formula of (2) applied to the appro- a, >AI • * ff-3
odd P-1 r-1 L \ i-1 '
priate nodes, the transfer function may be derived.

The table is merely extended downwards by an appropriate
amount and the Iransfer function read ofT by the pattern developed.
E 0 m + y» E 0%.. + r,„„ ,)}
21-r-M M)
The general expressions for each group of terms are given below.
A-, = g, p , r, . (j = 1 ju - 3) (14)
Numerator
Terms in One Y These, terms continue to follow the general pattern, there being
in + ; I — 2 of these.
T, - I
t , odd
II
A-1 / ft-L
E
2J-JU +I
Y ,A
2
J
(9)
CONCLUSION
I t is possible to write down simply the voltage transfer ratios

lb
i = order of > double ladder, for extremely complex feedback sj'steins of the type considered, by
Terms in Two Y's inspection of a table; this greatly reduces the arduous task of con-
ventional analysis. I t is also possible to carry out this analysis in
2n-l 2R.-L
SEE
fc-I p-i
P CHJJ
*T-I
k i odd
^ P M ri Î.fl )l S C I B ~J~ i^2Z ( 2 / + J
general terms using a digital computer, since a program would
involve only the arithmetic of the subscripts, and reduces error by
limiting the operations involved to multiplication and summation,
avoiding any redundant procedures.
2NI
2N, m
(10)
£ r + m
£ E n ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors take pleasure in acknowledging stimulating discus-

Terms in Three Y's sions with Dr. Lennox of the Department of Mathematics of Merz
Laboratories.
£ £ £ \z*zJf[z ) tM A. G . J . HOLT
b-l p-l U \ a - l /
fl-1 i f odd J . I . SEWELL
w h e n 6 — c p ,fl odd ( j - ] • • *m
11 > S > P II> P Dept. of Elcc. Engrg.
k<>q
Merz Laboratory
University of Newcastle Upon Tyno
23 (^216 H~ ^ 2 2LM
( 22 LL +
+ L
L )) B
B )J ^ ( ^ 2 1 * + ^ 2 1 , 2 1+ 1) C ^ ^ Newcastle Upon Tyne, England
2«T 2NRF
E K Y „ T + E
2(-*,+I
Y T L . +
E
E
at^-ID+I
E
rf-I
r
»
II K K F R K N C t S
[1) A. G . .7. ITfilt flntl J . I . S"\vell, "Table fur Uie voltapc transfer {unctions of sinnle
amplifier uf.nhl'.-lii'litt'r fn-iihai-k m-slc-ins." h:irrir ,r l.tlt.. vol. 1. p. 7f). tuiiS.
when b=c K =0 lllt
\2) (I. K \--'-:iru:il. " / . ) ' Uiil.: I..r ;II.»UMMS ix l:i.|.lrr n r l u u r t . " /'."C. //•-'/;.
1 on 111. p. 7JS, i'Mi.
2 6 8
PAPER 4
2 6 9
I.E.E. C o n f e r e n c e P u b l i c a t i o n rio. 51 , pp. 515-526
1
^ r. — ^ ->rp^- ~ 7 T ' " n n T - rv; ~<-_- ^ T" ^ -<
J . J.» J e w e l l and G. I.i^r.tingaie
1 „ Introduction
I t i s w e l l kr.ov;n i 1 , 2j t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t s o u r c e o f e r r o r i r . a n a l y s i s
by t h e n o d a l a d m i t t a n c e m a t r i x a p p r o a c h o c c u r s i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e
n e c e s s a r y c o f a c t o r s and d e t e r m i n a n t s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , i f numbers of l a r g e
m a g n i t u d e a r e m u l t i p l i e d and r o u n d - o f f o c c u r s i n t h e c o m p u t e r ; t h e n when
t h e s e numbers, e s p e c i a l l y i f they a r e n e a r l y e q u a l , a r e s u b s e q u e n t l y sub-
t r a c t e d from e a c h o t h e r , an e r r o r o f g r o s s m a g n i t u d e c a n r e s u l t . One
b r u t e f o r c e method o f r e d u c i n g t h i s e r r o r i s t o r e s o r t t o m u l t i p l e l e n g t h
a r i t h m e t i c on t h e c o m p u t e r , t h i s u n f o r t u n a t e l y c a n i n v o l v e c o m p l e x mach-
i n e c o d e p r o g r a m m i n g and a l a r g e m a c h i n e t o e x e c u t e t h e r e s u l t i n g p r o g -
ram.
A l s o i f the nodal a d m i t t a n c e m a t r i x i s used i t i s not p o s s i b l e to

take f u l l advantage of the network topology d u r i n g a n a l y s i s . I t i s again
a known f a c t t h a t f o r c e r t a i n n e t w o r k t o p o l o g i e s i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e r i v e
r e c u r r e n c e r e l a t i o n s h i p s [ 3 , 0] t o g i v e f a s t and a c c u r a t e a n a l y s i s m e t h -
ods. T h i s i s of p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e i n i t e r a t i v e s y n t h e s i s where the
r 1
a n a l y s i s t i m e t e n d s t o be one o f t h e l i m i t i n g f a c t o r s a t t h e p r e s e n t |_TJ .
If an e x a m i n a t i o n of l i n e a r p a s s i v e and active systems i s made, one

arrives a t the f o l l o w i n g c o n j e c t u r e .
1 .1 Con.iacture
Any c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f u n c t i o n ( b e i t a t r a n s f e r r a t i o , d r i v i n g p o i n t
o r t r a n s f e r i m m i t t a n c e ) d e s c r i b i n g a l i n e a r p a s s i v e s y s t e m w i t h no r . h .
p l a n e z e r o s o r a n i d e a l f e e d b a c k s y s t e m * i n w h i c h t h e r e i s no p o s i t i v e
f e e d b a c k w i l l c o n s i s t of a r a t i o of p o l y n o m i a l s , i n the f r e q u e n c y vari-
able, with p o s i t i v e c o e f f i c i e n t s only. As t h e s e c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e p o s i t i v e
any s u b t r a c t i v e s t e p i n the d e r i v a t i o n of t h e s e i s b o t h r e d u n d a n t and
e r r o r i n t r o d u c i n g , not o n l y i s the s t e p of s u b t r a c t i o n redundant but i t
i m p l i e s r e d u n d a n c y of p r e v i o u s m u l t i p l i c a t i o n and a d d i t i o n s t e p s . Hence,
f o r t h e s y s t e m s u r d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , i t s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e t o d e r i v e a n a l -
y s i s techniques which e l i m i n a t e these redundant s t e p s , thus improving both
a c c u r a c y and s p e e d o f c o m p u t a t i o n .
/1.2
* An i d e a l f e e d b a c k s y s t e m i s one i n w h i c h t h e a c t i v e d e v i c e s c a n be
represented as a simple c o n s t r a i n t , One e x a m p l e o f t h i s i s t h e i d e a l
v o l t a g e o p e r a t i o n a l a m p l i f i e r , w h i c h c a n be r e p r e s e n t e d a s a v o l t a g e
constraint.
J . x . S e w e i i i s a t the Department o f E l e c t r o n i c E n g i n e e r i n g , U n i v e r s i t y
of H u l l .
C. I-.'i.jhtingale i s a t t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f E l e c t r i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g , U n i v e r s i t y
of N e w c a s t l e upon T y n e .
2.
';. 2 J.-:.-lir'er.f'-cior. o f t h e C s r - q c t - y e
? o r p a s s i v e l a d d e r s , t e c h n i q u e s v.'hich u t i l i s e t h e sfsove p r i r . c i t l e
r a v e been i n e x i s t e r . e e f o r some c o n s i d e r a b l e t i r . e \y sr.d v a r i a n t s en t h e
method a r e v : e l l knov.r. [c\ . Hov;ever, f o r many a c t i v e retv.-orks, l i t t l e
v.-orr: a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s has beer, done, p r o b a b l y t h e . t a i n r e a s o n be i n s cue
t o added c o m p l e x i t y v.'hich t h e a c t i v e d e v i c e i n t r o d u c e s . Some work has
been c o m p l e t e d a s s u m i n g t h e d e v i c e s a r e i d e a l j_'3,6j and y i e l d e n c o u r a g i n g
results.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y i f t h e a c t i v e d e v i c e c a n n o t be assumed i d e a l and be
r e p r e s e n t e d by some s i m p l e c o n s t r a i n t , t h e s e i d e a s c a n n o t be used and
some g e n e r a l method o f a n a l y s i s has been used. Thus a l l t h e d i s a d v a n t -
ages o f a g e n e r a l method r e t u r n . I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e s y s t e m can
be d i v i d e d i n t o two s u b - s y s t e m s , one o f w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s t h e s y s t e m when
a l l d e v i c e s a r e assumed i d e a l , and t h e o t h e r r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e c o r r e c t i o n
r e q u i r e d t o produce t h e a c t u a l s y s t e m , t h e n a p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n i s
obtained.
Suppose t h e system i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y
Y Y Y (1)
= I © c
where Y i s t h e a c t u a l system m a t r i x
Y j i s t h e i d e a l system m a t r i x
Y i s the correction matrix.
c
The " r i n g sum" i s used t o i n d i c a t e t h a t s i m p l e a d d i t i o n o f Y j and

Y c i s n o t i m p l i e d as t h e y a r e n o t o f t h e same o r d e r as Y.
The r e q u i r e d r e s p o n s e , c o u l d i n g e n e r a l be f o u n d f r o m e v a l u a t i n g
a p p r o p r i a t e c o f a c t o r s o f Y. The r e s p o n s e when t h e d e v i c e s a r e assumed
i d e a l can be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m Y j by one r f t h e t e c h n i q u e s r e f e r r e d t o
already. The a c t u a l r e s p o n s e can be f o u n d b y d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e f f e c t
w h i c h Y p r o d u c e s on t h e s y s t e m and t h e n c o m b i n i n g t h i s w i t h t h e r e s -
c
ponse due t o Y j .
I t i s t h e r e f o r e p o s s i b l e t o observe t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e device
n o n - i d e a l i t i e s and p a r a s i t i c s , and a t t h e same t i m e u t i l i s e a h i g h - s p e e d ,
h i g h l y a c c u r a t e p r o c e d u r e f o r t h e main t a s k o f a n a l y s i s .
3ecause o f t h e way i n w h i c h t h e e f f e c t o f Y i s e v a l u a t e d i t i s n o t
c
p o s s i b l e t o e n s u r e comparable speed and a c c u r a c y i n t h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e

procedure.
I n the m a j o r i t y o f p r a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s i t i s o f g r e a t advantage i f
Y c becomes t h e n u l l m a t r i x i . e .
Y = Yj
Thus i t i s p o s s i b l e t o i n c l u d e t h e m i n i m i s a t i o n o f Yc o r some r e l -
a t e d f u n c t i o n , i n the general m i n i m i s a t i o n procedure r e q u i r e d i n the
synthesis.
A s e c o n d a r y f e a t u r e o f t h e method, i s concerned w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s o
s t r u c t u r e s , w h i c h d e p a r t f r o m n o r m a l t o p o l o g i e s , w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e t o gen-
e r a l .T.-Vthodo. ?o; i n r . t x n c e , i n t h e case o f b r i d g i n g e l e m e n t s i n p a s s i v e
l a d d e r , ; n n i y ; i i n i t v:c be r.occc"-.ry t o r e s o r t t o come goner.nl t c c h n i q u
ana f o r f e i t t h e b e n e f i t s o f c o n t i n u a n t o r cuu.ulant methods. V.'ith t h i s
t e c . r . i c u e t h e a r i d r i n g 5lc-r.5r.t3 ccv.id be a s 3 c c i ' . t e d v;it'r. t h e c o r r e c t ! ; . ' ,
m a t r i x .v.*.; tr.e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e c i r c u i t a n a l y s e d by r e c u r r e n c e methods.
I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e 1 0 a n a l y s e r . u l t i t s r - i r . a i a m p l i f i e r 3 t r u e t u r e s by
t r . i s t e c h n i q u e , t h e p o s i t i v e f e e d b a c k b e i n g a s s u r e d as a c o r r e c t i o n tor::..
2. The X-t • - -y ::. 01 t h e C o r r e c t i o n ::atri:-:
I n t h e case 0 : a d e v i c e w h i c h can be r e d u c e d t o s o r e s i r . p l e c o n s t -
r a i n t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o e l i m i n a t e a colur.r. o r row f r o m the a c r . i t t a n c e
m a t r i x , f o r one v a r i a b l e i s a d i r e c t f u n c t i o n o f a n o t h e r . The t e r r s
produced i n t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l rov; c r column can he s e p a r a t e d
i n t o Y as c o r r e c t i o n e l e m e n t s .
c These a r e termed c o r r e c t i o n e l e m e n t s
s i n c e i f i d e a l o p e r a t i o n a l a m p l i f i e r s were b e i n g used t h e y w o u l d be z e r o .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y i t i s n o t a l w a y s p o s s i b l e t o reduce a d e v i c e t o s i m p l e
current or voltage constraints without considerable d i f f i c u l t y ( i . e . i t
i s n e c e s s a r y t o produce an e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t ) . Even i n t h e case o f a
t r a n s i s t o r , v e r y complex e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t s a r e proposed w h i c h r e q u i r e
a c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m o f f a i r c o m p l e x i t y t o d e t e r m i n e them.
As i t i s p o s s i b l e t o produce a Y m a t r i x f o r any l i n e a r d e v i c e w h i c h
i s n o n - i d e a l , e i t h e r by measurement o r by m a t h e m a t i c a l means v i a t h e
m a n u f a c t u r e r s d a t a , i t w i l l be assumed t h a t t h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s s u f f i c -
ient. The terms o f such an a d m i t t a n c e m a t r i x w i l l i n g e n e r a l be r a t i o n a l
functions. I t i s t h u s n e c e s s a r y t o assume t h a t a d m i t t a n c e m a t r i c e s t o be
c o n s i d e r e d have r a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s as t h e i r e l e m e n t s . Obviously the
p a s s i v e e l e m e n t s w i l l n e v e r c o n t r i b u t e any t e r m l a r g e r t h a n a 2nd o r d e r
p o l y n o m i a l o v e r a 1 s t o r d e r one.
'•'hen t h e d e v i c e i s l i n e a r b u t n o t i d e a l some method o f s i m u l a t i n g

the i d e a l c o n s t r a i n t i s r e q u i r e d . T h i s i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by p i v o t a l c o n d -
ensation. I f a p i v o t o r a number o f p i v o t s i s chosen such t h a t t h e dev-
i c e i s e f f e c t i v e l y removed f r o m t h e m a t r i x , t h e e x t r a terms p r o d u c e d by
c o n d e n s a t i o n e r e s e p a r a t e d i n t o Y and t h e o r i g i n a l p a s s i v e t e r m s a r e
c
retained i n Yj. V/hen t h e n e t w o r k c o n t a i n s a number o f d e v i c e s t h e c o n d -

e n s a t i o n s t e p i s r e p e a t e d u n t i l t h e y a r e a l l removed. Thus t h e s y s t e m
m a t r i x has been p a r t i t i o n e d i n t o two new m a t r i c e s Y j , Y o f o r d e r
c
n = N - na where na i s t h e number o f p i v o t s r e q u i r e d t o remove t h e d e v -

i c e s , and X i s t h e number o f nodes i n t h e n e t w o r k .
1
i.e. Y = T Y T 0
T I (2)
. C
: Y
O J
The method i s n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o a m p l i f i e r s , b u t may be used f o r
s y s t e m s c o n t a i n i n g X.I.Cs., g y r a t o r s o r any l i n e a r n e t w o r k d e v i c e . How-
e v e r , as most d e v i c e s a r e f a b r i c a t e d f r o m o p e r a t i o n a l a m p l i f i e r s i t s
m a j o r use w i l l be c o n c e r n e d w i t h such a c t i v e e l e m e n t s .
3. The Development o f t h e C o r r e c t i o n ? u n c t i o n X a t r i x
I t i s now n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t o f t h e t e r m s o f t h e
c o r r e c t i o n m a t r i x Y on t h e system, r e s p o n s e f u n c t i o n , o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
c
immittances. There a r e a number o f p o s s i b l e ways o f d o i n g t h i s , and

t h e s e a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .
/3.1
27 2
_
l - i i - _ V - ^ * c i ^ -"
s
t h i s gives : = f_ + f (:.,
•,%-'.'. e r e f. i s some response function.

f_ i s the i d e a l response function
:\ i s the c o r r e c t i o n function
The d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f I T ar.d f„ i s e a s i l y d e m o n s t r a t e d by c o n s i d e r i n g
t h e method o f e v a l u a t i n g e q u a t i o n 3, w h i c h i s a g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t o f a
s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m f o r w h i c h the s o l u t i o n i s known [ 6 j . A s i n p i e p r o o f o f
the g e n e r a l technique f o l l o w s .
Vhooy..-.
The d e t e r m i n a n t |x + X -f . „ . . X " j where t h e 1,2, ...n a r e

s u f f i c e s n o t powers, can be c a l c u l a t e d by s u r g i n g i n d i v i d u a l d e t e r m i n a n t s
w h i c h t h e m s e l v e s c o n s i s t o f a l l p o s s i b l e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f columns o f t h e
1
X matrices.
D e :
I'iore e x p l i c i t l y l e t ( x ? ) , (jgÔp (z^)j1^he " i r s t , second and
n
t h i r d colurr.nn o f any o f tho n m a t r i c e s X', ...X , whore p nay o r may not
equal c and/or r .
Then l e t t h e m a t r i x formed by a s s e m b l i n g t h e t h r e e v e c t o r s be called

per
x *
Then t h e t h e o r e m states,
n
=
l ? f , l £lr*'| <5>
( a l l p o s s i b l e p, q, r f o r p, q, r = 1, ...n)
The r e s u l t i s e a s i l y seen u s i n g t h e t e n s o r n o t a t i o n . L e t 2 i j k be
t h e f u n c t i o n o f i j k such t h a t f o r i p j = k £ikj = - 1 a c c o r d i n g t o
w h e t h e r i , k , _ j i s an even o r odd p e r m u t a t i o n o f 1,2,3, ( O t h e r w i s e £ijk = o ) .
Then by a w e l l xnown f o r m u l a
jxj = eijk x .. x .
2 x 3 k
Thus ! £ x r'
oecom.es
x
li x c
2 j ' 3k tit
e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e e q u a t i o n ( 5 ; f o r r , s , t = 1 , ...n shows ' i t t o be equiv-
a l e n t t o t h e r i g h t hand s i d e o f ( 5 / which p r o v e s t h e theorem.
2 7 3
C'£.C .t—3U ^ 3 ^ ^ -Û 1 J ^ .

U I S G'T.— ^ , ^J.c 3U...matl On 01 v5?r.3 V.'1.1 ^. ".'1G-C r.- ^ , V,"c T G
13 SO'.'.S' C 0.'". 3 ZZ\:'. Z ,
•j 1 j a u v.... — — ~ .. v o ^ v ..... i ; . - . c 6 ^ ^ c v \j . C j... .'. , .. r . ^. z ^ r ~

U a v 1 ••' G GC c — 3 .-0 ou... 3 ^ .i. ^..c u'j u ^ J ^j ^ r ....3 _ r — C C 3 ... - ^ G r G*.zj ~ .U
of p i v o t a l condonon t i c n nr.: "char, t o cor.tir.ue r e d u c t i o n o f t h e resulting
p r e f e r e n c e t o f i r . ; / oth-?r because i . - -ha case vrher. a c o r r e c t ! o r . f u n c t i o n

;.u u r i ' . - i 3 requirac, ^.-^ 1 3 i,;.c o a p e r _ o r metnoc, s r r . C G ^— c c i a c t c r s a r e
e v a l u a t e d , f o u r a r e r e q u i r e d i n t h e g e n e r a l case, t h u s t h e amount o f com;
utation i s multiplied j.
The g e n e r a l p i v o t a l c o n d e n s a t i o n formula f o r a determinant i s

,' .
where X i s a d e t e r m i n a n t f o r m e d f r o m terms o f t h e t y p e
y y y y
i j ?i,?j - ?i,j i,?j.
?or a matrix the formula i s
the terms o f t h e m a t r i x X a r e f o r m e d as above.
'./hen Y = A + 3 s a y , t h e s e f o r m u l a e now become:
n-1,n-1
,(7)
n-2
^ n-2
4 <n-
u
-n-1,n-1 pj-.-j L Aa i n _i j n _ i ^
^ n-2
i s an n-1 x n-1 m a t r i x f o r m e d by t a k i n g a l l t h e p o s s i b l e c o m b i n -
a t i o n s o f rov;s o r columns f r o m 3, b a c k - s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e s e i n A and d e v e l -
o p i n g new terms o f t h e f o r m
y i j y?i,?j - ypi.j y,j,?j.

.J
A3 / âb,s v/here p = 1
^_ ^
s=
n-2 ..—c
;re <, i s t n e numoer 01 t i m e s any p a r t i c u l a r

anuears i n t h e expansion.
_r. t n e case o: tr.e i a e a - ana c o r r e c t i o n m a t r i c e s , t n e z e r o oack-suo-

: i t u t i o n s t e p i s o m i t t e d t o produce a c o r r e c t i o n f u n c t i o n m a t r i x . The
2 74
t o r m u i a e remain, ur.cr.s.
. • _ - -
1
.--3 w i _ _ oo a p p r e c i : »ou .re:.. \.-/ _„ i s n e c e s s a r y t o c o r s i c o r c. t o :
of ^ combinations of b a c k - s u b s t i t u t i o n evaluations i n general
r c o r r e c t i o n : u n c t i o n case. rnis is a orohibit-
- —o
i v e l y l a r g e nur.oer as n oecomes l a r g e , one i s tne m a j o r cisadvantage

t h i s p a r t i c u l a r method.
I n most n e t w o r k s i t i s h i g h l y
n e c t e d t o an a c t i v e d e v i c e , t h u s i t i s most p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e r e w i l l be a
number o f rows and columns o f Y w h i c h o n l y c o n t a i n z e r o . As t h e p r e s e n t
c
p o l i c y i s t o back s u b s t i t u t e columns, i t o u g h t t o be p o s s i b l e t o r e d u c e
the number o f c o m b i n a t i o n s c o n s i d e r e d by e l i m i n a t i n g t h e z e r o columns
f r o m Y , t h i s a l s o r e d u c e s s t o r a g e space. The o r i g i n a l column n u m b e r i n g
c
has o f c o u r s e t o be r e t a i n e d i n a c o u n t e r .
3ecause t h e number o f c o m b i n a t i o n s i s r e d u c e d a d i f f e r e n t d i v i s o r i s
r e q u i r e d t h a n t h a t i n e q u a t i o n ( a ) . O b v i o u s l y no t e r m i n a z e r o column
can be used as a p i v o t . I f nc i s t h e number o f n o n - z e r o columns, back
s u b s t i t u t i o n o f a reduced Y m a t r i x w i l l y i e l d
nc
, nc
~r combinations. Thus t h e number o f excess c o m b i n a t i o n s
r=0
produced v/hen z e r o columns a r e b a c k - s u b s t i t u t e d i s
n nc
n <w nc
r=0 ' r=0

The number o f excess terms i n v o l v i n g an apj_ p j o r a b p ^ p j term i s
n nc
i nc
2. c T - Z c
r=0 r=0
Thus i f o n l y columns w h i c h a r e n o t z e r o a r e b a c k - s u b s t i t u t e d t h e n t h e
m a t r i x ( b ) becomes
T ; U + ; L
^ n - l ,n-1 ~ ^ P1,?J V.PJ £, A3
^•1 II
c l.U
;c n
r=0
r.-2
2 r-
?
r=0
Lying these formulae c o n s i d e r a b l e r e d u c t i o n i n commutation wi

2 75
v cr u Z C -.'J c _ ^. — ev o ,— 1. "0 G C r.'J. Z c Z ~ L/ j-. C . Z~* C ^ c " "J \ l ^ 1. C '* Z "' "
ir.cr;'-so i r . r. t h e ir.crj::.\o i n ;k3c = f o l l o w s ar. e x t o r . - r . t i a l curve-.
.... „ * J.U ^ o '. .
+
; o r . s i c e r : = A, + A 2 ~ ••••
rev; ma » n x Y' ^ r . - ' / x vr. - '• ) ...ay 05 f err.ee. a c c o r d i n g to the r u l e
k = 1
m m-1
X / 1, ^ LVi * ^ A. j + V . 3 ... W
d d 3 ^
j = i +1 i = 1
VJ's a r e •.•/eights c a l c u l a t e d as shown l a t e r .
y
hj_ i s any m a t r i x X ± r e d u c e d by one o r d e r .
A-j_j i s any m a t r i x X-j_ w i t h a p i v o t column o r row f r o m X j s u b s t i t u t e d
and r e d u c e d by one o r d e r .
3^ i s any m a t r i x r e d u c e d by one o r d e r .
3 j i i s any m a t r i x °X^ w i t h a p i v o t column o r row f r o m 'A± s u b s t i t u t e d
and r e d u c e d by one o r d e r .
The v a l i d i t y o f t h i s r u l e may be e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g way,
t a k e t h e case o f m = 2, i f t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e Y' m a t r i x a r e examined i t
i s f o u n d t h a t t h e y can be w r i t t e n down as t h e s e r i e s :
°.
Y'ii jj = (x, x 2 t i,j>- zjti.pj, x^pi.j^r
r = 0
c
+
(x^pi.pj; x 1 i.i,j)- x ii,pjjx 1 1 (pj, jj)r
r = 0
q
•- 7 ^ (x 2 i?i,?:jx 1 \i, j)- x 2 (i,pjj x, ? i , j P r
4
r = 0
c
(>: (,?i.?ij
2 x 2 L i, j ; - x 2 (i,pj; x tpi.^r
r = 0
n-2
n-2
r = 0
I f t h e terms a r e c o l l e c t e d , t h e e x p r e s s i o n can t h e n be s i m p l y w r i t t e n
:
i n t e r m s o f t h e .. and 3 m a t r i c e s above. ? o r m > 2 t h e p r o c e d u r e i s r e p -
eated over a l l p a i r s o f m a t r i c e s .
c o m b i n a t i o n s , ano t h i s i s t r u e f o r a l l r., hence i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o

c o n s i d e r t h e l a r g e number o f c o m b i n a t i o n s n o r m a l l y r e q u i r e d .
2 7 6
.?cr ;er.er£.j. t r c o _ c . T . c: r e r a c i n g .-. + t.'.e we:_g. .t3 .. j_ as.-.urn 3 t h o _
value of u n i t y . I r . a case :aea o m i s s i o n o f c e r t a i n back-subs t i t u t i o r . o

are r e q u i r e d , i t i s necessary to determine r e l e v a n t w e i g h t i n g f u n c t i o n s ,
T 5 x 7 3 1
. •: T Vl2 "3 21 c 2 )
I f t h e zero hack s u b s t i t u t i o n i s o m i t t e d , one s e t o f terms o f t h e
t y p e A-. w i l l be m i s s i n g ; now i n g e n e r a l t h e r e a r e
n - 1
of these terms.
ience:
W. = 1 -
"> n-1
t c
r=0 r
£ S
Once t h e m a t r i x [A + 3 j _ - , -| h
n been s y n t h e s i s e d , f u r t h e r r e d u c -
t i o n i s a c h i e v e d by s t a n d a r d p i v o t a l c o n d e n s a t i o n on t h e s i n g l e m a t r i x .
4. Stor?:;"G R e q u i r e m e n t s and Pro-rani L i m i t a t i o n s
j'or t h e two main methods c o n s i d e r e d i t i s n e c e s c a r y to determine the
s t o r a g e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r each method.
4.1 Total Back-Substitution
In a l l c a l c u l a t i o n s i t i s assumed t h a t :
Y - li x ); x ( n p + 2 + nd). Array Y = network m a t r i x
(np = max. o r d e r o fn u m e r a t o r Y)
(nd = max. o r d e r o fd e n o m i n a t o r Y)
2 - (N - r.a) x (K - na) x (npc + 2 + n d c ) . A r r a y C = c o r r e c t i o n
matrix. (c)
npc = max. order of numerator C
ncc = max. order of denominator C
Y1 - (X - na) x (X - na) x ( n p n + 2 + n d n ) . A r r a y Y1 = ideal system
matrix. (lo)
npn = max. o r d e r o f n u m e r a t o r Y1
ndn = max. o r d e r o f d e n o m i n a t o r Y1
The w o r k i n g a r r a y Y".< has t o c o n t a i n t h e terms p r o d u c e d by substitu-
tion,
Y'.T - (X - na) x (X - na) x (npw + 2 + ndw)
where now and new a r e computed as follows:
npw.. = 2(npw.. ^ -t- ndw_. _^ )
ndw = 4 r.dw_.._ (
i = 1, 2,...(X - na - 2) new = npc ndw = ndc

o o
where npc and ndc are s i m i l a r l y calculated
+
npei = 2npcii_i + ndci_i nd
ndci = 2 ( n d c i _ ! +nd) + npcii_!
and npcii.i = max.(np + n d c i _ i , + npci_i)

YC - 2 x 2 (2 + [npwN_ _2 + npifl-na-3 +
na ndi _N n a -3l
+ [ n d W N _ _ 2 ] [2TNC
na (N -na) - 3])
..-ua
r.di = -£.:<. {r.r.r. + r.cc. r.oc + ndn/ r . o i . = r . t i . , -r r.c*. .

o " 1 1-. 1-,
upi Q = r.dr. + n i c ndi = r.di^, + npw^

i
i = 1,2, (N - r . £ - 3)
4.2 Xiniral 3sc>-3vb3tituticr.
The two a r r a y s G, Y1 a r e as i n e q u a t i o n s ( s ) , (lO).
Y1 - w o r k i n g a r r a y f o r t n e 1 node r e d u c t i o n .
Yi - (X-na) x (X-na) x ( 2 b p o + n d c ] + 4 ndc + 2)
YV," - (X-na) x (X-na) x (npw + 2 4- ndw)
where npw and ndw a r e computed as follows:
npa^ = max. J r.pa. 1 + 4ncc; 2 ( n p c + ndc) + nda^ ,
nda = nda^_, + 4 ndc
i = 1,2,3
r.pa = 2 ( n u n -r ndn/' nda = 4 ndn
o o
npvK = 2(npv.' ._, T ndw^ ^ )
ndw,. = 4 ndw._,
i = 1,2...(X - na - 3)
where now = noa„, ndw = nda_,
' o - y o 3
YC - 4 ( 2 -r n?i._ , + nt>w , + ndi . + ndw,.
v ,) v
* A-na-4 ' X-na-3 X-na-4 iM-na-3
4.3 C o r — r i s e n of Storage R"uirem%rts
Total Back-Substitution Xinimal 3ack-Substitution
X = 4, np = 1, npn = 1
na = 1, r.d = 0, ndn = 0 1 ,1 SO 1 ,1 82
.." = 5, np = 1 , npn = 1
na = 1, nd = 0, ndn = 0 S,"'0o 6,536
X = 5, up = 1 , npn = 1
na = 1, nd = 3, ndn = 0 61,500 33,666
X::tra s t o r a g e w i l l be n e c e s s a r y i n b o t h methods, f o r w o r k i n g areas
and polynomial handling.
I t can be seen t h a t as t h e number o f nodes i n c r e a s e t h e demand or.
s t o r e g e space becomes s e v e r e . This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y evident i n the t o t a l
b a c k - s u b s t i t u t i 0 n m e t h o d.
5. X- rrlr: -yr.:. Correction Tunction Xatrix
5.1 C o r r e c t i o n 7-jr.cticr. X a t r i "
I n most c i r c u m s t a n c e s i t i s u s u a l l y a d v i s a b l e t o d e r i v e c o r r e c t i o n
2 7 8
p a r a m e t a r s . o r a^... i as z .^:iC3 p a r a m e t e r s o_ ^".o n e t a c r a .

'Jr.ou O- r ;â.otna ~ao J U C T L . ^ c : r s c u i r a O L S oy usna"" tao n a v o t a _
t e c h n i q u e o u t l i n e d i n s e c t i o n 3. The common f a c t o r i s r e t a i n e d o u t s i d e
t h e main a r r a y , t h u s t h e o r a e r o f t a e i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s i s l e s s t h a n i n
t a e n o r m a l method. ".-.'..en t h e matri:-: has f i n a l l y reached 2 :•; 2 d i m e n s i o n s
t h e a c c u m u l a t e d f a c t o r i s t h e n m u l t i p l i e d i n t o t h e a r r a y . Hence o n l y a
2 x 2 a r r a y has i t s 3 r d d i m e n s i o n e q u a l t o t h e sum o f t h e maximum o r d e r s
o f t h e p o l y n o m i a l s i n v o l v e d . T h i s i s t o be c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e a l t e r n a t -
i v e s i t u a t i o n where t h e f i r s t two d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e a r r a y would be n.
5.2 Correction junction
l a some cases i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o d e r i v e a c o r r e c t i o n f u n c t i o n mat-
r i x w i t h f i n i t e p a r a m e t e r s . T h i s can o c c u r , f o r examale, an. a n e t w o r k
where t h e a c t i v e e l e m e n t has a c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e o u t p u t node, e.g., a
m u l t i - l o o p feedback network w i t h a v o l t a g e o p e r a t i o n a l a m p l i f i e r . I n such
c i r c u m s t a n c e s i t may be r e q u i r e d t o d e r i v e a c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e v o l t e g e
t r a n s f e r r a t i o ; t h i s i s a c h i e v e d b y r e d u c i n g t h e m a t r i x t o 3 x 3, nnd t h e n
e v a l u a t i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o f a c t o r s and e m p l o y i n g Cramers R u l e .
6. Analysis of he I d e a l System
The method employed here depends l a r g e l y upon t h e system u n d e r i n v e s -
t i g a t i o n , t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r such a method have been c i t e d e a r l i e r .
A system w h i c h has been o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t r e c e n t l y i s t h e
m u l t i - l o o p f e e d b a c k one j_7j , t h e ZY methods j,5,o] a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o t h i s
class of networks. A program A L A u t i l i s i n g t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s has been
w r i t t e n i n A l g o l and i s s u i t a b l e f o r i n c l u s i o n i n a c o r r e c t i o n f u n c t i o n
analysis.
The d e v e l o p m e n t o f o t h e r a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e s a p p l i c a b l e i n a c o r r e c t -
i o n f u n c t i o n a p p r o a c h i s t h e s u b j e c t o f f u r t h e r work.
7. Use o f o r o r r a m
As t h e m a j o r l i m i t a t i o n i s du- t o s t o r a g e space a v a i l a b l e on t h e
c o m p u t e r , a b l o c k s t r u c t u r e i s employed t o m i n i m i s e t h e s t o r a g e demanded
a t any one t i m e by t h e program. Sven so, a KD?9 w i t h 16K s t o r e w i l l o n l y
p e r m i t t h i s c o m p u t a t i o n on c i r c u i t s w i t h a maximum o f 5 nodes. I t may be
p o s s i b l e t o i m p r o v e t h e s t o r a g e demands by e m p l o y i n g m a g n e t i c tape s t o r a g e
and s e g m e n t a t i o n , t h i s u n f o r t u n a t e l y w i l l t e n d t o s l o w down t h e c o m p u t a t -
ion.
Of t h e two programs used, i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e one u s i n g t h e A i n i -
mal B a c k - S u b s t i t u t i o n Method i s s u p e r i o r b o t h i n t i m e t a k e n f o r e x e c u t i o n
and f o r s t o r a g e r e q u i r e m e n t s . A l l examples have t h e r e f o r e been computed
w i t h t h i s program.
An example o f a 2nd o r d e r m u l t i - l o o p S u t t e r w o r t h c i r c u i t ( P i g . 1 } v.a.s
examined whan t h o a c t i v e d e v i c e ( i d e a l l y an i n f i n i t e g a i n v o l t a g e a m p l i f -
i e r ) d e p a r t s from i d e a l . The i d e a l a n a l y s i s u s i n g program A L A took 4 sees,
o f c o m p u t i n g t i m e and t h e c o r r e c t i o n f u n c t i o n a p p r o x . 2 mins. u s i n g t h e
.-.Igol c o m p i l e r . The g r a p h s , F i g u r e 2, show t h e i d e a l r e s p o n s e and two
c o r r e c t e d responses f o r d i f f e r e n t a m p l i f i e r s .
6. Conclusions
A g e n e r a l technique f o r t a k i n g account o f n o n - i d e a l i t i e s o f a c t i v e
d e v i c e s i n n e t w o r k a n a l y s i s has been p r e s e n t e d . T h i s e n a b l e s t h e use o f
f a s t and a c c u r a t e r e c u r s i v e p r o c e d u r e s i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f an i d e a l r e s -
ponse and c o r r e c t i o n terms a r e s u p p l i e d s u b s e q u e n t l y . This technique pro-
v i d e s a u s e f u l a n a l y s i s method f o r i t e r a t i v e s y n t h e s i s where speed i s
vital. F o r t h e c o r r e c t i o n terms, w h i c h a r e e s s e n t i a l l y n u m e r i c a l and
r e q u i r e a I o n g e r t i m e f o r e v a l u a t i o n , i t may be p o s s i b l e t o compute t h e s e ,
27 9
r.imi:
•.'•:_£••.•: c: re
C e r t a i n l y t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t i e i d e a l response f u n c t i o n i s v e r y a c c u r a t e
as no r e d u n d a n t a l g e b r a i c s t e p s a r e p e r f o r m e d . There w i l l bo r o u n d - o f f
e r r o r due t o m u l t i p l i c a t i o n b u t t h i s i s n o t a c c e n t u a t e d by s u b s e c u e n t
subtractions. I t i s never p o s s i b l e t o c o m p l e t e l y e l i m i n a t e c o m p u t a t i o n a l
errors. The e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e c o r r e c t i o n t e r m s i s s u b j e c t t o t h e c o n v e n -
t i o n a l s o u r c e s o f e r r o r , b u t as t h e s e terms a r e u s u a l l y o f s m a l l m a g n i t u d e
and m i n i m i s a t i o n o f them i s u s u a l l y i n t e n d e d , any e r r o r s h e r e a r e o f s e c -
ondary importance.
9. A c 1-m o ••: I erir e me n t s

The a u t h o r s w i s h t o acknowledge t h e f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t o f t h e M i n i s t r y
of T e c h n o l o g y and t h e encouragement o f Dr. A.G.J. H o l t o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y
of N e w c a s t l e upon Tyne.
References
SXM/IRZYNSKI, J.K. "The e u
use o f d i g i t a l c o m p u t e r s f o r n e t w o r k a n a l y s i s " ,
The M a r c o n i R e v i e w, V o l . X X V I I I , Mo. 1 5 5 , 1 9 6 5 .
2. 3xNC-MAM, J.A.C. "A method o f a v o i d i n g l o s s o f a c c u r a c y i n n o d a l a n a l -
y s i s " , ? r o c . 1.2.2.2. March 1 9 6 7 .
3. STCRCM, L. " C o n t i n u a n t s - A s u p e r i o r t o o l i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f l a d d e r
n e t w o r k s and l a d d e r s o f r e c u r r e n t n e t w o r k s " , I . 2 . 2 . 2 . T r a n s . CT.
Sept. 5 5 . , p.444.
4. HERRMRO, J.L. and '.7ILLCUER, G. "Synthesis o f f i l t e r s " , Prentice Mall,
i c;
MOLT, A.G.J, and S3'.-/3LL, J . I . " T a b l e f o r t h e v o l t a g e t r a n s f e r funct-

i o n s o f s i n g l e a m p l i f i e r d o u b l e - l a d d e r f e e d b a c k systems", Elec-
t r o n i c s L e t t e r s , V o l . 1, Mo. 3 . 1 9 6 5 , p.70.
a m p l i f i e r d o u b l e - l a d d e r p a r a l l e l feedback systems", 1.2.3.2.

T r a n s CT, V o l . C T - 1 3 , Mo. 3 , S e p t . 1 9 6 6 , p . 3 2 6 .
,'JELL, J . I . " A p p l i c a t i o n o f a n a l o g u e c o m p u t i n g t e c h n i q u e s t o t h e
design o f a c t i v e f i l t e r s " . Ph.D. T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f N e w c a s t l e
ton Tyne, 1 9 6 6 .
-.a. t,h e m a t i c s o f C i r c u i t A n a l y s i s " .

- John W i l e y
r.c Sons I n c . , Mew Y o r k , 1 9 4 9 .
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PAPER 5
R e p r i n t e d f r o m The Radio and Electronic Engineer. V o l . 3 7 . N o . 4, A p r i l 1 9 6 9 .
U.D.C. 621.372.63
Matrix Tables for the Generalized

5=Terminaf Amplifier
By Summary: The paper considers the admittance matrices of the generalized
5-terminal amplifier and shows that the more commonly used amplifiers
J. I. SEWELL, are special cases of the model. It is noted that the single operational
B.Sc, Ph.D.j amplifiers are equivalent when included in a network.
AND The admittance matrices of a number of familiar amplifier networks
are listed in the tables.
F. W. STEPHENSON,
B.Sc., Ph.D.t
1. Introduction In the majority of cases it is reasonable to assume

Voltage operational amplifiers are familiar active that the common-mode input admittance y = 12
elements in electronics. Their characteristics have y 1 -> 0.

2 Similarly, the common-mode output
been relatively simple to attain using valves and, admittance j > = y -> 0. 34 Hence, in the tables
4 3
latterly, transistors. developed, these terms are assumed to be zero. I f in

a particular case this is not true then the appropriate
The present design practice allows the engineer to
terms should be included.
produce other forms of operational amplifiers such
as the transimpedance, transadmittance and current
types. 3. Amplifier Admittance Matrices
The paper considers these different configurations 3.1. The Amplifier ABCD Parameters
from a matrix standpoint. The admittance matrices Using the amplifier driving point admittances it is
of the various amplifiers are listed and their properties of value to derive the remaining admittance entries
are discussed. It is noted that networks made up from in terms of certain parameters and these admittances.
operational amplifiers have transfer characteristics It is found that only four extra parameters are needed:
which do not depend upon the particular type of open-circuit voltage gain A, short-circuit current
amplifier used. gain B, transfer admittance C , transfer impedance D.
In the final Section of the paper, the admittance Thus, in the case of a voltage amplifier the forward
matrices for a number of familiar feedback sections transfer admittance y = —Ay„„ or, for a current
nl
are presented. amplifier, y = —By .

nl For the transadmittance
ll
amplifier the only parameter which appears is the

2. The 5-terminal Active Device transfer admittance C. The forward transfer admit-
For the device shown in Fig. 1, it is assumed that tance of a transimpedance amplifier whose transfer
the internal feedback terms are zero over the range of impedance is D, is y = — Dyny„„, since the amplifier
nl
frequencies of interest. The definite admittance is assumed to be completely non-reciprocal.

matrix can be written down immediately. It is logical
to use the definite admittance matrix as in the majority
3.2. The Matrix Tables
of practical cases node 5 is grounded, hence this may
be treated as the reference node. The matrix is shown These tables are derived from the matrix of Fig. 2
in Fig. 2. by assuming the arbitrarily assigned voltage polarities
as shown in Fig. 1. Tables 1 to 4 give the matrices
I o
1 2 3 4
5 1 0 0
>'n -yi2
2 - } ' 2 \ 0 0
3 — >'3 1 ~>'3 2 J'3 3 -Jb4

Fig. 1. 5-terminal active device.
4 ->'AI -y*2 -y*3
t Department of Electronic Engineering, The University of Fig. 2. Admittance matrix for the 5-terminal active device
Hull. shown in Fig. 1.
The Radio and Electronic Engineer, April 1969 247

2 3 3
J. I. S E W E L L and F . W . STEPHENSON
for practical and operational cases, the parameter K malization is suitably performed. The voltage opera-
is a constant which tends to infinity. tional amplifier is therefore a practical proposition
Included in these tables are the matrices for the and in fact is the most common type at the present
common amplifier configurations, which are obtained time.
by eliminating certain nodes. The realization of extremely high input admittances
An interesting point to note is that the single is not particularly difficult with a common-base
operational amplifiers are equivalent when included circuit or with suitable feedback. But zero output
in a network. This can be shown by simple trans- admittances present a somewhat more difficult
formation.' problem, although circuits approaching this (output
resistances of the order of 50 MQ pr even 1000 MC2)
The hybrid amplifiers are given in Tables 5 to 7. 2
are not unknown. This makes the current operational
If there is 1 : 1 conversion from voltage to current, amplifier quite feasible, although, perhaps, rather
then A = C. more complex than the above.
3.3. A Comparison of the Different Types of Amplifiers The transimpedance operational type is probably
the most suitable of all, i.e. zero input impedance
In the physical realization of the various opera-
and zero output impedance, both of which can be
tional types it is obvious that some will be easier to
realized fairly accurately and simply.
construct than others. With modern techniques using
f.e.t.s it is possible to obtain extremely high input The amplifier which presents the most practical
resistances ( 1 0 11
ft) and, for a limited frequency problems in construction is the transadmittance one,
range, v , - » 0 . The realization of very low output
t
which requires high input resistance and high output
impedances ( < 100 fl) is common practice and appli- resistance. Although realization of this type is not at
cation of suitable feedback can produce very low all beyond present techniques.
values indeed. Thus y -* oo, at least in comparison
22 With regard to usage, if the forward gain parameter
with surrounding network elements, provided denor- (voltage, current, impedance, admittance) of an
Table 1 Admittance matrices for the voltage type amplifier
Configuration General amplifier Operational amplifier
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 . 4
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
General 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 - ^ 3 3 Ayi3 J\33 0 K 2
-K 2
K 0
4 Ay iir -Ay'44 0 v
44 K2
-K 2
0 K
1 0 0 X 0 0 0 X 0
Difference 2 0 0 X 0 0 0 X 0
3 X X X X X X X X
4 Ay^ - Ay xlr
X K 2
-K 2
X K
1 0 X 0 0 0 X 0 0
Paraphase 2 X X X X X X X X
3 -<<>'3 3 X .)'3 3 0 -K 2
X K 0
4 Ay** X 0 >44 K 2
X 0 K
1 0 X X 0 0 X X 0
Single in/out 2 X X X X X X X X
3 X X X X X X X X
4 A)u 4 X X v 4
4
K 2
X X K
248 The Radio and Electronic Engineer

MATRIX TABLES FOR THE GENERALIZED 5-TERMINAL AMPLIFIER
Table 2 Admittance matrices for the current type amplifier
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 >'n 0 0 0 K 0 0 0
General 2 0 0 0 0 K 0 0
3 - B y u ^ 2 2 0 0 -K 2
K2
0 0
4 Byll -S.V2 2 0 0 K 2
- K 2
0 0
1 yw 0 X 0 K 0 X 0
Difference 2 0 J'22 X 0 0 K X 0
3 X X X X X X X X
4 By ii X 0 K 2
- K 2
X 0
1 X 0 0 K X 0 0
Paraphase 2 X X X X X X X X
3 X 0 0 - K 1
X 0 0
4 By u X 0 0 K 2
X 0 0
1 X X 0 K X X 0
3 X X X X X X X X
4 By u X X 0 K 2
X X 0
Table 3 Admittance matrices for the transadmittance type amplifier
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
General 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 -c C 0 0 -K K 0 0
4 c -C 0 0 K -K 0 0
1 0 0 X 0 0 0 X 0
Difference 2 0 0 X 0 0 0 X 0
3 X X X X X X X X
4 c -c X 0 K -K X 0
•
1 0 X 0 0 0 X 0 0
2 X X X X X X X X
Paraphase
3 - C X 0 0 -K X 0 0
4 C X 0 0 K X 0 0
1 0 X X 0 0 X X 0
3 X X X X X X X X
4 C X X 0 K X X 0
April 1969 249

2 85
J. I. SEWELL and F . W . S T E P H E N S O N
Table 4 Admittance matrices for the transimpedance type amplifier
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
I 3'n 0 0 0 K 0 0 0
General 2 0 3*22 0 0 0 K 0 0
3 ~ AVu3*33 -Dy 23'33 2 3'3 3 0 - K 3
K 3
K 0
4 A v 11 3*44 "" AV2 2 3'44 0 3*44 K 3
- K 3
0 K
1 3*11 0 X 0 K 0 X 0
Difference 2 0 3*2 2 X 0 0 K X 0
3 X X X X X X X X
4 AV 11 3*44 "- £ 3 * 2 2 3*44 X 3*44 K 3
' -A: 3
X K
1 3*n X 0 0 K X 0 0
Paraphase X X X X X X X X
3 -Dyi 13*33 X 3*33 0 -A: 3
X K 0
4 AVll3*44 X 0 3*44 A: 3
X 0 K
1 3*11 X X 0 K X X 0
3 X X X X X X X X
4 Dy n >>44 X X 3*44 K 3
X X K
Table 5 Admittance matrices for an amplifier with hybrid input admittances
Type General amplifier Operational amplifier
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 3*11 0 0 0 K 0 0 0
Voltage output 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 - AVu3*33 ^3'3 3 3'3 3 0 - K 3
K 2
K 0
4 Dy u 3*44 - ^3*44 0 3*44 K 3
- K 2
0 K
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Voltage output 2 0 3*2 2 0 0 0 K 0 0
3 -^3'33 ^3*2 2^33 3*3 3 0 - K 2
K 3
K 0
4 ^3*44 "-Dy y .
22 iA 0 3*44 K 2
- K 3
0 K
1 3'ii 0 0 0 K 0 0 0
Current output 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 -By u c 0 0 - K 2
K 0 0
4 By,, -c 0 0 K2
-K 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Current output 2 0 3'2 2 0 0 0 K 0 0
3 -c By 22 0 0 -K K 2
0 0
4 c -By 22
0 0 K - K 2
0 0

MATRIX TABLES FOR THE GENERALIZED 5 TERMINAL AMPLIFIER
Table 6 Admittance matrices for an amplifier with hybrid output admittances

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Voltage input 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 -C c 0 0 -K K 0 0
4 Ay44. — Ay44 0 ^44 K 2
-K2
0 K
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Voltage input 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2
3 ~Ay 3i Ay i3
0 >"3 3 -K K 0 K
4 c -C 0 0 K -K 0 0
1 0 0 0 K 0 0 0
Current input 2 0 }'n 0 0 0 K 0 0
3 D
~ yuy33 Dy y 22 }3 ^33 0 -K3
K3
K 0
2 2
4 By n
-By 2 z 0 0 K -K 0 0
1 yn 0 0 0 K 0 0 0
Current input 2 0 yu 0 0 0 K 0 0
2 2
3 -By n By 22 0 0 -K K 0 0
3
4 Dy y^ --£>y y44.
Xi 22
0 V44 K> -K 0 K
Table 7 Admittance matrices for a complete hybrid amplifier

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Complete 2 0 yiz 0 0 0 K 0 0
hybrid 3 -C By 2 0 0 -K K2
0 0
2
4 ^ 4 4 "-Dy y .
22 44 0 ^44 K 1
-K3
0 K
1 .Vu 0 0 0 K 0 0 0
Complete 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
hybrid 3 -£.)'3 3 C 0 0 -K2
K 0 0
4 ^llJ'4* — Ay 44 0 J'44 K> -K2
0 K
-
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Complete 2 0 3'2 2 0 0 0 K 0 0
hybrid 3 - ^ 3 3 Dy y 33 >'3 3 0 -K2
K3
K 0
22
2
4 c -By 2 2 0 0 K -K 0 0
1 >'ll 0 0 0 K 0 0 0
Complete 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
hybrid 3 -Dy^y^ Ay 3 J'3 3 0 -K3
K 2
K 0
3
4 By -C 0 0 K2
-K 0 0
April 1969 251

287
J. I. S E W E L L and F . W . STEPHENSON
amplifier is extremely large and approaching infinity

then the values of the input and output admittances
are immaterial.
4. Network Matrices
H 5
In this Section a number of familiar amplifier
configurations are considered, together with their
respective matrices.
4.1. Basic Feedback Network Fig. 3. Basic feedback network.
The circuit shown in Fig. 3 has the definite admit-

Table 8
tance matrix shown in Table 8. For a conventional
voltage operational amplifier Admittance matrix for a basic feedback network
Y} Y,Y 2
e s y*
4 (>U4 + Y ) ( 2Y) y i l + Y + Y )+ Y (Ay„-
l 2 2 2 yu + Y: + Y 2
yu + Yt + Y,
(1)
This expression reduces to the more familiar one: j iy**+Y ) 2
YÂy^-YJ YMy - Y)
Y>1* = _ (2) + yn + Y 4A 2
e> Y y^ + Yt + Y, i + Y 2
2
if y l l t \/A -» 0, where A denotes the amplifier gain
4.2. Non-inverting Amplifier I

Figure 4 and Table 9 show the circuit and definite
admittance matrix respectively.
In the derivation of the matrix it was assumed
that
A . = -A =-A and y = y
tA 24 l2 21
Fig. 4. Non-inverting amplifier (I).

If we further assume that
y^^co and y ,)>i2->0
u
Table 9 Admittance matrix for the non-inverting
then
amplifier (I) (Fig. 4)
e_
±
(Y^Y )A 2 = ' + Y A
^ + Y (l+A)
e.~ Y, 2 \ Yj
if A p 1. y\ y, Y 2 2
2
4.3. Non-inverting Amplifier If yii+yl2 + Yi + Y 2 ! yu+y +Y l2 t + Y 2
The network shown in Fig. 5 illustrates a further

-yÂ (y**+Y )
method of obtaining a non-inverted relationship 2
between input and output voltages. From Table 10, , yn^yÂ- Y)2 , Y (y„A-Y ) 2 2
if we let yu+yu + Yi + Yi i + yu+y 2 + Y + Y

1 i 2
and
Y, = Y 2 = y 3 = y 4 = y
then
e A = YjY + yÂ)
s Y { y A Y )
* [(2Y+Y ){2Y 5 + ytt+ " ~
2Y
Y(y A+Y)]
4i
(4)
Now, if y Ai and A -> oo, then
e 2Y ±=
•(5)
Y5
Fig. 5. Non-inverting amplifier (II).

MATRIX TABLES FOR THE GENERALIZED S-TERM1NAL AMPLIFIER
Table 10 Admittance matrix for the non-inverting amplifier (II) (Fig. 5)
2
y, ', „ f., . y >,3
- Y 1 y 4 +
i • ,
\ yu+yi2 + Y + Y 2 3
y\ 2
{Yt + yÂ) y3(>'44^-y ) 3

v 4 4 +y +y3 4 +
Y,< Y (y**A- y ) >1 1 + ^ 2 + ^ 2 + ^ 3
+ 12 3
y n + yi2 + y + v 2 3
' -(y**A + Y ) 4
fy22+yi2+yi+y4+y5 Yy 3 i2
y* +
y\2
,vii +yn + Y + y J 2 3 Ivii + y 12 + y> + Y 3
3'n+.vi +y +y i 2 2 J
f>-22+yi2+y.+y4+y5"
L }'u +yu+ Y +Y
2 }J
Table 11
Admittance matrix for the voltage follower (Fig. 6)
yn -yiz
-{)'**<* +y ) i2 ' y**{l+A) + y i2

Fig. 6. Voltage follower.
3
This network can be used as a positive integrator.
(iii) Node 4 off-diagonal elements:
if
y, = 1/2K and Y = pC
s
then 'Sj.4 = 1-/1 ...(9)

1 y.i + f y
(6)
pCR
(10)
4.4. Voltage Follower
yn + f Y,
The circuit and its matrix are shown in Fig. 6 and i=i
Table 11 respectively. y 4 4 is listed in Table 12.
4.5. Summing Network 4.5. Differential Output Network
The familiar summing network is shown in Fig. 7
A configuration suitable for, say, a dual integrator
and its admittance matrix is shown in Table 12. In
is shown in Fig. 8 and its matrix is given in Table 13.
general, the matrix elements may be calculated from
the following expressions : As , - * 0 and j y 4 4 - » oo
(i) Diagonal elements (except _y 4): *4 _ ~ Yi A4 1

4
.(ii)
y* e~ s y 1 + y (i+/i
a 1 4 )
y „ . s „ = Y„
s
(7)
J ' u + Z Y,
If A, 4 > 1, then
-y> .(12)
(ii) Off-diagonal elements (except those including
node 4):
Also, if y 33 -* co
Ysj. s — •(8)
k c
3 _ y.î .(13)
>'"+iy e sY (I+A )+Y 2 1 3 1
April 1969 253

2 89
J. I. S E W E L L and F . W. STEPHENSON
Table 12 Admittance matrix for the summing amplifier network (Fig. 7)
Si s„ 4
2
y ! - y Y t 2
- Y Y„
T
- ^ Y,
1
v
-> 11 1 1
' .' n • X >i j'n + Z >/
ij
-Y,Y 2 ! ~Y Y 2 N
\ Y
yu+lY, y-n+lY,
y„ -y y„
2 Y„Y f
>>u + E y, j'u + E ^ >'n + E . ' y
0-44+y/)
y^j>44-y/)
+ y/(^44-y/)
>-u + E Y t >'n + Ey.-
Table 13 Differential output network
3 4
y> 2 y,y 2
S,o-
s y. 0
3 y
Yt + Yz + y^ 33
Y +Y + y
l 2 il
J
n-I0-
y +>44
Y (yÂ -Y )
l lA 2
2
^ 4 4 ^ , 4 - y ) n o-
Y + Y +y
t 2 n
2
y. + y +>-u 2
Fig. 7. Summing network.
5. Acknowledgments
The authors have pleasure in acknowledging finan-
cial support from the Ministry of Technology.
6. References
Fig. 8. Differential output network. 1. Sewell, J . I . , 'The Application of Analogue Computing
Techniques to the Design of Active Filters', Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1966.
If Al3 1, then 2. Baxandall, P. J . and Shallow, E . W., 'Constant-current-
source with unusually high internal resistance and good
e3 Y x temperature stability', Electronics Letters, 2, No. 9, pp.
.(14)
351-2, September 1966.
3. Kerwin, W. J . , Huelsman, L . P. and Newcomb, R. W.,
If y = pC and yi = l/R, then the network can
2
'State-variable Synthesis for Insensitive Integrated Circuit
be used as a dual integrator giving positive and Transfer Functions', Stanford University Technical Report
negative integrals of the input signal. No. 6560-10, p. 4.

MATRIX TABLES FOR THE GENERALIZED 5-TERMINAL AMPLIFIER
I
<N
—.
ca
ca
5S
+
<N
C/5
00
II ^
0) en
ca
U3
9
4>
ca
Hi
9.
ca o (J
CJ
E S
•a
ca
w UJ
-^/VvV—I
I—-W\A/—'
ca 1>
(/i •AWv-|l
UJ
CA
to
3 O
in
« 3 i/i
UJ
in UJ in
CA
<u
ks- A s - UJ
UJ
•=> ca
1 in
U.
K Co IV)
o, CS
April 1969
255
2 91
PAPER 9
I N T . .1. C O N T R O L , 1970. V O L . I 1. NO. 3, 479-488
Accumulant theory and applications

J. I . S E W E L L
Department of Electronic Engineering, University of Hull
[Received 14 January 1969]

The increase in demand for synthesis of active networks by digital computer has
accentuated the problem of producing fast and accurate analysis procedures. The
accumulant method is one technique which is applicable to multiple-loop feedback
systems and meets the time and accuracy requirements.
Modern optimization techniques used in iterative synthesis often require the
computation of partial derivatives; the accumulant method permits these to be
calculated analytically with great ease. The derivatives also find application in
sensitivity studies.
Using accumulant techniques it is possible to divide a large analysis problem into
smaller ones, thus reducing the store required at any one instant in the computer.
Various algebraic properties of accumulants are examined and appropriate proofs
furnished.
1. Introduction
I n recent years there has been an increasing interest in the d e r i v a t i o n of
algorithmic methods o f analysis f o r various networks. This has been brought
about b y the demand for faster and more accurate analysis techniques f o r use
on computers. General analysis methods are either not sufficiently accurate
(Skwirzynski 1965) or occupy so much computer store to make them i m p r a c t i c -
able. These difficulties are accentuated when iterative synthesis is considered,
and a t h i r d factor, the time occupied by the analysis step, becomes a m a j o r
concern.
Many o p t i m i z a t i o n procedures used i n automatic synthesis require the
c o m p u t a t i o n o f the p a r t i a l derivatives o f the error f u n c t i o n each cycle o f itera-
:
t i o n . W i t h m a n y methods this is not p a r t i c u l a r l y eas\ to accomplish, and i f
numerical d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n is being used inaccuracies are i n e v i t a b l y present.
Analysis met hods which w i l l meet the abovedemands are q u i t e wellestablished
f o r passive networks ( B a r t l e t t 1930, Herrero and W i l l o n e r 1966). B u t active
networks have not received as much a t t e n t i o n , although some progress has been
made in the case of m u l t i -loop feedback networks ( H o l t and Sewell 1966). These
techniques do satisfy the accuracy, time and storage demands cited above b u t the
c o m p u t a t i o n o f p a r t i a l derivatives, t h o u g h possible, is not s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d and
requires e x t r a p r o g r a m m i n g o f the computer.
The accumulant method enables the accurate and speedy analysis o f a m u l t i -
loop structure and permits an analytic assembly o f the derivatives.
2. Formulation of the H matrix

For passive ladder networks, it has been shown (Herrero and W i l l o n e r 1966)
t h a t i f a h y b r i d m a t r i x is considered, instead of an admittance or impedance
m a t r i x , then a simple method of evaluation of the characteristic f u n c t i o n s
results. A similar m e t h o d is applicable to m u l t i - l o o p feedback systems o f the
single and double ladder type.
480 J.I. Sewell
Consider fig. 1 and using the variables shown, it is possible to assemble
equations for voltages and currents as the m a t r i x eqn. ( 1 ) :
Z x 1 0 0 0 1
-1 ]'„ 1 0 e 2
1 Z 3 1 0 0 h
o - i y 4 i o
— 1
* 2.Y-4 1 ^ 2.V-4 c
2.\'-4
0 - 1 Z t v _, 0 '2.V-3
o o - i y ._ .
iA 2
_ c
2.\ —
^ is the number o f nodes i n the network.

I t is easily shown t h a t various characteristic f u n c t i o n s can be obtained, giving :
1
voltage gain G 21 =
. • j ri (^1 ^2.V-2)
i n p u t impedance Z — j^ TF :! (2)
n
(^ 2 •'2.V-2)
1
f o r w a r d transfer impedance Z 1 2 =
2.V-2^
Fig. 1
I
e
0 Z
! e
2 Zj %
I
Single ladder multiple-loop feedback system.
The terms i n brackets are called accumulants, i n this case t h e y are referred
to as single accumulants. They are similar to cumulants (Herrero and W i l l o n e r
1966) b u t because the f o r m of the H m a t r i x is slightly modified, d i f f e r e n t pro-
perties result.
Accumulant theory and applications 481
I f the double ladder feedback n e t w o r k of fig. 2 is considered, the h y b r i d

m a t r i x takes the f o r m :
r Z l 1 0 0
- l r,+ r 2 3 i 0 Y 2
o -1 z 3 1 0
o o -1 Y i + Y i s
Y A
~ 1 -^2.V-4l -^2.V-4
+ 1 2.V-4, 2.Y-3
0 -1 Z . _,
2 v 0
0 0 —
1 ^2A'=2 _
This m a t r i x leads t o double accumulants.
Fig. 2
Y
'2N-4
— [
Double ladder multiple-loop feedback system.
3. The relationship between single accumulants and the Eider form

I t is well k n o w n t h a t the determinants o f the matrices w h i c h lead t o simple
continuants and cumulants are s i m p l y evaluated b y a m e t h o d due t o Euler
( B a r t l e t t 1930). Single accumulants can be evaluated b y a similar technique,
which is now outlined.
Consider the h y b r i d m a t r i x o f a single ladder feedback system :
«1 1
0 0
—1 (/,, 1 0 . a 2
0 -1 «3 1 0 0
0 -1 «4 I 0 . « 4
where a, is an
a d m i t t a n c e or
impedance.
1 a
n-2 1 a
n-2
0 -1 0
0 0 - 1 a„
482 ./. / . Sett-ell
This can be separated into the sum of t w o matrices :
H = H + H, X
«1 1 0 0 0 0 0
-1 1 0 n 0 0
0 - 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 -1 °4 0 0 0
H =
-1 a
„-2 1 0 "a
0 - ] • 1
0 1 a„ 0
N o w | II | = | H + H j can be evaluated by a back-substitution m e t h o d

1 2
(Sewell and Nightingale 1969). As even- column o f H is zero, apart f r o m the 2
final o n e .
1 0 0
-1 1 0 a2
0 -1 «3 1 0 0
0 0 -1 «4 1 0 o 4
\H\ = \H \
1 +
1 a _ (1 2 I a n-2
0 - l aH - l - 1
0 -- 1 0
W h e n n is even
1^1=1^1-1,
n odd:
1^1 = 1^1
H is o f the correct f o r m f o r evaluation by the Euler method. The case when
1
n is o d d corresponds precisely to t h a t o f o d d cumulants. W h e n n is even — 1 is

present, this cancels the + 1 which appears i n the evaluation of even-order
cumulants. Accumulants are n o r m a l l y o f even order.
I t must be noted t h a t this is only t r u e f o r complete accumulants, i f , as is
shown later, even-order split accumulants or p a r t i a l accumulants occur, these
must be treated as normal cumulants. The exception to this being the split or
p a r t i a l accumulant which contains the final element, this comes f r o m a m a t r i x
which can be split i n t o the f o r m o f H + H and is evaluated as above.
l 2
The algebraic properties o f single accumulants are the same as those o f

cumulants (Herrero and Willoner 1966).
Accumulant theory and application* 48:5
4. The algebra of double accumulants

The algebra of double accumulants is somewhat more complex than t h a t o f
the single accumulants. the most i m p o r t a n t properties are now investigated.
4.1. Rule for expansion
Let
K a„) ©(*>! b _) =
H 2
I « , + &, 1 0
0 - 1 1 0 0
0 0 - 1 a, + b x 1
C„_2 + b)i-2 1 °;i-2
-1 a„_, 0
where a., (i odd) are series impedances,

a,- (i even) are feedback admittances,
bj (i even) are shunt admittances to earth,
(a, a )
M b_) =
n 2 {a —a„)
1
771
+ 2 &2i ( « 1 « 2 f - l ) («2l + l ««)-

1=1
771 777 — ]
+ 2 2 b b (a
OJ 2j 1 a ^ j ) (a 2 i + 1 fl,^) (a,, - +1
+ .. .
+ (b b . 2 t . • b _ )(a a .
n 2 1 3 . •(t â _ a ).
n H l n
n-2
m•
(wis even).
Proof
(flj a ) © {b
n 1 b __ ) results f r o m the sum o f t w o matrices:
n 2
A B
a 1 1 0 0 - 0 0 0
-1 a, 1 0 a 2 0 b 2 0 0
0-1 flg 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0-1 cr 4 1 0 . 0 6 4 0 0
+
484 J. I. Sen-ell
Using a b a c k - s u b s t i t u t i o n method, zero s u b s t i t u t i o n i n A w i l l , by reasoning

given earlier, yield the first t e r m of the expansion. W h e n a single finite b
column is substituted, a d e t e r m i n a n t of the f o l l o w i n g f o r m results :
«1
1 0 0
-1 a i 1 Co
0 - 1 «3
1
0 -1 a
t -I 0 0
0 -1 1 «.•
0 0 ai+l
0
- 1
a 1
,l-l
The evaluation o f t h i s yields (a J b (a^ a ), thus the second t e r m Y t n
results as a sum over a l l i (i is even).

The t h i r d term follows when combinations o f t w o finite b columns are
considered.
The f i n a l t e r m occurs w h e n all the f i n i t e 6 columns are substituted.
4.2. Rule for splitting

a a b b
K a> r r+l n ) ® ( l K r+l K - i )
a
= («1 d ) (°Wlr n) + K a
r - l ) («r-2 ««)
m
b a
+ 2 2i {(«! «r) ( « r - l 2 i - l ) + («1 a-r-l) ( « r + 2 «2i-l)}
i = « r + l)/2)
X{(«2i+1 «„)}
(r/2]-l
+ 2 «2i-l)} {(a»+l «r)(«r-l O.)
1 = 1
+ K +l «r-l)(Or+2 «<»)}
»l Hi — 1
+ 2 2 &2.MK a
r)(«r+l «2i-l) + (ai «r-l)(«r+2 «2,-l)}
J = i +1 i = l(r+l)/2]
X a
{(«2i+l 2,-l)(«2j-l «»)}
m (r/2)-l
b b
+ 2, Z, 2i 2i K «!(-l){(«B+l -«r)K+l %-l)
J = [(r+l)/2] < =1
x
+ («2f+l «r-l)(«>+2 Oy-i)} {(ffly+i "*)}
lr/2]-l [r/2J-2
b
+ 2 2 2 i h j ( « i «2i-i)(«2i-fi
j=i+l i=l
X (
+i «>)(«>+! « „ ) + («2> + l «r-l)(«r+2 <n)}
+ .. .
,((l-2)/2 \,»/2 ,
+ n K n « 2 y - ! « „ •
V i =l ' \i = l
Accumuhnl theory and applications 485
Proof
This follows s i m p l y by a p p l y i n g (4.1) and the rule f o r s p l i t t i n g eumulants
(Herrero and W i l l o n e r 1966).
4.3. Expansion by the a n term

(«i «„) ®{h b_) n 2
= K o„ + (a 1 a„_ ) 2
m
+ 2 K (O,. «2i-l){K-l + («2i+l «„- )} 2
£=1
m »! - 1
+ 2 S&a&fyK a
u-i)lfl*+i a
2j-i)
;'=i + l i=l
x a
{(«iy+i + (% i + »- )}2
+...
, <n-2)/2 \/i/2 \
b
+^ II 2ijlJJ^V-l J«n-
Proof
This follows b y a p p l y i n g the rule f o r expanding cumulants by the final t e r m
to the expansion o f (4.1).
4.4. Bides for partial derivatives

L e t si = K a ) © (&!
H b _. )
n 2
4.4.1. Differentiation by an a r term
= a r _ l ) ( f l r + 1 a , , )
da
m
a
+ 2 M«i «>_i)(«y +1 «2i_i)(oa+i J
! = ((r+l)/2]
[r/21-1
b a a a
+ 1 2i( l 2 i - l ) («2/+l «r-l)( r+l 0„)
1 = 1
»i »( —1
a a a
+ 1 I M 2 ; ( « l «Y-l)(«r-l 2i-l)(«2i+l i j - l ) ( V+l «n)
j = i + l !=[<r-M)/2|
HI |r/2]-l
f
+ 1 I M ;( 'i 2 «2i-i)(»2t+i a _i)(a
r r + i « ;-l)
2
a
x («2,+i n)
(r/2]-l [r/2!-2
a a
+ 1 2 M 2 > ( « 1 «2/-l)(«2i-M «2,-l)(«2>+l -«r-l)( r-rl n)
;'=i-fl 1= 1
+...
,(H-2)/2 \ / i i / 2 \ a I 1 71/2 \
+ n y n « y - - k , v + i i ,
\ ,=i ' v=i « r I o,i j=i )
S ; ' is the Kronecker delta.
486 ./. 1. Sewell
Proof
Apply rule 4.3 to 4.2 gives :
(«1 « r - «r-M « „ ) © (bi b b_
r! r i >> _. )
tl 2
a
= {(«! 0 r + ("l ,-z)} K - l «,.) + («1 «r-l)(«r-2- ""J
/ft
fl
+ I M[(«l Or-lK+K «r-l)]( r-l "2i —1'
i' = [<r-l)/2]
X
+ («1 Cf - )(rt'r-2
r 1 «2i-l)} {(«2i+l «,,)}
(r/2!-l
+ 2 «2i-l){[(«2,-l « r - l ) « r + («2f+l « r - 2 > ] («r-M ««)
1 =1
+ («2.^1 «r-l)(«r-2 <*»)}
m [r/21-1
b a
+ 2 2 Z i h j ( l «2i-l){[(«2i-l «r-2)]
;' = [ ( r + l ) / 2 | £= 1
x (a r + 1 a. ._!) + (a,,..!
2; a -i)(a ^_
r r a _ )}
2j x
x(«2 i J + a J
[ r / 2 1 - l [r/21-2
b
+ I 2 2ib (a 2J 1 a i-i)K-i
2 «2>-i){[K;+i «y-iK-
j=i+l i=l
a f a
+ («2>+l r- )] ( V l
2 «J + ( 2; +l «r-l)(«r-2 «»)}
m ;n — 1
+ 2 2 6 6
2i 2j{[(«l a -l)«r+( -l
r
a
Or-a) ](«> + ! a _i)
2i
;' = i + l i = l(r + l)/21

+ K a>+l)(«r+2 02i-l)}( 2i-.-l a a
2j-l)K>+l-
+.
+ ( <l!-2)/2
n 6
\ /n/2
2i)(n« ;-i)«,r 2
\
D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w . r . t . a leads t o the f o r m u l a given.r
Notice must be taken, however, i n the evaluation of the accumulants. As

dji/jda = I C |, where C is the co -factor o f the a t e r m , when r is even the a t e r m
r r r r r
appears i n t w o columns of the / / m a t r i x , thus dstfjda is the sum o f t w o co-factors, r
one o f these is u n i t y . Thus evaluation follows the rules f o r cumulants. H o w -

ever, when a b c o l u m n is s u b s t i t u t e d (4.1) and r<n — 2, 2i>r this u n i t y co-
2i
factor now becomes zero. W h e n r = n— 2, 2i < r, the t w o co-factors are a _ a n 1 n
and 1 because 2 i > n —2. Otherwise the split accumulants are evaluated as
indicated earlier.
4.4:2. Differentiation by a b term (r is always even)

r
g^- = («i «T-I) K+i c„)
r/2-1
+ 2 2i(«l 6
«2i-l)(«2/+l «r-l)(«r+l «»)
i=l
m-1
+ 2 6
2>(«1 °r-l)(«r+l fl
2;-l) K+l «»)
J=[(r+l)/2]
+ .. .
Accumulant theory and applications 4S7
Proof
Consider the expansion of (4.1), d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g w . r . t . b leads directly to the r
above expression.
4.5. Other algebraic rules

I t is possible to extend the algebra to include rules f o r other manipulations,
however this is f a i r l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , and the ones developed are sufficient in
the present context.
5. Evaluation of accumulants by recurrence formula

A similar f o r m u l a to t h a t which is used f o r continuants ( B a r t l e t t 1930) is
also applicable here.
lr/2)
I f C = (a,
n a ),n then C = a C _, + C,_ - £
r T r 2 V
C = aa
2 1 2 + 1,
C = a {a a
3 3 1 2 + ]) + a , 1
ill/2)
C n = aC_
n n l + C _ -
n 2 I8 ". 2s
8=1
6. Analysis of multi-loop feedback and feed-forward networks

M u l t i - l o o p feedback networks having one or more feed-forward paths have
proved t o be useful ( H o l t and Sewell 1965). I f the h y b r i d m a t r i x f o r fig. 3 is
assembled according t o the m e t h o d given, i t w i l l be f o u n d t o be non-square.
However, i f the n e t w o r k is fed f r o m a voltage source i t is possible to produce a
square m a t r i x . I n this case i t w i l l only be possible t o consider voltage transfer
functions.
I f the currents t h r o u g h the feed-forward paths are w r i t t e n as :
e
o Yf f i ,
the H m a t r i x equation takes the f o r m
Z l I 0 0 h
- 1 F + Y 2 m 1 0 Y 2 e 2
0 0 - 1 Z 3 1 0 *3
e 0 - 1 Y,+ Y Y*
o ^ ffi ffi e
\
2.V-4 1 T
3 2.Y-4
e
e
0 ^ //2.V-4 2.V-4
+ Y //2.V -4
0 0 - 1
0 0 1 I 9V-9
488 Accumulant theory and applications
Fig. 3
2N - !
Multiple-loop feedback system with feed-forward.
E v a l u a t i n g the appropriate co-factors yields t h e voltage transfer f u n c t i o n :
A'-l
(_l)2.v-i+ ^ Y j m & x Z»_ )®{Y
x m
Y,//<2i-2>/
i=i
'2.Y-2 X ( - l)2-V-2i + l
G 21 = -
:
\ Z , Y 2 X ) ©( Y m 3" /<2.v-4)")
/
For a double ladder t h e expression is :
J 1
i =l U //2 //(2i-2)) '
(T ,
9 =
( 3 "^(2.Y-2X2.V-l))\
—i\v)e! ;;
^//(2-Y-4)) 1
7. Conclusions
Computer programmes have been w r i t t e n using the algebra o f accumulants,
and have been f o u n d t o be fast a n d accurate. T h e m a i n advantage o f accumu-
lants is t h a t p a r t i a l derivatives can be computed w i t h ease, thus presenting an
ideal analysis m e t h o d f o r inclusion i n i t e r a t i v e synthesis. T h e derivatives are
also o f value i n sensitivity w o r k .
The s p l i t t i n g technique enables a large structure t o be dissociated into a
number of small analysis problems and thus alleviating t h e demand f o r large
storage on a machine a t a n y p a r t i c u l a r instant.
The m e t h o d is also suitable f o r literal analysis b y computer.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes t o acknowledge t h e financial support o f the M i n i s t r y of
Technology a n d D r . A . G. J . H o l t of the U n i v e r s i t y o f Newcastle upon T y n e f o r
advice and encouragement.
REFERENCES
BARTLETT, A. C , 1930. The Theory of Electrical Artificial Lines and Filters (Chapman
& Hall).
HEBRERO, J. L . , and W I L L O X E R , G., 19(36, Synthesis of Filters (Prentice-Hall).
H O L T , A. G. J., and SEWELL, J. I . , 1965, Proc. Instn elect. Engrs, 112, 2227; 1966,
Trans. Circuit Theory, 13, 326.
SEWELL, J. I . , and N I G H T I N G A L E , C , 1969, I.E.E. Conference Publication, No. 51,
p. 515.
S K W I R Z Y N S K I , J. K . , 1965, Marconi Rev., 28.
30 2
PAPER 13
3 0 3
I N T . J . KLECTROXICS, 1072. V O L . 33. NO. li. ()77-(i"!'t
Active circulator systemsf
J. I . SEWELL
Department of Electronic Engineering. University of Hull.
Hull, HUB 7 R X
[Received 15 September 19711
A general method for interconnecting active eir'ciilators is described. Various

circuits which are derived from the genera] system possess properties w h i c h an? of
significance in active filter synthesis.
1. Introduction
I t has been demonstrated recently (Rollett 1968} how versatile active
multi-port circulators can be, when used in conjunction with resistors and
capacitors to produce active filter networks. T h i s communication attempts
to establish a general interconnection system for multi-port circulators.
2. General configuration
Consider the following system
Gc,
i=i . . . n.
Gc n overall circulator admittance matrix. I t is skew-symmetric and of
order m . 6'c = 0. n is the number of parallel systems.
n 0
Gcc/j individual admittance matrix of the j t h circulator in the /'th path,

order m . i}
n number of individual circulators in the i t h parallel path.

t
K j phase relation matrix. I n order to specify the phase relationship

t
between the ports of a circulator, the basic phase pattern of an

odd order circulator is assumed for the Gcc^ matrix. T h e K ( j
matrix is a diagonal one containing + 1, — 1 and written as

{1, — 1 . . . 1), it is also of order m . i}
ecu a constant which determines the circulation sequence and assumes

the value + 1 or — 1 according to whether the circulator exhibits a
positive or negative sequence respectively.
T h e constants S are shift parameters used to maintain correct order and

sequence in the matrix addition. Their value determines how many un-
connected nodes (zero rows and columns) are to be added into the matrix.
r
.S' ( indicates a shift of the Gc _ imatrix to the right, i.e. zero rows and
l
columns added to the left-hand side of Gci_ v
S/ indicates a left shift of Gc _ ( v
r
S ( j ', are similarly defined but operate on the Gcc matrix.
(j
T Communicated by the Author.

T o prevent the generation of a singular set of system equations the following
constraints must be obeyed :
= n , a x :
• V . ; - i = *V ("'l.y-i
T h e equation given above will generate a large n u m b e r of possible ways
to connect circulators. .Some of these have relevance in practical systems :
the ones discussed subsequently represent a few of significance.
2.1. Two circulators in parallel, one of negative circulation sequence

7i = 2, n l = ] , fto = l , K 1 1 = K z l = I {I — identity matrix. T h e circulators are
of odd order a n d assumed equal) « n = + I, « 2 1 = — 1,
C r — V / _ r
«V =5 , ' = .- 1 1 °11 —
°21. —
=,v=°
~ 0 I - 1 .. - r " 0 - 1 1 ... 1"
- 1 0 1 .. I 1 0 -1 ... -1
9'tCll
1 - 1 0 .. . - I - 1 1 0 ... 1 .
1 - 1 1 .. 0 - 1 1 - 1 ... 0_
This is an interesting configuration, as it represents a circulator with a
reduced circulation conductance. Since inductors produced by these systems
are inversely p r o p o r t i o n a l to the circulation conductance squared, this system
presents a method of producing increased inductance values without loss of
Q. W i t h a single circulator, reduction in Q occurs w i t h reduction in g c because
the effects of amplifier parameters are no longer negligible.
W i t h g CCn =g. cr n a null matrix results, giving rise to a singular system of
little significance. F o r gCCn >g CCiil a circulator of positive sequence and reduced
conductance is o b t a i n e d ; similarly for g CCn >g VCll one of reduced conductance
but negative sequence results. I n n o r m a l applications (i.e. impedance in-
version) the two latter produce identical results.
Practical investigations of this reduced conductance property have been
carried out, using third-order (3-port) circulators containing operational
amplifiers (Rollett a n d G r e e n a w a y 1968). E n c o u r a g i n g results have been
obtained, although care has to be exercised in selecting the resistances w h i c h
determine the g i x of the individual circulators.
Another interesting aspect of this configuration is t h e prospect of producing
a balanced circulator from two unbalanced ones. T h e matrix of a balanced
c i r c u l a t o r is s k e w - s y m m e t r i c with identical entries ; if, h o w e v e r , the circulator
is u n b a l a n c e d but still reciprocal between the ports, the matrix remains skew-
symmetric but the entries are not equal. A second circulator m a y be used in
the above connection to ensure identical conductances at. and between, all the
ports.
2.2. Two circulators in parallel, one of negative sequence, and ] -port overlap
T h e significance of this connection is demonstrated simply using third-
order circulators :
Active circulator si/stf>iis 079
n = 2, iny = '.i, » =\. 1 n.,= \. •)))., = %, K n = I. K., = J.

l
= S : r
•V ' * i i ' = °- -V "• S.J=\. .So ' = 0.
L S. =\2l
- 1
I
' v . = './••• i (I
= a n t
I f 9cc ~(J^n
n * capacitors are connected across ports 2. 3 as indicated
in the figure, the admittance matrix becomes
0 - 9c 0
~9r 0 f'r
9c 0 sC 2 -<Jr
0 9c 0
Eliminating nodes 2. 3 from this matrix by pivotal condensation reveals a

floating inductor between nodes 1, 4, and hence a method for producing an
ungrounded inductor from two grounded capacitances.
a a
•c, sc 2
O
• f w r ^ — o
I 4
Realization of a floating inductance from two grounded capacitances.
3. Conclusions
There are many possible configurations which remain to be investigated,
the few shown here demonstrate interesting effects which result from inter-
connected circulators. One higher order combination examined has the
parameters :
H = 2 , H , = 1. /»j = -t. )(., = 1. / » = 3, K. 2 n = I. oc = u + \, a 2 1 = + l.
K u = {\, 1, - l , , v = .s' ' = ,sv = s ' = o, s ' = o,
n 2 2 1 v = i -
This circuit demonstrates an improved circulation conductance for one section

of the resultant circulator. I t may be of use in higher-order circulator filter
networks. With the higher-order configurations attention to the phase
relation matrices is necessary to maintain stability.
REFERENCES
R O L L E T T . ..I. M . , 19t>8 Electron. Lett., 4, 599.

:
R O L L E T T . .). M . . and G R E E X A W A Y . P . E . . 1908. Electron. Lett.. 4, 579.

3 0 6
PAPERS 1 4 + 1 5
'38 I E E E T R A N S A C T I O N S O N C I R C U I T T H E O R Y . V O L . C T - 2 0 . NO. 6. N O V E M B E R 1973
Symbolic Analysis for Computer-Aided

Circuit Design—The Interpol at ive Approach
J. K. F I D L E R AND J . I. S E W E L L
Abstract—Symbolic analysis using direct matrix and interpolation- active element is one which may have any degree of frequency
formula methods are discussed. The techniques accommodate passive dependence and can itself only be described by a symbolic
networks and active networks containing general frequency-dependent
rational-function matrix. An entry of the nodal admittance
devices, themselves represented by rational-function matrices. Subse-
quently, this leads to the development of partitioned analysis. The matrix Y will have the form
suppression of numeric common factors and the determination of the
order of complexity of the network are synonymous problems, and
.v !•/(*) =
simple algorithmic solutions emerge. Simple rules for the choice of <*//(*)'
sample points leading to accurate analysis are given. Implementation
yields a very fast computer-analysis method capable of accuracies com- Suppression of the internal nodes will yield a terminal matrix
r
parable with other current techniques. Y with entries
INTRODUCTION
'dm
T H E I N C R E A S E D application of the computer in design-
ing electrical networks has emphasized the need for
efficient analysis programs which are particularly useful in
where r signifies a reduced matrix. The problem then is to de-
termine the coefficients of these polynomials.
iterative synthesis. In this area of work, symbolic analysis, in A fundamental theorem of algebra states that a polynomial
which the network functions are obtained as functions of s, of mth degree is uniquely defined by the value at m + 1 values
the complex frequency variable, with either literal or numeric of its argument. Thus if a network matrix determinant or co-
coefficients, becomes quite attractive. factor is evaluated at m + 1 frequencies, the resultant de-
terminant values completely define the corresponding mth-
The traditional approach to symbolic network analysis using
degree network-function polynomial. If a sample value k
topological techniques has the inevitable time-consuming tree- p
(complex) is substituted for s in Y, y j j ( k ) will have a finite

generation problem for nontrivial networks. The straight- p
complex value and application of pivotal condensation to this

forward manipulation of polynomial matrices is also unsatis- r
matrix will reduce it to an appropriate size Y ( k ) evaluated at
factory due to the generation of common factors [ 1 ] , [2], p
k. This process is repeated for m + 1 frequencies s = k ,

although progress has been made in suppressing these [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] . p p
p = 0 • • • m, where m is the maximum order of the poly-

Eigenvalue techniques [5] also offer much promise in ihis
nomials in the final reduced matrix.
area. Interpolative symbolic analysis, originally proposed for
m m 1
passive networks [ 1 ] , [ 6 J , [ 7 ] , presents an alternative ap- IfF(s) = a i m +a _,s ~

m +• • • + a , s + a , t h e n
0
proach. This technique involves the determination of the co- [K][A]=[A] (1)
efficients of the describing polynomials by subjecting the net-
work to random excitations v/hich lead to either the inversion where [A] is a vector of functional values, [A] is a vector of
of a purely numeric matrix or the evaluation of an interpola- the required coefficients, and [K] is the (m + 1) X (m + 1)
tion formula. The computer implementation provides a very Vandermonde matrix of sample points.
fast analysis. By exploiting the standard form of the Vandermonde
matrix, a solution for the coefficient vector may be obtained
In the analysis of real active networks, device modeling
directly from
presents a complex problem. However, provided the device
can be regarded as linear, a matrix can always be made to fit Ml - [ A T ] - ' [ A ] . (2)
the device characteristics, although in general this matrix will
contain symbolic rational-function entries. An algorithm by Traub [8] has been used for the inversion
of [K] and it provides a fast and, for samples within certain
FORMULATION O F SYNTHETIC ANALYSIS bounds, accurate solution. The numerators and denominators
of the rational functions of the reduced matrix are assembled
The general network to be considered contains resistors,
by repeating this process.
capacitors, inductors, and general active devices. A general
The main advantage which accrues from such a strategy is
that once [K] has been inverted, it may be used for a variety
Manuscript received February 21, 1973; revised May 15, 1973.
J. K. Fidlcr is with the Department of Electrical Engineering Science, of analyses, providing the sample frequencies chosen remain
University of Essex, Colchester, England.
the same. A second point is that the accuracy of the inverse
J. 1. Scwcll is with the Department of Electronic Engineering, Uni-
versity of Hull, Hull, Yorks., England. matrix can be improved subsequently at will. By using an
F I D L E R AND S E W E L L : A N A L Y S I S FOR C O M P U T E R - A I D E D DESIGN 739
iterative technique [9] for a small number of cycles (not more (m - I )/2 (s + O,)
than 6), improvements of 3-4 orders of magnitude in the error F(s) =
r=0
£
n
of the inverse, for matrices of up to order 30, have been (=0
achieved. The only drawback is the increase in time required

for this extra process, the overall analysis time being more S J
+ 2(7, J + of + U)f V
7
(S)
than doubled. ( a , + Oj) - u)} + CJ/ + / 2 c o ( a t a,j J r r
A second method can be derived by manipulation of (1) to

In the case of imaginary samples which have particular relevance
give the Lagrange interpolation formula [10]:
in frequency-selective networks, further simplification is possi-
( -fe,
S
ble, giving, for m odd,
F(s)
•t{ A(*,) n I "
(3)
(=0 ^(m-Off 1 J(m-i)
i*r
F(s)
r=0 LI
[A(M.)1 + - / [ A ( M m
>)i n
For ease of computation in either (2) or (3) it would seem
reasonable to assign real values to the sample frequencies kh
and hence, only real arithmetic is requirec' throughout. Several

(6)
workers have adopted this latter approach [ 7 ] , but it has been l(w?-^)jj-
the experience of the present authors that while, in some cases,
An equation for n even may be derived, but it is computa-
satisfactory results may be obtained, there are situations where
tionally more cumbersome. In practice, (6) is used for both m
the error introduced into the coefficients becomes significant
odd and even, in the latter case selecting the next highest (odd)
to the extent that in certain examples the results are totally
integer for m. Although this overspecifies the interpolation, it
meaningless. The error incurred is found to be quite sensitive
is easily shown that the required number of determinant
to the locations of the sample frequencies on the real axis.
evaluations is not increased.
This may be shown as follows:
It will be noted that the only complex arithmetic required
Let
in (6) is that involved in the computation of the quantities
A(k )=A(fc ) + ,, e = 0
i 0 e 0 A ( / C J / ) . This is just the type of computation made in the more
conventional discrete frequency analysis, and so techniques
where the quantities e indicate the difference between the
f
used in maintaining high accuracy in such calculations may be
ith determinant value A(fc,) and a reference value, arbitrarily
employed here. Since the limits in the summations and
assigned to A (£,>).
products of (6) have been roughly halved, error propagation
Equation (3) now becomes
will be further reduced.
m
f S. T U - ki) 11 m It has been pointed out [11] that a similar reduction process
can be derived for the direct inversion approach. If F ( s ) is
=0
evaluated at sample value +fy giving Ay and at -kj giving Aj,
adding and subtracting the polynomial equations yields
A ) + A / _ Km-0/21
{ - h i m - «(»«
L (7)
1=0
The first term on the right-hand side of (4) expresses the

interpolation of a constant function, and therefore must con- (8)
2k, /=0
tribute to the a 0 coefficient. The remaining coefficients a, are
thus solely determined by the second term in (4). The indica- Taking m + 1 distinct samples, (7) and (8) become
tion is therefore that the coefficients a, rely mainly on the
[Z<'>] = [K^][A^]
differences between determinant values e,-, and if these differ-
ences are of the same order as the roundoff error incurred in [ Z ™ ] = [A: ] (J)
[A&]
the determinant computation, gross coefficient error will
ensue. The sample frequencies should therefore be chosen at where [A^] and [A^] ate column vectors of even and odd
( 2 )
the points where the network function is undergoing change, coefficients, respectively, and [ A T ^ ] and [ K ] are Vander-
that is, in active areas of the j-plane. monde matrices of samples.
1
"/hen m is odd, [Af* '] = [K^\, and when m is even, this
In the general case, the computation of (2) or (3) for com-
identity can be assured by increasing m by unity. Hence,
plex samples may seem somewhat daunting; however, if the
samples are chosen in as many complex-conjugate pairs as [AM] = [*<«>]-'[ZW]
possible, the property of network functions that A ( s ) = A(s) m 2
[A ] = [*•<'>]-'[Z< >].
may be recognized, the bar denoting complex conjugate. Thus
the number of determinant evaluations will be reduced, re- The Vandermonde matrix is approximately half the size
quiring \(m + 1) for m odd and ({ml2) + 1) for m even. ((m + l)/2, m odd; (ml2) + l , m even) of thai required in (2),
Taking m as odd, (3) becomes and again, only one inversion is required. If imaginary samples
740 I E E E TRANSACTIONS ON C I R C U I T T H E O R Y , NOVEMBER 1973
are used, A(-/co) = AO'CJ), then [ Z ( 1 )

] and can be anticipation of cancellation at the next stage, which of course
formed with half the number of determinant evaluations. does not occur.
As the samples in [K^ ^] are now either all positive or nega- 1
Obviously, numeric common factors in themselves do not
tive, this contravenes the rules for maximum accuracy as lead to problems as severe as those arising from algebraic ones,
described later, although halving the order does improve the but they are directly related to the latter in connection with
accuracy. the calculation of the polynomial order, which must be
evaluated precisely. In the absence of a satisfactory method
E V A L U A T I O N O F SAMPLED RESPONSES AND O R D E R for calculating the order of complexity of networks containing
OF COMPLEXITY complex (rational-function) active devices, an algorithm has
In the work on passive networks [1], [ 6 ] , [7] the nodal been developed to determine m from the known orders of the
matrix was considered as a polynomial matrix. Now, however, polynomial in the nodal matrix. The basic order of the poly-
a general element of Y(s) consists of a numerator and de- nomials in the data is stored in an integer array of equivalent
nominator polynomial which independently contribute to dimensions to the nodal rational-function array. At each stage
n'ij{s) and df/(s); hence, it is necessary to retain the individual of the pivotal reduction, simple manipulation of the integer
numeric values i / / ( f c ) and p for the same reason. If array will yield the order of the required polynomials.
straightforward reduction is now used to determine A ( f c ) , p
PROGRAM OPERATION
then difficulties will arise due to the buildup of numeric com-
mon factors. It is obvious that these common factors occur Programs utilizing both approaches have been written and
for the same reasons as the algebraic ones in the inversion of used on an I C L 1905 E and a PDP-10 in both batch process
matrices in symbolic analysis [ 4 ] , and an adaptation of the and conversational modes. Considerable experience has been
factor suppression techniques used in that work is appropri- gained in the analysis of both active and passive networks
ate here. using these techniques. Polynomials, with wide-ranging co-
A new term at any stage in a pivotal condensation process efficients, of order up to 39 are currently being generated with
is given by coefficients accurate to at least 4 significant figures. To com-
pute the complete 2 X 2 admittance matrix in rational form
n n
, _ ij kkdikdkj ~ n, n jd,jd k k kk d k k for a fourth-order active multiloop circuit takes 3 s and a
y
'' d d d d n seventh-order passive elliptic filter (8 = 6 0 ° ) takes 7 s with a
t j k k l k k l k k
loss of only 1 significant figure. A better than 50-percent im-

where k is the pivot node. Now d k k cancels; hence, provement in time over the conventional techniques was ob-
n'ij = n,jn d d - n n jdijd d'y = d j j d , d ) n . tained in the analysis of a network yielding a third/fourth-order
kk ik k j t k k k k k k k k
rational transfer function when evaluated at only 8 frequency

A further stage of reduction gives points.
The accuracy of the results is controlled to a large extent by
= n n
'ij 'k-l,k-\d't,k-\d' -\,j- k "'<,*-I -i, It-1
the choice of samples. The conjugate pair /co-axis interpola-
dli^d'l/dlic-td'it-t, »_|. tion formula has been found to be relatively insensitive to this
choice owing to the reduced computational effort required.
Forming the quotient y"j = ""//d/" reveals a considerable can- In some cases it has been found that samples distributed
cellation of terms. First, a change in subscript k to k + 1 and evenly over both sides of the real or imaginary axis yield
k - 1 to k aids computer formulation; if y k k is the current optimum results. This may be a good default choice when
pivot, then more specific information is not available concerning the ap-
proximate behavior of the circuit undergoing analysis.
1) the pivotal denominator d k k always cancels;
In the matrix implementation, the sample-point selection
2) the previous pivotal numerator/ijt+i,it-n cancels;
a n controls the accuracy of inversion of the Vandermonde matrix.
3) the terms d f , £/*+I,/»^*+i,t> d d +i cancel.
k t i k k
In Traub's method [8] the samples are always considered as

This leads to the following reduction algorithm: symmetrical, and practice has shown that for both real and
imaginary samples this criterion is again required. It has been
n'a = ( n , j n k k d i k d k j -n l k n k j d l j d k k )l(n + k l i k t l d ) r
found that as the order of the functions increases, the need to
d' j = d
i l i d i k d j/d k r
choose sensible sample points increases too.
where PARTITIONED ANALYSIS

In the iterative synthesis situation there may be sections of
dr - d it k *i d k + , _ / d », _ d k k k i k • i.
the network whose parameters are constant throughout the
The nodes are usually ordered such that the suppression optimization routine, and therefore it seems redundant to re-
process selects the largest value of k for the first pivot. Then peat the analysis of these sections at each step of iteration.
the initial conditions are = 1 and operations involving Decomposing the networks into sections provides a solution
dr do not take place. After the final step of reduction, it is to this and to the problem of large networks beyond the scope
necessary to multiply the denominators by n k m i n k m i n , as of a medium-sized computer. Another problem is that active
the n k k factor in the formation of d'y has been suppressed in devices quite often have large-gain parameters which in
I E E E T R A N S A C T I O N S O N C I R C U I T T H E O R Y , N O V E M B E R 1973 741
straightforward reduction cause numerical overflow after a ACKNOWLEDGMENT

number of steps. A solution is provided by appropriate choice The authors wish to thank C . Nightingale, I. Walker, and
of subnetworks ensuring suitable embedding for the active C. Fridas for their involvement in this work at various stages.
elements. A similar reason for choosing a partition to improve
the analysis occurs when the network has widely ranging REFERENCES
element values.
(1] A. G . J . Holt and J . K. Fidler, "The computation of rational
This symbolic analysis method can be adapted for parti- transfer funcUons," Inst. Elec. Eng. Conf. Publ., no. 23, pp. TO-
SS. 1966.
tioned analysis', as the results of one analysis are in rational-
[2] J . I. SeweU and C . Nightingale, "Correction function techniques,"
function form, these may be used as data for further analyses. Inst. Elec. Eng. Conf. Publ., no. 51, pp. 515-526, 1969.
The procedure is to suppress all the internal nodes in each [3] T. Downs, "Inversion of the nodal admittance matrix for active
networks in symbolic form," Electron. Lett., vol. 6, pp. 6 9 0 -
section using the methods outlined; the resultant rational 691, Oct. 1970.
matrices are then summed and the final nodes eliminated. (4| J . M. Carey, "The algebraic inversion of nodal admittance or
mesh impedance matrices for use in circuit analyses by com-
There is a limit to the number of partitions for optimum puter," Post Office Res. Dep., Rep. 99, 1969.
[5] G . E . Alderson and P. M. Lin, "Computer generation of symbolic
analysis, as there is obviously a point beyond which more
network functions-A new theory and implementation," IEEE
effort is being expended in separating and recombining the Trans. Circuit Theory, vol. CT-20, pp. 48-56, Jan. 1973.
network than in actual analysis. Networks having less than [6] C . F . Kurth, "A simple calculation of the determinant poly-
nomial of general networks," IEEE Trans. Circuit Theory
six nodes require more time for partitioned analysis. Studies (Corresp.), vol. CT-14, pp. 234-236, June 1967.
indicate that an optimum also occurs when each partition con- (7) O. P. D. Cutteridge and P. H . Di Mambro, "Simultaneous gener-
ation of the coefficients of network polynomials and their partial
tains approximately the same number of nodes. With some derivatives from the nodal admittance matrix," Electron. Lett.,
simple networks such as RC ladders with 20 nodes, experi- vol. 6, pp. 308-310, May 1970.
(8) J . F . Traub, "Associated polynomials and uniform methods for
ments indicate up to 85-percent improvement in analysis the solution of linear problems," SIAM Rev., vol. 8, pp. 277-
time. Further, this technique allows a different choice of 301, July 1966.
19] D . K. Fadeev and V . N. Fadeeva, Computational Methods of
samples for each partition. Hence, one section can be analyzed Linear Algebra. San Francisco, Calif.: W. H . Freeman, 1963.
using complex samples, another using an imaginary set, and [10] Z . Kopal, Numerical Analysis. London, England: Chapman &
Hall, 1955.
yet another with a real set. [ 111 C . Fridas, private communication.
Letters to the Editor
A Note on the Computation of Large-Change Sensitivities jF_ eAF

(2)
' ~ F&e
TOM DOWNS
where AF is the change in F resulting from a finite change Ae in e.
Abstract- A method of efficiently computing large-change sensitivities It was shown recently [ 1) that if F is represented by the ratio N/D,
is described. The approach is more general than an existing method in
that it is directly applicable to several network functions. &F = §e m
One measure of derivative sensitivity for a network function F with where D' is the derivative of D with respect to e.
respect to a network element e is given by the following: Equation (3) may be used to provide simple methods fur the evalua-
e&F tion of the change A f in the network function F due to a finite change
(1) Ae I.; the network element e.
~F~Ze'
In [ 2 ] , a method of computing the change in a response voltage due
First-derivative sensitivity is usually useful as a guide only in cases to a finite change in a network element was described. The network
where very small changes in element values are made. For larger was current driven, and therefore the function of interest was transfer
changes, we may define the finite-change sensitivity function impedance. For a single input current flowing from the reference node
into node k, the voltage at node m is given by
Manuscript received April 1 3. 1973. mk '

T. Downs is with the Mathematical Physics and Circuitry Group,
Research Laboratories. G EC-Marconi Electronics, Great Baddow.Chelms-
ford, Essex, England. where A is the determinant of the nodal admittance matrix and A » m is
462 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, MAY 1974
with C = 1000 pF, L = 14.6 mH, and using operational

F, • 6 3 . 9 4 K H Z amplifiers and diodes to approximate J(v,). F o r N = 4, the
(67 391 individually observed standing wave patterns and mode fre-
quencies, as shown in F i g . 2, were in close agreement with
• MEASURED theoretical values obtained from (3), (4), and (7). A l l standing
I I PREOICTED wave modes were observed for ;V = 1, 2, 4, a n d 6, i.e., for
N + 1 a prime number, but not for TV = 3, 5, 7, a n d 8.
F , - 3 4 34 KHZ The ladder oscillator presented here differs from other
(36.43) multimode oscillators [8], [9] in that its mode of oscillation c a n
be ascertained from the relative phase o f the node voltages
without measuring the frequency. T h e oscillator has also been
• IN P H A S E
- OUT OF P H A S E realized as an active RC circuit by replacing the inductors with
gyrators a n d capacitors [10].
F -25.97 KHZ
s
(25.74) REFERENCES
[1] A. C . Scou, "The distributed tunnel diode oscillator," IEEE Trans.

1 2 3 4 Circuit Theory, vol. CT-10, pp. 53-59, Mar. 1963.
(2] , "Distributed multimode oscillators of one and two spatial
dimensions," IEEE Trans. Circuit Theory, vol. CT-17, pp. 55-60,
Feb. 1970.
[3) G . M. Utkin, "Application of the method of slowly varying standing
F„-22.14 KHZ waves to distributed oscillators," Radio Eng. Electron. Phys., vol. 14,
pp. 22f 237. Feb. 1969.
121.89) [4] G . M. Utkin, "Theory of oscillators with cavity structure," Radio
Eng. Electron. Phys.. vol. 15 pp. 625-633, Apr. 1970.
(5] J . B. Keller and S. Kogelman, "Asymptotic solutions of initial value
1 2 3 4 problems for nonlinear partial differential equations," S1AM J. Appl.
Math., vol. 18 pp. 748-758. June 1970.
[6] R. D. Parmentier, "Lumped multimode oscillators in the continuum
S E C T I O N NUMBER
approximation," IEEE Trans. Circuit Theory, vol. CT-19, pp. 142-145,
Fig. 2. Modes of a four-section ladder oscillator. Mar. 1972.
(7] A . C . Scott, Active Nonlinear Wane Propagation in Electronics. New
York: Wiley, 1970, ch. 3.
[8] W. A . Edson, "Frequency memory in multi-mode oscillators," IRE
is substituted into (1). W e avoid these cases, a n d at the same Trans. Circuit Theory, vol. CT-2, pp. 58-66, Mar. 1955.
(9) G . M. Utkin. "The conditions of stability of simultaneous oscillations
time satisfy (6) by choosing N such that N + 1 is a prime in multiple-tuned oscillatory systems," Radio Eng. Electron. Phys. t
number. vol. 4, no. 12, pp. 59-73. 1959.

[10] R. L . Ford and F. E . Girling, "Active niters and oscillators using
These results were verified by constructing a ladder oscillator simulated inductors," Electron. Lett., vol. 2, p. 52, Feb. 1966.
Correction lo "Symbolic Analysis for Computer-Aided Circuit Design—The Interpolative Approach"

J. K . F I D L E R AND J . I . S E W E L L
1
I n the above paper, o n p. 739, (5) should be replaced with
(m- l)/2
( I m [&(k,)] R e [P ]r - I m [P ] r Re [A(M])fr - o,) + ( R e [ A ( M ] R e [P ] r + Im [A«r )] Im f [P ])a>A
r
r=0
2 2
w (Re
r [P ]r + Im [/>,]) <"-J>/2 j 1
. [I (* 2
- l",* + 0>, ) J
(5)
1=0 J
l*r
where
i=0
2 2
and in (6) o n the same page the minus sign between (s - cu, ) should be plus, such that the last bracket o f that expression reads
2 2
(i + rVVU-V - co ). r
Manuscript received January 16, 1974.

' J. K. Fidler and J . I. Sewell, IEEE Trans. Circuit Theory, vol. CT-20, pp. 738-741, Nov. 1973.
3 12
PAPER 16
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. CAS-21, NO. 3, MAY 1974 345
A„-2.1 = d„i2 + /7„_j/i„_, i 3 + H„. A„- 2

2 U
REFERENCES
[1] H . S. Wall, "Polynomials whose zeros have negative real parts,"

Amcr. Math. Mo,,., vol. 52, pp. 308-322, 1945.
*u = ^3, -i n + M „ + Hi<*i,«-v
2 (24) [2] E . Frank, "On the zeros of polynomial with compiex coefficients,"
Amer. Malh. A/on., vol. 52, pp. 144-157, 1946.
The general form for (24) is [3] W. D . Fryer, "Applications of Routh's algorithm to network-
theory problem," IRE Trans. Circuit Theory, vol. C T - 6 , pp. 144—
149, June 1959.
[4] C . F . Chen and C . Hsu, "The determination of root loci using
Routh's algorithm," / . Franklin Inst., vol. 281, pp. 114-121, Feb.
j = n - \,n - 2,• • - , I , A- = 2,3,-• -,n + 1 - j. (25) 1966.
[5] L . Weinberg, Network Analysis and Synthesis. New Y o r k :
McGraw-Hill, 1962, pp. 193-199.
Equations (21), (22), and (25) are used to obtain the [6] C . F . Chen and L . S. Shieh, "Continued fraction inversion by
continued fraction inversion. Routh's algorithm," IEEE Trans. Circuit Theory, vol. CT-16,
pp. 197-202, May 1969.
[7] L . S. Shieh, W. P. Schneider, and D . R . Williams, " A chain of
V. CONCLUSION factored matrices for Routh array inversion and continued
fraction inversion," Internal. J. Contr., vol. 13, pp. 691-703, 1971.
Two general formulas have been derived for the continued [8] C . F . Chen and L . S. Shieh, " A n algebraic method for control
fraction expansion and inversion of the Cauer third form. system design," Internal. J. Contr., vol. 11, 1970, pp. 717-739.
[9] L . S. Shieh, C . F . Chen, and C . J . Huang, "Simple methods for
The algorithms established are the generalized Routh identifying linear systems from frequency or time response data,"
algorithm and these formulas are most appropriate to Internal. J. Conlr., vol. 13, 1971, pp. 1027-1039.
[10] M . J . Goldman, "Generalized model for linear systems reduction,"
digital computer programs. M.S. thesis, Univ. Houston, Houston, Tex., May 1973.
Symbolic Analysis of Networks by Partitioned

Polynomial Interpolation
C. F R I D A S AND J. I. S E W E L L
Abstract—A method Is given for Improving the accuracy of the orders may be correct, gross coefficient errors are not
coefficients of network polynomials of high order produced by symbolic uncommon when the system order exceeds fifteen.
analysis on a computer, By partitioning the polynomials into sets of
One method which has been successfully applied to the
coefficients the order of the individual matrices involved is reduced and
so is the error when these are inverted. The problem is reduced to the analysis of high-order systems is to partition the network
Inversion of only two Vandermonde matrices. Considerable increases in [ 6 ] , and the results show improvement in accuracy and
accuracy arc demonstrated. speed of analysis.
The technique to be described now involves polynomial
INTRODUCTION
partitioning in an attempt to increase accuracy and speed of
A T T H E present time there is considerable interest in symbolic analysis on a computer.
symbolic analysis which generally implies the
POLYNOMIAL INTERPOLATION A N D PARTITIONS
analysis of networks by computer to yield the characteriza-
tion of the network functions as rational functions of the Following the interpolative approach [4] and considering
frequency variable s with numeric coefficients. Techniques any required polynomial
evolved so far fall into the groups of topological, eigenvalue J
f(s) = a 0 + as
{ + o i 2 + •• •+ a^T
[1], matrix inversion [2], and interpolative methods
[3], [ 4 ] . It is also possible to generate polynomials with subjecting the network to m + 1 samples of the variable
literal coefficients and an efficient method for semiliteral (complex) will enable the coefficients a; to be determined
analysis has recently been announced [5]. from
As the complexity of the network increases, so do the F = aA (1)
orders of the resultant polynomials, and the problem of
where A is the column vector of coefficients, F the column
coefficient accuracy arises. In fact, although the polynomial
vector of sampled responses, and a the [m + 1) x (w + 1)
Vandermonde matrix of samples. A may be found by
Manuscript received May 18, 1973. direct inversion or interpolation formulas. In direct
The authors arc with the Department of Electronic Engineering,
University of Hull, Hull H U 6 7 R X , England. inversion, error in the determination of A comes from two
346 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, MAY 1974
sources; first the evaluation of elements of F the control of where

which is discussed elsewhere, and second in the formation
1
Z),' = diag
of a' . There are numerous methods [7] which exploit the
cr c Vandermonde matrix of samples s , s - • •,s, - : U i t +h l
special form o r the Vandermonde matrix to produce good
A k column vector of coefficients a ,a ,- • •,a + - k k + i k l l l
inversion techniques; however, there is generally a tradeoff
F q column vector of sampled responses f(s^) f{s ,), y i+
between speed and accuracy. It is apparent that as order
"•./"(•Sl + A - l ) -
increases, then both of these parameters suffer. It is also
possible to improve the accuracy of the inverse using an Hence for q = • -,p — 1 and i = qh + 1,1 = 0,1,- • •,
iterative method [4], but again there is a penalty on speed. /( — 1,(1) becomes
Consider the system equation divided into p parts of
equal order h = (m + l)/p such that h < 15. If h is not
integer, add unity to the order, this only has the effect of
producing a zero leading coefficient. Then for part q, (1)
yields V.J
l
Da
0 0
As,) 1
o r * ,
A
T 0
1 5
I+ 1 (3)
(2)
S S
v . .
.1 l +6 - l Uh-l
T o solve for the coefficients a general matrix inversion
The sample matrix is not square since all the coefficients can
routine would be required. However, if D = b I, t being q q
only be determinea with all the samples. However, on
the unit matrix and b some complex constant, then (3) q
partitioning the coefficients into sets containing h each, (2)
becomes
becomes
F = £C4 (4)
m
where Z — diag (a ,a ,-• ',a -i) and C is a modified 0 i p
Vandermonde matrix. The problem is the selection of

./(Sf+*-l). samples such that (4) is invertiblc in a Vandcrmonde sense.
ih
Now the general element of D is s ; hence j * * = b; q r r q
T s, 1 s
l " Co 1
A-I take the Ath positive root as j , * = b^ ". Therefore

1 S|+l 3
I+ 1 a\ 1 2
s = ft, V " " * \ r = 0,1,- • •, h - 1. One obvious solution
r
is to locate these samples on a circle of radius giving

S S 3
t + A- 1 f+A- 1 ( +A- 1 . ."A-I 6, = p , V * « \ where p, is the radius used for the set of
s
C A+1 Ji + 2 -2A- 1 n coefficients q and c/>, is some initial angle for that same set.
i s
i s
l
Jl+1 ,.(1 + 2 2A- 1
5
( + 1 s
l+ 1
4
(+ 1 s
R
i+ 1
This yields a threefold choice in the method for determining
b Vq; the radius can be changed between coefficicrt sets,
q
* R A+'l 3
-.2A- 1 with <p constant, the initial set angle can be changed with
l + A- I 5
i +A- 1 1+A- s
i + A-l_ q
p constant, and a mixture of these two can be used.

q
k ;
Therefore a general entry of C is D, = p,*V *«""/, and it
i 1
is possible to compute A from A = C~ Z~ F using
- 1
Vandermonde matrix inversion only, as I = diag
>
(o- ~ ,a0 • • ,a~l j) and a, is Vandermonde too.
l
S (p-I)A J ( -1)*+1
P s (p-l)*+2 A still further improvement can be achieved. If the
JP- 1)*+ I
J
_((.-l)A+2 change in b is simple, then as the samples of a are q 0
i+ 1 *l + 1 1
J-,*!, • V A - I those of o, can be k s ,k s ,- • • fi^^ or q 0 q l t
2
J
.(p-l)A J
(p-l)A-n ( p - l)A+2 a, = c K where K = diag (\,k ,k ,-•
0 q • ,*$"'), k, being a
q q q
L i + A-l i + A-1 4
i + A- I 1 - 1 1
complex quantity. T h u s c , " = A , " ^ " a n d £ " ' can be
a
(p-l)A obtained by inverting only one Vandcrmonde matrix.
3
(|>-1)A+1 This method has removed some degree of arbitrariness
concerning the sample locations in the complex plane.
Certain further constraints govern the choice of circular
sample locations. Time savings can be made in computing
which can be rewritten as
the sampled responses svhen conjugate samples are used,
F , = a,A 0 + D q \ A l + •••+ C r ' ^ r i and with p = constant V, this property can only be
q
FRIDAS AND SEWELL: SYMBOLIC ANALYSIS OF NETWORKS 347
TABLE I
COMPARATIVE COMPUTER PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS
10 .» / KETVORX PARAMETER LINEAR CIRCULAR SAMPLES

0
S«<PLES WITH PARTITION
10
30-N0DE TIME (SECS.) 39 TO
/ STORE (WORDS) 2IK

2
10
/
/ LINEAR
llO-HODE TIME (SECS.) 72 1 13
10
5AMPl.es STORE (WORDS) 27K 22K
10
/
complete analysis is computed with p, = 1 + 5 (<5 « 1)

o and one with p, = 1 — <5, each contributing a set of
coefficients with maximum accuracy. Useful results have
10
been obtained with <j>q constant and p, variable, but it is
» obvious that for maximum accuracy p, can only be varied
over a limited range of values.
10
Table I shows relative time and storage requirements on
an I C L 1905E. The linear samples correspond to samples on
rill I I 1 1 1 I I the real axis for the straightforward Vandermonde matrix
0 4 > U It 10 14 IS inversion; computation time is for the complete 2 x 2Y
Fig. 1. Coefficient error distribution for a 29th-order polynomial.
matrix. The trend of the graphs of Fig. 1 is applicable in
these examples.
realized when = 0, which is restricted to one set of When the circular sample points are used, computation
coefficients. On the other hand when = OV? and p, is time is increased mainly because of the complex arithmetic.
varied, then this property is true in each set. However, as The main conclusion is that polynomial partitioning does
is shown later, there is not complete liberty in varying p . q improve the coefficient accuracy very significantly and also
Some compromise is obviously true for the variable p and q has the effect of reducing the storage requirement, but with
situation. some penalty in speed.
I f polynomial partitioning is coupled with network
PROGRAM APPLICATION
partitioning it appears that the time and accuracy bounds
The technique can be used in the analysis of all the for high-order networks can be successfully overcome.
networks to which the interpolative approach has been
applied, that is, passive networks and active ones containing
REFERENCES
general active devices with any order of frequency depen-
[1] I . Kaufman, "On poles and zeros of linear systems," IEEE Trans.
dence. T o investigate the accuracy of the method a 29th- Circuit Theory, vol. CT-20, pp. 93-101, Mar. 1973.
order RC ladder was analyzed and the coefficients of one of [2] T. Downs, "Inversion of the nodal admittance matrix for active
networks in symbolic form," Electron. Lett., vol. 6, pp. 690-691,
the polynomials compared vvith those produced by a Oct. 1970.
continuant method which can be assumed to produce [3] C . F . Kurth, " A simple calculation of the determinant polynomial
of general networks," IEEE Trans. Circuit Theory (Corresp.),
maximum accuracy for such a network. With constant vol. CT-14, pp. 234-235, June 1967.
and variable, Fig. 1 shows the coefficient error for (4) J . K . Fidlcr and J . I . Sewell, "Symbolic analysis for computer aided
circuit design.—the interpolative approach," IEEE Trans. Circuit
complete analysis with different sample radii. With a Theory, vol. CT-20, pp. 738-741, Nov. 1973.
relatively large radius large error occurs in the lower [5] G . E . Aldcrson and P. M . L i n , "Computer generation of symbolic
network functions—A new theory and implementation," IEEE
coefficients and the opposite is true for a small radius. Trans. Circuit Theory, vol. CT-20, pp. 48-56, Jan. 1973.
Unity radius yields the medium-order coefficients to [6] J . I. Sewell and C . Fridas, "General synthetic analysis of active
networks," in Proc. 2nd Internal. Sytnp. on Network Theory,
maximum accuracy. The coefficient errors for the straight- Herceg-Novi, Yugoslavia, July 1972, pp. 61-69.
forward matrix inversion with real samples is also shown [7] J . F . Traub, "Associated polynomials and uniform methods for the
solution of linear problems," SI AM Rev., vol. 8, pp. 277-301,
for comparison. A n improvement is obtained when one July 1966.
3 16
PAPER 19
Network partition methods for use in symbolic
analysis by interpolation
C . P H R Y D A S and J . I. S E W E L L
(Department of Electronic Engineering, University of Hull, Hull, HV6 7RX, England)
Symbolic analysis of networks of high order and complexity is not a straightforward process. The problems encountered
are usually enormous demands for computer storage and time together with inaccurate results. A number of methods
are presented which can drastically reduce the computer requirements and in some cases keep the computational error
to a minimum. The principle of the methods is to partition the networks into a number of parts, and techniques of
division and recombination ure developed.
(Received in revised form on 19th January 1976)
In recent years a variety of techniques for the symbolic it would therefore seem necessary to overcome the effects
analysis of networks have been developed. These generally which impede true partitioning in symbolic work.
fall into the categories, topological, eigenvalue , matrix in- 1
One solution to the elimination of c o m m o n factors on
10
2 3 4
version , state space and interpolative . T h e analysis has partition uses an artificial loading t e c h n i q u e . T h e methods
been extended to produce polynomials with completely outlined now obviate the need for any artificial elements.
s s
literal , semi-litera) and numerical coefficients in both pas-
6
sive and active networks. More recently , requirements in
tolerance, statistical, and stability analysis have demanded NETWORK PARTITION
the production of the whole inverse matrix. T h i s is a more
difficult problem to tackle generally, and the difficulties In Figure 1 let N represenr a network with a nodal admit-
encountered with the symbolic analysis of large networks tance matrix Y ; rhe sets 5, /, E containing all internal and
are sufficient to justify restricted attention to their solu- external nodes respectively, hence S = I U E. T h e nodes
tion alone although partition methods are of value in the are numbered in such a way so that if X, £ E, and /ly £ / ,
above analysis areas. A n y form of symbolic analysis will then A, < uy V i, j. Dividing N into d parts in an arbitrary
require more computer time than straightforward numeri- way, Nj, i = 1,2, • • •, d, then the s e t s S , , /,', £ , may be de-
cal methods, hence speed is a vital concern. fined as for N. Clearly, 5,- C S, / , C / and £,• C / , V i .
As the order of the network is increased, inevitable prob- L e t C;y be a set defining the c o m m o n nodes between
lems with the computer requirements for speed and stor- N j , Nji thus Cjj = E , n Ej. Define n, u, € as the total num-
age are encountered. T h e computation error apparent in ber of elements in S, I, E respectively, and similarly u,,
the results also gives considerable cause for concern. Some e, for S{, /,, £;.
techniques have been developed which do improve the per- A straightforward analysis of N can be achieved as indi-
formance for higher order networks and these include par- cated previously". A n improved condensation formula for
1
titioned polynomial interpolation and use of the F a s t evaluating the sampled responses is:
8
Fourier T r a n s f o r m . However, with large increase in net-
work complexity, these difficulties still increase in severity
and sparse matrix methods and network partition techni- d
1 0
"I; = ( ' U j ' ^ k ^ k j ~ °4k"ik"kjV"k*lJ<+\
q u e s provide ways of tackling the problem.
T h e principle and advantages of partitioning large net- n n n .
works is not new and has been amply explored in frequency
d
and time domain analysis since the early days of K r o n . N o l <r a (n n<& <»
only can large networks be considered, but, especially in
the case of electronic circuits such as integrated amplifiers
in which many sections are duplicated, the symbolic solu- where d^ is the denominator of rhe gh entry of the nodal
tion of these circuiis can be stored and called as required. admittance matrix,
Many networks are ill-conditioned, and by partitioning and
suitable normalization, various difficult sections with dras- k = ii, n - 1, H - 2, • • • , e + 1 and i, / = 1, 2, • • • , k — 1
tic component difference from the norm can be accommo-
dated. T h e application to symbolic analysis is not as T h e terms n'ijld,j and 'hj/djj are the new and old numera-
straightforward as initially anticipated' because of the tor and denominator, entries of the admittance matrix. T h e
4
interruption of common factor suppression mechanisms . pivotal condensation formula needs to be applied w — e + 1
However, the improvements due to partitioning can times and the reduction procedure to be repeated for every
amount to 90% increases in speed for some networks and sample point (a value of the complex frequency). Sparse
Volume 8 NumberJ July 1976 157

C. Phrydas ami J. I. Swell
Re arranging equation f3't gives

Nodes, f
1. 2.
il
/ Active network,N
Next, elimination of node n — 1 produces
"B
Nooes u "JL. >.!= 1. (4)
d'.'fi
' ij
Clearly, for k node eliminations, [n, n — 1, u — I, • •
n — k -t- 1} C Jg, equation (4) would be of the form
FIGURE 1. General network N
8
(«»-)
'n-k + \,n-k+\ ; j = I.2.- - k
S
<J
(4>
matrix methods and optimal ordering of pivots can be used (5)
at this stage to improve the accuracy.
When analysing a necwork by partition the network may When all the internal nodes of S' are eliminated, the inter- B
be divided into an arbitrary number of parts, but for sim- mediate state of the semi-reduced system has the form:
plicity a two part division, Figure 2, is considered. Let N , A
Ng be the two subnetworks and y^.yfj be the general en- Y; = \ A P g * \g (6)

tries of the nodal admittance matrices and Yg respec-
tively. where Y ; is an intermediate admittance matrix, YJj the
Thus, if yij is the general entry of Y, then reduced matrix of Yg and pg the last previous pivotal
numerator, i.e.
B
PB = ( » t l * i , _ * i ) - n +
Similarly, the following relations are valid:

An important observation is that equation (5) may also be
(a) y f j = 0 Viand i S ( S B - C A B ) with i^j produced by analysing N independently and computing B
PB-
(b) y f j = 0 V/'and i € (S A - C A B ) with i « / The next stage of analysis may be executed by eliminat-
ing the internal nodes I , which is the set I = {» — ii , A A B
c m a v t a e a n v
( ) yfj, yfj ^ values for {/, ; } C C A B n — tig — 1, • - , n — fig — fi + 1} . On eliminating the A
kth node \n 1 , >i — fi — k + 1, the new matrix entries are

A B
In cases (a) and (b) the entries of Y are formed entirely given by:
from Ng and N\ respectively, whereas for case (c) both
subnetworks may contribute. ,r" **B
l „ k
\ A B B
ln"- \
Set yjj = njj/djj, then equation (2) becomes (7)
p b + i n z U ) A
U) \ t * i " ^
•j
i , 2, , « - Ms "
d-ij 1/ d?ij '
On eliminating all the nodes in I , we have A
B B B
n - = rAd + n d^ d- = d*d - (3)
IJ i] i] IJ tj' IJ 'J IJ
The first stage of analysis would be completed when all A. (8)

nodes in lg are eliminated. Where "ij
l B = {», n - 1, n — 2, • • • n — )1 + l } B
Using the entries given by equation (3) in the reduction

formula gives:
B B B Nodes,t
n- • = {n*d
"IJ y
'ij t] u + "d*n
t ] )nt ] ' n d-d
n m n j • - (d*d
,
' i j )dt j ' ' i n 'nm n nj'
, K L
Nodes
B
d'
"ij = (d*d
v
ij -)d-
i]' m d nj-
But,
* \ Nodes Nodes
\
Thus,
FIGURE 2. Two part division networks
158 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

Network partition methods for use in symbolic analysis
Generally, after analysis of the &th part, the system may

be given by
k J
(in
1=1 i=**i
where
P = J | p,-and * = 1, 2, • • • , d - 1.
K
FIGURE 3. General partition structure

1=1
When k - d — 1, the last intermediate matrix is given by
d
where
(12)
PA ~ ^ ' n - M ^ + l . n - ^ + l '
the last pivotal numerator. r

Elimination of all the interconnecting nodes results in Y .
The new intermediate system, derived from equation
Therefore in general, for network partition purposes, a
(8), would then be of the form
network may be described by its symbolic terminal matrix
and its last pivotal numerator. Once these two parameters
Y +
, = * A P B n p A <9> are known, subnetworks may be considered arbitrarily and
t n e
the analysis procedure yields a solution without the normal
with P = PAPB (dummy) last pivotal numerator, Y ;
common factors.
is a new admittance matrix.
The third and final stage may be concluded by eliminat-
ing all the interconnecting nodes, C^g, using the full re-
POL YNOMIAL INTERCONNECTION METHODS
duction formula. On completion the required terminal
r
matrix Y is produced in symbolic form.
Double coupling
The procedure may be generalized for the multiple par-
tition structure as displayed in Figure 3. Assume a d part
The principle of this partition methdd is to select one sub-
division of N and let /V] be the first subnetwork to be
network, and perform symbolic analysis. Then select a new
selected. With \ j as the first intermediate matrix and
one, analyse this, and combine the two independent solu-
analysing /V, independently, the following system may be
tions. The resultant interconnected system may be analysed
constructed
by eliminating all the interconnecting nodes between the
Y two parts. The result is the symbolic terminal matrix of the
Y
? = Y
W i 2' (10) network consisting of these two subnetworks. A third part
is selected and the process is repeated. This iterative method
may be described by
where p ] is the last pivotal numerator of the analysis of N i .
Rearranging equation (10) gives H* i = Hip
+ f c + , + P J K Y S * = 1.2.
+ 1
, d - l ,
Y
Hl = L
v Yi +piY2
'/= ( w i 2 ) ' where is the admittance matrix of the kth interconnected
system, H% is the reduced matrix and p£ the last pivotal
i=3
numerator.
Selecting A'2 as the next subnetwork, analysis will yield When k = d - 1.
d
Y
<} = ( Wl2 Y
,) P +Pl 2
2
Y
Elimination of the interconnecting nodes of Nj would
r
i=3 generate H£ which is the required solution Y .
with P = p\p2 the last (dummy) pivotal numerator. Simultaneous coupling

Rearranging
The difference between this method and the previous one
is that both the internal nodes of the new part and the
interconnecting nodes with the current interconnected sys-
Y
\ j = \ \ p 2 + Y' p, . p , p , 2
2 i tem are eliminated in one step instead of in two separate
ones.
Volumes Number 3 July 1976 159

C I'hryJis ami J I Seine!!
Define the admittance matrix of the kih intercon- THE NUMERICAL IXTERCOXXECTIOX METHOD
nected svstem bv
General!)', the analysis of relatively simple networks bv the
G fc = G * - l + P k - i Y,,,A
k = 1, 2,
1 .d. interpolative approach is efficient and quite accurate. But
for very high orders and ill-conditioned systems the accuracv
0 , P = 1,
n
would tend to degrade after the solutions are interconnected.
Instead, numerical interconnection can be used when the
r
where P^ is the last pivotal numerator of the reduced sys- terminal matrix Y will be given numerically for every fre-
tem G t . quency point. The results would be more accurate bur
If k - 1, then G] = Y | . The first stage of analysis is to generally more effort is required and only the frequencv
eliminate all internal nodes of A/j producing the matrix domain response can be determined.
G^ and the polynomial p\. Next, with k = 2, G2 = +
P 1 Y 2 . Elimination of nodes in I2 and the interconnecting
nodes C j 2 gives G and pi- The procedure continues until
2
r r
k = d, when the required solution is given by Y = G j. THE SYMBOLIC INTERCONNECTION METHOD
The network partition method relying on artificial load-
10
i n g can be derived from the theory of simultaneous coup- It is possible to directly express the symbolic terminal
ling. Let Yfc be the contribution of the kth subnetwork to matrix of a two part interconnected system in terms o f the
that part of the admittance matrix G j which is affected by two individual solutions and hence substitution will produce
both the previous combined system and the new part. Thus; the general partitioned analysis.
For simplicity, consider two subnetworks N , A/ with A fl
G*-Gl_ I + P*_,(Y -Y k t + Y )
t only one interconnecting node. Y ^ , Y are their terminal f l
matrices and p , p the last pivotal numerators. If Y is the

A B f
and admittance matrix of the interconnecting system then
(13)
with P - p p A as the dummy last pivotal numerator.

B
If y f j and y® are the general entries of Y ^ and Y , respec- f i
tively, if node 1 is inpur and node 2 output, then
where 0
VUPB AIPB
= G,„ F* - l . and Y • Y, - Y; 0
t
AIPA A\PA (14)
Thus, the admittance F$ of the &th combined system AIPA yriPB + B

y uPA
may be formed from the current analysis, the last pivotal
numerator and the augmented matrix Y^. The intercon- Elimination of the interconnecting node gives Yjj, of which
necting elements of the kth part determine the form Y^ yjj is its general entry.
and thus their role is now more significant, so complicating For the general case^y = n-ld- and all y- may be given
the partitioning process. in terms of y$, yf- and p ,p as: A B
N d + d D d
"11 = P B n u A i ^ A A x A v u = n ? i
B d = d d
Independent coupling "12= - « 1 2 1 2 . 12 U \ 2
In this method, each subnetwork is analysed independently "21 = - n

i \ n
i v d
i \ = ^ l ^ f l
producing Y f and p, from Y,-. A single interconnected sys-
tem may be constructed with an admittance matrix Y ; + d B d B d D d
"22 = PA^\AI \\ \ l l 1"22"22. ^22 = U 2 2
given by
where
d
d d
< = A A l n 4 l " n 4 A 2 » l l V p A >
;=i
d
°ii = * A A A x
where
B
and similarly for D j.
B
d The terms D ^ j , N ,Df 1 1 may be obtained f r o m the
s
individual analyses of and . V in the same way as njy,
P U P d f j , nfj, d f j are obtained.
i=i It is possible to continue the analysis in an iterative man
ner by considering n-, d- as the solution of a single part
the last dummy pivotal numerator of the above system. and selecting a new part. However, the terms N J J , D J J and
r
On elimination of all the interconnecting nodes, Y = Yf. p for the analysed interconnected system need to be com-

Network partition methods for use m symbolic analysis
puted. A further application of the pivotal condensation Double coupling:

formula yields
2 3 2 2 2
T„ = 44<r - l ) , j + (66r + 152r + 5 5 ) i / + (798> +
2
1242r + 6S6)d - (133r + 3 32r).
l v ! A
. \ n - "i]«22 'l2''2l' ll "22"22'M2' 21 n
Simultaneous coupling:
2 3 4 3 2 2
T c = 44(t - l ) , * + ( 7 r - 13r + 9 8 r - 29r - 204)<i
and 4 3
+ ( 6 r + 26r + 75r - 57r + 159W - (39» + 40r 2 3 2
+ n d
P = p «22''llf l P,\ 1\ 22 - 14r),
The major error at this stage is polynomial division and
as this is not encountered in the formation of Yjj, computa- Symbolic interconnection:
tion error is expected to be kept to a minimum. In fact, the
2 2 4 2
accuracy of the interconnection polynomials is only slightly T D = ( 9 r - 8r - \ )d + (13r + 169r - U6r)d -
inferior to that of the fundamental ones.
(18r + 2)
An attempt to generalize symbolic interconnection to
cater for a number of interconnection nodes has encoun-
The degree of approximation in the estimated computer
tered problems with the enormous number of polynomial
time is displayed in Figure 4. The actual times are taken
combinations required.
from computations on an ICL 1905E, and the difference
between actual and estimated is accounted for as routine
COMPARISON OF THE NETWORK machine calling times. Figure 5 shows the relative merits of
PA R TITION METHODS the various partition methods and the following conclusions
The number of arithmetic operations required to be exe- may be drawn:
cuted in each method of analysis is a good indicator of the (i) Tearing the network into relatively large subnetworks
relative efficiency. Since the straightforward symbolic may not produce the best results.
analysis is the basis of all partition methods, it is also con- (ii) The analysis speed may fall with the increase in the
sidered as the basis for estimating the computing time. number of parts.
If T is the estimated computing time, then
(iii) There exists an optimum number of parts for which
T = (effort to load the numerical nodal admittance the computation time is a minimum.
matrix for all samples) (iv) It is possible to analyse large networks within practical
+ (effort to compute all the polynomial responses) limits.
+ (effort to invert the Vandemonde matrix) Conclusions (ii) and (iii) may not be immediately appa-
+ (effort to compute the polynomial coefficients) rent for the symbolic interconnection technique but they
Assuming an n-node, e-terminal network having N con- c
can be verified by observing the continuously decreasing
ductances, N resistors, NQ capacitors, N inductors, with
K L
separation of the curves for equal increases in the number of
R as the total number of coefficients of the polynomials parts. The curves will cross each other for very large net-
representing the active devices, then from the Appendix works. This phenomenon is due to the relatively low effort
required for interconnection.
T = (m + 1X12R + 32Q + 1 UN R + 12SN L + 84/V +c
In Figure 6 the existence of an optimum number of
parts is displayed. Comparing the network partition methods
68N ) C
+ 25(m + l ) l » ( n - l ) ( 2 n - 1) - e(e - 1)(2<? - 1)) io", • 1
+ 11 m(m + 1)
2 2
+ 26e (m -r l ) (15) 0
Actual
where m is the maximum order and Q is the total number
of entries of all matrices entered as data. 10
To facilitate comparison a very simple RC ladder network
has been selected. Equation (15) then reduces to Estimated
4 2 10
T= 1 3 » + 178n - \62>i,
since i V = N = m = n — 1, c = 2. It is to be noted that the

c c
4 I
complex conjugate and passivity properties have been used.
Now assume the network is divided into d identical sub-
networks each of r nodes;then for
1 1 1 1
0 II '
Independent coupling: 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Number of nodes
4 } 2 2
T A = 13(r - l)d + 13(3r - 2)d + (13 3r - 1 lOr + I6)d FIGURE 4. Actual and estimated computing times for
4
+ ( 1 3 r + 178r + 80r - l\i)d 2
+ 110, straightforward analysis
Volumes Number 3 July 1976 161

C. PbryJas an J J. I. Sewell
Number of ports
Symbolic interconnection
Independent coupling
Double coupling
Simultoneous coupling
200 24 0 280 400 440

Number of nodes
FIGURE 5. Performance characteristics of the partition methods
it may be seen that the symbolic interconnection has the minimum. Typical error performance of symbolic inter-
greatest speed, while the independent coupling method connection is shown in Figure 7. The high accuracy property
takes the second place f o r a relatively small number of of this method is a very attractive feature and it is hoped
parts. The performance of independent coupling rapidly that a similar characteristic will be repeated for the general
deteriorates for a large number of parts. multiple node symbolic interconnection case.
The first three network partition techniques have similar The comparative performances of the partition methods
7
accuracy, especially when polynomial partitioning is used. when applied to a conventional high input-impedance
However, the symbolic interconnection method shows very amplifier circuit, Figure 8, are given in Table 1; a two part
considerable increases in accuracy. As no interpolation is division is used. The times quoted are those experienced
required for the computation of polynomials of the inter- in computing the overall 2 X 2 admittance matrix in sym-
mediate interconnected systems, the error is reduced to a bolic form. Because of the relatively low order of the net-
work, the improvements due to partition are less dramatic
than encountered with higher order circuits. This is parti-
cularly true of the symbolic interconnection case whose
performance easily exceeds the other methods f o r higher
order networks.
Symbolic interconnection More impressive results have been obtained in the analy-
sis of larger active networks, for instance, partitioned analy-
sis (double coupling) of the SN 72741 amplifier improved
the analysis time by 70% to 4 sees. For medium sized net-
works up to 100 nodes the partitioned methods work quite
S 10 efficiently. A n active network with 144 nodes proved about
__Double coupling the present limit, the restrictions on network complexity
come mainly from accuracy problems in the resultant poly-
Simultaneous coupling
nomial coefficients. Very large polynomials generally have
Independent coupling a wide range of coefficient magnitudes and the smaller ones
are easily submerged by the consequences of a finite word
length. Further errors occur in the evaluation of the
sampled tesponses in very high order systems, although
numerical methods for controlling these are available.
2 6 10 14 18 22 26 30
Number of parts
Simple inversion of the Vandermonde matrix would often
lead to serious errors due to ill-conditioning. A number of
FIGURE 6. Speed comparison of the partition methods for methods are known for overcoming this; two alternatives'' *
a 61 node RC-ladder have been used in this work.

Network partition methods for use in symbolic analysis
y
TABLE 1. Com oarative performance parameters o[ pa 'i-
lion methods in attiplifier analysis
Mogmtude
Figure of
Merit
Computer Straight-
Require- forward/
Method Parameter ments Partition
Straightforward Time (s) 9 _

Store ( k words) 13.2
Double Time (s) 5 1.80
coupling Store (k words) 13.6 0.97
Simultaneous Time (s) 7 1.29

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Coefficient index coupling Store (k words) 11.9 1.11
Independent Time (s) 4 2.25
FIGURE 7. Error distribution for the symbolic intercon-
coupling Store (k words) 16.0 0.85
nection method (22-part division of a 146 node ladder)
Symbolic Time (s) 6 1.50
Obviously when large networks are considered there are interconnection Store (k words) 17.1 0.77
problems with the amount of data required. Efforts have
been made to reduce the user participation needed, some But the partition methods can be easily applied to semi-
thought is required concerning the sections to be partitioned, literal analysis to some advantage.
but once the nodes in each part are specified, the remaining
It would seem that the difficulties in symbolic analysis
process is fully automatic. New subnetwork nodes can be
caused by speed, storage and error problems for high order
chosen as required. The library concept has been used to
networks, can be contained so that successful analysis of
great advantage, symbolic matrices for transistors, amplifiers
active and passive networks can be achieved.
or subnetworks which occur frequently are computed and
For extremely large networks the polynomials would be
stored. Both internal and external library facilities are
of such high order and the computation error of such magni
available. This has proved especially useful in the analysis
tude that symbolic analysis could hardly be envisaged.
of large integrated circuits.
Conventional methods for numerical analysis at each fre-
quency will always be faster in determining numerical res-
ponses of one type or another. For these networks, such
CONCLUSION methods together with partitioning and sparse matrix tech-
niques should be used.
It has been shown that it is possible to perform efficient
Financial support of the Science Research Council is
symbolic analysis of general active networks by partitioning
acknowledged.
the network into a number of parts. All the methods dis-
cussed avoid the generation of common factors without
recourse to an artificial loading technique used earlier. REFERENCES
The network partition technique has special significance
in computing sensitivities, as intermediate results of current K a u f m a n , I . ' O n poles and z e r o s o f linear systems', IEEE Trans.
O r . Theor., V o l C T - 2 0 , p p . 9 3 - 1 0 1 , (March 1973)
work is showing. Because of the large number o f variables
D o w n s , T . 'Inversion of the nodal admittance matrix for
that would be involved in completely literal symbolic analy- active n e t w o r k s in s y m b o l i c f o r m ' . Electron. Lett., V o l . 6 , pp.
sis of high order networks, such analysis is not contemplated. 6 9 0 - 6 9 1 , (Oct. 1970)
O -I5v
500 kfl 33kQ 2.5kO 100 a
2N4250 T ^Hk
2N4250
200 ^
500 FM ~ i HI 2N4250
2N4B69A
43kfl
lOOkfl 3.3kfl
FIGURE 8. High input-impedance amplifier circui
Volume 8 Numbers My 1976 163

3 2 4
C. Phrydas and J. I Sewell
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m i t t a n c e m a t r i x b y use o f state equations', int. J. Cir. Theor.
Appi, Vol.1, p p . 2 4 9 - 2 6 1 , (Sept. 1973)
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s y m b o l i c n e t w o r k f u n c t i o n s — a n e w t h e o r y and i m p l e m e n t a -
2
tion', IEEE Trans. Cir. Tbeor., Vol C T - 2 0 , p p . 4 8 - 5 6 , (Jan. = 4('« +
1)[»0< 2
- 1) - eic - 1)1
6
1973)
6 N e i l l , T . M . B . 'Stability analysis of multistage f e e d b a c k Translating these- into equivalent addition operations,
a m p l i f i e r s in terms o f e l e m e n t - p e r t u r b a t i o n t h e o r y ' , Electron.
assuming the computing time for subtraction is equal to
Let., V o l . 1 1 , p p . 6 3 9 - 6 4 1 , ( D e c . 1 9 7 5 )
7 F r i d a s , C . a n d S e w e l l , J . 1. ' S y m b o l i c analysis of n e t w o r k s
that for addition, multiplication is 2.2 X (addition) and
b y p a r t i t i o n e d p o l y n o m i a l i n t e r p o l a t i o n ' , IEEE Trans. Cir. division 4.4 X (addition) reveals that one execution of the
Syst., V o l . C A S - 2 l ] p p . 3 4 5 - 3 4 7 , (May 1974) condensation formula suitable for complex arithmetic
8 S i n g h a l , K . and V l a c h , J . ' G e n e r a t i o n of i m m i t t a n c e f u n c t i o n s requires the equivalent of 148 additions. Thus,
in s y m b o l i c f o r m for l u m p e d d i s t r i b u t e d active n e t w o r k s ' ,
IEEE Trans. Cir. Syst., V o l . C A S - 2 1 . p p . 5 7 - 6 7 , (Jan. 1974)
9 S e w e l l , J . I . and F r i d a s , C . ' G e n e r a l s y n t h e t i c analysis of
r
cond = 25(m + l)[n(n - lX2n - 1) - e(e - 1X2<? - 1 )l
active n e t w o r k s ' , in P r o c . 2 n d I n t . S y m p , on n e t w o r k t h e o r y ,
Herceg-Novi, Y u g o s l a v i a , ( J u l y 1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 6 1 - 6 9 additions for active netwotks
10 F r i d a s , C . and S e w e l l , j . I . ' A p a r t i t i o n m e t h o d for s y m b o l i c
n e t w o r k analysis i E E C o l l o q . o n c o m p u t e r - a i d e d c i r c u i t
design, L o n d o n , ( M a r c h 1 9 7 4 ) . C o l l o q . Digest, N o . 1 9 7 4 / 4 , and
pp.7/1-7/2
2 2
T
cond p = 25(m + 1 ) [ « ( « - 1) - e(c - 1)] additions.
Computation of the polynomial responses usually takes

most of the total analysis time. But other operations such
as matrix loading, (generation of the nodal admittance
matrix at each sample), Vandermonde matrix inversion, and
computation of the polynomial coefficients cannot be
neglected when an accurate estimate of computational
APPENDIX
effort is being sought.
Again in terms of equivalent additions the matrix loading
ESTIMA TION OF COMPUTING TIME effort for all samples
The pivotal condensation formula is used in reducing the = (m + 1)(112<V + \2SN R L + 84N + 68N C C + 32Q + 12K)
numerical nodal admittance matrix to its terminal form. At additions,
an intermediate stage, say, when reducing the kth order
matrix to one of order (k — 1) the formula is applied effort for Vandemonde matrix inversion using a Fast Fourier '
2
(k — l ) times. Transform version
If T £ is the effort required to reduce a matrix from
m
order n to order e, which is equivalent to an H-node e- = 1 lm(m + 1) additions,

terminal network for m + 1 samples, then
and effort for final computation of all polynomial coeffi-
n cients (matrix multiplication)
( 1)2
rcond = ( " l ) +
2 *" = 2de\m + l) 2
additions.
Thus, the total effort

repetitions of the reduction formula
T = (m + 1)(12R + 32£> + \12N R + 128/V + 8 4 N +
t C
1
68N )
= - (m + 1)[«(» - l ) ( 2 n - 1) - e(e - l)(2e - 1)] G
6
+ 25(m + l ) [ n ( n - l ) ( 2 n - 1) - e(e - \)(2e - 1)1
For passive netwotks the nodal admittance matrix is
symmetric; using this properly gives + 1 lm(m + l ) 2 2
+ 26e (m 2
+ l ) equivalent additions.

3 2 5
P A P E R 20
3 2G
INT. J. ELECTRONICS, 1976, VOL. 4 1 , NO. 1, 25-32
Symbolic network sensitivities using partition methods)-

C. P H B Y D A S t and J . I. S E W E L L J
Straightforward symbolic analysis methods have been frequently used to generate

the sensitivities of the network functions with respect to the elements. With these
techniques the computer requirements tend to become excessive for large networks.
A network partition and interconnection method has been developed in an attempt
to increase the efficiency of analysis and has been applied successfully. The network
is divided into an arbitrary number of parts with an arbitrary interconnection.
First- and second-order derivatives are considered.
1. Introduction
T h e sensitivities of n e t w o r k responses t o element v a r i a t i o n s are v e r y
i m p o r t a n t i n c i r c u i t design a n d therefore e f f i c i e n t means f o r t h e i r c o m p u t a -
t i o n have been sought. A p o p u l a r m e t h o d has made use of t h e a d j o i n t
n e t w o r k concept ; i t is q u i t e f a s t a n d applicable i n b o t h t i m e a n d f r e q u e n c y
domains ( D i r e c t o r a n d R o h r e r 1969 a, b ) . M a t r i x i n v e r s i o n techniques are
a n i m p o r t a n t a l t e r n a t i v e (Sud 1975) b u t generally r e q u i r e r e p e t i t i o n a t each
f r e q u e n c y p o i n t . L a r g e change sensitivities ( G o d d a r d et al. 1971) are also
v a l u a b l e a n d have f o u n d a p p l i c a t i o n i n s t a t i s t i c a l design ( B u t l e r 1971).
D i f f e r e n t i a l sensitivities i n s y m b o l i c f o r m ( C u t t e r i d g e a n d D i M a m b r o
1970, 1971) t e n d t o be more general a n d e f f i c i e n t t h a n the single f r e q u e n c y
p o i n t techniques. T h e use of i n t e r p o l a t i o n is e v i d e n t i n these techniques.
Since i m p r o v e m e n t s t o the accuracy of the i n t e r p o l a t i v e methods have been
made ( F r i d a s and Sewell 1974, Singal and V l a c h 1974) t h e y h o l d greater
appeal. S t i l l f u r t h e r increases i n accuracy are possible using an i t e r a t i v e
c o r r e c t i o n procedure (Fridas a n d Sewell 1975).
P a r t i t i o n methods have been e m p l o y e d t o good e f f e c t (Fridas a n d Sewell
1976) i n t h e analysis of h i g h order a c t i v e n e t w o r k s . General i m p r o v e m e n t
i n speed a n d accuracy were experienced. I n t h i s w o r k the n e t w o r k p a r t i -
t i o n i n g methods are developed t o produce f i r s t - a n d second-order sensitivities.
2. Differential sensitivities
r
L e t ,A be a linear a c t i v e n e t w o r k w i t h n nodes, of w h i c h e are t e r m i n a l
nodes, and h a v i n g a nodal a d m i t t a n c e m a t r i x Y, F i g . 1. I n t h e usual n o t a -
t i o n G, T, C represent the conductance, inverse i n d u c t a n c e a n d capacitance
components of Y. A is an active device m a t r i x whose entries are r a t i o n a l
functions in s :
2
Y =G+ .4 + - + sC = - [V + s(G + A) + s C\
s s
Received 4 March 1976.

t Work supported by the Science Research Council.
X Department of Electronic Engineering. University of H u l l . H u l l , H U 6 7 R X .
26 C. Phrydas and J. I. Setcell
Figure 1. General network A'.
T h e n e t w o r k p e r f o r m a n c e can be represented b y the t e r m i n a l a d m i t t a n c e

r
m a t r i x Y of order e ( o f t e n 2V o b t a i n e d f r o m } ' b y e l i m i n a t i o n of a l l t h e
r
i n t e r n a l nodes of J '. A general e n t r y of } ' is
J
\Y \
D D
7
where Y and Y are a p p r o p r i a t e co-factor matrices.
{ j D A s A ,-- = f ( y ) , where
r s
y is a general e n t r y of Y, t h e n
rs
2
^ = I I ^ ^ . V i , j = 1, 2 ... e and k = \ , 2 ... V (1)
where x is a n e t w o r k element, of w h i c h there are V i n n u m b e r .

s The t e r m
cy jcxrsis easily c o m p u t e d , cA'^jcy^
k is more d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e . A similar
expression applies t o t h e d e n o m i n a t o r
-" t i m
cx . k r = 1 ,fi ty „
r cx .
k
T h e second-order d e r i v a t i v e s f o l l o w :
2 2
r V
c;r,.r.T,
I" „ I", .I"| , "I| cy rcy V
,. = 1 = p = rx m
ru
cx k
rv
cx (
2
" " ?V r ?/
+ y y i ^ _ L 4 ^ ! vA- = i , 2 ... V - \
,= i »= i r(/ , cx .cx, r k
\/l = k+ 1, A- + 2 . . . K (3)
c*D
A s i m i l a r expression results f o r . I n c o m p u t i n g e n t r y sensitivities i t
is o b v i o u s t h a t a passive component m a y c o n t r i b u t e t o o n l y one or f o u r e n t r y
terms.
Symbolic network sensitivities 27
2.1. Computation of entry sensitivities

Let
^ = c Ji
Hfr,
and
?D
— = c„"
i} 1
where C , C' are a d j o i n t matrices, whose entries are d e t e r m i n e d in general b y
the f o l l o w i n g procedure :
2
«,/> = { V ' - ' » n , , " - ' - » « ' - ' > } / n < ' - V , , A I . j = l . 2 - ^ i A + +
) , r 1 ( r 1 , , r I ( r , , ( , 2 , l 2
6,/' = {6 / y - »»a- - -» f t - «*-y - }/" '- *- i.î. + J = . - »
f o r & = ra, n — l , . . . e + l ; i = 1, 2 . . . & — 1 and r=n—k+ 1.
1
I n i t i a l l y n,./°» = n , ; 6 / ° » = 8, ( K r o n e c k e r delta) ; a*- > „
7 f 7 +li = 1. When
r = n — e these operations are h a l t e d and n = n (n-e) i j
{ r )
i j
rf <D = n . -e-l>
n t
N o w let
,/. = •„...<»-«>, j = 1, 2 ... n
f
„..'(0) = n ..(«-o and &,./«»» = 6 / " - > f
l , r I ) , r 1 ( r 1 , r f
« y<'>={» y«- V-' - -««-' - V - }/ *- i
I 1 +
< 1 (r l,
6 '''» =
lV {6 /''-iS.,'fr->'-n .' '- V - }/^ i
/ (7 +
k = n — I , n — 2 ... e + 1 ; i =fr+ 1,fe+ 2 ... w ; j = 1, 2 ... n a n d r = n — k.

The a d j o i n t matrices w i l l be of order n — e + 1 b u t f o r u n i f o r m i t y a n d ease
of p r o g r a m m i n g the higher order is retained a n d borders of zero rows a n d
t e _ 1 ) in e l)
columns retained. Hence if = ?i -/ "~ and 6, " = b ' ~ ~' a n d p,q = l 7 ij
1, 2 ... e
c P 9 = b
k »j"< j = e+l,e +2 ...n
<V" = °> i = 1, 2 ... e : jV<7
C "9 = 6 "
Cjj " = 0, 1 1
i= I , 2 ... e a n d M ^ ; j = 1, 2 . . . n
p, (o
c>/ ={^•/\ ;'-'^•;'^/'}K•^l. :• -l' ^ *,j=«+1, e + 2 . . .
) ( f *
6 <0)
S i " ' = K " n - V „ / } K i . ' . i = e+l,e n
+ 2...n + e+1
C//" = 0, i = e + 1, e + 2 ... w ; j = 1, 2 . . . e ; j ^ q
1
Finally
Cjj' = c - = 0, 1
0 i=l,2.../i: J = 1, 2 ... e
c
/ / = V> i, j = e+\, e+ 2 ... n
r J rf
The p o l y n o m i a l s of } ' , C' and C' are therefore d e t e r m i n e d b y i n t e r p o l a t i o n
at an a p p r o p r i a t e n u m b e r of samples. Hence a classical s e n s i t i v i t y measure
can then be c o m p u t e d f o r each response f u n c t i o n w i t h respect to the desired

elements.
28 C. Phrydas and J. I. Sewell
3. Network partition and sensitivities

T h e n e t w o r k .,(" can be d i v i d e d i n t o a n u m b e r of s u b n e t w o r k s w i t h
a r b i t r a r y interconnections. A double c o u p l i n g m e t h o d ( F r i d a s and Sewell
1976) is c h o s e n ; the process selects t w o connected s u b n e t w o r k s J' , t t
F i g . 2. E a c h s u b n e t w o r k is analysed i n d e p e n d e n t l y , the solutions combined

and a s o l u t i o n f o r t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d subsystem p r o d u c e d . A new s u b n e t w o r k
is selected, analysed, c o m b i n e d w i t h the previous s o l u t i o n a n d a new inter-
connected subsystem f o r m e d . T h i s is repeated over a l l s u b n e t w o r k s .
N N8
Figure 2. The subnetworks s , B and their interconnection.
If Y A > Y are the t e r m i n a l a d m i t t a n c e matrices of ^V' , A"

B a f t e r inter- A B
p o l a t i o n and X X are t h e sets of elements i n each p a r t respectively. D e f i n e

A > B
the matrices A A as
V B
Y A = - ^ A A and Y B = ^ - A B
PA PB
where p ,p A B are the last p i v o t a l n u m e r a t o r s generated w h e n a n a l y s i n g

r
Ji \, v¥ .B T h e n t h e a u g m e n t e d m a t r i x Y j of t h e interconnected system
jr\ is
} 5
'/ = A A PB + A PA B ( )
A t y p i c a l n u m e r a t o r e n t r y of Y , w i l l be
n I = n a
V uu^Ph +n t B j B p A (6)
i, j = 1, 2 ... e, ; i , j A= 1, 2 . . . e : i , j = 1 , 2 . . . e , where e„ c , e are the

A x B B B A B
n u m b e r of t e r m i n a l s .J•" , , \ \ . J ' respectively.

t B
L e t the f u n c t i o n s i n the reduced m a t r i x be A V / Z ) a n d a l l the f i r s t - and

second-order d e r i v a t i v e s w i t h respect t o x ^ X j are r e q u i r e d where X = X V J X . t A B
I t is k n o w n t h a t i n p a r t i t i o n e d analysis the last p i v o t a l n u m e r a t o r r e q u i r e d

t o be r e m o v e d as a c o m m o n f a c t o r i n the f i r s t stage of r e d u c t i o n of the com-
bined system is P=p p . A Assume t h a t Y is reduced t o its t e r m i n a l m a t r i x
B t
w i t h P being r e m o v e d a p p r o p r i a t e l y ; hence X • = u p-<»i~ i e

>A* .' a n d
f /) =
p-<,i,-e,-i\£)' Direct d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i l l give
= LL-f ^ (7)
?.T, P> CX k P CX k
(
'
2 8 T
c N^ _ _L_ c A / t t fdN i } oP dN if cP
1
dx cx k t P dx cx, k P \ cxk cx, cx t dx . K
2
N u cP cP N u cP
i
P cx k oxi P dx dx k {
where t = n — e . I l
S i m i l a r expressions f o r t h e d e r i v a t i v e s of D can be d e t e r m i n e d . Following

the d e r i v a t i o n s of t h e A p p e n d i x gives
1
3iV..' "' ?N•.' tin
4 ^ = i z 4 ^ - ^ - (9)
dx k , f i , = ! on,/ dx k
dx dx,
k r =
£ 1 s =
£
1 p = i £< 9 = 1
- / 9 ^ /
ydnjdnp/J\ \ dx
f d n) \/ \ fdxd n
k
r
t
p /
a n d t h e d e r i v a t i v e s of Z) are p r o d u c e d s i m i l a r l y .
I J D J D
Now if Z and Z
r s are t h e general entries of a d j ( Y / ) a n d a d j { Y j )
r s
respectively i t can be shown t h a t t h e c o m m o n f a c t o r P can be e x t r a c t e d as

2 )
Z" n = P^Z„'" and ^ = P'-V (11)
H e n c i n g c o m b i n i n g eqns. (7), (8), (9), (10), (11) a n d s e t t i n g
and b y Jacobi's theorem
d*N " i} _ 1 fdNt/'dNi/' dN * ti dN ' u
dn /dn ' r pQ P*N i} V dn / r dn i vq dn^

gives
ax, p £ V A d x
k ) p
fo k
OX dxk t P N i i r - l .-1 «= 1 jV^rs' 3 w

p/ S w
r / ^p/,
3x . y \A 3x,
x X S x x
P r =1 4 =i \ ^rJ )\^ k^ l) P \ k dl dx x dx k
2
N u / d P \ / d P \ N tl dP
,13
- ' ' ' - ' ' ^ ( W t e J - ' - F S ^ >
A g a i n , s i m i l a r expressions o b t a i n f o r the d e r i v a t i v e s of D.
30 C. Phrydas and J. I. SeweH
T h e d e r i v a t i v e s of X jj" or D" can be produced by m u l t i p l y i n g the corres-

p o n d i n g d e r i v a t i v e s of X ' a n d D' b y the a p p r o p r i a t e power of P.
i} However,
large powers of P can cause problems on the c o m p u t e r and i t is therefore
expedient t o c o m p u t e the d e r i v a t i v e s of X j" a n d D" d i r e c t l y by t a k i n g the
j
f a c t o r P i n t o account in t h e i n i t i a l stage of the analysis of A" . t
D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of eqn. (6) completes the necessary algebra. T e r m s of the

form
are p r o d u c e d f o r elements i n t h e n e t w o r k s J ' \ a n d A' .

B
T h e f i r s t - a n d second-order d e r i v a t i v e s as w e l l as t h e n e t w o r k f u n c t i o n s
can be c o m p u t e d f r o m t h e analyses of s u b n e t w o r k s . The network f u n c t i o n
n u m e r a t o r s , last p i v o t a l n u m e r a t o r and t h e i r d e r i v a t i v e s are a l l t h a t are
r e q u i r e d . T h e process m a y be repeated f o r an a r b i t r a r y n u m b e r of p a r t s .
4. Results
T h e p a r t i t i o n e d m e t h o d f o r d e r i v i n g f i r s t - a n d second-order n e t w o r k
sensitivities has been a p p l i e d t o b o t h passive a n d a c t i v e n e t w o r k s . Mainly
f o r comparison purposes a 30-node R C ladder was chosen a n d t h e sensitivities
of the 2-port a d m i t t a n c e f u n c t i o n s w i t h respect t o a n u m b e r of t h ° elements
computed. U s i n g a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d technique w i t h o u t p a r t i t i o n a n d com-
p u t i n g f i r s t - and second-order s e n s i t i v i t y p o l y n o m i a l s of t h e above f u n c t i o n s
w i t h respect t o six elements r e q u i r e d 105 sec a n d 16-4 K words of store on
PARTITION
LINE
O «15V
rVVV-
75kf?
l/Ps
39kO
30pF
® 250
0/P
75kfl
50fi
®
kQ 50k0 IkO 5k0
0-15V
Figure 3. The SN 72741 operational amplifier.

3 3 2
an 1 C L 19048. P a r t i t i o n i n g and using f o u r sections w i t h eight nodes i n

each o n l y needed 22 sec of c o m p u t e r t i m e but 18-2 K words of store, the
i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g process being responsible f o r the e x t r a storage needed. The
same p r o b l e m using a 3-part d i v i s i o n required 33 sec a n d 18-6 K store.
S i m i l a r performance ratios are experienced when more elements are considered
in t h e s e n s i t i v i t y analysis and f o r higher-order n e t w o r k s . Storage problems
determine the upper b o u n d on n e t w o r k order a n d n u m b e r of elements
considered.
F i g u r e 3 shows a t y p i c a l active n e t w o r k w h i c h has been analysed b y these

means ; the c i r c u i t is t h a t of the S N 72741 o p e r a t i o n a l a m p l i f i e r . T o produce
the f i r s t - o r d e r s e n s i t i v i t y f u n c t i o n s f o r one element r e q u i r e d 17 sec a n d 12-8 K
store, the r e p e t i t i o n of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n f o r the f i r s t - o r d e r sensitivities of u p
t o seven elements o n l y needed 18 sec and 12-8 K store.
T h e accuracy of t h e c o m p u t e d coefficients is t y p i c a l of i n t e r p o l a t i v e
methods. I t can be i m p r o v e d b y p a r t i t i o n a l p o l y n o m i a l i n t e r p o l a t i o n (Fridas
a n d Sewell 1974) or t h e F F T (Singal and V l a c h 1974). I t e r a t i v e i m p r o v e -
m e n t techniques can be e m p l o y e d , a n d of p a r t i c u l a r significance here are
those concerned w i t h i m p r o v i n g the accuracy of the a d j o i n t m a t r i x (Fadeev
and Fadeeva 1963).
Appendix
Let u = f ( x , x, 1 2 x ) where x = x ( t , t , . . . , t ) a n d t . are independent
n i j 1 2 m k
variables.
A s s u m i n g the c o n t i n u i t y of d e r i v a t i v e s i n v o l v e d gives ( S o k o l n i k o f f 1939)
I L - V d f d x
< i A n
( A l )
d t k r f h ^ d t b
E q u a t i o n (9) f o l l o w s d i r e c t l y f r o m ( A 1).
D i f f e r e n t i a t i n g eqn. (A 1) w i t h respect to t,, gives
dt ot,
k dt, dXf dt k
\ d X f d t , dt k c.r,- ct dt, k
2
? / \ CXj " cf cx
+
r.r, \ 3 t J ct k ,?i ex, dt ct. k
2
C X
y IL ™l\ f f i 4. y f L -1 :
c.r,- i - i ct,) ct k , = 1 cx ( dt cl.

k
j= i V '• = ! [ c X j C X j ct, cXj cXjCt,) J ct k i f i dXf dt dt,

k
32 Symbolic network sensitivities
since i n n e t w o r k analysis
ex,
^ = 0, V>,J
E q u a t i o n (1G) has been d e r i v e d f r o m e q n . ( A 2) a n d t h e properties
Ml= I « |^ |(-i)^= t \A \(-iy+i

i=i
l 7 l 7
j=i aij u
and
2 2
8 UI 8 U|
= 0
w h i c h impose constraints o n t h e s u m m a t i o n parameters.
REFERENCES
B U T L E K , E . M . , 1971, Bell Syst. tech. J., 50, 1209.

C U T T E R I D G E , 0 . P. D . , and D i M A M B R O , P. H . , 1970, Electron. Lett., 6, 308 ; 1971,
Ibid., 7, 3.
DIRECTOR, S. W . , and R O H R E R , R . A . , 1969 a, I.E.E.E. Trans. Circuit Theory, 16,
318 ; 1969 b, Ibid., 16, 330.
F A D E E V , D . K . , and F A D E E V A , V . N . , 1963, Computational Methods of Linear Algebra
(San Francisco : W . H . Freeman).
F R I D A S , C , and S E W E L L , J . I . , 1974, I.E.E.E. Trans Circuits Syst., 21, 345 ; 1975,
Proc. 3rd Int. Symp. on Network Theory, Split, Yugoslavia, 1-5 September ;
1976, I.E.E.E. Int. Symp. on Circuits and Systems, Munich, 27-29 A p r i l .
G O D D A R D , P. J . , V I L L A L A Z , P. A . , and S P E N C E , R . . 1971, Electronics Lett., 7, 112.
S I N G A L , K . , a n d V L A C H , J., 1974, I.E.E.E. Trans. Circuits Syst., 21, 57.
S O K O L N I K O V , I . S., 1939, Advanced Calculus (Tokyo : McGraw-Hill), p. 71.
S U D , D . , 1975, Circuit Theory Applic, 3, 211.
3 34
PAPERS 24 + 30
3 3 5
From: MOS S w i t c h e d - C a p a c i t o r F i l t e r s : A n a l y s i s and Design, I E E E P r e s s 1984, S e l e c t e d Reprints
Analysis o f Active Switched-Capacitator Networks

JOHN 1. S E W E L L
Abstract-It is shown that amplifiei .natrices can be included in the

nodal equation formulation for the analysis of switched-capacitor
networks. This avoids any requirements for equivalent circuits and
enables a straightforward application to computer analysis. For ideal
operational amplifiers constraint theory is shown to be applicable.
The theory and design of switched-capacitor (SC) networks is receiv-

ing much attention at the present time. The analysis of SC networks is
proceeding along a number of avenues, the basic ones being nodal tech-
niques [ 1 ] , and equivalent circuit methods [ 2 | , [3]. The second
method has some aDpeal from the practical insight view, but involves
the determination and application of equivalent circuits that are not
exactly simple. The nodal analysis requires a large number of equa-
tions, 2n, where n is the number of nodes, but these can be assembled
in a logical manner and the method is particularly attractive for com-
puter analysis of S C networks since many standard matrix methods can
be employed.
For a passive network, containing only capacitances and, switches
with half cycle operation, the In X 2n definite nodal matrix Y is deter-
mined from
Fig. 1. Switched-capacitor tossy differentiator.

(1)
densation to K# and obtain the four-port y-matrix
/ = YV. /f y\i y\ n
y\% yf
The nomenclature of 11 ] is retained, / ' 7 ° being the vectors of even
e
and odd phase currents; V , V° are the even and odd nodal voltage
K y%\ y'n'n AS A&
ot
e
vectors; S , S" the even and odd switching matrices; 1° the even /'? ylf v
yw y f f
y1S y?
and odd network current matrices; C the capacitance nodal admittance
matrix; and z" = e~1 n
where r is half the clock period. The Y matrix
>°n. y°n\ AS y°n°n. -Vn -
is always symmetric for a passive network, and the main diagonal terms where node 1 is input and node n is output. In practical networks quite
are positive, but in contrast to the ordinary definite admittance matrix a number of the ^-parameters will be zero. Cleaily the input admit-
the signs of all off diagonal terms are not necessarily negative. Some tance during even phase switching is
rows and columns are zero so, by definition, these and the correspond-
ing variables can be eliminated; however, it is wise to examine the inclu-
sion of active devices before executing this step.
-y\l
When active devices are present in the network, assemble the nodal
matrix for the passive part Y as P indicated. Now an ordinary ampli- Similarly the voltage transfer functions, for even sampling input and
fier will be operational during the even and odd switching phases and output
therefore will contribute equally to even and odd equations hence
- m
yf ~ AS,
[/f"H~°~i vl [v°] for even sampling input and odd sampling output
yjL -A$_
y f ' ....
The Y matrix, for instance, may be any of those quoted for various
A provided, of course, these functions exist practically. The number of
types of amplifier [4) or indeed the admittance matrix of any active characteristic functions available in an S C network is obviously poten-
device. Addition of the active and passive matrices will yield the com- tially greater than in a conventional active network.
plete nodal matrix When ideal operational amplifiers are the active elements in the net-
work it is possible to utilize conventional constraint theory [5] in the
analysis. Consider an ideal voltage amplifier with voltage gain -m and
As expected, Y is not symmetric for an active network. connected between nodes i , / , hence
Some simple rules for the assembly of the matrices now emerge.
e -V,
When writing down the switching matrices S , S" all port voltages must ; -m Vj or V, =
be retained as independent variables and all voltages at amplifier ter-
minals must remain as independent variables. When constructing the
current matrices I', 1° the currents at either the network ports or the in an S C network the constraint becomes Vf = -V°lm, Vf = -Vflm
amplifier terminals must not become zero. hence the column i(odd) is divided by m and subtracted from K,(o<Jd),
column i(odd) is then discarded and similarly with columns i(even) and
After the assembly of the Y matrix, inspection will show the corre-
I {even). The rows involving i f and / / are redundant, since these ex-
sponding rows and columns that are zero, these are now eliminated press the current outputs from a voltage source, and are, therefore,
to produce a reduced matrix Y R. It is then possible to determine, by discarded. The matrix Y once more is square, but cofactor techniques
C
cofactor methods, the appropriate transfer functions from YR. For have now to be used in evaluating the required characteristic functions
as there is no longer a direct relationship between the rows and columns
general analysis it is probably more informative to apply pivotal con-
of the matrix and the network nodes. Of course, when m — ~ the pro-
Manuscript received October 9. 1979. cess merely amounts to striking out columns i(odd), i(even) and rows
The author is with the Department of Electronic Engineering, Uni-
versity of Hull. Hull HU6 1 R X , England. j{odd) J (even).
Reprinted from Proc. / £ £ £ , v o l . 68, pp. 292-293, Feb. 1980.
85
P R O C E E D I N G S O F T H E I E E E , V O L . 68, NO. 2. F E B R U A R Y 1980
When a difference amplifier is present then this may be characterized With even input sampling V , = 0, / i = 0 so remove column and row
by V = m(Vi - V,). Hence K^/m = Vf • Vf and V%lm = K," - Vf and
k
1 {odd) and from the remaining matrix
when m - ~ , = f / , f ° = V° thusi ccolumn i(even) is added to col-
umn /(even) and the former discarded; column i(odd) is added to col-
umn j(odd) and the former discarded. Again, the current outputs from
the voltage source are arbitrary, hence rows k(even) and k(pdd) are
discarded. At the present time, the application of different amplifiers -
in SC networks in not considered especially practical for capacitor " Alt
grounding reasons since no virtual earth exists at the input. 2
Crd-z" )
Consider the circuit of the lossy differentiator shown. Take the pas- !
sive network alone, then following the rules given: " C 3 -z- (C 3 - Ci)
which is the transfer function of a lossy differentiator.
"1 0 0 0" "1 0 0 0"
For odd input sampling V\ = 0, l \ - 0, so remove column and row
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 Heven) and from the remaining matrix
s° = 1° =
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
.0 0 0 1. .0 0 0 1.
"l 0 0 o" "1 0 0 0"
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
e
s = 1' = _ -C (i-z-'\C -C ))
l 3 2
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2
C (l - ; - | C
3 3 -c \)
2
0 0 0 1_ .0 0 1 1.
- £l
" c, -c, 0 0"
c 3
which, of course, is an inverting amplifier.

-c, Ci + C 3 0 -c3
Matrix techniques can be applied to the analysis of active S C net-
c =
0 0 c 0 works in a straightforward manner and afford a powerful approach for
2
examination of the many performance functions of these networks.
_ 0 -c 3
0 They have special significance in computer analysis since the task of
generating equivalent circuits is avoided completely.
Substituting in (1) gives:
c, -c, 0 0 i-'C, z"'C, 0
/f -c, c, + c 3 0 -c 3
r'c, -z-'(C, +C ) 3 0 «?
/f 0 0 0 0 o 0 0
'f 0 0 c 3
0 -z-'(C 2 -C ) 3 0
A° -z"'C, *-'c, 0 0 c, -C, 0 0 If
/? -z-'(C, + C ) 0 3 -z"'(C 2 - c )
3
-Ci C, + C 2 +C 3 0 -c 3
*?
/? 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 -i-'c, 0 -C 3 0 /4.
Eliminate zero columns and rows 3(even), 3(o{j d'), to give YR. Apply , REFERENCES
the amplifier constraints, hence remove columns 2(even), 2(odd) and 11J C . F . Kurth and G . S. Moschytz, "Nodal analysis of switched-
rows 4 (even), A(odd) to give matrix Yc capacitor networks," IEEE Tram. Circuits Syst., vol. CAS-26, pp.
93-105, 1979.
[2) , "Two-port analysis of switched-capacitor networks using
four-port equivalent circuits in the z-domain," IEEE Trans. Cir-
cuits Syst., vol. CAS-26, pp. 166-180, 1979.
"if C, 0 -z-'C, 0 >f" 131 K. R. Laker, "Equivalent circuits for the analysis and synthesis of
switched capacitor networks," Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 58, no. 3,
n -C, -C 3 z-'C, z"'C 3
pp. 729-769, 1979.
[ 4 | J . I . Sewell and F . W. Stephenson, "Matrix tables for the general-
n -z-'C, 0 C, 0 If ized 5-terminal amplifier," Radio Electron. Eng., vol. 37, no. 4,
pp. 247-255, 1969.
z-'C, -z-'(C, - C j ) -C, C
[S 1 A. Nathan, "Matrix analysts of networks having infinite gain opera-
A - 3. tional amplifiers," Proc. IRE, vol. 49, p. 1577, 1961.
86
3 3 7
PAPER 25
5
well be replaced by Ihe double d.f.t processes. However, this If y 2 is assumed to be a real constant, normalised to unity,
2
is not a matter for consideration, because the main purpose of then in a switched network the frequency-dependent current
this letter is to show how to apply the sampling theorem to term during any lime interval n is given by
s.a.w. filter analysis. T h e discussion can be applied easily to
other time-consuming s a w. filter analysis, such as equivalent
circuit analysis or bulk spurious response analysis, as long as
t ,„ and
m are determinable beforehand.
T. KODAMA 25lh April I9R0

Toshiba Research & Development Centre
Toshiba Corporation, Kawasaki, 210 Japan T •
References
where T is the sampling period. This becomes
1 P E N U N U R I , D.: A numerical technique for SAW diffraction simula-
tion', IEEE Trans., 1978, MTT-26, pp 288-294
2 SAVAGE, E. B.: 'Fast computation of s a w. filter responses including
diffraction', Electron. Leu., 1979, 15, pp. 538-539
3 SAVAGE, E. B„ and MATTHAEI, G. L.: 'Compensation for diffraction in 1
. -' 1 6
SAW filters'. Proceedings of the I E E E ultrasonics symposium. New
Orleans, 1979 (to be published)
4 PAPOULis, A . : 'Signal analysis' (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1977),
chap. 5, pp. 139-145
IV*""'" I tb
e °""<'V(x)dT di
5 G O L D , B., and RADER, C. M.: 'Digital processing of signals'

(McGraw-Hill, New York, 1969), chap. 6, pp. 196-199
p-lh./S.H I I»./»il.j,'f ) J,
O013-5194/80/12O46O-O3S1.50/O Tb, J f I d r
"° f -(6o/t,M»-0
f K ( t ) d T + I ( t ) dl
V
Tb
° K ( r ) dx f m d t
Tb 0
a n c
Let a / f c T = a, 60/^1 = 0.
0 0 ' since an s.c. network is a
INCLUSION O F AMPLIFIER FINITE G A I N discrete system
A N D B A N D W I D T H I N A N A L Y S I S OF
S W I T C H E D - C A P A C I T O R FILTERS
/ „ = - « £ e-"--"V(.) + a £ V(i)
1=0 « «= 0
Indexing terms: Amplifiers, Switched-capacitor networks
+ «"£' e-""-<-"V{i)-0L "X V(i)
The exact mathematical solution of the amplifier finite gain i =p i=P
and bandwidth problem in switched-capacitor filter networks
is presented. The theory is incorporated into a computer Applying the convolution theorem of the ^-transformation'
analysis program and typical results for a filter circuit are yields
included.
_ -aV(z) aV(z) az-'Vjz) _ az^V(z)

T h e analysis and design of switched-capacitor (s.c.) networks is 1
{
'~ 1- z-'e~' T +
1- z " 1- z - ' e - ' T
1- J"'
developing very rapidly. A matrix method for the analysis of
active s.c. networks' affords a straightforward technique, parti- (z" 1
- z- e- l , r
)V(z)
cularly suited to implementation as a computer program. Ideal = a
r - z ^ e - - » —
operational amplifiers have been considered, and finite but real
amplifier admittance parameters are easily accommodated.
T h i s may be written as Ihe sum of even and odd terms of a
The effects of frequency-dependent amplifier parameters,
series:
especially the gain, are very important and will be considered
here.
F o r simplicity, take an s.c. network containing capacitances, /(z) = o d V ' - z->e-> )V{z) T
£ z-'U- " 1 7
operational amplifiers, and switches with half cycle operation lj=p

(2-phase nonoverlapping c l o c k ) ; then the 2n x 2n definite
+ £" z-ai* n - ( 3 ; + 11(7- I
e
nodal matrix V is determined from:
or in closed form
25
or / = [?, + Y )V.
A
2
, M ' ~-
y
(1 - z- e- "")2 2
+ ÎzlUDTJl
(1 - z ' e - )
VIA' 2 l e T [
/ ' , P and V', V are the phase-1 and phase-2 currents and
voltages; V is the passive part matrix assembled in an accepted
p
2 2 1
manner. Because of frequency-dependent amplifier par- Now / = / ' + / , and V = V + V , so splitting the current
ameters, the active matrix Y will not have the simple form as
A equation into direct-phase and delayed-phase components
indicated previously ' gives
F o r a typical operational amplifier, the gain can be ex-
pressed as m = - a / ( f e + bi s), a single pole in the s-domain.
0 0
-, az-'(l - 2
z-'e- » )V'{z)T
_ Z L ! ) ^ ^
A simple voltage amplifier has a Y matrix given byA 2 2 T 2 2>T
(I - z e- » ) (1 - z~ e~ )
0 0
1 7 2 2 r
(1 - z - ^ - ' ) (1 - 7 - e - " )
462 ELECTRONICS LETTERS 5th June 1980 Vol. 16 No. 12

Each amplifier with a frequency-dependent gain will produce lenses of a particular radius and refractive index so as to
terms of this nature which contribute entries to all four parti- approach optimum coupling. Also, the highly spherical quality
7
tions of Y . A of such microspheres eliminates the type of curvature control
T h i s theory has been incorporated into an analysis program problem involved in fabricating a lens at the end of the
1 3
for s c. networks. Analysis of a number of active s.c. filter fibre However, the small microsphere lens size (typically
networks gives results which correspond to practical circuits 70-100 fim). combined with the need to centre the lens ac-
using amplifiers of finite gain and bandwidth. curately (typically to within several micrometres) brings about
difficulties in lens mounting.
The method reported previously for mounting microsphere
S 5 lenses is the laser-light assisted alignment technique of K h o e el
Or
01 10 frequency, kHz 8
a/. •* In this technique, a laser beam is launched into a fibre
a 10 and the output emission pattern is viewed on a screen. A
X
microsphere lens is brought to the output end and is then
2U
\ positioned with high-accuracy micropositioners until the pat-
30 ;
tern becomes centred on the same point as the original pattern
40 \ m
1000 It is then glued onto the fibre end.
This process is complicated, and it is quite difficult to hold
50 the microsphere lens. We report here a simple, accurate and
\ production-oriented technique for lens mounting. A typical
6a \ microsphere lens attached to a fibre end is shown in F i g . 1. I n
70 \ K300 the mounting procedure, the end of the fibre is first properly
m
WOO 1.001s cleaved and cleaned, and adhesive is applied to it by dipping.
-m Wis lueiil
Fig. 1 Response of third-order elliptic lowpass s.c. filter
T y p i c a l computed responses obtained for a third-order ellip-

4
tic s.c. filter with a clock frequency of 100 k H z are shown in
Fig. 1. T h e increasing distortion of the transfer function due to
the amplifier limitations is clearly apparent.
Acknowledgments: F i n a n c i a l support of an I E E scholarship is

gratefully acknowledged.
J. L A U 23rd April 1980

S. I. S E W E L L
Department of Electronic Engineering
University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX. England
References
1 SEWELL, J. i.: 'Analysis of active switched-capacitor networks', Proc. Fig. 1 Photograph of mounted microsphere lens
IEEE, 1980, 2, pp. 292-293
2 K U R T H , c F . and MOSCHYTZ, G : 'Nodal analysis of switched-
capacitor networks', IEEE Trans.. 1979, CAS-26, pp. 93-105 With the aid of micromanipulators and a low-power micro-
3 JURY, E. I . : 'Theory and application of the z-transform' (Wiley, scope, the fibre end is roughly centred over a microsphere lens
1964) and lowered so that the epoxy contacts the lens. T h e epoxy
4 ALLSTOT, D. j . , BRODERSON, R. w., and GRAY, p. R.: 'MOS switched then holds on to the lens by surface tension so that it is picked
capacitor ladder filters', IEEE J. Solid-State Circ, 1978, SC-13, pp. up as the fibre moves upwards. D u e to the combination of
806-814 adhesive surface tension and gravity, the lens moves until it is
on, or very close to, the fibre axis. T h u s the technique can be
0013-5194/80H 20462-02$! .50/0 described as self-centring.
10
09
SIMPLE SELF-CENTRING T E C H N I Q U E FOR 08

M O U N T I N G M I C R O S P H E R E COUPLING
LENS O N A FIBRE 3-
8 07-
Indexing terms: Optical fibres. Optical transmission
D
E 06 -
A simple and accurate self-centring method of mounting a o
microsphere coupling lens on a fibre endface is described. In c
over 85% of cases tried, the lenses were centred on the fibre
axis to within 3 um. The lenses yield a laser-fibre coupling
efficiency of about 65%.
The light power which can be launched into an optical fibre -18 -12 -6 0 6 12 18
from a diode laser by simple butt coupling is small, being lens offset,urn [j^]
limited by the fibre acceptance angle. Several coupling Fig, 2 Calculated dependence of normalised coupling efficiency on lens
techniques have been reported which increase the coupling offset. Curves for offset parallel and perpendicular to laser junction plane
efficiency.' 6
O f these, the microsphere lens glued onto the are shown
6
fibre endface provides one of the highest coupling efficiencies. parallel
The high efficiency arises in part from the ability to select perpendicular
ELECTRONICS LETTERS 5th June 1980 Vol. 16 No. 12 463

plastic, namely Delryn. was used to provide the required ex- ERRATA
pansion as shown in Fig 4. The dielectric disc is suspended on
a stainless-steel screw to allow initial height adjustment The
length of (he Delryn section was computed for A / = 40 M H z Authors' corrections
over the temperature range - 50 to + 100°C. From Fig 3f>. 40 WILSON, 8 : 'Low-distortion high-oulpul class B current con-
M H z compensation requires d to vary from 0 to 0 1 mm. The venor using error feedforward'. Electron. Lea.. 1981 17, (13).
length L is then calculated from the formula pp. 461-463
In Fig. la the central box should read:

L =
AT
class D
L = 7 2 mm
dumper D
5
where a = coefficient of linear expansion = 9 x 10~ /°C for
Delryn.
L A U , J , and S E W E L L , j . i : 'Inclusion of amplifier finite gain
The circuit in Fig. 2 has a total frequency change of only 16
and bandwidth in analysis of switched-capacitor fillers',
M H z over the temperature range - 50 to + 100°C, in compari-
son with an uncompensated value of 48 M H z . Electron. Lett, 1980, 16, (12), pp. 462-463
The degree of compensation can be altered by using either
In the final equation for /„, halfway down column two of
different materials or different dimensions for the differential
p. 462, the upper limits of the first two summations should
expansion system and different physical sizes and dielectric
constants for the disc. Thus trapalt diodes with different read n - 1, and the upper limits of the last two should read
frequency/temperature characteristics can be accommodated n-2.
in the design.
The first and third terms of the next equation for I(z) have
T
micrometer an e~* multiplier; this results in a common multiplier z~'
being removed from the remaining equations for 7(z). The
final equations are therefore:
r 2
)f (*)
T
«(1 -"•)v'(z) o£; > (\ - <

dielectric +
-lfT
Spacing d 1 - z
r
«(1 - «
T
)V'(z) az-'e '^l -f-' )K'(z)
P= J r
l - z " V »
conductor
4 5 6 7 8
?
spacing d. p m ( « l 0 )
Fig. 3
a Calibration rig
h Frequency change against spacing
A similar arrangement of suspended dielectric disc but with-

out the differential expansion system provides a convenient
method of mechanically tuning the oscillator frequency. This
could be incorporated at another point on the delay line and
would then be totally independent of the compensation
system *
Acknowledgment: Portions of the work described have been
carried out with the support of the Procurement Executive.
Ministry of Defence, sponsored by D C V D . The author wishes
to thank R. M Pierrepoint and M . Waller for the supply of
devices and also R Davies and P. L. Booth for their help and
discussions
G TUBR1DV 8th June 1981

Philips Research Laboratories
Croft Oak Lane
Redhill. Surrey RHI 5HA. Eng
Reference
1 DAVIES. R , BOOTH. P- and N F W T O S . B : An improved T R A P A T T
oscillator'. IEEE Trans.. 1980. M T T - M , p 171
n
" Technique reported b> the '-ssey C o some years ago on their
F E T M I C amplifiers
0013 -5 / 94/81 / ) 605 79-02$ / J 0 / 0
580 ELECTRONICS LETTERS 6th August 1981 Vol.17 No.

3 41
PAPER 26
Digital active network analysis
F.G.A. Coupe, B . S c , Ph.D., and J.I. Sewell, B . S c , Ph.D., C.Eng., M.I.E.E., Sen. Mem.I.E.E.E.
Indexing terms: Active networks. Filters. Analogue<iigiial conversion
Abstract: An analysis technique is presented and developed which enables analogue active networks and
digital filters to be combined into a new type of neiwork. ihe digital active network. The poiemial
effects of limit cycle noise aic extensively considered and for a practical example both the results of
computer analysis and actual measurements aje given.
1 Introduction bucket-bridge (b.b.d.) devices could be used. However, they

are included because they m o d i f y the stability of a digital
Analogue active networks and their associated mathematics
admittance matrix. The overall transfer function o f the
have been very extensively investigated in recent years, as
d.t.a. may be defined as the pulse transfer function (p.t.f.)
have digital filters and sample data systems in general. This
paper derives techniques for combining both topics in of the d.t.a., namely
order to make a new range of circuit realisations, digital
y(z) = I(z)IV(z)
active networks.
A simple approach to this new technique could be to = gf(?) 0)
feed a digital filter with A' input ports f r o m N voltage
sensors and feed the filter outputs to A' current where g is the scaling constant and / ( z ) is the digital-
generators. By strapping the voltage sensor inputs to the filter transfer function.
current generator outputs, one type o f A'-port digital active The scaling constant can be implemented as a 4-quadrant
network can be created. However, this does not meet digital multiplier i f sign reversal is required or defined by
the initial criterion of truly mixing analogue active the reference voltage input to the d.a. convenor; this
networks with digital filters, and hence it is necessary to latter option will normally restrict the scaling to 2-quadrant
analyse the whole concept very carefully. operation.
Digital active network theory may be used to extend Fig. 2 shows the block diagram o f an arbitrary sampled
greatly the theory o f digital filters by enabling analogue analogue admittance. By definition
components to be mixed w i t h these filters, and by showing /(s) = H(s) K*(5) (2)
how the digital equivalent can be designed of gyrators,
circulators, impedance convenors, impedance inverters and where H(s) is the analogue Laplace-domain transfer
so on. The exact nature o f every possible application function and V*(s) the sampled Laplace input voltage.
cannot be explored in this paper. In order to analyse the output state at the sampling
However, it is the purpose o f this paper to present a instants it is expedient to hypothetically sample, thus
coherent analysis o f digital active networks through which
(3)
detailed applications may be designed. Conversely it
is clear that there must be a theoretical basis which can which is conventionally rewritten
describe what happens in a digital active network and so
a coherent theory is a better start than an approximate (4)
design method.
However, the sampling of a Laplace variable may be written
1 2 3
2 Digital transadmittance amplifiers thus ' '
In order to make an A'-port digital active network it is most

convenient to choose the admittance matrix as a starting
= — I V(s+jr )
Wt (5)
point because o f the ease w i t h which transadmittance
amplifiers (analogue or digital) may be designed.
Digital transadmittance amplifiers (d.t.a.) may be where T, is the sampling period and thus the sampling
conveniently defined to follow their analogue counterparts, process has modified the units of V*(s) by dividing by time.
a block diagram being shown in Fig. 1. The presence of Thus, to correct for this, eqn. 4 must be rewritten as
analogue-to-digital (a.d.) and digital-to-analogue (d.a.)
/*(*) = T H*(s)V*(s) (6)
convenors is not obligatory as charge-coupled (c.c.d.) or e
This point has been mentioned but not derived.'

current
da. generator
"scaler z.o h converter. Ms)
[digital
H filer
I Hz)
Fig. 1 Block diagram of digital amplifier v(ti _ v"(t)

i(t)
H (s)
V(s) V*(s) l(s)
Paper 85 1G, first receive'd 10th December 1979 and in revised form
22nd April 1980
Ur Coupe is with GCHQ, Benhall, Cheltenham, G L O S . GLS2 5AJ.
England, and Dr. Sewell is with the Department of Electronic
Engineering, University of Mull, Hull HU6 7 R X , England Fig. 2 Sampled analogue admittance
IEE PROC. Vol. 127. Pi. G, Wo. 4. A UGUST1980 181

Now H(s) may be defined generally: by using only one a.d. convenor at each porl which
feeds each digital amplifier in any given column, further-
more the output o f each digital amplifer in any given row
m - 'f— 1.7} can be added before d.a. conversion. Another simplification
would be to multiplex the d.a. convenor used in the
voltage sensing a.d. convenor for use as the current
S b:S'
generating d.a. convenor.
A digital admittance matrix lias been defined as the
and defined using eqn. 5:
pulse transfer function of each element of the analogue
— £ //(i +/nv ) s
(8) admittance matrix. Now by definition each element of the
/<•
1 r=- o analogue admittance matrix convolves with either a
sampled or unsampled port voltage:
When n > m, the series for H*(s) is divergent and hence
H*(s) cannot be found; H(s) may be said to be untrans- I(s) = Y (s)V(s)
l + Y (s)V*{.s)
2
(14)
formable.
where each variable is now defined as a matrix.
By the same definition
As Y (s) 2 represents the transfer functions o f the
digital amplifers present it is intrinsically possible to find
1 i Y (s) and hence Y (z). Now in order to analyse the
T. I (9) 2 2
{H(s+jrw,)\ state o f the ;V output currents at the sampling instants

it is convenient to introduce hypothetical samplers which
When n>m, the series for {l/H(s)}* is now convergent, will sample both the input voltage and output current
and hence l/H(s) is transformable. at each port. Thus eqn. 14 becomes
Now consider the product o f two Laplace transfer
functions H (s) and H (s) where
x 2
/•to = l Y t W ^ y + iYAnvwy
= T.[YHS) + Y;(S)]V*(S) (15)
H{s) = H (s)H (s)
2 2 (10)
If Y'(s) can be found then the Z-transform o f eqn. 15
If H*(s) and H (s) can be found then H*(s) can also be
2
produces the digital admittance matrix Y(z):
found. However, i f either cannot be found then neither
can H(s) be found. Y{z) = T Z{Y{s)}
s (16)
Now the network in Fig. 2 has been arbitrarily defined
such that H(s) is an admittance, but it may be rearranged as If any element o f K,(s) cannot be transformed then
in Fig. 3 to become an impedance and hence eqn. 6 can be Y(s) must be manipulated to produce a transformable
rewritten as admittance matrix. Eqn. 13 showed that the inverse of the
transform of the inverse could be used instead. This may
be applied to Y(s) by dividing through the row containing
en) the untransformable element by that element and may be
repeated as may times in a row as necessary.
Thus the Z-transform may be written This may be done in matrix form by defining a
diagonal matrix w i t h elements consisting of the products of
(12) the untransformable elements in Y\ (s):
1
T (13)
1
•nz) 0- 0
8 1
0
•s i (17)
i
This result is important in the analysis which follows.
0 0-
3 Digital admittance matrix
A digital admittance matrix may be formed by intercon- where the general element^,- may be defined:
necting digital amplifiers such that each digital amplifier
simulates an element of an admittance matrix. As each K, = (product o f untransformable elements in ith row)
digital amplifier would normally contain an a.d. and d.a.
converter, a considerable simplification can be made Now, by definition,
Yds) = I'u^'l'u.i 08)

v"(s)
However, the term Y'y K, (s) is transformable because
\ dividing through by the untransformable elements yields an
entirely transformable matrix. Thus eqn. 14 becomes
1 v(t)
Its) l"(s) H (s) V(s)
and, after hypothetical sampling,
Fig. 3 Sampled analogue impedance 7". = [Y-dYWVm) (20)
IEE PROC. Vol. 127. Pi. CI. So. 4. A L'UL'ST 1 980 182
Each sampled term may now be Z-transformed to give the Hence .-!.\>(rl is superseded by a voltage-transfer vector
digital admittance matrix: Q (:)
N where
¥(•) l
-[Z\Y-i}]- [Z\Y-dY{_s)\] (21)
<h<:) "</(-)
(28)
The digital impedance matrix may be similarly derived by

rearranging eqn. 20 before taking the Z-transform: and (//(:) is the/th element of Q (- ). N
Now the whole digital active network will display limit-

Z(z) r [z\Y^r(sY,]' \Z\Y-, 122)
s
eye!: oscillations i f at any frequency
and this is clearly the inverse of eqn. 2 1 .
VhU)I > 1 (29)
In order to use conventional definitions, Ziz) is used to
mean the digital impedance matrix, and may be r may take any value within the Nyquist range that
distinguished f r o m the process of taking the Z-transform maximises \qfa)\. However, the necessary value to cause
such as Z{K"()} by the type o f brackets used. Hence oscillation must lie between 1 and 2 because although the
whatever mixture of analogue components and digital noise will have been amplified by <?,(-), it will not have
amplifiers has been chosen, it is always possible to find exceeded another quantisation boundary. Thus
the digital admittance and impedance matrices, providing of
course that one or other is not singular. \qj(z)\ > k (30)
where 1 < k < 2.

4 Limit cycle noise I f the a.d. convertors are accurately aligned then k takes
I f the digital amplifiers within a digital active network its maximum value and eqn. 30 may be rewritten
incorporate amplitude quantisation because of a.d. and
(31)
d.a. convenors then this e f f e c l may be conventionally,
represented as uncorrelated noise inputs to each digital Any mismatch in the a.d. convertors will reduce the value
5
amplifer. Hence quantisation noise will also be present of k causing the digital active network to be potentially
as a noise current at the output of each digital amplifier, more unstable. A special case occurs i f every element of
and these noise currents may excite the whole digital active Y(s) is derived from a digital amplifer:
network to show limit cycle oscillations.
For the purpose of tliis analysis all N a.d. convertors in Y ( z ) = Y(z)
N (32)
an arbitary /V-port digital active network will be assumed to
and hence
be identical, that is they have the same number of equal
sized quantisation steps which are also aligned. If these A (z)
N = U (33)
quantisation levels are not aligned then quantisation noise
can be serious, but the amplitude of any noise effect at where U is the identity matrix; U is used to avoid con-
any frequency can be predicted and enough bits used in the flicting with the current vector / . Thus under these
a.d. convertors to reduce these effects to an conditions eqn. 31 can never be satisfied because
acceptable level.
l (34)
Consider an admittance matrix Y ( s ) consisting of only N
those elements o f Y(s) derived from digital amplifiers Hence a digital active network constructed solely f r o m
which include amplitude quantisation. Thus the noise digital amplifiers cannot show limit cycle noise providing
output current l ( s ) will be N
that a.d. convertors are identical and aligned.
The limit cycle oscillation analysis has considered only
the effect of amplitude quantisation producing amplified
Ms) = Y (s)V%(s)
N
(23)
quantisation noise. The actual amplitude depends on the
By taking the Z-transform absolute size o f AN and thus, for a given dynamic range,
a large number of quantisation levels is preferable. The
l (:) = Y (z)V (i)
N N N (24) presence o f numerical round-off in the other stages o f the
digital amplifier will also affect the limit-cycle
Now l ( z ) will excite the whole digital active network
N
6 , 7 8 , 9
criterion. ' However, coefficient accuracy will only
by way o f the digital impedance matrix: 10
be a problem in digital active networks i f the coefficients
V (z) = Z(z)Y (z)V (z)
0 N s (25)
hypothetical;
and thus a voltage transfer matrix A {z) N may be defined: 1
samplers
A (z)
N = Z(z)Y (z) N (26)
Now the elements o f the column vector V ( z ) will all be N
equal by the present definition. Furthermore the elements

;|
digital-
of I o(-) re also inputs to the sai.'e digital amplifier. Thus amplifier
V ( z ) will become a column vector with all elements set
N
array
to I . and scaled by an r j n . s . voltage l ' related to the s
quantisation step size A I ':

—Ore-
l's
/ (±vy (27)
V , 2 Fig. 4 Digital-amplifier array
IEEPROC, Vol. I 27. I't. C. So. -I. AUGUST IVSO 183

3 4 5
in each element come from digital filters rather than

from analogue circuit components, because the latter have j, - e x p ( - s r j |
/2O) = ~S: 1 exp(-sA r ) ; s
values which cannot be rounded o f f .
5 Element resolution
Now by definition {g + s C i ) and sC z cannot be trans-
In a digital amplifier the presence of an amplitude quantiser formed and thus Y may be written as
v
introduces an uncertainty into any attempted measurement

of the transadmittance. Hence the overall amplifier (g + sC, I 0
operation may be written as (40)
0 sC
]j + AI = ( y + Ay )( u u Vj + A10 (35)
for the element >>,-,-. The fractional error in y j will be t Thus the inverse is
Aj'rj _ A/ AK
(36) 1
•^7 0
1 + sC,
However, by definition A F < £ l.s.b. and thus / will not (41)
change, making A / = 0. Hence 1
sC2
AV
(37) Further
{1 -exp(-sT )} s
e x - s K r
Z^ T +, s^C , ^)
sfe P ( ' »)
{1 -exp(-sT )} s
- «2 7- exp ( - sA. r )
2 s
1
2
s C 2 J (42)
However, Vj/AV is the number of quantisation levels M in E q n . 4 l may be Z-transfonned 10 give

the a.d. convertor and thus
0
(38) C, \z-oc
-a 1 (43)
M YUM i 1
0
Hence no digital amplifier
transadmittance may be C 2 z - 1
1
measured to an accuracy greater than —• where
M
6 Example: digital gyrator a = exp(-£?/C,) (44)
A 2-port capacitively loaded digital gyrator forms a suitable Eqn. 42 similarly gives
example to illustrate the analysis o f a digital active
network, and i t is shown i n Fig. 5. The basic equations
describing the gyrator may be written down:
/ , ( s ) = fe + s C , ) K , (*) + / , ( * ) V *(s)
2 _ I
( 3 9 )
A ( s ) = -Mn)V*^) + sC V (s)
2 2
C2 ' z - \
where
(45)
(' - exp (-sT )
s
= g1
fx(')
r exp (-sK,T ) s
Thus Y(z) may now be obtained
(1 - a ) z -
• (sr>
? / \—<"f,(s)
V digital y
Y{z)
amplifiers
-«2 7" z" s
Fig. 5 Two-port capacitively loaded digital gyrator (46)
184 /£'£' />ROC. l b/. / 2 7. ft. G. A'o. 4. /I (/Gt/.Vr / 950

and by inversion Table 1: Component values for digital gyrator example
> > + K
: + 1
(z-l) Parameter Parameter meaning Value
(I -a)
c, ** sampling frequency 26-6 kHz
Z(z) = T, sampling period 18-75(is
(z - a ) c, port-1 shunt capacitance 9-6 uF
C, port-2 shunt capacitance 10uF
. c,cV C 2 9, .9. transconductances 10mS
R. port-1 shunt resistance 5 0 , 1 0 0 . 2 0 0 , 300
M(2)
400, 500 P.
If, , K fractional delay 1
(47)
where 7 C o m p u t e r analysis
K K
(1 -a)gig2 The denominator {M(z)} o f the digital impedance matrix in
M{z) = z >+ '(z l)(z-a)+T, (48)
gC 2
eqn. 48 was analysed to find the pole positions, and the
modulus o f the roots nearest the unit circle are listed in
The digital gyrator as defined is a mixture o f analogue Table 2. Gearly these roots will lie within the unit circle
components and digital amplifiers, and thus it is possible and hence the digital gyrator will be stable.
that limit-cycle oscillations may be present w i t h certain sets
Table 2 also shows the resonant frequency and the
of component values. Thus the voltage-transfer vector
magnitude o f z and z , at that frequency. Figs. 6 and 7
n 2
(see Section 4) must be derived.
show the frequency responses for the magnitudes o f z n
Y ( z ) may be written down thus

N and z , as a continuous line. From the prediction in eqn.
2
31 no limit cycle noise is to be expected with the shunt

0 g\Z resistor set to 50 or 100 ft. A noise voltage will occur,
(49) however, when the gyrator is excited by an external signal
-g-iZ 0 generator with the shunt resistance set to 100 ft, but this
will not be self sustaining.
and thus the noise-voltage-transfer matrix A (z) will be
N
Table 3 shows the limit-cycle noise-voltage peak gains
at the two ports o f the digital gyrator together with the
K + 1
tf,* (l-a)z 2 £,z > (z-l) expected r.m.s. noise voltage. This assumes a quantisation
gC2 c, step size o f 125mV which gives an r j n . s . noise voltage
of 3 6 1 m V . With the shunt resistance set to 5 0 f t no
~g2 K
g\giTj peak in either voltage gain was discernible. No account
C,C 2
has been taken o f the filtering effect o f the resonance o f
the capacitively loaded digital gyrator.
M[z)
(50) 8 Practical experiment
Thus the voltage-transfer vector Q (z) N may be written A digital machine was constructed (Fig. 5) which consisted
900 r
* z * > * ' ( - l ) + * * , l ( ,
~ a ) z computed
2
gCi R = 5O0n
s
(50
QN(.Z)
~g7 , Z\SiT^
- (z — a)z
K i + 1
R»=500n
c,c 2
M(z)
R«=tOnn R.=400rt
In order to determine whether limit-cycle oscillations can
be present theoretically, the two elements o f the above
Ft. = 300n R. =300fl
vector must be evaluated for a range o f frequencies, for
values o f z, and for various values o f the components
R = 200A R = 20011
g,g\ ,g2,C and C .
x 2
In order to verify the theoretical analysis the two R =ioon

s
R.=wn R = 50n
elements z and z o f the digital impedance matrix were
M 2 ]
s
studied for a particular set o f component and parameter 00 1000 2500

log (frequency). Hz
c
values shown in Table 1 by computer program and practical

experiment. Fig. 6 Computed and measured frequency response for z,
Table 2: Results from computer analysis of digital gyrator

Sampling period = 18-75 us Shunt resistance, SI
50 100 200 300 400 500
modulus of largest denominator root 0-9812 0 9908 0-9957 0-9973 0-9981 0-9986
resonant frequency, Hz 162-11 162 11 162-11 162-11 162-11 162-11
Zu peak impedance, 12 52-46 107-00 22646 362-08 51726 697 07
Ztl peak impedance, n 227 97 358€4 509-79 685-13
/EE PROC. Vol. 127. Pt. G, A'o. 4. A UGUST 1980 185

Table 3: Predicted limit cycle noise atr.plitude
Shunt resistance, P.
50 100 200 300 400 500
port-1 voltage gain _ 1 5209 3 1389 5 0019 7 1406 9.6166

port-1 r.m.s. noise voltage, mV - 54 9 1 13-3 180 5 257 7 347 0
port-2 voltage gain - 1 0474 2 4929 4-2852 6 3671 8-7841
port-2 r.m.s. noise voltage, mV - 37-8 90 0 154-6 229-8 317 0
900 extend digital filters to include both passive analogue

computed
800 components and active analogue circuit configurations.
They do not enhance, strictly, analogue active networks
700 because the presence o f even one sampling stage in a
R 500D i=
network means that digital-filter analysis techniques must
600
be employed.
500 R =4000
s
The extension to digital filters is fundamental, because
q whereas a digital filter may be regarded as processing the
complete signal, the digital active network partitions the
R =300fl
s signal into measures o f voltage and current. Hence the
300
conventional analogue concept of impedance, admittances
200 R = 200fl -
s
etc. can be extended to make digital impedances, digital
R^roon^ admittances etc. This does not apply to ordinary
digital filters.
0 Hence with the advent o f digital active networks, digital
K) DO WOO 2500
l o g (frequency). Hz filters are now able to perform all the funcitons and have all
0
the properties o f their analogue counterparts.

Fig. 7 Computed and measured frequency response for z } ]
10 Acknowledgment
of two cross-coupled identical digital amplifiers. Each The work reported in this paper was supported by the UK
digital amplifier contained a 5-bit voltage-sensing a.d. Science Research Council.
convertor, or 4-quadrant digital multiplier and a 10-bit
current generating d.a. convertor. The relevant parameters 11 References
and component values are shown in Table 1.
1 SHINNERS. S.M.: 'Control system design' (Wiley. 1964)
The digital amplifiers were aligned by setting the 2 T O U , J.T.: 'Digital and sampled-data control systems' (McGraw-
input to the 4-quadrant multiplier to maximum and Hill, 1959)
adjusting the current generating d.a. convertor refer, nee 3 J U R Y , K.I.: 'Sampled data control systems'(Wiley, 1958)
voltage until a transconductance o f lOmS was obtained. 4 B L A C K M A N , R.B.: 'Data smoothing and prediction' (Addison-
Wesley, 1965)
The a.d. convertor was multiplexed between the two
5 B E T T S , J.A.: 'Signal processing, modulation and noise' (English
amplifiers but because of circuit complexities two Universities Press, 1970)
separate d.a. convertors were used. 6 OPPENHEIM, A.V., and W E R N S T E I N , C.J.: 'Effects of finite
The frequency responses for the magnitude o f the register length in digital filtering and the fast l-'ourier transform',
Proc.IEEE. 1972, 60, pp. 9 5 7 - 9 7 6
digital-input impedance z and forward-transfer
n
7 A V E N H A U S E . E . : 'On Ihe design of digital filters with
impedance z were measured and are plotted in Figs. 6
2 i
coefficients of limited word length', IEEE Trans., 1972, AU-20,
and 7 as a broken line. The measured frequency responses pp. 2 0 6 - 2 1 2
have taken into account the limit cycle oscillations present 8 J A C K S O N , L.B.: 'Roundoff-noise analysis for fixed point digital
when « „ = 200, 300, 400 and 500 fi. These osculations filters realised in cascade or parallel form', ibid., 1970, AU-18,
pp. 107-122
were found as theory predicted.
9 S A N D B E R G , I.W., and K A I S E R , J I".: 'A bound on limit-cycles
in fixed point implementations of digital filters', ibid., 1972,
9 Conclusions AU-20, pp. 110-112
10 WHITING, P A.: Tinite word length effects in digital processes'.
The main advantage of digital active networks are that they Electron, 1974, pp. 4 6 - 5 1
186 /EE /'ROC. Vol. 127. Pt. G. No. 4. A UGUST 19S0

3 48
PAPER 28
3 4 9
References cess. The nodes in the reduced mairi.x are renumbered lo gen-
1 SCHMIDT,L.-P.. and I T O H . T . : 'Spectral domain analysis of dominant erate a minimal sel A/' for lime interval i. Repeating this for
and higher order modes in fin-line'. IEEE Trans'. 1980. MTT-28, all the lime intervals introduces a global minimal set of nodes
(9) A f and a minimal sel of equations. For a network . I with \
s
2 M E N Z E I . . w., C A L L S E N , H . . A D E L S E C K , li.. and S I C K I N G , K.; 'An imegra- physical nodes, the total number of relevant nodes in a time
led Ka-band receiver front-end'. 11th E u M C . Amsierdam. 1981. 1 :
interval is m = .\ - n' . where n[ is the number of swiiches
s
symp. dig., pp. 361-364
closed during interval i. then Af = {1. 2. 3 ... m'), and the
3 M L T N E L , H . , and C A L L S E N . H . : 'Fin-line PIN-diode attenuators and
lotal number of rows or columns in )' is m = , m'. For
swiiches for 94 G H z range'. Electron, ten., 1982, 18, pp. 541-542
sensitivity and other studies it is essential not to lose the orig-
inal node identities, so an index vector is used to record all
0013-5194/82/190839-02$!. 50/0 movements of rows and columns. The complete index vector is
a concatenation of the interval index vectors and simply maps
the definite capacitance matrix t ' i n t o all the Y''.
However, it is apparent that Y will still be a very sparse
matrix. Sparse techniques could be used, but these can be
avoided by the following method. Note that all the on-
diagonal partitions of Y are frequency independent and that
C O M P A C T M A T R I X S C H E M E FOR USE IN all off-diagonal portions have a multiplier and are fre-
C O M P U T E R A N A L Y S I S OF S W I T C H E D - quency dependent. Commence with interval p and remove, by
CAPACITOR N E T W O R K S pivotal condensation, all nodes apart from the input and
output nodes and any others to be retained for sensitivity
calculations and the like. This yields a matrix of the form
Indexing terms: Circuit theory and design, Switched-capacitor
networks. Computer analysis 0 0 ... 0 -'Y;-'-' -r'Y!'
Y" :
- 1 y i 1 Y" 0 0 0 0
The matrices that normally occur in the analysis of multi- 0 z-'Y" 0 0
phase switched-capacitor networks are quite large and very
>"' 0
sparse. A technique is presented which reduces the matrix 6 0 0 - . - - ' > ' ' - ' •'-' Y ' ' 0
order and increases the fill. Storage requirements are mini- 0 0 0 ... 0 - -'Y;-'-'
:
Y"
mised and the arithmetic handling of large arrays is reduced
without recourse to sparse matrix procedures. where Y'l indicates a reduced matrix. This process is repeated
down to interval 2 and yields
For the analysis of multiphase switched-capacitor (SC) net-
works a number of basic matrix representations are possible. K-ICr" -ii"".--
-r'r;' 1-IL--
The modified nodal approach ( M N A ) does have advantages
deriving from the structure of the matrix, but will generally
require manipulation to avoid singularities and sparse tech-
niques to improve the numerical routines. Here a definite f is much more compact than Y, of lower order and greater
1 3
nodal admittance m e t h o d ' is favoured since it allows simple density. In fact Y need never be created, the submatrices of f
reduction in order and increased fill techniques to be im- can be generated sequentially when needed and the space
plemented. Network parameters can be computed in a reused for other submatrices in the successive condensation
straightforward manner by condensation and cofactor tech- steps. For transfer function calculations only array storage of
niques. m 2 1 2
[ m + 2(p — l ) ] -t- [ m " ] is required, compared with m for 1
For a multiphase SC network, the T periodic clock signal c Y.

(the total period over which all the switching sequences are Ordinary operational amplifiers without frequency depen-
completed), is divided into p basic time intervals of length dence can be accommodated very easily. Since the operation 3
T = T jp. During each basic time interval no switch signal is

e of both is continuous and without storage, a typical current
varied. Let /', V' (1 < / < p) be the nodal current and voltage equation becomes
vectors for each basic time interval, and for the kth clock
interval define l[ = ({kp + (i - 1)}T) and V\ = V({kp +
(i — 1)} T). Then, for one complete cycle, r((n + 1)T) = £ 3 |/- { ((n + 1 ) r ) _ y>-. „( r)}
i
IC] + lY ]V ({n+l)T)
A
'l =
The definite matrix Y contains all the conductance terms due
A
to the amplifiers in the network. Only the Y" submatrices will

11 = ^-{VI-v\) contain terms from Y and their inclusion via the index vector
A
follows the pattern outlined.

Having assembled f , the sampled transfer functions are
computed, first by further pivotal condensation of internal
nodes from the top left-hand submatrix. Multiple sampled
2
transfer functions exist, p in theory, in practice only a limited
number of these may be of importance, but a general program
where C is the definite capacitance matrix of the network; it is
must have the capability of computing all the accessible trans-
very easy to write down by inspection and is easily assembled
J J fer functions or whichever ones are specified by a user. Consi-
in a program. Let Y' = [ C ] / T relate the currents during
der one input time interval excitation and compute all the
interval i and voltages during interval j.
transfer functions with respect to output voltages at all the
Applying the i-transformation gives the matrix
time intervals. This is accomplished by setting to zero all the
unwanted input excitations, other than /;„ and V\„, say. Re-
Y" 1 0 1 0 I. 1 0 1 1
. -1 Y ' V" moving all the rows and columns corresponding to these en-
-:-'Y !
0 0 V' tries gives a reduced matrix r' . R

1 1 0
I- -• J- X
0 I - 1 V " 1 .. 1 0 1 0
1 r T ; :
1 y[
4 - \- - + - (- - — -L —
0 1 0 i o i- ~'Y~' " ' 1 Y" ~ V'
or / = YV.
The C' are of lower order than C in general and can be
derived from it by contraction representing the switching pro- v
840 ELECTRONICS LETTERS 16th September 1982 Vol. 18 No. 19

3 50
By this stage Y is small, and application of Cramer's rule is

R elegantly derived by Montgomery ei al. from symmetry con- s
quite efficient giving the transfer function H'' = (A'^/A'j) V j. siderations.

T h e calculation of A'j is required once. T h e process is repea- T h e principal result is that, if the five-port junction is com-
ted for transfer functions with respect to all input time inter- pletely matched, power entering any one port will be equally
vals. T h e frequency loop is deferred until this stage when the shared amongst the other four ports if they are terminated by
size of matrix is an absolute m i n i m u m ; this leads to compu- matched loads. Moreover, the phase difference between a port
tations of maximum speed and accuracy. Scaling of matrices is adjacent to the source port and a port not adjacent to the
used throughout to ensure maximum accuracy. source is 120\
T h i s routine has been implemented in the program S C N A P In the reflectometer application, the five-port is connected
2. and improvements in speed by a factor of 3 over that ex- as shown in Fig. I.
perienced with program S C N A P " on 2-phase S C circuits have
been achieved. O n an I C L 1904s computer analysis of multi-
phase examples yielded encouraging performance figures, for a
5
5th-order elliptic filter (four time slots, 20 nodes), 5 6 K store
and 0-3 s/frequency point, and for a 7th-order Chebyshev
6
filter (six time slots, 31 nodes), 6 0 K store and 0-8 s/frequency
point. Comparative figures from the same program mounted
on an I B M 360/195 show speed increases by a factor of 10 but
at some cost to storage.
F o r amplifiers with frequency dependence the matrices no
longer retain features that permit a compact formulation.
M o r e general routines have to be used and no simple time-
saving techniques can be invoked.
Acknowledgment: T h e work was supported by the U K Science

& Engineering Research C o u n c i l .
C. L A U ISth July 1982

Fig. ! 5-port junction in 6-pon refleclomeler instrument
J. I. S E W E L L
Department of Electronic Engineering The unknown is connected to port 3 and its reflection coef-
University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX. England ficient P, is determined by the intersection of three circles
whose radii are found from the powers P , P and P normal- 2 t s
References ised to the forward power P . 6
1 KURTH, c. F., and MOSCHYTZ, G. S.: 'Nodal analysis of switched If the junction is perfect, if the power meters are perfectly
capacitor networks', IEEE Trans.. 1979, CAS-26, pp. 93-105 matched, and if the directional coupler D C is perfect the
2 HOKENEK, E., and MOSCHYTZ, G. s.: Analysis of general switched- centres of the circles will be at — 2 and at 2 exp [ + j(n/3)] in
capacitor networks using indefinite admittance matrix'. IEE Proc. the complex reflection-coefficient plane. A change in the refer-
G, Electron. Ore. A Syst., 1980, 127, (1), pp. 21-33 ence planes, maintaining symmetry, will simply rotate the
3 SEWELL, j. i.: 'Analysis of active switched-capacitor networks', three centres around the origin without changing their relative
Proc. IEEE, 1980, 68, pp. 292-293 positions.
4 LAU, j . , and SEWELL, J. l.: 'Inclusion of amplifier finite gain and
We ask how far from these ideal positions the centres may
bandwidth in analysis of switched-capacitor filters', Electron. Lett.,
1980, 16, pp. 462^*63 move if the five-port whilst remaining symmetrical, reciprocal
5 HERBST, D., FETTWEJS, A., HOEFTLINGER, B., KLEINE, U.. N 1 E N T I E D T , W., and loss-free, is not perfectly matched, again assuming a per-
PANDEL, H., and SCHWEER, R.: An integrated seventh-order unit fect directional coupler and perfectly matched power meters.
element filter in VIS-SC technique', IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, We assume, therefore, that its scattering matrix can be written
1981, 16, pp. 140-146 in the form
6 NOSSEK. J A., and TEMES, G. B : 'Switched-capacitor filter design
using bilinear element modelling', / £ £ £ Trans., 1980, CAS-27, pp.
y a p p
481^*91
a y a fi
[S] = P a y a (1)
0013-5194/82/190840-02$!. 50/0 P p a y
a p P a
from which the unitary matrix condition gives the following

equations:
2 2 2
|y| + 2|«| + 2|p>| = l ]
ya* + ay* + aP* + Pa* + PP* = 0 (2)

FIRST-ORDER THEORY OF T H E FIVE- yP* + Py* + ap* + pa* + aa* = 0 I
PORT SYMMETRICAL STAR JUNCTION
The ideal values of a and p are
Indexing terms: Microwave circuits and systems, Reflec-

tometers *o = I exp |
•('!)
It is shown that, from the three conditions of (a) five-fold
symmetry, (fcl reciprocity and (c) freedom from loss, useful
Po = l e x
P I (3)
constraints can be found on the elements of the scattering
matrix of a symmetrical five-port star junction. These con-
•H)
straints can be used to set limits to the possible positions q, We now assume that a and P depart slightly from the values
of the centres of the ^-circles when the five-port junction is
given by eqn. 3 and write
used as an element in a six-port refleclometer.
1
a = a0 + da
Introduction: Hansson and Riblet have demonstrated that a
five-port symmetrical star junction can be used as a key com- P = Po + W (4)
ponent in a six-port reflectometer of the kind described by
2
Engen in an excellent review article. T h e basic properties of and treat Sa, dp and y { = | >• | exp (j<t>)} as small quantities.
such junctions have been known for many years, and were With suitably redefined reference planes, and neglecting
ELECTRONICS LETTERS 16th September 1982 Vol. 18 No. 19 841

3 5 i
PAPER 29
3 52
666 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS. VOL. CAS-31. NO. 7, JULY 1984
Circuits and Systems Letters.

Improved z Plane Polynomial liiterpolaUve Analysis
of Switcbed-Capacitor Networks
D. G. JOHNSON AND J. I . SEWELL
Abstract —The accuracy of interpolated polynomials in z is considerably

improved using a transformed sampling plane and the F F T . This is further
enhanced when the transformation is coupled with partitioned polynomial
interpolation. One solution to the problem of over-interpolation also fol-
lows.
Polynomial interpolation schemes have been employed success-

fully i n the past to the analysis of continuous networks, active
and passive. A number of current computer programs for analy-
sising switched capacitor networks [ l j , [2] have adopted similar
routines in the z plane.
I f a typical transfer function is / / ( z ) = N(z)/D(z) the indi-
vidual polynomials of type Fig. 1. Pole-zero plot for 6lb ordeT SC bandpass filter.
F(z)=t z> a i
;-o the result of the error mechanism and is really not acceptable.
Table 1 shows the peak magnitude error for a number of filters,
can be determined by interpolating with n + 1 samples { z , } and
from which an ominous trend is clearly visible.
n + 1 correspondingly sampled responses F(z,). The process cor-
> Consider the two planes w and z, Fig. 3. These are related by
responds to solving A=*o~ F where a is the Vandermonde
1 Z - 1 = M>T where r is the radius of a new sampling circle
matrix of samples { z , } . Now o " can be formed using a Traub
centered on {1,0}. Performing an FFT with a normal set of
technique [3]. Alternatively any standard interpolation method
samples from the unit circle i n w and a corresponding set of
(Langrange, etc.) could be used for the process. The samples { z , )
sampled responses derived from the circle in z will yield
can be chosen anywhere in the complex plane, with some prefer-
ence for a circular array, which generally gives best accuracy. It n
transpires [4] that i f a circle of unity radius and centre {0,0} is H w
) =
° T, a w
'i '-
1
used, then o " F is exactly equivalent to performing an FFT. This i-0
has many computational attractions, as much effort has been Replacing w by (z - l ) / r gives
invested i n providing extremely fast and accurate FFT routines.
However, two problems arise with the application of the FFT n * ) - ia;(z-i)« -i. r
to the analysis of SC networks. The first is due to the very i-0

compact pole-zero locations associated with standard filter func- Equating coefficients with
tions when displayed in the z plane. These tend to congregate in
a small segment within the unit circle, a process which is exag-
F(z)-
gerated with increase in function order and complexity. Bandpass ;=o
functions generally present the most severe case. A useful test
gives
network for evaluation purposes is a sixth-order bandpass filter,
whose pole-zero locations are shown in Fig. 1. For maximum +
accuracy of the z polynomial coefficients, the system should be £ « * r - * c ( * ) ( - ! ) < * '>

sampled in the region close to the poles and zeros, where the
function is most sensitive to small changes in pole-zero position. with
Clearly, for a set of sample points uniformly distributed around
k\/i\{k-i)\.
the unit circle there will be some points distant to the left of the i n -
singularities and hence the response vectors associated with these
the set of pseudo coefficients {a-} is, therefore, easily convertible
will be almost coincident and certainly form a mechanism for
into the actual set of coefficients { a , } . Of course the frequency
numerical inaccuracies. The error function shown i n Fig. 2 is the
response can always be evaluated from F(w) anyway. The results
difference between the response of the filter computed by a
of applying this technique to the same filter are given in columns
standard frequency analysis program SCNAP 2 and that from the
1-3 of Table I I and show the routine to be very effective.
polynomials produced by basic F F T interpolation. This displays
Whilst the reduction in error is/ significant, it is possible to
improved the performance even further. High order systems are
Manuscript received December 21, 1983 This work was supported by the likely to feature several compact groups of poles-zeros, particu-
Science and Engineering Council.
The authors are with the Department of Electronic Engineering, The Univer- larly bandpass structures. To really enhance accuracy, consider
sity of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, United Kingdom the possibility of employing a number of sample circles of
0098-40>»/M/0700-0666$01.00 ©1984 IEEE

3 53
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. CAS-31, NO. 7, JULY 1984 667
T A B L E II
ERRORS FOR BANDPASS FILTER WITH VARIOUS F F T
INTERPOLATION SCHEMES
' OB >
different radii selected to describe the sensitive regions. This can

be achieved most effectively by partitioned polynomial interpola-
tion [5].
Take a sample circle centered on z = l with radius r and 0
C DB>X 1
consider a set of / samples around that circle say Z , these yield 0
a set of sampled responses F , A new set of / samples, simply a
related by Z, = 6 , Z ( i * 0) with b, as a complex constant, will

0
yield a new set of samples responses Fj. I n general for p parti-

tions, there will be p sets of sample points and p sets of sampled
Fig. 2. Frequency response and magnitude error function from inicrpolativc responses giving:
analysis.
TABLE I • -\
P
PEAK MAGNITUDE ERROR FOR VARIOUS FILTERS WITH BASIC F F T

^0
1
AT. "
P j 1
where A is the vector of required coefficients, A = 0
( a „ a , ,- • •, a _ , } , - D. = + 1 2 /
diag{z, , z , , - • •, z ! , , _ [ } ' a n d o is a Vandermonde matrix of

7 /+1 ( j + t
J2 k/
the i th set of samples Z . Let 0, = C^,, hence z = C~'e " '
f = i
. j2«k/i
r e wA r - 0 , 1 , 2 , - - S o C = r/. Also 6 = r , / r
h e r e f ( 0
l
then o, = o B , where 0 = d i a g { l , b bf,- • - ,b'~ ).
( Hence: it
2
Co Co ^0
2
C, c, c r
2
r
Bo'
1
>-t
each On" 'F, involves the transformed FFT as outlined. The inver-
sion of the [ C ] matrix presents few problems since its order is
equal to the number of partitions which is usually quite small,
and as it is a Vandermonde matrix a Traub technique can be
1
used. The calculation of B~ is trivial.
The two final columns of Table I I show the further improve-
ments in accuracy with partitioned polynomial interpolation, a
scheme with 2 partitions in the numerator and 4 in the denomina-
Fig. 3. w and z planes with sampling circles. tor providing the best results.
668 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. CAS-31, NO. 7, JULY 1984
The partitioned polynomial approach also provides a solution suffers by a very serious problem of slow convergence [3]. The
to a second problem with the FFT, that is overinterpolation. As problem is overcome by the algorithm proposed in [4], which
the number of samples presented to an FFT routine must satisfy determines D by an extensive use of the adaptive predictor.
p
2", it will generally be necessary to round up to the nearest Further improvements are, however, possible by using the con-
integer satisfying this condition. This means having to evaluate strained version of the predictor [5], as will be shown in the
the system response more times than necessary. Worst cases present letter. The resulting algorithm is faster than that pro-
occur for orders of 2" (requiring 2" + 1 sample points) which posed in [4] and allows a reduced computational cost.
+ 1
must be rounded up to 2" , giving 2" - 1 over evaluations and In the following we will use the notations:
almost doubling the computer time for system evaluations. By 1) D is the tap vector of the predictor filter of order N, i.e.,
N
using a partitioned polynomial approach considerable savings

can be made, particularly with higher order functions and when (i)
the order lies i n the lower part of some F F T band order. I n
general i f the order n satisfies 2 ' < n +1< ( 2 , + 1
- T~') for some where d = 1 and f denotes transposition. The value of D will
0 N
integer i, then partitioning the system requires fewer function be adaptively computed by the method proposed in [6].
evaluations than the basic FFT. I n some instances quite consider- 2) P(z) is the polynomial transfer function of the filter, i.e.,
able savings can be made.
The application of a transformed sample plane and polynomial
P(0= I d z-
k
(2)
partitioning to interpolative analysis of SC filters demonstrates *-o
improvements in accuracy and the number of function evalua-
tions on even moderate order networks. I t is expected that in The roots of P(z) give an estimate of the frequencies of the
,2 /
analysis of high-order SC networks these routines should produce sinusoids of the process. These roots take on the form e ~- * ,
significant improvements in accuracy and computer time. This is t = 1,2,-•-, A/, since we will use N = 2M and P(z) is con-
a subject of further work. strained to have its roots on the unit circle.
3) D ( z ) is the tap vector of the constrained predictor of
B H
REFERENCES order 2H [5J. It results

[1] R. Plodeck, U. W. Brugger, D. C. Grunigen, and O. S. Moschytz,
" S C A N A L — A program for the computer-aided analysis of switched D2 H - 1 0
capacitor networks," Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., vol. 128- pl.G, no. 6, pp. 'B.H - (3)
277-287, 1981. 0 d;
[2] J. Vlach and K. Singhal, Computer Methods for Circuit Analysis and
Design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1983. where the prime denotes the reversion of the components of
(3) J. F. Traub, "Associated polynomials and uniform methods for solution
of linear problems," SIAM Rev., vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 277-301, 1966.
[4] K. Singhal and J. Vlach, "Interpolation using the fast Fourier transform," 4) D (z) is the tap vector which satisfies the constraint re-
p
Proc I E E E., vol. 60, p. 1558, 1972.

[5] C. Fridas and J. I . Sewell, "Symbolic analysis of networks by partitioned
quired by Thompson's method [2], i.e..
polynomial interpolation," l.E.E.E. Trans. Circuits Syst., vol. CAS-21,
pp. 345-347. 1974. N
(4)
*-0
The new algorithm we propose is based on the following expres-

sion for the tap vector D (not normalized): p
Harmonic Retrieval by FIR Digital Filters

G. ORLANDI A N D G. MARTIN EL LI D = D + P BM X>,K,
i-t
Abstract —A new algorithm is proposed for determining the F I R filter •1,2,- ,M-l
for estimating the frequencies of a process consisting of sinusoids in white
noise. The algorithm is based on an extensive use of the constrained M-i M-i
predictor and is characterized by a very fast convergence. VL = f o — - o 1 o _ - _ o l (5)
The use of finite impulse response (FIR) filters for the spectral M M
analysis of a process is well known. When the process to be
where D , i =1,2,- • •, M is obtained by (3) with H *= i . Such a
BJ
analyzed consists of M sinusoids in white noise, the frequencies

formulation results in a very simple expression for the output
/ , of the sinusoids are estimated by the roots of the polynomial
power W of the filter in the ideal case of an infinite number of
transfer function of the filter. On the basis of the theory devel-
samples, i.e.,
oped by Pisarenko [ I ] , Thompson proposed an iterative method
for determining the taps of the filter. The method [2] consists of
m i n i m i z i n g the output power of the filter under the constraint W= 2 £ *-i(l-*2w)+ E
2 atei-iO-Ka)
that the length of its tap vector D be equal to 1. The rninimiza-
p i-l
tion is carried out by an iterative gradient procedure, which (6)
where £ 2 , - 1 is the output power of the predictor of order 21 - 1 ;

Manuscript received February 22, 1984.
The authors arc with INFO-COM Department, University of Roma ' K 2j is the (2/)th reflection coefficient of the predictor of order
Sapienza," Roma, Italy. 2 M ; £ is the input power. As a consequence of (6), the value of
0
0O98-4O94/84/070O-O668$01.0O ©1984 IEEE

PAPER 31
Proceedings of I5CA5 85
SYMBOLIC A N A L Y S I S OF I D E A L AND NON-IDEAL SWITCHED CAPACITOR NETWORKS
C.K. Pun and J . I . Sewe11
Department o f E l e c t r o n i c Engineering, U n i v e r s i t y of H u l l , Hull, HU6 7RX, U.K.
Rewrite as
[. . .]
ABSTRACT
- ?i
Techniques f o r the a n a l y s i s o f switched-cap-

a c i t o r ( S C ) n e t w o r k s by c o m p u t e r m e a n s a r e w e l l
d e v e l o p e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e time and f r e q u e n c y
domains. S y m b o l i c methc i s h a v e b e e n d e r i v e d f o r
O
i d e a l S C n e t w o r k s (no r e s i s t a n c e s o r f i n i t e a m p l i -
f i e r bandwidths). For networks of p r a c t i c a l s i z e
symbolic a n a l y s i s t o produce t o t a l l y l i t e r a l coef-
f i c i e n t s i s out of the question, but polynomials
with n u m e r i c a l c o e f f i c i a n t s and s e m i - l i t e r a l c o e f -
ficients are feasible results. These have c o n s i d - If \k\ t 0 then a sequence for the Inverse of the system s»trlx
e r a b l e a t t r a c t i o n i n o p t i m i s a t i o n and f i n e g r a p h -
can be d e t e r m i n e d by a K a d e r n e t h o d [4-]
i c a l work. I n the i d e a l case the i n v e r s e of a
r a t i o n a l m a t r i x H(3) i s r e q u i r e d ; whereas t h e 1
more g e n e r a l c a s e , w h i c h i n c l u d e s a l l r e s i s t i v e let d = |A| , N 1

= adj A (adj A = d A" )
o -o -o -o o -
effects, w i l l involve the inverse of a rational -1
m a t r i c e s i n both continuous and d i s c r e t e v a r i a b l e s d = t r
1 = A" [d I - BNj x
*1
H (s,z). A g e n e r a l scheme h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d f o r
the s y m b o l i c a n a l y s i s o f both i d e a l and n o n - i d e a l
SC n e t w o r k s .
V I - [» » k - l ] -k =
-
L
[ V - B
V i ]
(3)
SYMBOLIC ANALYSIS OF I D E A L S C NETWORKS
d = B N adj B
One method f o r e f f e c t i n g t h e s y m b o l i c a n a l y s i s
of SC networks ( i d e a l and n o n - i d e a l ) employs a top- w h e r e n i s d e t e r m i n e d by r a n k B_. T h i s g i v e s a max-
o l o g i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n [ l ] . H e r e a c o m p a c t MNA f o r m - imum v a l u e f o r n, i n p r a c t i c e t h e d e g r e e i s u s u a l l y
u l a t i o n h a s been u t i l i s e d , w i t h s w i t c h i n g i n t r o - l e s s a n d z e r o c o e f f i c i e n t s may b e s u p p r e s s e d .
d u c e d v i a c o n t r a c t i o n a n d a c o m p a c t i o n scheme ^2^
for multiphase networks. Totally arbitrary multi- Then
p h a s e s w i t c h i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s c a n be accommodated.
I n s t a n d a r d MNA form £3] - l - i - l J N z ' L
: H ( z ) = [A
3 Bj i = 0 -1 =
1=0 -i
d.z D <z)
i=o
(4)
w h e r e D ( z ) i s t h e d e n o m i n a t o r common t o a l l t e r m s
and m <^ n.
I f IAI = 0 a n d | B | = 0 t h e n d e f i n e a new v a r i -
a b l e 2= z + e w h e r e e = c o n s t a n t , o f s u c h a v a l u e
to ensure t h a t t h e m a t r i x p e n c i l £ B+A} i s r e g u l a r . E
A Kader sequence w i l l then produce N (a)and D (z) .

A p p l i c a t i o n o f P a s c a l ' s t r i a n g l e w i l l e f f e c t z •» z
where Is the present state matrix, the previous state matrix, and r e t u r n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s o f N ( z ) and D ( z ) .
the present state excitation vector and X present state response vector.
CH2114-7/85/0000-1165W1.00 © 1985 IEEE

-1165-
3 57
SYMBOLIC ANALYSIS OF NON-IDEAL SC NETWORKS I iniT -i

1-
The more g e n e r a l c a s e o f s y m b o l i c a n a l y s i s ,
1 r. c o c p a c t form equation (10)becooe3
when s w i t c h r e s i s t a n c e (on a n d o f f ) and f i n i t e
a m p l i f i e r bandwidth a r e taken i n t o account, i s
[pl(s)]x<«) - [pei(3,«)] u S H I
s l i g h t l y more i n v o l v e d taut u t i l i s e s t h e above a l g -
orithm to great a f f e c t . T h e MNA d i f f e r e n t i a l
- 1
e q u a t i o n s i n g e n e r a l i s e d s t a t e s p a c e form f o r and x(«) - [PMS)] [wts.sj] u s(a)
node v o l t a g e s v ( t ) a n d b r a n c h c u r r e n t s i ( t ) in
t i i a e s l o t A, a r e : Ttie f r e q u e n c y domain r e s p o n s e follows ijassdlately from substitution
k
(t)~ Ln e q u a t i o n
V c 0 v(t) j(t)
r
y («)
+ =
i(t) o 0 0 e(t) - In)
(5) where * k + 1
u
- e~^ H*l
w h e r e G, conductance matrix, C - capacitance

and o^l.) - ( 2 sin [o I t ^ j - t ^ l /i] e " "H-n'Si 1 1/J
« " V n ) /Tt,
J
matrix, the other matrices provide l o o p and node

I t w i l l be n o t e d t h a t t h e form o f t h e m a t r i x
links. I n c o m p a c t form
[pi (3)J i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e o r i g i n a l
i d e a l SC s y s t e m m a t r i x i n e q u a t i o n ( 1 ) , s o t h e
G, x(t) + C i(t) = U (t) . . (6)
^ e - -e- — K a d e r s e q u e n c e o f e q u a t i o n s (3) a p p l i e s d i r e c t l y
in finding
The s i n g u l a r n a t u r e o f needs t o be r e c o g - m
n i s e d i n the extended s t a t e transition matrix.
An a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h i s t o u s e t h e s t a n d a r d I NP.s 1
NP(a)
singular perturbation rule.
DP (Z)
C v(t) = - G y(t) k - A i(t) + 2(t)

. (7) M N
e I i(t)=-B. v ( t ) D i(t) + e(t) 1.
— -k-
The i n v e r s e M, <s) = [G, + sC 1 * i s a l s o
w i t h 0 <E<<1 a r e g u l a r s t a t e space formulation -K (_ ke ej
r e s u l t s [6,7,8]. obtainable from a K a d e r s e q u e n c e . I n this instance
is generally singular and may w e l l be s i n g -
X(t) + C (E) x<t) u(t) . . . (8) ular also. However a s h i f t of variable to ensure
a regular matrix pencil i s used t o overcome any
Both f o r m u l a t i o n s have been examined and c o n c l u s -
ions regarding the accuracy of the s t a t e t r a n s i t - singularity problems. The r e s u l t a n t form w i l l be
ion matrix determined.
I (NM.) s k
1
(s)
The f i n a l n o d a l v o l t a g e s a n d b r a n c h c u r r e n t s i=l
(s)
a t t h e end o f t i m e s l o t + 8.T w i t h s i n u s o i d a l e x -
c i t a t i o n s a r e g i v e n by fj>] : I (dm.),/ DM k (s)
J 1=1
j ! l t j n t
m <_ n
x(t, ^,+iT)= P x ( t + i T ) - | j e
k k k+l-P e k ^M {jn] k jtUT
k+1
E substitution i n equation (11) g i v e s e q u a t i o n ( 1 3 ) .
Computation o f frequency response follows i n a

(9)
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d manner.
where ( ^ ( j t l ) = [^ k e
+
3 Q *
nc a n d
E K
i s t h e s t a t e
STATE TRANSITION MATRIX APPROXIMANT

t r a n s i t i o n matrix appropriate to either formulation
above. Using the a transforation and s u b s t i t u t i n g 8 - j(5, 1 1
v^-e^ **
I n o r d e r t o compute t h e t r u e d y n a m i c b e h a v i o u r
gives
o f t h e SC n e t w o r k i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o h a v e a good
p r o c e s s and i f c a r e i s n o t t a k e n , c o n s i d e r a b l e con-
c e r n can a r i s e a s t o t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e P com- k
puted .
is)
I n g e n e r a l , i t has been found t h a t an a p p l i -

cation of the I a p p r o x i m a n t [9] g i v e s s t a b l e a n d
accurate results i n an e c o n o m i c time.
-1166-
3 58
- —
-2 . WP_ (z)
1
"DP(2)
X NP , ( a ) HP . ( a ) -P KM (s) KM (9)
-P
_ _
For t h e r e g u l a r s t a t e space form
1 K
K
-k = — . I - i
(C)G.
ke
At i=l
(14)
w h e r e A t i s t h e t i m e s t e p a n d a ^ , K_ a r e e a s i l y
«• FDSAXi SJTTTCBSB
p r e d e t e r m i n e d |[lo] . T h e o r d e r o f a p p r o x i m a t i o n N
i s a l s o determined as i n , and may r e q u i r e H=l0-
For t h e g e n e r a l i s e d s t a t e space d e s c r i p t i o n i t can
be shown t h a t
N " I -1
i/ A C
At e ke
At i=l
. . (15)
T h e MNA e q u a t i o n s f o r t h e n o n - i d e a l SC n e t -
work p r o d u c e a s t i f f s y s t e m , l a r g e l y due t o t h e
values of switch G a n d G „,.. I t h a s b e e n f o u n d
on off
that equation (15) normally g i v e s the b e s t answers
and t h e r e f o r e t h e g e n e r a l i s e d s t a t e s p a c e MNA
f o r m u l a t i o n h a s been adopted. Incidentally i fa
NAM d e s c r i p t i o n i s u s e d t h e s i z e o f t h e m a t r i x i s
s m a l l e r a n d s l i g h t l y b e t t e r c o n d i t i o n e d , t h i s may
h a v e r e l e v a n c e i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f l a r g e SC n e t -
works . 10 11 12 13 M 15
3
H2 X19
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
A program SCNAP 3 w r i t t e n i n F o r t r a n 77 h a s
P i g . 1. F i f t h Order I l l l p t l c Lowpa«« SC PI1 t a r
been u s e d t o a n a l y s e a v a r i e t y o f SC f i l t e r n e t -
works b o t h f o r t h e i d e a l a n d n o n - i d e a l s i t u a t i o n s .
The r e s u l t s compare v e r y f a v o u r a b l y w i t h t h o s e
p r o d u c e d by f r e q u e n c y domain p r o g r a m s . F i g 1 shows REFERENCES
t y p i c a l r e s u l t s f o r a 5 t h o r d e r SC e l l i p t i c l o w -
pass f i l t e r w i t h both i d e a l and n o n - i d e a l s w i t c h e s . T a n a k a , M. and M o r i , S . : " T o p o l o g i c a l formula-
tions f o r the c o e f f i c i e n t matrices of s t a t e
The i n i t i a l s t e p t o p r o d u c e t h e v a r i o u s p o l y - equations f o r switched c a p a c i t o r networks",
n o m i a I s i s o b v i o u s l y t h e most t i m e c o n s u m i n g p a r t I . E . E . E . T r a n s CAS, V o l CAS-29, No. 2, pp 1 0 6 -
of t h e a n a l y s i s . The a d v a n t a g e s f o l l o w a f t e r t h i s , 115, 1982.
s i n c e many p o i n t s o f f r e q u e n c y a n a l y s i s c a n be
computed by s i m p l e p o l y n o m i a l e v a l u a t i o n . This J o h n s o n , D.G., S e w e l l , J . I . a n d M e a k i n , A.D.:
has s i g n i f i c a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s i n n o i s e a n a l y s i s . " I n t e r p o l a t i v e a n a l y s i s of switched capacitor
O t h e r d i r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e i n o p t i m i s a t i o n and n e t w o r k s " , I . E . E . C o l l o q u i u m on D e s i g n S o f t -
p a r t i t i o n e d a n a l y s i s o f l a r g e SC f i l t e r n e t w o r k s . w a r e , C o l l o q u i u m D i g e s t , pp 6/1 - 6/7, 1 9 8 4 .
-1 1 6 7 -
3 59
3. V a n d e r w a l l e , J . , De Man, H.J. a n d Rabaey, J . :

"Time, f r e q u e n c y a n d 3-domain m o d i f i e d n o d a l
a n a l y s i s o f switched c a p a c i t o r networks",
I . E . E . E . T r a n s CAS, V o l CAS-28, No.3, pp 186-
195, 1 9 8 1 .
4. K a d e r A., " I n v e r s i o n o f p o l y n o m i a l n e t w o r k
matrices with p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o sen-
s i t i v i t y a n a l y s i s " P r o c . I . E . E . , P a r t G, No.4
pp 1 7 0 - 1 7 2 , 1 9 8 1 .
5. Rabaey, J . , V a n d e r w a l l e , J . a n d De Man, H.:

"On t h e f r e q u e n c y domain a n a l y s i s o f s w i t c h e d
c a p a c i t o r networks i n c l u d i n g a l l p a r a s i t i c s " ,
P r o c . I S C A S , C h i c a g o , pp 8 6 8 - 8 7 1 , 1 9 8 1 .
6. Verghese, G.C., L e v y , B.C. a n d K a i l a t h , T.:

"A g e n e r a l i s e d s t a t e s p a c e f o r s i n g u l a r
s y s t e m s " , I . E . E . E . T r a n s AC, V o l . AC-26,
No.4 p p 8 1 1 - 8 2 9 , 1 9 8 1 .
7. Cobb, D., " D e s c r i p t o r v a r i a b l e s y s t e m s and

optimal s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n " , I.E.E.E., Trans.
AC, V o l . AC-28, No.5, pp 6 0 1 - 6 1 1 , 1 9 8 3 .
8. Sipcovec, R.F. , E r i s m a n , A.M., Y i p , F . L . ,

and E p t o n , M.A. : " A n a l y s i s o f d e s c r i p t o r
systems u s i n g numerical a l g o r i t h m s " , I . E . E . E
T r a n s . AC, V o l . AC-26, No. 1, pp 139-147,
1981.
9. Z a k i a n , V. : " P r o p e r t i e s o f I and J approx-

MN MN
imants and a p p l i c a t i o n s t o n u m e r i c a l i n v e r -
s i o n of L a p l a c e t r a n s f o r m s and i n i t i a l v a l u e
p r o b l e m s " , J . M a t h s a n d A p p l i c . , V o l . 50,
pp 1 9 1 - 2 2 2 , 1 9 7 5 .
10. Z a k i a n , V. and E d w a r d s , M.J. : " T a b u l a t i o n o f

constants f o r f u l l grade I approximants",
Maths o f Coraput., V o l . 32, No. 1 4 2 , pp
519-531, 1 9 7 8 .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
T h i s work was s u p p o r t e d by t h e S c i e n c e a n d
Engineering Research Council.
-1168-
3 60
PAPER 33
3 6 1
Proc. IEEE I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on C i r c u i t s and Systems, San Jose, May 1986.
E F F I C I E N T COMPUTER TECHNIQUES FOR THE EXACT ANALYSIS OF ALL

NON-IDEAL E F F E C T S OF SWITCHED-CAPACITOR NETWORKS I N THE TIME DOMAIN
L. B. W o l o v i t i arid J . I . S e w e l l
Department o f E l e c t r o n i c s and E l e c t r i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g
U n i v e r s i t y o f G l a s g o w , G l a s g o w , G12 8QQ, U.K.
ABSTRACT employing s t a t e space f o r m u l a t i o n s have i n c o r p o r a t e d

accurate a n a l y s i s o f l i n e a r r e s i s t i v e e f f e c t s .
The paper addresses t h e problem o f d e s i g n i n g These techniques have demanded l a r g e computing times
s o f t w a r e t o compute t h e d e t a i l e d time domain a n a l y - and s t i l l o n l y p r o v i d e a l i m i t e d l i n e a r a n a l y s i s o f
s i s o f p o t e n t i a l l y l a r g e s w i t c h e d - c a p a c i t o r (SC) the SC networks.
networks. I n s t e a d oi s i m u l a t i n g s i d e e f f e c t s such
as c l o c k - f e e d t h r o u g h and o f f s e t s , charge based To a c c u r a t e l y model the e f f e c t s o f c l o c k - f e e d -
models o f t h e devices are i n c o r p o r a t e d and charge t h r o u g h , c l o c k wave-form v a r i a t i o n d i s t o r t i o n ,
c o n s e r v a t i o n i s ensured throughout by u s i n g these power supply v a r i a t i o n s , r e s i s t i v e p a r a m e t e r s , f i n i t e
models, charge s t a t e v a r i a b l e s and t i g h t t o l e r a n c e s . a m p l i f i e r GB and s w i t c h and a m p l i f i e r o f f s e t s , f u l l
To compute the f i n e d e t a i l r e q u i r e d , t h e a n a l y s i s n o n - l i n e a r s w i t c h and a m p l i f i e r models ".re r e q u i r e d .
times are l i k e l y t o be s u b s t a n t i a l . Hence every C u r r e n t l y the moat r e l i a b l e and accurate n u m e r i c a l
attempt i s made t o speed up t h e r o u t i n e s u s i n g i n t e r - techniques f o r s o l v i n g these n o n l i n e a r networks are
p r e t i v e code g e n e r a t i o n and sparse m a t r i x t e c h n i q u e s . time-domain s i m u l a t i o n programs employing s o p h i s t i -
The accuracy o f s o l u t i o n i s also i m p o r t a n t and cated n u m e r i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n methods. The major draw-
v a r i o u s accuracy c o n t r o l r o u t i n e s are c o n s i d e r e d . back o f t h i s approach i s t h a t i t i s c o m p u t a t i o n a l l y
O p t i m a l p i v o t i n g techniques and dynamic s t o r e manage- i n t e n s i v e and t h e r e f o r e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e
ment are u t i l i s e d . The SCHAPNIT program can be equations t o be s o l v e d should be taken i n t o account
a p p l i e d t o SC networks o f a wide v a r i e t y , w i t h i n an attempt t o reduce o r s t r e a m l i n e the computa-
f i l t e r i n g and n o n - f i l t e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s . C o n t i n - tions .
uous-time networks can a l s o be analysed i n an
e f f i c i e n t manner.
The second i m p o r t a n t aspect o f accurate c i r c u i t
s i m u l a t i o n i s device m o d e l l i n g , s p e c i f i c a l l y MOSFET
INTRODUCTION s w i t c h e s . Accurate models have been developed [ 5 ] ,
[6] t o r t h e DC and dynamic i n t r i n s i c and e x t r i n s i c
W i t h the c o n t i n u i n g i n t e r e s t i n s w i t c h e d - c a p a c i t o r d e v i c e s . I t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t device models and
(SC) networks and t h e i r w i d e r a p p l i c a t i o n t o non- t h e i r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n conserve charge t o ensure
f i l t e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s , t h e need f o r CAD t o o l s i s o f accurate and c o r r e c t s i m u l a t i o n .
prime importance. I n response t o t h i s demand many
d i f f e r e n t a n a l y s i s techniques and programs emerged Although a number o f e f f i c i e n t schemes a l r e a d y
[l]. The i n i t i a l time-domain approaches were soon e x i s t f o r t h e time-domain a n a l y s i s o f SC n e t w o r k s ,
f o l l o w e d by frequency domain methods. These p r o - a new i m p l e m e n t a t i o n i s developed h e r e , i n i t i a l l y as
grams p e r f o r m the analyses assuming a l l c i r c u i t a t e s t v e h i c l e f o r some o f t h e c o m p u t a t i o n a l
elements are i d e a l and are t h e r e f o r e p r i m a r i l y o f techniques and secondly as p a r t o f an o v e r a l l s u i t e
use as t o o l s f o r v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e o r e t i c a l designs of second g e n e r a t i o n SC design and a n a l y s i s programs.
and e x p l o r i n g v a r i o u s design a l t e r n a t i v e s . Unfortun- The e q u a t i o n f o r m u l a t i o n p h i l o s o p h y , i n t e r p r e t i v e
a t e l y due t o p r a c t i c a l device n o n - i d e a l i t i e s (e.g. code g e n e r a t i o n , o p t i m a l p i v o t i n g techniques and
f i n i t e a m p l i f i e r GB, f i n i t e s w i t c h conductance) , dynamic s t o r e management are then u l t i l i s e d i n t h e
f a b r i c a t e d devices d e v i a t e from t h e i r t h e o r e t i c a l l y development o f t h e complete n o n - i d e a l time-domain
p r e d i c t e d performances. These e f f e c t s have been a n a l y s i s program.
c r u d e l y modelled by r e p l a c i n g r e s i s t o r s i n macro-
models by s w i t c h e d - c a p a c i t o r e q u i v a l e n t s [ 2 ] ,
IDEAL TIME-DOMAIN ANALYSIS
i n t r o d u c i n g f i x e d DC sources f o r a m p l i f i e r o f f s e t s ,
or i n the case o f c l o c k feedthrough by simple
The e f f i c i e n t time-domain a n a l y s i s o f i d e a l SC
c a p a c i t i v e c o u p l i n g subnetworks [ 3 ] . The major
networks [ 4 ] , i s based on techniques f o r e f f i c i e n t l y
advantage o f these i d e a l analyses i s t h a t they are
assembling and s o l v i n g the system o f equations
v e r y e f f i c i e n t , b o t h i n c o m p u t a t i o n a l speed and
memory requiretr°nts, and can t h e r e f o r e e a s i l y and
a c c u r a t e l y cope w i t h l a r g e networks [ 4 ] . The d i s -
advantage i s t h a t they l a c k the a b i l i t y t o model
a c t u a l n o n - i d e a l c i r c u i t behaviour.
More s o p h i s t i c a t e d mathematical approaches
373
CH2255-8/86/0OOO-O373 $1.00 © 1986 DSEE

3 6 2
i n t e g r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e Q2] i s u s e d t o d i s c r e t i z e
e q u a t i o n ( 2 ) . T h i s t e c h n i q u e h a s t h e added b e n e f i t s
that i t d i r e c t l y handles equation (2) in i t s i m p l i c i t
form, t o g e t h e r w i t h any a l g e b r a i c e q u a t i o n s . By
-2 + I D
a c c u m u l a t i n g c h a r g e s i n t h e v e c t o r o j x ) and t h e n
I a p p l y i n g t h e n u m e r i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n to t h i s v e c t o r ,
I the r e s u l t i n g method i s more a c c u r a t e and e f f i c i e n t
t h a n i n d i v i d u a l l y i n t e g r a t i n g t h e MOSFET t e r m i n a l
charges.
The n u m e r i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e used i s a
b a c k w a r d d i f f e r e n c e a p p r o x i m a t i o n to the d e r i v a t i v e
( p r e d i c t o r ) , f o l l o w e d by a c o r r e c t o r b a s e d on G e a r ' s
The method o f e q u a t i o n formulation has a dramatic a p p r o a c h [12j . The o r d e r 1 method i s u s e d a s a
e f f e c t on t h e s i z e and s p a r s i t y o f the r e s u l t i n g s t a r t e r and t h e r e a f t e r t h e o r d e r 1 and o r d e r 2
m a t r i c e s . To a l l o w the i n c l u s i o n o f v o l t a g e s o u r c e s f o r m u l a s ar3 u s e d i n a v a r i a b l e - o r d e r , v a r i a b l e
(dependent and i n d e p e n d e n t ) , t a b l e a u type f o r m u l a - t i m e - s t e p m a n n e r . The o r d e r i s l i m i t e d to 2 t o a l l o w
t i o n methods are d e s i r a b l e f o r t h e i r g e n e r a l i t y and t h e i n c l u s i o n o f PWL n o n l i n e a r i t i e s [ l 3 ] . Because
s p a r s i t y p r o p e r t i e s . A f e a t u r e o f these methods i s o f t h e l a r g e number o f b r e a k p o i n t s i n the c l o c k
the need f o r a p i v o t i n g a l g o r i t h m t o ensure t h a t a s i g n a l e x c i t a t i o n common t o SC n e t w o r k s and t h e
non-zero d i a g o n a l i s o b t a i n e d , which then a l t e r s the c o n s e q u e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r r e s e t t i n g t o low o r d e r ,
s t r u c t u r e o f the m a t r i c e s [4] . A comparison the h i g h e r o r d e r methods a r e n o t i n v o l v e d . The d i s -
between the f o r m u l a t i o n methods d i s c u s s e d i n £l] c r e t i z a t i o n o f e q u a t i o n (2) l e a d s t o a s e t o f n o n -
as w e l l as the mixed n o d a l t a b l e a u (MNT) [i] on the l i n e a r equations
b a s i s o f o p e r a t i o n counts f o r t h e LU decomposition
of the r e s u l t i n g m a t r i c e s , found the MNA f o r m u l a t i o n (3)
[8] t o be the b e s t approach. By t r a n s f e r r i n g as much which must be s o l v e d a t each t i m e - p o i n t t . A n
of the m a t r i x p r o c e s s i n g t o a p r e - p r o c e s s i n g s t a g e , m o d i f i e d Newton-Raphson a l g o r i t h m i s used t o s o l v e
t!.e time-domain response i s o b t a i n e d v e r y e f f i c i e n t - e q u a t i o n ( 3 ) , which leads t o the i t e r a t i o n
ly. Taking i n t o account the b l o c k - m a t r i x s t r u c t u r e
of e q u a t i o n (1), the s p a r s i t y o f b l o c k s A i and B i , ,, k. . k+1
J(x )Ax
and t h e form o f t h e MNA e q u a t i o n s used t o assemble n —
e q u a t i o n (1), a h i g h l y e f f i c i e n t b l o c k compaction
k+1 k k+1
a l g o r i t h m t y p i c a l l y reduces the system o f e q u a t i o n s x x + Ax (4)
—n —n
by 50-90%. T h i s reduced m a t r i x i s t h e n r e - o r d e r e d
to achieve a m i n i m a l o p e r a t i o n count and LU de- k k
where J(Xn) i s the Jacobian e v a l u a t e d a t x„. Each
composed u s i n g a sparse v a r i a n t o f Gaussian e l i m i n a -
t i o n . To o b t a i n the time-domain response these LU i t e r a t i o n r e q u i r e s the s o l u t i o n of a s e t o f l i n e a r
f a c t o r s are used r e p e a t e d l y i n a f o r w a r d e l i m i n a t i o n e q u a t i o n s . F o r t u n a t e l y the nonzero s t r u c t u r e o f
and back s u b s t i t u t i o n , t h e r e f o r e t o o b t a i n the Jacobian does n o t change from i t e r a t i o n t o
maximum e f f i c i e n c y a code g e n e r a t i o n scheme [9~\ i s i t e r a t i o n . I t i s sparse and n o r m a l l y d i a g o n a l l y
used t o generate code f o r t h e s o l u t i o n process. dominant. T h e r e f o r e sparse m a t r i x techniques[14]
can be used t o g r e a t e f f e c t . The i t e r a t i o n (4) i s
t e r m i n a t e d when the i t e r a t i o n s s a t i s f y the converg-
NONIDEAL TIME-DOMAIN ANALYSIS ence c r i t e r i a . The u s u a l c r i t e r i a i s based on the
node v o l t a g e s and n o n l i n e a r c u r r e n t s meeting
To ensure charge c o n s e r v a t i o n , i t i s necessary s p e c i f i e d e r r o r t o l e r a n c e s . These checks are n o t
to s e l e c t charges as the s t a t e v a r i a b l e s f o r t h e s u f f i c i e n t t o ensure convergence and may l e a d t o
MOSFET capacitances Clo] , l e a d i n g t o the s e t o f f i r s t charge n o n c o n s e r v a t i o n [ l o ] , T h e r e f o r e the t e r m i n a l
order nonlinear algebraic d i f f e r e n t i a l equations nodes o f dynamic and n o n l i n e a r devices are checked
t o s a t i s f y the convergence c r i t e r i a
d a j x ) + Gx + f 2 ( x) w(t) te[0,T] (2)
1
dt — IV^ — I < E + c
1
max { i v * * ! . Iv"!}
where <l(x) i s the charge f u n c t i o n , <i_(x) = C x + f ^ ( x ) The t e r m i n a l charges o f c a p a c i t o r s and MOSFETS are
checked t o s a t i s f y
18 the n o n l i n e a r charge f u n c t i o n
k + 1 k
^2 i s the n o n l i n e a r c u r r e n t f u n c t i o n lQ - Q| < e q + c r max((|Q. l, k+1
lQ l|k
x c o n t a i n s the unknown node v o l t a g e s and

and the c u r r e n t s o f n o n l i n e a r devices are checked
branch c u r r e n t s
to s a t i s f y
w ( t ) c o n t a i n s the time-dependent e x c i t a t i o n s
i k+l ki ri k>l| i k,l
|I
T
- I | < e T
+ e max||I T
| , | l ||T
These networks t y p i c a l l y c o n s i s t o f t i g h t l y coupled i r
c i r c u i t b l o c k s h a v i n g a l a r g e number o f feedback
where e , e and are the a b s o l u t e v o l t a g e , charge
loops w i t h w i d e l y d i f f e r i n g c i r c u i t t i m e - c o n s t a n t s . v q
and c u r r e n t t o l e r a n c e s r e s p e c t i v e l y and e i s the

Due t o these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , the t h i r d g e n e r a t i o n r
r e l a t i v e tolerance.
s i m u l a t i o n techniques QlJ are n o t s u i t e d t o s o l v i n g
these networks. To overcome the problem of t h e
' s t i f f n e s s ' o f the e q u a t i o n s , an i m p l i c i t n u m e r i c a l The o v e r a l l a l g o r i t h m f o r s o l v i n g e q u a t i o n (2) i s
g i v e n below.
374
3 63
REPEAT IMPLEMENTATION AND CONCLUSIONS

evaluate the time-dependent excitations
n+ 1
predict the unknown vector £ " The above t e c h n i q u e s a r e b e i n g i m p l e m e n t e d i n a
REPEAT p r o g r a m SCNAPNIT, f o r m i n g p a r t o f an o v e r a l l s u i t e
e v a l u a t e Che l i n e a r and nonlinear current of SC d e s i g n a n d a n a l y s i s p r o g r a m s (SCNAP s e r i e s I I ) ,
equations s h a r i n g a common u s e r i n t e r f a c e SCNAPIN. Typical
evaluate the linear and nonlinear charge modern S C f i l t e r s y s t e m s i n v o l v e i n e x c e s s o f 25
equations time s l o t s and o v e r 50 n o d e s . The a p p l i c a t i o n o f
integrate the charge vector and add to the these techniques to i d e a l a n a l y s i s of such systems
current vector has d e m o n s t r a t e d the e f f i c i e n c y o f the a p p r o a c h .
evaluate the partial derivatives and form
the Jacobian The n o n - i d e a l t i m e a n a l y s i s p r o g r a m SCNAPNIT i s
LU decompose the Jacobian a p p l i e d t o two t y p i c a l SC n e t w o r k s and t h e r e s u l t s
n + i
solve the linearised system f o r >r are shown i n f i g u r e s 2 and 3. The f i r s t e x a m p l e i s
UNTIL converged or exceeded maximum number of a 5 t h o r d e r e l l i p t i c f i l t e r [is] w i t h 6 c l o c k s and
iterations 20 n o d e s . A c o m p l e t e MOS model i s u s e d f o r t h e
I F i t e r a t i o n i i m i t exceeded THEN s w i t c h e s and t h e o u t p u t w a v e f o r m c l e a r l y shows
reduce time-step c l o c k f e e d t h r o u g h and c o n t i n u o u s I/O e f f e c t s i n two
ELSE clock phases. The second example i s a b a n d p a s s
check LTE and select new time-step f i l t e r i m p l e m e n t e d i n GaAs w i t h a 4 - p h a s e c l o c k i n g
I F LTE does not exceed limit THEN scheme d e s i g n e d t o r e d u c e c l o c k - f e e d t h r o u g h .
save the time-point A g a i n p r e c i s e d e t a i l o f e f f e c t s due t o c o m p l e t e
update backward information s w i t c h m o d e l s c a n be d i s c e r n e d . A p p l i c a t i o n s o f
END I F t h i s p r o g r a m a r e n o t l i m i t e d t o SC f i l t e r s , b u t
END I F i n c l u d e many new a p p l i c a t i o n s o f SC t e c h n o l o g y ,
UNTIL t i m e > T f o r e x a m p l e A t o D c o n v e r t e r s and S S B g e n e r a t o r s
o r o t h e r forms o f s w i t c h i n g c i r c u i t s ; providing
the t o o l s f o r d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s o f n o n - i d e a l c i r c u i t
A m a j o r f e a t u r e o f SC n e t w o r k s i s t h e s w i t c h behaviour.
c l o c k i n g waveforms. These waveforms a r e u s u a l l y
s p e c i f i e d a s p i e c e w i s e l i n e a r (PWL) e x c i t a t i o n s . Of p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e i n S C f i l t e r d e s i g n i s
Due t o t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n t h e f i r s t d e r i v a t i v e t h e s t u d y o f d i s t o r t i o n e f f e c t s due t o s i g n a l
of t h e s e e x c i t a t i o n s , convergence problems a r e d e p e n d e n t c l o c k f e e d t h r o u g h , and n o n - l i n e a r i t i e s
encountered during t r a n s i e n t a n a l y s i s , p o s s i b l y o f a m p l i f i e r s , s w i t c h e s and s t r a y - c a p a c i t a n c e s .
e v e n t i m e - p o i n t l o c k u p Q.53. To o v e r c o m e t h i s , Because of the harshness of these n o n l i n e a r i t i e s ,
s o u r c e b r e a k p o i n t d e t e c t i o n [ l 5 ] c a n be u s e d , w h e r e - a f r e q u e n c y domain a p p r o a c h e . g . V o l t e r r a s e r i e s
by a t i m e - s t e p i s s e l e c t e d s o t h a t t h e b r e a k p o i n t method i s u n a b l e t o p r o v i d e an a c c u r a t e i n s i g h t
c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e mesh p o i n t and t h e i n t e g r a t i o n into d i s t o r t i o n i n these s t r u c t u r e s . A time-
method c a n t h e n be r e s t a r t e d from o r d e r 1. domain a p p r o a c h t o g e t h e r w i t h F o u r i e r A n a l y s i s
Although t h i s technique i s r e l i a b l e , i t i s w a s t e f u l of the s t e a d y - s t a t e response o f t h e network i s t h e
as a s m a l l t i m e s t e p i s f o r c e d and t h e i n t e g r a t i o n most v i a b l e a p p r o a c h t o g i v e a f u l l and d e t a i l e d
method must b e r e s t a r t e d . By r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e distortion analysis.
c l o c k e x c i t a t i o n s w i t h c u b i c s p l i n e s , w h i c h have
c o n t i n u o u s f i r s t and s e c o n d d e r i v a t i v e s , t h e s e
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
p r o b l e m s a r e overcome and e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n i n d i c a t e s
that the use of s p l i n e s allows bigger timesteps to
T h i s work was s u p p o r t e d by t h e M i n i s t r y o f
be t a k e n n e a r t h e c l o c k b r e a k p o i n t s . The i n t e r n a l
Defence - Procurement E x e c u t i v e .
c u b i c s p l i n e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n [ l 6 j c a n be a u t o m a t i c -
a l l y g e n e r a t e d from a u s e r PVTL s p e c i f i c a t i o n .
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i n t r o d u c e s e x t r a op-codes t o handle the t o p o l o g i c a l modelling of c l o c k feed-through d i s t o r t i o n i n
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i n a l o o p - f r e e form, t h e L U f a c t o r i z a t i o n and 127-130.
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MOS m o d e l w i t h g e o m e t r y - d e p e n d e n t p a r a m e t e r s : SUM V(a) 4a
1 " , IEE P r o c . V o l . 1 2 8 , N o . 6 , P a r t I , 1 9 8 1 , pp.239- SUM SUM - 1 5
247. SUM SUM + 1 6
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R e i n h o l d , New Y o r k , 1 9 8 3 . V(a) = SUM 12
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f i e d n o d a l approach to network a n a l y s i s " , IEEE. PIVOT = SUM 14
T r a n s CAS, V o l . C A S - 2 2 , No.6, 1 9 7 5 , p p . 5 0 4 - 5 0 9 . SUM B(a) 15a
9) F.G.Gustavson, W . L i n i g e r and R.Willoughby, SUM X(a) 16 a
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S o l i d - s t a t e C i r c u i t s , V o l . SC-18, N o . l , 1 9 8 3 , STOP 23
pp.128-138. F i g u r e 1 I n t e r p r e t i v e op-codes
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"A s u r v e y o f t h i r d - g e n e r a t i o n s i m u l a t i o n t e c h -
n i q u e s " , P r o c . I E E E , V o l . 6 9 , No.10, 1 9 8 1 .
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E
n o n l i n e a r s y s t e m s w i t h f i n i t e number o f c o n t i n -
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No.5, 1979, p p . 2 9 7 - 3 0 3 .
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P r o c . I E E E , V o l . 6 5 , No.4, 1977, p p . 5 0 0 - 5 3 5 .
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u l a t e s e m i c o n d u c t o r c i r c u i t s " , Memo No,ERL-M520,
U n i v . o f C a l i f o r n i a , B e r k e l e y , May 1975.
CI
16) C.de B o o r , "A p r a c t i c a l g u i d e t o S p l i n e s " ,
17)
S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g , New Y o r k , 1 9 7 8 .
B.Dembart a n d A.M.Erisman, " H y b r i d s p a r s e -
S 5 11 M M M I
TIME (SECS)
m a t r i x methods", I E E E T r a n s . CT, V o l . CT-20,
No.6, 1 9 7 3 , p p . 6 4 1 - 6 4 9 . Rg.2 Time response of 5th order Nossek filter
18) J . A . N o s s e k a n d G.C.Temes, " S w i t c h e d - C a p a c i t o r with 500Hz sinusoidal excitation
f i l t e r design using b i l i n e a r element modeling",
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488-491.
19) S . J . H a r r o l d , I.A.W.Vance, J.Mun a n d D.G.Haigh,
"A GaAs s w i t c h e d - c a p a c i t o r b a n d p a s s f i l t e r I C " ,
P r o c . 1985 I E E E GaAs I C Symposium, M o n t e r e y ,
November 1985, 4pp.
j v
?
I
nc (sees)
Fig.3a Clock waveforms for bandpass filter Rg.3b Impulse response for bandpass filter
376
3 65
PAPER 36
General analysis of large HI near switched capacitor
oet^fv® rlcs
L.B. Wolovitz, MSc, PhD

Indexing terms: Networks, Circuit theory and design. Matrix algebra. Algorithms
equivalent circuit and is limited to baseband analysis

Abstract: A new time and frequency d o m a i n only. A variant of this approach is to include that analy-
analysis method is presented f o r nonideal switched tic solution of the time domain response of single pole
capacitor networks that is orders of magnitude amplifiers i n the ideal solution of the SC network [ 3 ] .
faster than existing techniques. This efficiency is A l t h o u g h restricted to two-phase second-order sections,
achieved by developing a f o r m u l a t i o n such that a quite accurate results are often attainable. A similar deri-
continuous A C analysis is not required; this vation [ 4 ] facilitated the incorporation of such ideas into
allows the system to be solved as an entirely dis- an admittance m a t r i x f o r m u l a t i o n for computer imple-
crete one. A special compression technique mentation, though again the calculation of amplifier
reduces the solution of this discrete system to that imperfections was only approximate. The technique of
of solving the network i n one phase only. This simulating resistance by bilinear switched capacitances,
3
final solution step, which ordinarily requires 0 ( v ) clocked at a high multiple of the switching frequency, is a
operations (v is the m a t r i x order), is rendered simple and effective brute force approach, but requires
more efficient by reducing the system to upper extravagant computer resources [ 5 ] .
Hessenberg f o r m i n a preprocessing step, when the The second approach tackles the more general situ-
2
solution cost is reduced to 0 ( v ) operations. ation when switch resistances are included together w i t h
Sparse m a t r i x techniques, o p t i m a l ordering and the nonideal amplifiers. The behaviour of such networks
interpretive code generation are all used to advan- can only be fully described by differential difference equa-
tage. Performance is compared w i t h existing prog- tions. General state-space formulations have been pro-
rams. posed [ 6 - 8 ] and , although entirely valid, comprehensive
computer implementation of these appears difficult and
inefficient. The residual importance of these attempts are
concepts that established a f o u n d a t i o n f o r later develop-
1 Introduction
ments.
Interest in the design of switched capacitor (SC) networks The most attractive schemes utilise M N A - b a s e d
is being sustained by extension of the range o f oper- methods to overcome the crucial problems of equation
ational frequencies using gallium arsenide fabrication, by f o r m u l a t i o n attendent on the latter approach [ 9 ] . The
the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f large SC systems i n v o l v i n g complex various computer implementations have demonstrated
decimation and interpolation circuits, and by the incor- the validity of the method and have been restricted only
p o r a t i o n of b o t h filtering and non-filtering applications. by the approximations inherent i n the methods employed
It is also noticeable that SC networks f o r m a very i m p o r - f o r c o m p u t a t i o n o f the extended state transition matrices
tant special subset of general switched networks and it required [ 9 ] , by difficulties i n using symbolic analysis f o r
w o u l d be attractive i f any analysis scheme is equally large nonideal SC networks [ 1 0 ] , by the requirement f o r
applicable to the general case, i f possible. A C analyses i n each clock phase at each frequency point,
The history of the development o f programs f o r the or by restricted spectral analysis [ 1 1 ] .
analysis of ideal SC circuits is well attested and numerous The need f o r more efficient nonideal SC analysis soft-
programs find support i n the field. However, the struggle ware is dictated by t w o m a j o r requirements. I n the
to produce efficient software f o r the analysis of nonideal second phase o f SC circuit design, it is generally neces-
SC networks (with finite switch resistances R , K o n o f f and sary to p e r f o r m sensitivity and noise analysis [ 1 2 ] ,
amplifier G B ) has proven to be quite a different story. together w i t h an emerging desire to undertake various
Three broad approaches to the analysis of nonideal forms of circuit o p t i m i s a t i o n ; all these demand much
SC networks are discernable. The derivation of an equiv- speedier and more accurate routines than currently avail-
alent circuit that c o u l d then be incorporated into a tradi- able. The present bound on size of network f o r analysis
tional continuous time frequency analysis ( A C ) programs in reasonable time w i t h acceptable accuracy occurs at 50
[ 1 , 2 ] was an early suggestion which still finds support. nodes (v) and 10 time-slots (N), or vN = 500. I t is neces-
This method suffers f r o m general inaccuracies of the sary to overcome this size boundary to facilitate the
design of f u t u r e SC systems w i t h 500 < v N < 1000 or
even higher.
Paper 6057G (E10), first received 1st September 1987 and in revised
The scheme described in this paper is an attempt to
form 17th February 1988
overcome these various problems. I t utilises the M N A
Dr. Wolovitz is with Psion Ltd., Psion House, Harcourt Street, London
W1H I D T , United Kingdom
f o r m u l a t i o n together w i t h an accurate and reliable
Prof. Sewell is with the Department of Electronics and Electrical Engin-
m e t h o d for calculating the extended state transition
eering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom matrices. A n accurate time and frequency method for
IEE PROCEEDINGS. Vol. 135. Pi. G. No. 3, JUNE 1988 119

transforming the nonideal SC network into a totally dis- 3 Time domain analaysis
crete system is developed and previous restrictions to
sample and hold inputs [ 1 3 ] are avoided: therefore, f u l l In each time-slot /„ of the nth switching period k
spectral analysis is possible. Extended sparse matrix (nT, (n + 1)T] a periodically switched linear network can
methods [14, 15] i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h interpretive code be represented by the system differential equation
generation have been employed where appropriate, and a
C v„ (t) + G v„. (t) = w . (i) k •• N (7)
wide range of matrix and numerical c o n d i t i o n i n g tech- k A k k n k
niques are utilised. Finally, the program performance is

where w„,k(') is the vector of excitations; i>„ (t) is the k
compared w i t h a number of standard programs oper-
vector of u n k n o w n system variables; C and G are con- k k
ating under exactly the same conditions.
stant (v x v) matrices of capacitance and conductance,
determined using the M N A f o r m u l a t i o n method [ 9 ] . I n
2 Definitions the f o l l o w i n g , the range of subscripts for k (k = l JV)
is dropped for brevity but is assumed throughout unless
Consider a periodically switched linear network con-
w a
otherwise stated.
trolled by clock signals <£,<() i ' h c o m m o n switching
Using the time d o m a i n solution method presented in
period T , i.e.
the Appendix we approximate the excitation by mth
(l) order polynomials
where 4> is the state of clock i , either on or o f f .

t
U s i n g the definitions in Reference 16, each period T is (8)

partitioned into N time-slots:
where a" are the coefficients of the p o l y n o m i a l approx-
; (nT + < r _ , , nT + <r ] t k k=l,...,N (2)
k
imations o f w (f) i n the interval /„ . For instance, i n the k k
such that the clock signals (and therefore the network) time d o m a i n a square wave can be exactly represented by
does not vary in I . Here k denotes the feth time-slot. H k a simple p o l y n o m i a l . Sinusoidal approximations w i l l be
As shown i n Fig. 1, these time-slots are not necessarily of required f o r frequency response considerations, and
equal duration. because of the small time increments involved (owing to
In.2 In.3 In.N the switching frequency) the p o l y n o m i a l approximations
for sinusoidal signals are very accurate; typically orders
9
ffN = T m = 3 to 9 ensure errors o f < 1 0 ~ . Substituting expr. 8
in eqn. 7 gives the new system differential equation
C b Jt)
k m + G v Jt) k K = X < f ' t
F o l l o w i n g the steps i n the Appendix, the solution of eqn.

9 is
v„, (t) = P^C^.^nT

k + «,,_,) + f o r ? . * * , . J r ) (10)
i= 0
PT.CTQ =nT nT.<r, nT.a 2 nT.(T 3 nT.cr _, N nT.<7 N
where
T —«- 1
__ . «-l
P (0 = i ? - { [ s C
t
1
k + G ]-'} l
(11)
Fig. 1 Definitions for a N-sloi switched linear network
Define the signals B , (t)=<?- Lc

i k
i
k + G k y l
-i (12)
t e /
„ ( t ) = J"(') -.»
v _ (nT + ff _ ) are the initial conditions.
' (0 otherwise k l t t
A recurrence relation giving the sequence of final

"„.»(') = k(" v T
+ <*»-!+ 0 0 < ! $ r t
states o f the system w i t h i n each time-slot is obtained by
substituting t = x i n eqn. 10 k
= linT + a -x k k + t) (3)
v (nT
k + a„) = v(nT + o )~ k (4) t (nT
k + a ) = P v ^{nT
k k k + + f (13)
1=0
That is, u„, (t) are functions o f time, and v {nT + o ) are
t k k
sequences of values at the instants just p r i o r to switching. where

Define the Z - t r a n s f o r m P =rP (x )C
k k k k (14)
tv (nT
k + a )z-=V (z)
k k fc=l,...,N-l = (15)
»=o
The coefficients a" k are obtained by defining
(5)
n=0
h ( l 6 )
- = S
and therefore m
/7.t = w . . i ( « i J (17)
X AnT Vf + a )z~" K = X M"T + T)z'"
n= 0 n= 0 and then applying eqn. 53, w h i c h gives
= z ^ z ) - VÔ)) = zV^z) (6)
< * = f •/„/"* (18)
since KÔ) = 0. 1= 0
120 1EE PROCEEDINGS, Vol 135, Pt. G, No. 3, JUNE 1988

Eqn. 13 requires the matrices P given by eqn. 14, and k% where
the vectors B,• , given by eqn. 15. Using the definition of
k
the extended state transition matrix (eqn. 11), and apply- E=PyP . S 1 PiPx (25)
ing an I M N approximant o f even order M [ 2 7 ] , then k = 1, . N - 1
Pk* l
eqn. 54 gives Ek = (26)
I k = N
P (z )
k k * I Re l2KJi \zJv k k C k + GJ " '] (19) Matrices E and E are frequency independent and are k
only computed once prior to frequency analysis. The

Similarly applying the excitation response a p p r o x i m a t i o n multiplication by E can be distributed over the summa- k
(expr. 55) to eqn. 12 gives tion in the excitation T-W (z) as a preprocessing step, k
giving
Mil 2K/r i! t r
«,.»(rj* £ R e (20)
(27)
i=0 1= 0
Guidelines for selecting the order of p o l y n o m i a l approx-
imation m are given i n the Appendix and the I M N where
approximant order M and constants of a p p r o x i m a t i o n
K and Z , elsewhere [ 2 7 ] . The I M N approximant is
t
P>. k = Ek i.k- B
(28)
reputed t o be stable and accurate over a wide range of Eqn. 24 then reduces to
systems applications and this has certainly proved true i n
the SC network applications outlined here w i t h M ^ 10.
< z / - E ) * V z ) - £ Z »"*(*) (29)
4 ^-domain analysis
which can be very efficiently solved for ^ z ) using
I n the general analysis of switched networks it is o b v i - methods discussed below. The solutions f o r V (z) f o r k
ously essential to have an efficient frequency analysis. I t k = 1, N — 1 are then obtained by block
w o u l d be possible t o perform a Fourier transform o n a back-substitution,
time d o m a i n solution, but however efficiently this might
be implemented i t is hardly likely to provide an accept-
able solution. Previous attempts [ 6 - 1 0 ] at nonideal y (z) = P V _ (z)
k k k l + -LW (z) k k = 2, N - 1 (30)
analysis become very time-consuming at this point of
transformation i n t o the Z - d o m a i n , p r i m a r i l y because of Using the direct Gauss elimination method to solve eqn.
3
the need for A C analysis i n each clock phase at each fre- 29 requires 0 ( v ) flops. This cost is excessive f o r large
quency point. Fortunately, w i t h the present ' o r m u l a t i o n , networks, especially when m a n y frequency points are
2
a fairly straightforward solution is at hand. evaluated. I t can be reduced to 0 ( v ) flops by trans-
T o o b t a i n the Z - d o m a i n series of final states V (z) for f o r m i n g the system to upper Hessenberg f o r m , which
k
k = 1, . . . , N, we need to take the Z - t r a n s f o r m o f eqn. 13 only needs t o be done once, i n a frequency-independent

and solve for V (z). step. This method, which has been applied to the fre-
k
quency analysis o f linear systems [ 1 7 ] , has also been used

The Z - t r a n s f o r m of eqn. 13 is
in SC frequency analysis [ 1 1 ] .
V (z) = P V _ (z)
k k k i + Y.W (z) k (21) A general m a t r i x E can always be reduced to Hessen-
where berg f o r m by stabilised elementary transformations [ 1 8 ]
l
H= T ' P EPT (31)
» = 0 |_i = 0 J
where 7 is a triangular t r a n s f o r m a t i o n m a t r i x and P is a
permutation matrix. The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n m a t r i x T and
= i B , l i y l t W k ( z ) z ^ - ' ^ ) (22) Hessenberg m a t r i x H can be determined i n approx-
i• 0 \l = 0 / 3
imately 5/6v flops using real arithmetic throughout.
Eqn. 21 can be written in m a t r i x f o r m as A p p l y i n g the stabilised elementary transformation to
eqn. 29 gives
/ -Pi
«
- P J ZfV (z)2 1 l l 1
= (23) P1\zl - T P E P T ) T p- V (z)=

lt £XW;(z) (32)
k= 1
-P zI
N
Zl^2)_ which may be written i n a simplified f o r m as
(zl-H)y = b (33)
5 Solving the discrete system
where
A substantial amount of frequency independent pre-
processing can be performed i n solving eqn. 23. The H= T ' P ' E P T
approach used is based on the method developed i n Ref- l ,
y=T- p- V N (z) (34)
erence 16 f o r ideal SC networks. First, all the P are fre- k
quency independent, hence these can be precomputed

b = r ' P " ' f.T.W (z) k (35)
using eqn. 19 and stored. Similarly the B i n eqn. 15 are t k
*= i
independent of frequency and are precomputed using
eqn. 20 and stored. T o f o r m the vector b, the inverse of T is not actually
calculated as the equivalent operation is accurately and
Performing a block Gaussian elimination on eqn. 23
efficiently obtained by the process of back-substitution
using m a t r i x T. A substantial amount of this calculation
(z/-£)^z) Y,E -LW (z)
k k (24)
k= I can be performed as a preprocessing step by rewriting
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 135, Pt. G, No. 3, JUNE 1988 121

369
eqn. 35 as and
o) = w + nw,
b= xiffju) (36)
0
k= I Assembling all the above leads to the f o l l o w i n g overall

where algorithm for the frequency d o m a i n analysis:
(a) Preprocessing independent of frequency and n
(i) Formulate the matrices G and C and the
(37) k k
i=0 1= 0 vectors W k
(ii) Calculate P matrices using eqns. 14 and 19

k
and (iii) Calculate vectors using eqn. 20 for

(38) i = 0,..., m
(iv) Calculate matrix E using eqn. 25
Eqn. 33 is solved using the direct L U approach. By (v) Calculate F { vectors using eqn. 28 for i =
k
taking advantage o f the structure of the Hessenberg 0, . . , m

matrix, b o t h terms of zero/nonzero and real/complex (vi) T r a n s f o r m matrix E to upper Hessenberg f o r m
3 2
structure, the c o m p u t a t i o n is reduced f r o m 4/3v to 2 v H using eqn. 31
flops. The f o r w a r d elimination and back-substitution (vii) Calculate vectors / , using eqn. 38 k
2
steps together require approximately 2 v flops. Finally, (f>) Frequency analysis independent of n
the required solution V^z) is determined by m u l t i p l y i n g (i) Prepare matrix (e>°"> I - H) T
y by the transformation matrix, w h i c h requires a further (ii) B u i l d R H S of eqn. 33 using eqns. 36 and 37
2
v flops. The total solution process then requires approx- (iii) Solve eqn. 33 f o r V ^ e i a o T
) using the Hessen-
2
imately 5 v flops, which is a dramatic improvement over berg method
the direct approach. (iv) Calculate y (e °" )k
i lT
using eqn. 30
(c) Spectral analysis
(i) F o r selected n calculate weights D „ using eqns. k
6 Frequency analysis 44 and 45

(ii) Calculate 5„ using eqn. 43
T o solve the discrete system (eqn. 23) for a particular fre-
quency to , substitute
0
8 Results
z = e J m o T
(39)
The theory developed above was implemented i n the
A p p l y i n g Poisson's f o r m u l a to l.W (z) k gives
program Q U I C K S C N A P using 16-digit double-precision
m m / m arithmetic throughout. I n the preprocessing section
T
ZrV {e* )
k = £ I Ev„ m a x i m u m use is made of sparse techniques, utilising new
n-0 Li-0 \l = 0
interpretive code and o p t i m a l ordering algorithms [ 1 5 ] .
, - jntaT F u l l matrix techniques are used i n the frequency response
x W [nT k + o + lh - r » ) ^ « ,
k k calculations. A dynamic storage allocation scheme is used
throughout. Numerical accuracy has been checked by
comparison w i t h measured results and w i t h a selection of
B
= i I \t i.K ly m<o
ti - no,) computed results f r o m other established programs, when
' n= 0 L( = 0 1= 0 agreement was better than five significant figures. A rep-
(40) resentative sample of large SC networks is references i n
x exp {J{u> - nw$p k + lh - t»))J k
Table 1.
N o w , it is shown i n Reference 16 that Table 1: Examples used for comparison

(41) Description
Ja t
£ W(m - ncoy-"'-™"** = 2ne ""
1 6th order Chebychev bandpass filter [20]
which is independent o f n. U s i n g this result i n eqn. 40 2 11 th order elliptic lowpass filter [21 ]
gives 3 7th order Chebychev lowpass filter [22]
4 15th order elliptic lowpass. L U D design [23]
T +
5 SPFT elliptic bandpass filter system [24]
I W (e«°° )
k = ^ £ B, k £ y„ **-<•» "» " «> (42) 6 18th order elliptic bandpass filter [25]
' i= 0 1= 0
A p p l y i n g w i n d o w functions to the output signals [ 1 9 ]

and t a k i n g into account the s i n x / x sampling effect and The r u n statistics for a selection of these programs
possibly unequal time-slots, the frequency response of the S C N A P N I F and S C N A P I F [ 1 4 ] , S W I T C A P [ 5 ] and
system is given by [ 1 6 ] Q U I C K S C N A P are shown i n Tables 2-5. A l l results are
S„= I.D .„V (ei"° )

k k
T
(43) Table 2: Run statistics for QUICKSCNAP
»= I
Example Number of Number of Pre-Pr. Time/pt. Storage,
where nodes slots sec sec words
1 28 2 5.55 0.114 16890

(44) 2 41 4 22.7 0.320 39944
k it N
ju>T 3 30 6 12.4 0.234 27002
4 69 2 47.6 0.679 95210
0 - ytlXTN - I 5 86 36 14.52 13.44 824944
(45) 6 77 5 93.4 1.512 145854
ju)T
122 1EE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 135, Pt. G, No. 3, JUNE 1988

Table 3: Run statistics for SCNAPNIF small computers. I t is expected that this will provide a
Example Number of Number of Pre-Pr., Time/pt. Storage, sound basis for noise and sensitivity analysis, w i t h exten-
nodes slots sec sec words sion to optimisation studies.
1 28 2 35.7 5.37 39682
2 41 4 265.0 28.65 100489
3 30 6 141.0 18.32 71070
4 69 2 377.0 74.11 230217 SCNAPN F
5 86 36 — — —
6 77 5 1308.0 216.0 368254
Table 4: Run statistics forSCNAPIF

SWiTCAF (ideal)
Example Number of Number of Pre-Pr., Time/pt, Storage, QUICKSCNAP
nodes slots sec sec words SCNAPIF
1 28 2 0.64 0.046 51849

2 41 4 1.94 0.161 57162
3 30 6 1.32 0.137 53276 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
4 69 2 2.33 0.237 74415 n u m b e r of n o d e s
5 86 36 103.0 17.48 456383
Fig. 2 Comparison of run-times per frequency point
6 77 5 5.88 1.156 410674
400
Table 5: Run statistics for SWITCAP
350
Example Number of number of Pre-Pr., Time/pt, Storage SCNAPNIF
300
nodes slots - ic sec words
250
1 28 2 6.14 0.207 11852
2 41 4 — — — in S W I T C A P (ideal
«! 2 0 0
3 30 6 — — —
4 69 2 25.9 1.621 34188 150 OUICKSCNAP
5 86 36 — — —
<~> 1 0 0
6 77 5 — — —
50
f r o m implementations on a fi\AK I I computer, r u n 0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70
under V M S . I t can be seen that the storage requirements
number of nodes
for Q U I C K S C N A P compare favourably w i t h other
Fig. 3 Comparison of overall run-times (150 frequency points)
programs. F o r analysis of large nonideal (finite amplifier
G B and switch R„„ and R ) SC networks, Tables 2 and 3
olt
give a fair comparison against currently available soft- The frequency analysis algorithms are highly suited to
ware, indicating improvements i n speed by a factor of vectorisation, which could provide further dramatic
200. T h e preprocessing times also show a speedup factor improvements when implemented o n a suitable pro-
of 10, directly attributable to the enhanced sparse tech- cessor.
niques utilised. N o t e that Example 5 is beyond the capi-
bility of p r o g r a m S C N A P N I F . Tables 4 and 5 show 10 Acknowledgment
performance figures produced by programs specifically
designed f o r the analysis o f ideal SC networks, and it is The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support
interesting to observe that although Q U I C K S C N A P of the U K Science and Engineering Research Council.
undertakes a complete nonideal analysis, comparison
shows that its performance lies between S C N A P I F and 11 References
S W I T C A P , being approximately twice as fast as the
latter. While S W I T C A P can approximate a nonideal 1 L I O U , M.L., K U O , Y . L . , and L E E , C . F . : 'A tutorial on computer
analysis, the r u n times are i n terms of hours. S W I T C A P aided analysis of switched capacitor circuits', Proc. IEEE, 1983, 71,
pp. 987-1005
requires that the network is not disjointed i n any clock 2 K U N I E D A , H : 'Effects of finite gain-bandwidth products of op
phase, and this explains the limited selection of successful amps on switched capacitor networks — Approached via equivalent
examples in Table 5; although a straightforward f i x is representations'. Proc. I E E E Int. Symp. on Circuits & Systems,
possible, this requires m o d i f i c a t i o n of the circuit by the Rome, May 1982, pp. 464-467
user. 3 B H A T T A C H A R Y Y A , B.B., and R A U T , R.: 'Analysis of switched
capacitor networks containing operational amplifiers with finite D C
Similar conclusions are apparent f r o m the graphs gain and gain-bandwidth product values', IEE Proc. G, Electron.
shown in Figs. 2 and 3, which display the relative per- Circuits & Syst., 1983,130, (4), pp. 114-123
4 C U T L A N D , N J , L A U , C , and S E W E L L , J.I.: 'General computer
formances of the programs f o r two-phase SC networks.
analysis of switched capacitor networks including nonideal ampli-
fiers'. Proc. I E E E Int. Symp. on Circuits & Systems, Rome, May
9 Conclusions 1982, pp. 17-20
5 F A N G , S C . , T S I V I D I S , Y.P., and W I N G , O.: ' S W I T C A P , a
switched capacitor network analysis program', IEEE Circuits &
A new analysis scheme has been demonstrated to main-
Syst. Mag., 1983, 5, pp. 4-10 and pp. 41-46
tain accuracy, while p r o v i d i n g orders o f magnitude 6 L I O U , M.L.: 'Exact analysis of linear circuits containing period-
improvement i n speed o f analysis. The computational ically operated switches with applications', IEEE Trans., 1972,
cost o f the analysis increases linearly w i t h the number of CT-19, pp. 146-154
time-slots and quadratically w i t h the number of nodes. 7 S T R O M , T., and S I G N E L L , S.: 'Analysis of periodically switched
linear networks', / £ £ £ Trans., 1977, CAS-24, pp. 531-540
This affords the user a facility to breach the existing
8 W E H R H A H N , E . : 'Exact analysis of periodically switched linear
vN = 500 boundary, while containing time and storage networks'. Proc. I E E E Int. Symp. on Circuits & Systems, Chicago,
requirements w i t h i n bounds typical of generally available April 1981, pp. 884-887
/££ PROCEEDINGS. Vol. 135, Pt. G, No. 3, JUNE 1988 123

9 R A B A E Y , J., V A N D E R W A L L E , J., and D E MAN, H.: On Ihe fre- where
quency domain analysis of switched capacitor networks including
all parasitics", ibid., pp. 868-811 i ,
P[t) = ^ ~ { l s C + G ] - } (50)
10 P U N , C.K., and S E W E L L . J.I.: -Symbolic analysis of ideal and non-
ideal switched capacitor networks'. Proc. I E E E Int. Symp. on Cir-
called the extended state transition (EST) m a t r i x , and
cuits & Systems, Kyoto, June 1985, pp. 1165-1172
11 R U D D , E.P., and S C H A U M A N N , R.: A program for the analysis
of high frequency behaviour of switched capacitor networks', ibid.. 1
/ M O ^ - ' j o C + G ] - ^ y j (51)
pp. 1173-1176
12 P U N , C.K., H A L L , A.G.. and S E W E L L , J.I.: Noise analysis of
switched capacitor networks in symbolic form'. Proc. 29th Midwest
called the excitation response (ER) m a t r i x .
Symposium on Circuits & Systems, Lincoln, August 1986
I n lumped linear networks, time zero can be a r b i -
13 R I B N E R , D.B., and C O P E L A N D , M.A.: 'Computer-aided analysis
of nonideal linear switched-capacitor networks for high-frequency t r a r i l y selected by t a k i n g i n t o account the i n i t i a l c o n d i -
applications'. Proc. I E E E Int. Symp. on Circuits & Systems, Kyoto, tions o f the n e t w o r k ; therefore, d i v i d i n g the time axis
May 1986, pp. 1169-1172 i n t o equal steps A t , where ( = nAt, we have
14 M E A K I N , A.D., S E W E L L , J.I., and W O L O V 1 T Z , L.B.: 'Tech-
niques for improving the efficiency of analysis software for large
switched-capacitor networks'. Proc. 28th Midwest Symposium on x((n + l ) A r ) = P\&t)Cx(n&t) + £ a;B (Ar)
t (52)
Circuits & Systems, Louisville, August 1985, pp. 390-393 *=o
15 W O L O V I T Z , L.B., and S E W E L L , J.I.: 'On the solution of sparse
sets of complex linear equations', in preparation where orj are the coefficients of the p o l y n o m i a l a p p r o x -
16 V L A C H , J., S I N G H A L , K., and V L A C H , M.: 'Computer oriented imations o f w{t) i n the interval [ n A t , nAf + A f ] . A closed
formulation of equations and analysis of switched-capacitor net- f o r m expression f o r the a j can be derived using the
works', IEEE Trans., 1984, CAS-31, pp. 753-765
N e w t o n - G r e g o r y i n t e r p o l a t i o n f o r m u l a . A f t e r consider-
17 L A U B , A J . : 'Efficient multivariate frequency response computa-
tions', IEEE Trans., 1981, AC-26, pp. 407-408 able m a n i p u l a t i o n this becomes
18 W I L K I N S O N , J.H.: 'The algebraic eigenvalue problem' (Clarendon
Press, Oxford, 1965)
19 V A N D E R W A L L E , J., D E M A N , H., and R A B A E Y , J . : Time, fre- « I = X>*,«('iAr + —) (53)
quency and z-comain modified nodal analysis of switched capacitor
networks', IEEE Trans., 1981, CAS-28, pp. 186-195
20 H A I G H , D.G., S I N G H , B , and F R A N C A , J.E.: 'Filters for state of where y ki are tabulated constants. These constants are
the art microelectronics fabrication'. Annual Report, Imperial easily c o m p u t e d and the constants f o r orders 1 to 4 are
College, London. September 1982 shown i n Table 6.
21 N O S S E K , J.A., and T E M E S , G . C . : 'Switched-capacitor filter design
using bilinear element modelling', IEEE Trans., 1980, CAS-27, pp. Table 6: Gamma coefficients for orders 1 to 4
488-491
22 F E T T W E I S S , A., H E R B S T , D., H O E F F L I N G E R , B., P A N D E L , J.,
and S C H W E E R , R.: 'MOS switchcd-capacitor F'i;rs using voltage
' [ 7 7 ]
inverter switches', ibid., 1980, CAS-27, pp. 527-538
23 P I N G , L i , and S E W E L L , J.I.: 'The L U D approach to 2 1~ 2 0 0"
switched-capacitor filter design', ibid., 1987, CAS-34, pp. 1611-1614
24 F R A N C A , J . E . : 'A single-path frequency translated switched capac- 2 -3 4 -1
itor bandpass filter system', ibid., 1985, CAS-32, pp. 938-944 _ 1 -2 1 _
25 P A N D E L , J., B R U C K M A N N , D., F E T T W E I S S , A., H O S T I C K A ,
-
B.J., K L E I N E , U., S C H W E E R , R , and Z I M M E R , G . : Integrated 3 6 0 0 o"
18th order pseudo /V-path filter in VIS-SC technique', ibid., 1986, 1 1 18 -9 2
CAS-33, pp. 158-166
26 S I N G H A L , K., and V L A C H , J . : 'Computation of the time domain 6 6 -15 12 -3
response by numerical inversion of the Laplace transform', J. Frank- _ -1 3 -3 1 _
lin Inst., 1975, 299, pp. 109-126
27 Z A K I A N , V.: 'Rational approximams to the matrix exponential', 4 " 24 0 0 0 0
Electron. Lett., 1970,6, pp. 814-815 1 -50 96 -72 32 -6
24 35 --104 114 -56 11
12 Appendix: The stepping inverse Laplace
transform (SILT) method -10 36 -48 28 -6
1 -4 6 -4 1 .
Consider the algebraic-differential system
Cx(t) + Gx(t) = nit) x(0) = X o (46) The inverse Laplace transforms (eqns. 50 and 51) are
c o m p u t e d using a numerical q u a d r a t u r e a p p r o x i m a t i o n
where x(t) is the u n k n o w n response vector, w{t) is the
of the Laplace t a n s f o r m inversion integral [ 2 6 , 2 7 ] . T h e
excitation vector, C and G are constant real matrices.
constants f o r the a p p r o x i m a t i o n (K a n d z,), are tabulated l
The S I L T m e t h o d provides an attractive s o l u t i o n tech-
complex constants and f o r an I M N a p p r o x i m a n t o f even
nique f o r eqn. 46. The excitation vector is a p p r o x i m a t e d
order M these occur i n M/2 complex conjugate pairs,
by the vector o f mth order polynomials,
w h i c h allows the c o m p u t a t i o n to be halved. Hence the
extended state transition m a t r i x a p p r o x i m a t i o n is
P (t)=
m £ot„t* (47)
t=o M/2
/fAr) * £ Re [ 2 K / A t [ z / A t C + G ] " ' ]
i i (54)
Substituting eqn. 47 i n t o eqn. 46 and t a k i n g the Laplace
t=i
transform,
and the excitation response m a t r i x a p p r o x i m a t i o n
X(s) 1
= [ s C + G\ - \ c x a + £ ^1 (48)
The inverse Laplace t r a n s f o r m o f eqn. 48 is then, B (Ar) » | f R e [

4 ^ ^ T W*tC + CTp'J (55)
The above c o m p u t a t i o n s can be efficiently implemented

x(t) = P\t)Cx(0) + £> B (r) t t (49)
using sparse m a t r i x methods [ 1 5 ] .
k= 0
124 IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 135, Pi. G, No. 3, JUNE 1988

•3 V O
PAPER 49
3 73
?roc. I.E.E.E. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on C i r c u i t s and Systems, Chicago, 1993.
Efficient Sensitivity Analysis for Large Non-ideal Switched

Capacitor Networks
Z Q. Shang and J . I . Sewell
Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering

University of Glasgow
Glasgow, G 1 2 8 L T . U K
Abstract - A new sensitivity analysis method in the interpretable code generation, polynomial a p p r o x i m a t i o n
frequency domain is presented f o r non-ideal switched o f the excitation, descretization o f the whole system and
capacitor networks that is more general and efficient than Hessenburg techniques are f u l l y exploited.
the previously published works. There are no restrictions
on the number of clock phases, circuit configuration and II. GENERAL SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS METHOD FOR ARBITRARY
input signal type (which can be either continuous or UNEAR NETWORKS
sample-and-hotd). By performing a substantial amount of
frequency independent pre-processing and using adjoint For an arbitrary linear system, T X - W , where T i s
network techniques, the computational costs are reduced the system matrix, X is the unknown response vector and
dramatically and a highly efficient method results. The W denotes the excitation vector. I f the output o f interest
method has been implemented in a SC network analysis <t> ( a linear c o m b i n a t i o n o f the components o f X ) is
program called SCNAP4. Numerical results of the T
* - d X , where d is a constant vector and d T
denotes the
sensitivity analysis of a fifth order elliptic low pass filter transpose, then standard sensitivity theory f o l l o w s :
are given. T h e a d j o i n t vector X , 1
is d e f i n e d by X] - -d'T" o r
T
T X , - - d a n d the sensitivity o f <P w i t h respect to t h e
I. INTRODUCTION (MI* ffT d\V
vector o f parameter changes h is x] — X - x] —
dh ah ah
The sensitivity analysis o f ideal SC networks is w e l l The computational procedure f o r the adjoint approach
established and forms part o f the designers standard tool- can be summarized:
k i t . The present trend to extend the application o f SC step 1: Solve f o r X ;
networks to h i g h frequency front-ends w i t h multi-rate step 2: Calculate X , ;
clocks raises the serious question o f sensitivity o f the step 3: Formulate dT/ah and a w / a h ;
c i r c u i t structures w i t h respect to non-ideal parameters step 4: Calculate a « / a h .
such as switch resistance and finite a m p l i f i e r parameters -
gain/bandwidth, input and output impedances; sensitivity T h e method is clear and straightforward. The advantage
o f parasitic capacitances is also required. o f this procedure is that the vectors X and X , are o n l y
A number of programs can undertake various calculated once, irrespective of the number of
frequency and time d o m a i n analysis o f non-ideal SC parameters. The transpose solution X , can be e f f i c i e n t l y
networks [ 1 - 4 ] . A range o f techniques have been utilized obtained using similar steps to those used i n solving f o r
to increase speed, improve accuracy and cope w i t h large X , w h i c h does not require another network analysis.
networks and m u l t i p l e clock waveforms [ 4 ) . However an U n f o r t u n a t e l y , f o r non-ideal SC networks, the system

matrix T i n the frequency d o m a i n cannot be expressed
e f f i c i e n t s e n s i t i v i t y analysis o f general non-ideal SC
e x p l i c i t l y i n terms o f circuit parameters. Since T is not i n
networks is conspicuously absent.
analytical f o r m , the partial derivative 3T/3h cannot be
The method described, avoids the m u l t i p l e solution o f
p e r f o r m e d directly. This p r o b l e m is due to the extended
very large system matrix i n the frequency domain and
state transition matrix ( E S T ) w h i c h can o n l y be f o r m e d
requires o n l y one solution o f the system and its adjoint.
by a p p r o x i m a t i o n techniques w i t h various degrees o f
T h e pre-processing o f a large amount o f frequency
accuracy [ 2 - 3 ] .
independent material reduces computation costs a n d
0-7803- 1254-6r93JO3.00e 1993 I E E E
1405
in. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS ANALYSIS FOR NON-IDEAL SC The inverse system m a t r i x M ; 1
and the d e r i v a t i v e
NETWORKS dM /3h can be calculated easily. Therefore, 3p /9h can
k k
now be evaluated by using the l n [6-7] approximation, m
For general linear SC networks, the system m a t r i x

the same step as used in calculating the extended state
equation i n z domain can be written in the f o r m (4]
transition matrix p .
k Similarly, 3B, ,/9h can. be
""V,(z)- ' rw,(z)" evaluated. B o t h 3p /3h k and 3B /3h
lk are frequency
V,(z) - EW (z) 2
independent and can be pre-calculated. Hence the
(1) computation of 3T/3h and 3W/3h follow in a
-P N zl z£W (z)
N
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d manner and the general procedure f o r
or TX = W. Here non-ideal sensitivity analysis can be completed. Salient

features o f the method are:
P =P C
k k k (2)
(a) I t is completely general. The analysis is not only
I W ( z ) = £[ta,kBu]z-"
k (3) applicable to switched capacitor networks, but also to
o-O i-0
where general linear networks. N o restrictions are placed on the
1
type o f signal, circuit configuration and number o f clock
P^r'l^+sC,]" } (4)
phases. Therefore the method is suited f o r m i x e d - m o d e
B i k =£-'{[G l + sC ]-'A)
1 (5) analysis applications.
£"' denotes the inverse Laplace transformation; p is (b) T h e method is also very e f f i c i e n t . A f t e r p r e -
k
defined as the extended state transition matrix (EST); B processing of all frequency independent equation
; k
is c a l l e d the e x c i t a t i o n response m a t r i x ; a i k is the components, the sensitivity analysis procedure f o l l o w s a

s i m i l a r pattern used f o r ideal SC n e t w o r k analysis.
c o e f f i c i e n t o f the m th order p o l y n o m i a l w h i c h is used to
Previous non-ideal SC network sensitivity analysis needed
approximate the excitation; V (z) k is a vector o f nodal
three solutions o f the large system equations, here o n l y
voltages and some branch currents; G k is the
two are needed.
conductance m a t r i x ; C is the capacitance matrix and I k
denotes the i d e n t i t y m a t r i x . I n the c o m p u t a t i o n o f (c) The results o f the method are reliable and accurate.
frequency response, p , B are frequency independent, T h e o n l y a p p r o x i m a t i o n employed i n this method is the
k i k
I m n a p p r o x i m a n t w h i c h experience has shown to be

so they can be pre-calculated.
stable and accurate over w i d e range o f systems
Since p and B, are p r o d u c e d
k k by n u m e r i c a l
applications.
techniques, the m a j o r p r o b l e m is to determine the partial
derivatives o f p k and B t l
Differentiate (4) w i t h respect to h

I V . NUMERICAL RESULTS
T h e above method f o r sensitivity analysis o f non-ideal

switched capacitor networks has been implemented i n the
program S C N A P 4 . A fifth order e l l i p t i c low-pass f o u r
1 phases SC filter [ 8 ] is used as an example and illustrated
:
2itj f { ^ l G 1 + sC rje"ds k in F i g . l . T h e sensitivity o f the response w i t h respect to
C | ( a capacitor i n the c i r c u i t ) and G B ) ( the gain
(6)
= £-'{|(G k + sCJ- bandwidth product o f opamp 1) are shown i n Fig.2a and
Define the system matrix i n time-slot k as Fig.2b, respectively. The accuracy o f the results have
been v e r i f i e d by comparison w i t h those produced by
M k = G +sC k k (7)
other techniques.
Because M M ' = I k k (8)
differentiate (8) w i t h respect to h to obtain V . CONCLUSIONS

3M k dM ' k
=0 (9)
T h i s paper presents a new non-ideal sensitivity analysis
and rewrite as f o l l o w s
scheme f o r SC networks. The method is both general and
1
-M; (10) e f f i c i e n t . N o restrictions are imposed regarding circuit
c o n f i g u r a t i o n , number o f c l o c k phases or e x c i t a t i o n
Hence
ap, signal. The implementation of the method is
(11) s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . N u m e r i c a l results c o n f i r m the v a l i d i t y
3h
1406
3 75
and efficiency o f the method.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Z.Q. Shang g r a t e f u l l y acknowledges the financial

support o f the British C o u n c i l .
REFERENCES
[11 S.C.Fang. Y.P.Tsividis and O Wing. "SWITCAP. a switched capacitor

network analysis program". IEEE Circuits and Systems Magazine, pp. 4-9
* 5 6
and pp. 42-46. Dec. 1983 Frequency (KHz)
[2] J.Rabaey, J.Vandewalle, H.De Man, "On frequency domain analysis of
switched capacitor networks including all parasitics". Proc. IEEE ISCAS, Fig. 2a. Sensitivity with respect lo C i with nonideal opamps (GB=159kHz)
Chicago. Apr. 1981. pp. 868-871

[3] A.Opal and J.Vlach, "Analysis and sensitivity of periodically switched linear
— sen.gbl
networks". I E E E Trans. CAS. vol36. No.4. Apr. 1989. pp. 522-532
20
[4] L.B.Wolovitz and J.I.Sewell. "General analysis of large linear switched
capacitor networks", I E E Proc vol. 135, pt.G. NoJ, pp l 19-124, June 1988. 1 0
{5] L. B. Wolovitz. "Computer aided analysis of periodically switched linear

E
p
networks", PhD Thesis, University of Glasgow, 1987
:>
[6] V.Zakian. "Properties of Imn and Jmu approximants and applications to
numerical inversion of Laplace transforms and initial value problems". J.

c
« -10
n
Maths and AppUc , vol.50, pp. 191-222.1975
-20
{7] K.Singbal and J.Vlach, "Computation of the time domain response by
numerical inversion of the Laplace transformation". J. Franklin Inst.,
vol.299, pp. 109-126. Feb. 1975
-30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency (KHz)
' 7
(8] J.A.Nossek and G.C.Temcs,"Swiiched capacitor filter design using bilinear

element modeling". IEEE Trans CAS. vol CAS-27. No 6, pp 481-491,
Rg. 2b. Sensitivity with respect to GBi with nonideal opamps (GB=159kHz)
June 1980
C4
Hi V
s
i.
7i % C.VJ 7I s
Ca>+—it- ' g, v 3 4«U S &i
:
j§HI-@
5i
s s ,
%,s y,4 'yi,4 %,s
i I ®—*-\ t-
® x y
Fig. 1. 5th order elliptic low-pass S C filter
1407
376
PAPER 53
3 77
565
Eroc. I . E . E . E . IriterjHticnal Syrrxsiur, cn Circuits and SystHTS, VbL.5, Lcrrfcn, May 1994.
Efficient noise analysis methods for large

non-ideal SC and SI circuits
Z.Q. Shang and J.I. Sewell
Glasgow, G12 8LT. UK
(+44) -41-330-4253
sewell@elec.glasgow.ac.uk
taking folding effects into account. Therefore, without

ABSTRACT efficient and general methods, noise analysis is either very
time consuming or the results tend to be unreliable.
A fully general and efficient noise analysis method is
presented for both switched capacitor and switched-current The method developed in this paper is based on the adjoint
circuits. The fold-back effects and non-ideal effects such as network technique which had been successfully applied to
parasitic resistive time constant have been taken into non-ideal sensitivity analysis of switched linear
account. The thermal noise and flicker noise generated by networks[8]. For noise analysis, only the adjoint system
MOS transistors are considered. By utilising the adjoint solution is required and the original system solution is no
network technique, only one system solution is needed for longer necessary. The In, approximation for extended
n
noise analysis. In addition, numerical inversion of the transition matrix and Hessenberg technique for solving the
Laplace transformation, the Hessenberg technique, adjoint system as well as the pre-processing of a large
extensive sparse matrix routines and interpretable code amount of frequency independent material reduce
generation have been used to improve the efficiency of computation costs dramatically and hence a highly efficient
noise analysis. The method has been implemented in method results. By using spectral analysis technique the
SCNAP4 and numerical results are given in the last section. fold-back effects can be accurately evaluated. In the
following sections, these aspects will be discussed in detail.
I INTRODUCTION
II ADJOINT NETWORK TECHNIQUES
Since the early years of last decade, noise analysis for SC
circuits has been discussed frequently [1-7]. However most The task of noise analysis can be divided into two different
of the presented techniques are only adequate for small aspects.
circuits. General and efficient methods were seldom
mentioned. Recently, switched-current circuits have gained (a) reducing the overall number of system solutions;
much attention. Naturally, their noise characteristics are of
main concern to designers. Generally, two types of noise are (b) efficient methods for each individual system solution.
considered in SC circuits, white noise from switches and 1/f
noise from operational amplifiers. For switched-current The second aspect has already been considered when
circuits, since the MOS transistors operate in saturation SCNAP4 was being developed. A solid platform for noise
regions, both thermal and flicker noise exist analysis has been built successfully. In the following, we
will focus on the first issue.
Unlike the traditional analogue case (switch free), the
folding of wideband white noisefromhighfrequencybands For general linear switched networks, if the system contains
to baseband, caused by the sampling nature of switched- m noise sources, the problem can be described by
circuits. leads to excessive computational costs.
Traditionally, in order to calculate the whole noise spectral
density, the folding transfer functions from each noise I -p,1"Vj(z)- " EWj(z) "
source to output have to be evaluated. For example, a circuit p 2 I Vj(z) = SW (z)
2
containing m noise sources requires m different system (1)

solutions at each frequency point. Furthermore, as the noise
bandwidths are normally orders of magnitude higher than -P N zl z£W (z) N
the sampling frequency, a very large number of system

solutions are needed to cover the wide frequency range for or
3?8
566
TXi=Wi (i=0.1....jn) Ill NOISE ANALYSIS OF SWITCHED-CURRENT

CIRCUITS
where T denotes the system matrix in z domain, X, and W;
are unknown and excitation vectors, respectively. The noise behaviour of switched-current circuits has
P = p C , p is defined as the extended state transition
k k k k
received considerable attention since the emergence of
matrix, I denotes the identity matrix. switched-current techniques [11-13]. It is wise to choose the
basic switched-current memory ceil, as shown in Figure 1.
to start with. Both transistors Mi and M operate in
For the ith noise source, the transfer function from the noise 2
saturation region, hence generate both flicker noise and

source to output can be defined as
thermal noise. The flicker noise is modelled as a gate-
referred noise which generates a drain noise current. The
,
H (( )-d X
i D i (2) thermal noise is modelled as a drain-referred noise current
The thermal noise from switches is treated in the same way
with d representing a constant vertor. as that was in SC circuits. By modelling the MOS transistor
with a macromodel which consists of linear components,
Define the adjoint system as, SCNAF4 can be used directly to analyse switched-current
circuits. Detailed discussion about the models of MOS
transistors for switched-current circuits can be found in
T'X =-d a (3) [14].
Substitute (1), (3) into (2) gives IV NUMERICAL RESULTS
H (o)) = - X i W
i i (4) The noise analysis method presented above has been
implemented in the program SCNAP4. Two types of noise
Assuming that there is no correlation between the input source (voltage and current) are available, they can be either
noise sources, the total noise power spectral density at the flicker noise or white noise. The foldover wideband white
output is then calculated by superposition noise from high frequency bands to baseband can be
calculated.
S M = Jt£|H ((o)| S (co-nco,) 2

(5) Two examples are given. For SC circuits, a sixth order
T i i
1 n=0i=l
bandpass filter is selected. The op-amp noise components
are given to be 8QnV/VHz with comer frequency 1kHz.
where S[(£2) is the ith input noise power spectral density The output noise spectrum density is illustrated in Figure 2.
and p is the number of bands to be considered. Here the nth A close agreement between simulation and results from [S]
band is defined as the frequency interval from (n - l)cu /2 can be noted. The fold back effects are also shown in Fig. 2.
s
to no) /2 where <o is the sample frequency. Several For switched-current circuits, a third-order elliptic ladder is
n 8
considered. The noise bandwith is about 160MHz and the
comments can be made at this stage.
comer frequency is set to lKHz. If the reference noise is
lnA/vlfz , then the circuit response and noise behaviour
1) It is evident that after solving the adjoint system (eq. (3»,
Hj(o)) can be obtained directly by merely one subtraction are illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 respectively. The
since each W; contains at most two nonzero entries. Instead CPU time for analysing these circuits are given in Table 1.
of m different network analyses, only one adjoint system It is evident that even for circuits with moderate size,
solution is needed for all m noise sources, the original SCNAP4 is able to give noise analysis results in fairly short
system solution can be saved. Therefore computational time.
efficiency is achieved.
V CONCLUSIONS
2) The adjoint system is solved by using the Hessenberg
approach which has already been proved very effective in This paper presents a general and efficient noise analysis
frequency domain analysis of switched linear networks. method applicable to both SC and SI circuits. Standard
circuit non-idealities are included and complete folding
3) The folding effects from high frequencies to a specific effects for broadband noise are incorporated. An adjoint
band are evaluated up to a user given noise bandwidth. This description of the non-ideal network is employed and only
is based on the fact that the noise is normally bandlirnited the solution of this is required. Numerical results compare
by op-amp frequency response and time constant effects well with practical results measured from integrated
from switch resistances and circuit capacitances. circuits. The speed of analysis on a relatively model work
station indicates that noise analysis of large switched
379
567
systems is feasible and the application to some degree o f [9] V . Z a k i a n , "Properties o f I ^ , and J ^ , approximants and
noise optimisation is a realistic possibility. applications to numerical i n v e r s i o n o f Laplace
transforms and initial value problems". J. Maths and
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT A p p l i c . vol.50, pp.191-222,1975
[10] K . S i n g h a l and J . V l a c h , " C o m p u t a t i o n o f the t i m e
Z.Q. Shang gratefully acknowledges the f i n a n c i a l support o f d o m a i n response by n u m e r i c a l i n v e r s i o n o f the
the B r i t i s h C o u n c i l . Laplace transformation", J. F r a n k l i n Inst., vol.299, pp.
109-126, Feb. 1975
REFERENCES [11] J.B. Hughes. "Analogue techniques for large scale
integrated circuits," Ph.D Thesis, University of
[1] J.H.Fischer."Noise sources and calculation techniques Southampton, March 1992
for switched capacitor filters," IEEE J. of Solid-state [12] G. Wegmann. "Design and analysis techniques for
circuits, vol. SC-17, No.4, Aug. 1982, pp.742-752 dynamic current mirrors," Thesis No. 890, Ecole
[2] C.A.Gobet and A. Knob,"Noise analysis of switched Polythechnique Federate de Lausanne, 1990
capacitor networks", IEEE Trans, on CAS, vol. CAS- [13] S.J. Daubert and D. Vallancourt," Operation and
30. No. 1. Jan. 1983. pp.37-43 analysis of current copier circuits." Proc. EEE Pt. G.
[3] JJlabaey, J.VandewaUe and H.De Man,"A general and vol. 137. pp.109-115. April 1990
efficient noise analysis technique for switched capacitor [14] J. A. Barby. "Switched-current filters models for
filters", Prcc. of IEEE ISCAS. Newport Beach. May. frequency analysis in the continuous-time domain,"
1983. pp.570-573 Prcc. of IEEE ISCAS. Chicago, May.. 1993. pp. 1427-
[4] S. W. L i , F. W. Stephenson and J. Velazquez- 1430
Ramos,"Noise analysis of switched capacitor filters,"
Proc. of IEEE ISCAS. Montreal. May. 1984. pp. 1312-
5
1315 Vf2
[5] CK.Pun. J.I.Sewell and A.G.Hall,"Noise analysis for lth2
switched capacitor networks in symbolic form," Proc.
of 29th Midwest symposium on circuits and systems. lth3
Louisvill, Aug. 1985. pp.807-810 M2
[6] J.Gotte and C.Gobet, "Exact noise analysis of SC circuits
and an approximate computer implementation." I K K K
Trans, on CAS. vol. CAS-36, No.4. pp.508-521. Apr. vfl
1989 lth 1
[7] L. Toth and K. Suyama, "Exact noise analysis of 'ideal'
-€H
Ml
SC networks". Proc. of IEEE ISCAS, New Orleans,
May.. 1990. pp. 1585-1588
[8] Z.Q.Shang and JXSeweUVTifficient sensitivity analysis Figure 1. Memory cell with noise sources
for large non-ideal switched capacitor networks," Prcc.
of IEEE ISCAS, Chicago. May. 1993. pp. 1405-1407
Table 1. Statistics of noise simulation on SUN-Sparc ELC station

Circuit Signal Circuit Number Points per Number Noise
name type size of slots band of bands analysjs(sec)
bn6(SO S/H 48 2 100 1 3.76
bp6(SO S/H 48 2 100 50 187.69
bp6(SO S/H 48 2 100 100 38215
nos5(SQ S/H 28 4 100 1 2.62
nos5(SQ CONT 28 4 100 1 12.13
nos5(SQ S/H 28 4 100 10 26.81
swc6(SI) S/H 37 2 100 1 2.41
elp3(SI) S/H 38 2 106 1 2.92
elp3(SI) S/H 38 2 106 8 22.77
elp3(SD CONT 38 2 106 1 12.14
elp3(SI) CONT 38 2 106 8 96.13
568
-90
-100
1 1 0
-
i -
u
-5 -120 J band=50 ~' _
•a
aa
-
-130 V baseband r
^ *=^«=<=» - =
-140
0.0e+O 1.0e-r4 2.0e+4
Frequency(Hz)
Figure 2. Noise behaviour of sixth-order bandpass SC filter
with folding back effects
20
-40
-60
80
3 8
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency(Hz)
Figure 3. Frequency response of 3rd order elliptic ladder SI circuit
16
A
14
12 band=8
S 10
E 8
baseband
0
8
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 4. Noise behaviour of 3rd order elliptic ladder SI circuit

381
6. Communication Circuit Design
Publication Page
[17] An adaptive electronic circulator for use in telephones 382
[23] An improved adaptive electronic circulator for telephone applications 387

382
PAPER 17
728 ! E F . E TRANSACTIONS ON COMMUNICATION?, V O L . COM-23. NO. 7, J U L Y 1975
REFERENCES •101 T . C. Ilenneberger and M . D . Fai:en. " C o m p a r a t i v e transmis-

sion characteristics of polyethylene insulated and paper insu-
[1] H . Gravis ami T . V . Crater, "Engineering of 7"1 carrier svstem lated communications cables," A1EE Trans, if'ommun. Elec-
repeatercd lines," Bell .Si/si. Tech. J., p. 131, M a r . 1063. ' tron.), v o l . SO, pp. 2 7 - 3 1 , M a r . 1962.
[2] B . B . Jacobson, "Cable crosstalk limits on low capacity pulse
code m o d u l a t i o n svstems." Elcc. Comimin., v o l . -18, no. 1 and 2.
pp. 98-107, 1973. '
[3] R D . Sunde, Communications Systems Engineering Theory.
New Y o r k : Wiley, 1969. Stevan D , Bradley ( S ' 6 7 - M ' 7 1 ) received
[4] Bell Telephone Laboratories, Transmission Systems for Com- the B . S . E . I l . decree front Lehigh U n i v e r s i t y ,
munications, 4 t h ed. Holrndel. N . J.: Bell Telephone, 1970. Bethlehem, Pa., in 1907. the M . S . E . degree
[5] C. S. Eager, L . Jachimowicz, I . K o l o d n y , and D . E . Robinson, in electrical engineering f r o m Frinceton U n i -
"Transmission properties of polyethylene-insulated telephone
v e r s i t y , Princeton, N . .1.. in 1968, and t h e
cables a t voice and carrier frequencies," A1EE Trans. (Com-
mun. Electron.), v o l . 78, p p . 618-639, N o v . 1959. Degree of Engineer in electrical engineering
(6) L . Jachimowicz, J . A . Olszewski, and I . K o l o d n y , "Transmission f r o m S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y , S t a n f o r d , Calif.,
properties of filled thermoplastic insulated and jacketed tele- in 1971.
phone cables a t voice and carrier frequencies." IEEE Trans. F r o m 1968 to 1972 he was employed by
Commun., v o l . C O M - 2 1 , p p . 203-209, M a r . 1973. Singer S i m u l a t i o n Products, Sunnyvale,
(7] N . A . Strakhov, "Crosstalk on m u l t i p a i r cable—Theoretic Calif., where he was i n v o l v e d i n studies of
aspects," i n Con/. Rec, Nat. Tclecommun. Con}., v o l . 1, 1973, source coding and p i c t o r i a l data compression. H e j o i n e d G T E
pp. 8 B 1 - 8 B 7 .
L e n k u r t , I n c . , San Carlos, Calif., i n 1972 as a member of t h e
(8) I . Nasell, "Some properties of power sums of truncated n o r m a l
r a n d o m variables," Bell Sysl. Tech. J., p. 2091, N o v . 1967. P C M Transmission D e v e l o p m e n t Section where he has c o n t r i b u t e d
[9] N . A . M a r l o w , " A normal l i m i t theorem f o r power sums of to p r o d u c t development of P C M repeaters. H e presently has re-
independent r a n d o m variables," Bell Sysl. Teen. J., p. 2 0 8 1 , sponsibility f o r systems considerations f o r new repeatered line
N o v . 1967. development.
An Adaptive Electronic Circulator

for Use in Telephones
R. P. L O D G E A N D J . I . S E W E L L , MEMBER, IEEE
Abstract—A design for an adaptive three-port electronic circulator encountered in telephone systems and also in the various
is presented. The circuit has particular use in telephone work and
filtering requirements [ 5 J .
this model can provide isolation when the terminating load varies
I t has been demonstrated [ 1 ] that line matching can be
over the range 200 f l - 1 kS). The whole circuit is realizable in micro-
electronic form. achieved in a most accurate way. However this refers only
to the static case and will not apply to dynamic matching
where there can be changes in line impedance with chang-
INTRODUCTION ing length, quality of line, and terminations. Some form of
T HE U S E of electronic circulators in telephone systems

has been suggested recently
extensive and ambitious scheme has been outlined
[1] and an even more
[2].
adaptive circulator is obviously needed to overcome such
difficulties.
ADAPTIVE CIRCULATORS
T h e great virtue of the audio circulator is that the design
is simple [ 3 ] , it is easily extendable to an >i-port version, T h e principles are most easily observed by considering a
and a large variety of combinations are possible [ 4 ] . T h u s three-port circulator, which is the lowest order of practical
the circulator can be used for all the isolation problems use in telephone work. I n a typical handset application
[ 2 ] , the microphone is connected to port-1, the subscribers
line to port-2, and the earphone is fed with a signal propor-
Paper approved by the Associate E d i t o r for W i r e C o m m u n i c a t i o n
of the I E E E Communications Society f o r p u b l i c a t i o n w i t h o u t oral tional to the. difference of the signals at these two ports.
presentation. M a n u s c r i p t received October 1, 1974; revised Januarv T h e circulator provides the required isolation on transmit
21,1975.
R . P. Lodge is w i t h M a r c o n i C o m m u n i c a t i o n Systems, Chelms- and receive. I n the transmit mode, the difference signal
ford, England. will produce the side-tone and, with ideal matching, uni-
.1. I . Sewell is w i t h the D e p a r t m e n t of Electronic Engineering,
U n i v e r s i t y of H u l l , H u l l , HUO 7 R X , England. form speech level? are ensured. If the circulator impedance
LODGE AND S E W E L L ' . A D A P T I V E E L E C T R O N I C C I R C U L A T O R 729
B F W 10
P O R T -1 PORT-3
PORT-
A M P L I F I ER
RECTIFIER
I
B I A S
AMPUFI E .
SUMMER
RECTIFIER
2
Fig. 1. Adaptive circulator realization.
at port-2 perfectly matches the line, then in the t-insmit rection feedback loop should be as high as possible.
mode there is theoretically zero voltage at port-3, and in However, this is restricted by the possibility of oscillation,
the receive mode no signal will appear at port-1. Any mis- although this may be removed by some form of damping.
match with the line will produce a finite rejection port When an input is applied to the second port, simulating
voltage and it might be assumed that this could be used as an incoming line signal, the feedback mechanism is differ-
a feedback signal to control a voltage variable resistor ent. Assuming that there is no input signal at port-1, there
( W R ) defining the circulation impedance at port-2. is no signal at the inverting input of O A 2. T h e input
However a phase-sensitive rectifier would be required to voltage divides between the F E T and the load resistance,
derive a correction signal, which will vary the impedance thus the output of the summing amplifier goes negative to
in the appropriate direction. a great extent. With a high loop gain and small damping
Fig. 1 shows a better alternative circuit for an adaptive factor, the F E T channel becomes cut off and all the signal
circulator. T h e circulator is balanced when ports-1 and -3 is passed to O A 4. There will now be isolation at port-1 and
are terminated in Ro and when the channel resistance of an earphone fed with the difference of the port-1 and -2
the F E T is equal to the load at port-2. If, under these signals will receive the full incoming one. However this
conditions, the input voltage atport-1 is V and there are no leads to two problems: the adaptive feature is no longer
other input signals, the output from operational amplifier operative as the line feeds the earphone circuit direct; and
( O A ) 1 is also V. T h e port-2 voltage is then V/2. T h e dif- the circulator suffers from voice switching. A fairly con-
ferential amplifier formed by O A 2 thus has two equal in- venient method of overcoming these two difficulties is to
puts and, therefore, no signal will appear at port-3. For un- provide feedback of the signal at port-3 to the inverting
balanced condit ions, when the F E T channel resistance and input of O A 1, isolation in the path is required to prevent
the load are different, there is an output from O A 2 and any feedforward. I n the transmit mode, there is no signal
thus the port-3 voltage will be finite. With the gain of at port-3 and operation is as previously described. On re-
amplifier 1 double the gain of amplifier 2. a feedback signal ceiving an incoming signal at port-2, the extra feedback
to the F E T gate is derived by comparing the actual provides an input for amplifier 2 which will ensure that the
port-2 Voltage with the desired value. I t is usually neces- F E T will not now be cut off. Voice switching is eliminated
sary to provide some bias, in series with the correction and the adaptive property retained.
signal, to ensure that the F E T channel resistance is
centered on the mean load resistance. As the r j , charac- PRACTICAL CIRCUIT
teristic is not entirely linear, it is usually necessary to
A circuit employing the common 741 amplifier as the
apply local feedback to obtain a wider linear range.
basic amplifier unit was constructed. T h e rectifiers were
For good third-port rejection, the gain round the cor-
simply a single diode with a smoothing capacitor; some
730 I E E E TRANSACTIONS O S COMMUNICATIONS, J U L T 1975
1.4
P O R T - I I N P U T 10
1.2
E 1.0
R.= s o o n '
/
inn
R.= 200 n
/ L
">0 I K 10 K SO K
F R E Q U E N C Y Hi
Fig. 2. Rejection characteristics for input to portal.
buffering with a voltage follower may prove necessary there are wider rejection bands for the greater load devia-
before the summer, again a conventional amplifier circuit. tions; this is due to better controllability of the larger
The smoothing capacitors also furnish the required damp- error signals present in these circumstances. Nevertheless
ing and 0.22 provides a satisfactory response. the circuit will provide third-port rejections of between
The r d , ( N ) value of the F E T selected ( B F W 10) was in
0
30-40 d B for variations in port-2 terminations over the
the region of 200 fi. T h e initial matching range was chosen range 200-1000 ft, for a 5-kHz band. T h e isolation charac-
as 200-1000 fi. W h e n the load resistance has some value teristics of the circulator when fed with a signal at port-2
R , the difference voltage generated is
L
and subjected to load variations at port-2 are shown in
Fig. 3. T h e rejection is greater than 44 d B over a 20-kHz
V, V i a R L
bandwidth, there being negligible effect due to load change
V = °
2 RL + rj,(0N)'
from 600 fi until approximately 1 kfi is reached. T h i s can
be expected since the third stage, which is purely resistive
where rd, ti)' is the actual drain-source resistance apparent and accurately adjusted, is responsible for producing this
(0
in the circuit and includes any alteration induced by local degree of isolation.
feedback; and V is the input voltage at port-1. For the
i n I t is therefore possible to conclude that adaptive
signal levels ensuring linear operation of this particular electronic circulators art: quite suitable for telephone usage.
circuit, an input voltage of about 30 m V resulted in a Isolation is possible over a good bandwidth, and with more
maximum value of V as 5 m V . T h e gate-source voltage
d careful design, considering the time constants involved in
required for a channel resistance of 1000 fJ for the B F W 10 rectification, F E T nonlincarity, and feedback loop gain,
is —2.1 V , thus a differential gain of about 400 is required. together with better amplifiers, a superior performance
T h i s is realized by the amplifiers preceding the rectifiers, could be ensured. One disadvantage of the present circuit
which have adjustable gains to compensate for differing is the need for low input voltages, as is common with most
voltage drops across the diodes. A n added feature is that V V R applications of F E T ' s , since the signal inevitably
these amplifiers also prevent loading of the F E T and the produces some modulation of the channel resistance. T h i s
line. can be overcome by employing more elaborate gate-drain
Fig. 2 shows some typical response curves, when the feedback circuits and using F E T ' s especially designed for
circuit was fed with 30 m V at port-1 and the rejection W R work.
voltage at port-3 is measured. T h e bias on the F E T gate The voice-switching problem of the simple circuit is
is set to match a 600-ft load at port-2. I t is apparent that overcome by adding an extra feedback path. The circulator
within a 5-kHz bandwidth, the rejection is best for loads can be used to match complex impedances, but obviously
in the region about 600 Q. A point of interest is to note that the variable correcting circuits will be more sophisticated.
L O D G E AND S E W E L L : A D A P T I V E E L E C T R O N I C C I R C U L A T O R 731
PORT-2 INPUT VOLTAGE 30mV
I 1
IK 10 K
F R E Q U E N C Y Hi
Fig. 3. Rejection characteristics for input to port-2.
The operating conditions considered here would only R . P . Lodge was bora in Huddersfield,
England, on June 21, 1952. I n 1974 he re-
correspond to unbalanced line working in a telephone
ceived the B . S c . degree in electronic engineer-
system. B u t with duplication of the circulators [ 2 ] normal ing from the University of Hull, Hull, E n g -
operation is easily accomplished. A n added advantage is land.
He recently joined Marconi Communica-
that the whole circulator circuit can easily be realized in
tion Systems, Chelmsford, England.
microelectronic form.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
T h e authors would like to thank one of the referees for

his comments on voice switching.
J . L Sewell (M'74) was born in West-
morland, England, on M a y 13, 1942. H e
REFERENCES received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engi-
, r- - , neering from the University of Durham,
[1] P . D . V a n der Puije, "Audio-frequency circulator for use in I ' for-. ' Durham, England, in 1963 and the P h . D .
telephone aeta," IEEE Trans. Commun. Technol. (Concise :
' - * degree from the University o f Newcastle-
Paper), vol. C O M - 1 9 , pp. 1267-1271, Dec. 1971. upon-Tyne, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England,
(2) C . Martinez, "Electronic circuits for telephone exchanges," in 19G6.
M.Sc. thesis, Univ. of Hull, Hull, England, 1973.
From 1966 t o 1968 he was a Senior R e -
[3| J . M . Rollett and P. E . Greenaway, "Directlv coupled active
circulators," Electron. Lett., vol. 4, pp. 579-580, Dec. 1968. ft search Associate a t the University o f New-
[4) J . I . Sewell, "Active circulator systems," Int. J. Electron., vol. castle-upoD-Tyne, where he was engaged in
33, pp. 677-679, Dec. 1972. the study of computational methods in the design of active networks.
[51 J . M . Rollett, "Circulator-capacitor networks," Electron. Lett., He joined the University of Hull in 19C8 as a Lecturer in the Departs
vol. 4, pp. 599-601, Dec. 1968. ment o f Electronic Engineering.
3 8 '7
PAPER 23
3 88
1218 I E E E T R A N S A C T I O N S ON C O M M U N I C A T I O N S , VOL. C O M - 2 7 . N O . 8, A U G U S T 1979
A n Improved Adaptive E l e c t r o n i c C i r c u l a t o r for Consider F i g . 1 and note that the controlling signals are de-
Telephone Applications veloped from a separate pilot lone and that the impedance
measuring and adjustment bridge can have both pilot, transmit
H. G A Z I O G L U , D. A. HOMER, A N D J. 1. SEWELL, MEMBER, IEEE and receive voice signals present in one arm simultaneously.
The circulator section automatically removes the pilot signal
from the isolation path and the voice frequencies are filtered
Abstract-A previous attempt at realizing an adaptive circulator for
out in the c o n t r o l path. T h e line input impedance is simulated
telephone applications suffered from limitations due to voice switching
by an RC circuit, F i g . 2 ; a three element parallel/series circuit
problems, resistive part matching only, and some difficulties with adap-
is considered initially, but results are s h o w n for a five element
tive operation for broadband signals. The use of pilot tones enables the
circuit to be free from voice switching problems and to accomplish a network for more general application. T h e three element net-
close impedance match with that of a telephone line. Analysis of the work will suffice for short lines, but the more c o m p l e x net-
circuit in an adaptive hybrid configuration produces the theoretical work is necessary for the longer subscriber lines. T h e possible
bounds on performance. Experimental results display the performance combinations of length and diameter of cables on subscriber
characteristics of the adaptive circuits and various other hybrid circuits lines is almost infinite. F o r British Post O f f i c e lines, the three
on a selection of subscriber lines with a range of terminations. networks given in F i g . 2 represent o p t i m u m fits to the fre-
quency responses of average overall lengths taken in three
groups and t y p i c a l c o m b i n a t i o n s of C u cable of differing d i a m -
INTRODUCTION eters, a line termination of 6 0 0 R was used. E x p e r i m e n t a t i o n
There is an increasing interest in the inclusion of a variety will show that these n e t w o r k s provide a suitable median from
of electronic features in the telephone subscriber's loop. Apart w h i c h the adaptive feature can work.
from dialing facilities and subscriber carrier systems, studies With the three element circuit it is obvious that a 3-term
concerned with circuits providing a m p l i f i c a t i o n [ 1 , 2 1 , active controller could be used. Analysis of such a network d e m o n -
hybrids [ 2 , 3 , 4 ] and adaptive h y b r i d s [ 5 , b, 7 ] are being strates that the high frequency response is a direct function of
actively pursued. T h e previous attempts at realizing adaptive the series resistance, whereas the low frequency response is
hybrids had a number of limitations, some providing the adap- dependent upon both resistances. T h e break points of the
tive feature only at certain frequencies [51 or over a limited simulated line characteristic can be directly controlled by vary-
frequency band [ 7 ] . T h e adaptive c i r c u l a t o r [ 6 ] provided ing the capacitance value. Hence a c o n t r o l loop e m p l o y i n g a
only resistive part matching and although some precautions pilot tone well above the voice band, say 10 k H z can be used
against voice switching were taken, these were not entirely to adjust the high frequency response and another using a pilot
satisfactory; the adaptive operation of the circuit w i t h broad- tone below the voice b a n d , say 12 H z , can adjust the low fre-
band signals also presented problems. quency response. A further pilot tone just outside the b a n d ,
The possibilities of adaptively m a t c h i n g line impedance say 5 k H z , can be used to c o n t r o l the capacitance value. H o w -
changes in the subscriber e q u i p m e n t , at the interface with line ever, investigation shows that in practice the high frequency
amplifiers, or at the 4-wire to 2-wire transition points are as- asymptote is of little significance, because the major effect is
suming increasing importance. T h e line characteristic is vulner- out of band and a n y w a y this varies little from line to line and
able to the influence of change in terminations and cable para- with various terminations. A n y influence on the upper break
meters affected by p h y s i c a l means due to either m a n or nature. frequency can be covered by capacitance control T h e major
The m i s m a t c h against static balancing impairs sidetone rejec- change c o m e s at the low frequency e n d , manifesting itself as
tion and reflection characteristics resulting in problems of no quite substantial changes in loop resistance, lower break fre-
small significance. quency and slope of the impedance characteristic. F o r sim-
A further requirement of future developments is to provide plicity of analysis a single term controller, operating from a 12
isolation and matching characteristics by circuits suitable for Hz pilot will be investigated in detail. A dual pilot tone c i r c u i t ,
mass p r o d u c t i o n by integrated circuit means. with adaptive parallel R and C elements is of more general
application for broadband signals, however extension of the
THE ADAPTIVE CIRCULATOR theory is straightforward.
The basic 3-port circulator is well k n o w n ( 8 ) and the re- With reference to F i g . 1, for the purposes of analysis, it is
placement of one section by an adaptive one has been reported not necessary to consider the pilot tone signal but only the
[ 6 ] . A t t e n t i o n here will be c o n f i n e d to a different adaptive components of the transmitted signal E and the received signal
section w h i c h may be used in c o n j u n c t i o n with standard sec- V. Assuming ideal operational amplifiers, the output signal of
tions to form a fully adaptive circulator. the circulator section is given by:
4Zj V
Paper approved by the Editor tor Communication Electronics o f the
-+ 2E
IEEE Communications Society for publication without oral presenta- (1)
Z n + Z , Zn + Z,
tion. Manuscript received November 25, 1977; revised March 10, 1979.
This work was supported by the Science Research Council.
The authors are w i t h the Department o f Electronic Engineering. Now E corresponds to the port-1 voltage, V to the port-2
University o f Hull, Hull HU6 7 R X , England. voltage, the port-3 voltage will be E D = EA ' / 2 , hence:
0 0 9 0 - 6 7 7 8 / 7 9 / 0 8 0 0 - 1 2 1 8 $ 0 0 . 7 5 © 1979 IEEE
389
I E E E T R A N S A C T I O N S O N C O M M U N I C A T I O N S , V O L . C O M - 2 7 , N O . 8, A U G U S T 1979 1219
PILOT
TONE
FROM FIRST
SECTION OF TO THIRD
5ECTION OF
CIRCULATOR
CIRCULATOR
IAI
FILTER RECTIF E R
[Bl
FILTER RECTIF ER
Fig. 1 The adaptive section o f a single pilot tone circulator.
J«32nF Note that the c o n d i t i o n for perfect isolation is Z 0 = Z\, and

HI— the outgoing signal is completely rejected at port-3. Af = 1
and the i n c o m i n g signal at port-2 is transferred to port-3 with
unity gain.
Substitution of a = X + jY into the expression for the
magnitude of equation ( 3 ) for some constant value A T = K
(a) gives
0-29 M F 0 21MF
HI— HI— (X + I ) 2
+ Y 2
(5)
270R
- v W -
- A V -
«MR E q u a t i o n ( 5 ) represents a circle of center ( - 1 , 0 ) a n d radius
(b) 2/K. Similarly for some constant value of I/AR = R the ex-
pression for the magnitude of equation ( 4 ) yields
0-28MF
-Hh- R 2
I 1 2
2
2R
I70R + Y = (6)
-vw- R 2
- 1 _ R 2
- 1_
36R 2
which represents a circle in the XY plane with center l(R +
(c) 2 2
\)I(R - 1), 0 ] and radius 2R/(R - 1). C o n s t a n t transfer
Tig. 2 Optimum balance networks for (a) 1 km line (mixed diameter ratio and rejection ratio circles c a n be plotted as s h o w n in F i g .
Cu) (b) 4 k m line (mixed diameter Cu) (c) 7 k m line (mixed diameter Cu)
3. A s can be seen infinite rejection is obtained at the p o i n t 1 +
/ 0 and this corresponds to the c o n d i t i o n ZQ = Z j . T h e rejec-
tion rapidly decreases as the ratio changes f r o m u n i t y , al-
2Z, V ^0
Z
l though the transfer gain is relatively insensitive to the change
Ea = + £ (2)
z + z.
a
and remains close to 0 d B .
One of the major roles of this circulator is as an adaptive
hybrid in the telephone set, and most of the experimentation
has been carried out with that area o f operation in m i n d . If
which consists of a transmitted component E o T and a c o m - the circulator is to be used in the mode already indicated [ 6 ] ,
ponent to be rejected E o R Set a = Z IZ 0 X then the transfer with the .aouthpiece connected to port-1 and the earpiece fed
and rejection ratios become respectively with a signal from across ports-1 and -2 giving a d e f i n e d side-
tone injection, then the transmission properties o f the adaptive
2 section are of little consequence as the third section will pro-
A T = (3) vide complete isolation a n y w a y . A n o t h e r c o n n e c t i o n of the
V a + 1
circulator is with the mouthpiece again across p o r t - 1 , the line
across port-2 and the earpiece across port-3. N o w a n i n c o m i n g
£
oR a —1 signal is transmitted through the adaptive section and both
(4)
E a + f rejection and transmission characteristics of the section are of
1220 I E E E T R A N S A C T I O N S O N C O M M U N I C A T I O N S , V O L . C O M - 2 7 . N O . 8. A U G U S T 1979
0 01
tY
K--0-21dB
K.-0-27dB
003
002
001
H, U d B R.S-SdB
0-94 0 9« 1:00 04 105
001
0 02
003
0 01
Fig. 3 Constant rejection and transfer ioci.
significance. A performance figure can be defined as: program was incorporated into others w h i c h simulate the be-
havior of the single and dual pilot tone adaptive circulators.
The results from these programs indicate the possibility of
approaching the above theoretical limits.
THE PRACTICAL CIRCUIT

Substituting a = X + fY and considering constant gain loci
2 2 2 Fig. 4 shows the complete circuit diagram of the dual pilot
gives the equation {X - l) + Y = [2/KR\ w h i c h repre-
tone adaptive c i r c u l a t o r ; all amplifiers are of the 741 opera-
sents a circle with center ( + 1 , 0 ) and radius 2/KR. A set of
tional type. Ports-1 and -3 of the circulator are given 1 kfi
these l o c i c a n be plotted. It is therefore possible to determine
loads for the test purposes, n o r m a l telephone connections have
for a specific rejection or performance figure, the a c c u r a c y of
already been discussed. T h e t w o pilot tones are of 100 m V in
amplitude and phase m a t c h required by the adaptive section.
amplitude; the lower tone is set at 12 H z and the upper at
In practice, the rejection and performance figures are approxi-
5 k H z . A l t h o u g h the choice o f these frequencies outside the
mately the same.
telephone band is reasonably r a n d o m , some restrictions may be
F o r a rejection of 4 0 d B over the whole telephone band the
imposed by the outside s y s t e m . F o r instance, there may be
conditions are:
difficulties with the low f r e q u e n c y pilot tone when e n c o u n -
tering the A C coupling f o u n d in m u c h m" the telephone plant,
0.98 < | a | < 1.02
and it might be necessary to restrict the application to metallic
(8)
- 1 . 1 5 ° < A r g a < 1.15° facilities. With the high frequency pilot tone the evolving use
of loop electronics must be recognized and especially with sub-
which i m p l y that the impendance match should be w i t h i n ± 2 % scriber carrier systems the possibility of interference should be
for magnitude and ± 1 . 1 5 for phase. Less stringent require- considered. F i l t e r i n g of the 12 Hz tone for the low f r e q u e n c y
ments exist for lower rejection specifications; the conditions c o n t r o l circuit is achieved by a 4 t h order low-pass B u t t e r w o r t h
for 26 dB rejection are: filter of the S a l l e n - K e y type. R e c t i f i e r s in both c o n t r o l loops
are of the active precision type. Because of the location of the
5 k H z pilot tone with respect to the upper edge of the voice
0.91 < | a | < 1.105
band it is necessary to e m p l o y a 5 th order high-pass elliptic
-5.7° < A r g a < +5.7° filter in the higher frequency c o n t r o l c i r c u i t . T h e choice of
matching n e t w o r k s for short, m e d i u m and long subscriber lines
is provided via a s w i t c h . Quite good results are obtainable,
a magnitude m a t c h of about ± 9 . 7 % and phase m a t c h ± 5 . 7 ° .
however, by merely using the m e d i u m length matching net-
The ideal performance of the circuit was e x a m i n e d on a
work for all applications. Resistance variation is obtained from
computer. A program to simulate the frequency responses of
the B F W 10 F E T with shunt feedback to improve linearity.
lines consisting of a variety of lengths of m i x e d diameter
Capacitance variation is provided by varying the gain of a
cables with a range of terminations was written, and the re-
Miller circuit, again using a F E T . Some care has to be exercised
sults produced agree with the measured ones taken f r o m arti-
in controlling the range of bias on this F E T , since the circuit
ficial lines constructed to British Post O f f i c e standards. T h i s
11: E E T R A N S A C T I O N S O N C O M M U N I C A T I O N S . V O L . C O M - 2 7 . N O . 8. A U G U S T 1979
1221
5 *
8
I 4 s
M / V
s
S LyW
HI
8
L HI
*
60
T
v W
HI
1 HI
Lj
HI
8
1222 I E E E T R A N S A C T I O N S O N C O M M U N I C A T I O N S , V O L . C O M - 2 7 . N O . 8, A U G U S T 1979
50
Dual pilot t o n e circuit

Passive hybrid circuit
40
600R
S
CD
30
100R
100R
U
10 K 600R
Id 2K
v OK
20
10
100 200 500 1K 10K

FREQUENCY (Hz)
Fig. 5 Adaptive circulator and passive hybrid responses for 1 km
mixed line: 0.5 km 0.4 mm Cu + 0.5 km 0.32 mm Cu; terminations
as shown
inevitably produces a variable resistance in parallel with a tice, operating conditions can o c c u r that cause line termina-
variable capacitance and this resistance value decreases with tions to appear largely reactive, this results in some of the re-
negative bias. j e c t i o n curves demonstrating rapidly changing characteristics.
Practical measurements were taken using an input signal of H o w e v e r , the results obtained for the range of resistance ter-
100 m V and results for the rejection between ports-1 and -3 in minations used, quite adequately encompass the worst per-
the dual tone adaptive circulator circuit are c o m p a r e d w i t h the formances experienced with both capacitive and inductive
performances of some other possible h y b r i d c i r c u i t s in Figs. terminations. It is therefore reasonable to use these responses
5-7. T h e graphs in F i g . 5 show measured responses of the dual as a good indicator of the average performance with practical
tone adaptive c i r c u l a t o r and of the conventional passive h y b r i d terminations. T h e best overall performance achieved f r o m a
of the B P O 7 0 0 type telephone set, under t y p i c a l short line dual tone circuit was an average in excess o f 3 4 d B rejection
conditions for a range of terminations. O v e r the normal tele- over the whole voice band for a line impedance change of 3 : 1 .
phone band and average terminations improvements in rejec- T h e characteristics on the whole deteriorate at higher frequen-
tion are observed. F i g . 6 demonstrates the improvement due to cies, but since the out of band behavior of the high frequency
the addition of the adaptive feature to the circulator when asymptote has been ignored, this trend is to be expected. E x -
working on a m e d i u m length line. T h e results for the non- periments with the upper pilot tone at 10 k H z indicate a slight
adaptive circulator with the passive RC m a t c h i n g circuit are improvement in performance figures and the circuit also has
computed. There is a moderate improvement for the 6 0 0 R the advantage of relaxing the requirements o f the high-pass
termination, to be expected since the n o m i n a l c o m p o n e n t s of filter for this tone, a feature o f some p r a c t i c a l importance as a
the passive matching network are derived for a median 4 k m 3rd order elliptic filter will suffice.
line of mixed diameter C u sections with a 6 0 0 R termination.
T h e circuit has been completed by the addition of oscil-
Quite marked improvements are apparent as the terminations
lators to provide the pilot tones; these oscillators were of the
are varied, displaying the activity of the adaptive feature. F o r
Wien-bridge type. It is an advantage if circuits for inclusion in
the longer lines the line impedance is m u c h higher and the
telephone sets do not require an independent power source.
F E T ' s are increasingly pressed into a non-linear V V R operating
E x p e r i m e n t s in deriving ± 1 5 V supplies from D C power de-
mode when the c o n t r o l is not as linear and fine. T h e measured
livered d o w n the line f r o m a central supply indicate that s u c h
responses displayed in F i g . 7 also snow the poorer p e r f o r m -
circuitry could be powered from a local exchange. Some
ance of the single, low f r e q u e n c y , pilot tone model. In prac-
studies on the reduction o f power c o n s u m p t i o n have indicated
3 93
lUEIi T R A N S A C T I O N S ON C O M M U N I C A T I O N S , V O L . COM N O . 8. A U G U S T 1979 1223
r
40
100R
30
600R 10K
(0
2K
u
LJ
20
100R
10 2K
Dual pilot tone circuit
Passive RC m a t c h i n g circuit
10K
100 200 500 1K 3 4K 10K

FREQUENCY (Hz
Fig. 6 Adaptive and non-adaptive circulator responses for 5 k m mixed

line: 1 km 0.4 mm Cu + 2 k m 0.5 mm Cu + 2 k m 0.63 mm Cu;
terminations as shown
DUAL PILOT TONE CIRCUIT
SINGLE PILOT TONE CIRCUIT
30
100 R
600 R
20 -
' /
UJ \
I0OR '
2K 600R
10
2K
I0K I0K
100 200 500 IK 34K I0K

FREQUENCY (Hz)
Fig. 7 Adaptive circulator responses for 9 k m mixed line: 1 k m

0.32 mm Cu + I k m 0.4 mm Cu + 2 k m 0.5 m m Cu + 3 k m 0.63
mm Cu + 1 k m 0.9 mm Cu + 1 k m 0.5 mm A\; terminations as
shown
1224 I E E E T R A N S A C T I O N S ON C O M M U N I C A T I O N S , VOL. C O M 27, N O . 8, A U G U S T 1979
that circuit simplifications are possible. In actual fact, the computer simulation. At low system blocking the traffic carried is
circulator loop can be broken and the third stage eliminated determined solely by the server limitations while at higher blocking the
without any reduction in the performance factor. traffic carried is determined by channel limitations.
The overall results obtained indicate that the realization of
an adaptive hybrid for telephone applications with integrated Performance characteristics have been investigated for large
circuit technology is quite feasible. T h e theoretical conditions scale mobile radio systems using dynamic channel assign-
for very high rejection ratios, of the order of 40 d B , are quite ment. 1 - 9
These systems utilize small radio coverage cells and
strict. F o r applications requiring such responses under wide reuse channels within a metropolitan area. In d y n a m i c c h a n n e l
variations of line c o n d i t i o n s , it will be necessary to employ assignment systems, channels are assigned to serve calls on the
higher grade operational amplifiers in some positions in the basis of instantaneous demand in the system subject only to a
circuit. Detailed analysis of the c o n t r o l system reveals a stand- prescribed channel reuse constraint, i.e., any c h a n n e l m a y be
ing error responsible for about 3 d B loss in rejection. A rede- assigned to any cell in the system provided that the c h a n n e l
sign should be possible here. A more Linear and wider range of is not being used w i t h i n a specified n u m b e r of cells f r o m that
variation of resistance and capacitance c o m p o n e n t s may be cell at the time that the c h a n n e l assignment is made. T h e speci-
afforded by techniques e m p l o y i n g multipliers, w i t h very little fied n u m b e r of cells required between cells that may use the
increase in area on an integrated c i r c u i t . same c h a n n e l is called the reuse interval. Earlier s t u d i e s 1 - 4
assumed that sufficient servers, i.e., radio e q u i p m e n t , were

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS available in each cell to handle any statistical f l u c t u a t i o n s in
The authors would like to thank all the referees for help offered t r a f f i c ; the only restriction on the traffic c a r r y i n g
and advice, in particular the suggested comparisons shown in ability of the system was on the number of radio c h a n n e l s .
Fig. 6 w h i c h aid the demonstration of the adaptive feature. T h i s permitted the evaluation of the c h a n n e l assignment al-
gorithms independent of server constraints. It was observed
REFERENCES that the number of servers required was seldom greater than
the average n u m b e r of channels available per cell and never
1. G . T. Hawley and R. A . Radosevich, "G-36 Handset: Good news for 4
greater than twice that average n u m b e r . A complete descrip-
serving far-out customers", Bell Labs. Record, pp. 289-295, July/
August 1975. tion of these earlier studies is included in references 1, 2 , and
2. M. Terai, K. Kawashima, M. Hirai, T . Sakai, S. Washio and Y . Hojyo, 9. T h e purpose of this correspondence is to indicate the per-
"An integrated speech circuit for the small size telephone set", formance limitations imposed on these systems by limiting the
Rev. Elect. Comm. Labs., Vol. 22. Nos. 3-4, pp. 236-249, March/
number of servers in each coverage cell.
April 1974.
3. P. D. Van de Puije, "Audio-frequency circulator for use in telephone The system simulated is described in detail in R e f e r e n c e 1.
sets", IEEE Trans. Comm. Tech., Vol. COM-19, No. 6, pp. 1267-71,
It consisted of a set of square radio coverage areas (cells)
December 1971.
4. F . S. Atiya, "An operational amplifier circulator based on the arranged to completely cover a large square area. It was as-
weighted summer", IEEE Trans. CAS, Vol. CAS-22, No. 6, pp. 516- sumed that channels c o u l d be simultaneously used in every
523, June 1975. fourth cell (reuse interval of 4 ) . T h e total n u m b e r o f duplex
5. S. A. White, "An adaptive electronic hybrid transformer", IEEE radio channels allotted to this d y n a m i c c h a n n e l assignment/re-
Trans. Comm., Vol. COM-20, No. 6, pp. 1184-1188, December
assignment system was 160. T h i s provided 10 channels on the
1972.
6. R. P. Lodge and J . I. Sewell, "An adaptive electronic circulator for average in each c e l l . O f the 160 channels, 128 were assigned o n
use in telephones", IEEE Trans. Comm., Vol. COM-23, No. 7, pp. a fixed basis with 8 fixed channels per cell. F i x e d assigned
728-731, July 1975. channels c o u l d be used only in the specified cells to w h i c h
7. D. Bottle, "Adaptive Nachbildung fur unbesputle Telephonlei- they were allocated. T h e 3 2 remaining channels were assigned
tungen", NTZ, Vol. 28, No. 5, pp. 166-169, 1975.
d y n a m i c a l l y and c o u l d be used in any cell in the system de-
8. J . M. Rollet and P. E. Greenaway, "Directly coupled active circu-
lators", Electr. Lettrs., Vol. 4, No. 26, pp. 579-580, December pending u p o n instantaneous demand and subject only to the
1968. constraints of c h a n n e l reuse and available servers. T h e system
m a x i m i z e d the n u m b e r of calls o c c u p y i n g f i x e d channels and
used the d y n a m i c channels only to handle statistical f l u c t u a -
tions in offered t r a f f i c . Calls in progress were transferred f r o m
d y n a m i c channels to f i x e d channels whenever possible as de-
Some Effects on Channel Occupancy of Limiting the Number scribed in R e f e r e n c e 1. Call-attempts were generated in the
of Available Servers in Small Cell Mobile Radio Systems simulation as a Poisson process in time with a specified f i x e d
Using Dynamic Channel Assignment call-attempt rate in each cell. C a l l attempts were u n i f o r m l y
distributed in space and the attempts in any given c e l l were
D. C. COX, FELLOW, IEEE, A N D D. O. R E U D I N K , independent of those in all other cells. A t t e m p t s that were
SENIOR MEMBER. IEEE assigned a c h a n n e l remained " o n " for call durations that were
distributed exponentially and had a mean duration of 98
/lf)irrocf-The performance of large scale multicell mobile radio seconds, I n this s i m u l a t i o n , vehicles m a k i n g calls were identi-
systems using dynamic channel assignment and having limitations on fiable entities whose locations and movements were stored in
the number of servers available in each coverage cell was investigated by the computer. Active calls crossing cell boundaries were
treated as new calls in the new cell as described in R e f e r e n c e 1.
Paper approved by the Editor for Communication Switching o f Data were obtained by counting and storing the number of
the IEEE Communications Society for publication without oral presen- actual events w h i c h occurred as the simulation ran.
tation. Manuscript received September 28, 1978; revised November 9
1978. The curves in Figure 1 show directly the relationship be-
The authors are with Bell Laboiatories, Holmdel, NJ 07733. tween the traffic carried (expressed as the average n u m b e r of
00 90-6 7 7 8 / 7 9 / 0 8 00-1224 $ 0 0 . 7 5 © 1979 I E E E

7o Analysis and Design of Sigma-PeSto Modmlator Systems
Publication Page
[46] A method for the evaluation of multirate sigma delta systems 396
[50] Design of high order sigma-delta modulators with minimum weighted noise 401
[51] Issues in the design of low oversampling ratio single bit sigma-delta modulators 406
[55] The application of redundant number systems to digital sigma-delta modulators 412
3 96
PAPER 46
j y<
Proc. I.E.E.E. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on C i r c u i t s and Systems, San Diego, May 1992.
A METHOD FOR T H E E V A L U A T I O N OF M U L T I R A T E
SIGMA-DELTA SYSTEMS
David Hossack and J . I . S e w e l l
Department of E l e c t r o n i c s and E l e c t r i c a l Engineering

University of G l a s g o w
Glasgow G12 8QQ, U K
Abstract - Simulation techniques for sigma-delta based estimation, least squares function fitting) are all incorporated as
systems are discussed. An extension to the next state simulation network elements and treated in the same way as simple elements
method for block diagrams is presented which allows efficient such as gains, delays and quantisers. Most element parameters
handling of multirate systems. This is achieved by the additional (such as the gain of elements, or the number of levels in a
definition of clock dependent inputs for each element to define quantiser) are taken from inputs, which are usually replaced by a
how the element behaves in a multirate situation. constant, but which can be connected to a variable source to
allow parameter sweeps.
I. INTRODUCTION
In the block simulator B L O S I M [4], blocks are interconnected by
Relatively little has appeared in the literature concerning the means of first-in-first-out (FIFO) buffers. This makes sample
simulation of sigma-delta converters. It is widely realised that rate changes very easy to implement. However there is
simulation using traditional analogue simulation tools is not considerable overhead in the buffer management routines which
feasible due to the prohibitive C P U time required. Most limits the application of this technique to the simulation of sigma-
researchers have managed by using purpose written computer delta systems. Subsequent research has been directed in the field
programs which model the difference equations representing the of program compilers for multiple processor D S P [5]. The
specific sigma delta modulator topology being investigated. The sample rates in a sigma-delta modulator system are well defined
program described here allows the user to describe the structure before the simulation commences and are constant (ie. they are
of complete sigma-delta modulation systems which may contain synchronous). This fact has been used to devise a block diagram
several sigma-delta ADCs, D A C s , sigma-delta based multipliers simulation method which retains many of the advantages of
along with the associated filters in a form similar to a S P I C E B L O S I M (generality, ease of use, hierarchical definition of
deck, but at a signal flow graph level [1]. blocks, block libraries, consistency checks etc.) but handles
synchronous multirate circuits more efficiently.
The circuit is described at a system level and consists of a
network of gains, delays, quantisers, filters etc. The algorithm The program executes in the four stages shown in Fig 1. The
then reduces the network description to a list of function calls network description file is first read and comments stripped out
which can be executed repeatedly to simulate the action of the and macro definitions expanded. The resulting network of
circuit. This is almost as fast as a purpose written program. elements is then converted to an unordered list of operations.
Alternatively, the algorithm could be made to produce a C Each operation is represented by a data structure containing the
program file for compilation by the computer system's C function to be executed, the input and output nodes, dependent
compiler. The resultant program would be almost and clock dependent nodes, values of any parameters and any
indistinguishable from a well written, purpose written program, other information required Lists of pointers to these operations
but would be much quicker to create and easier to modify. are then created by a scheduler which ensures that the operations
Sigma-delta systems are usually multirate and this is handled are executed in a valid order, and that only nodes which need to
efficiently. be recalculated are actually recalculated in multirate systems.
Running the simulation then simply involves executing the
Many non-idealities can be included, such as finite integrator gain operations in the specified order.
and saturation, linear and nonlinear settling (slew limiting),
comparator hysteresis, dc offsets, quantiser level spacing etc. can D. R E P R E S E N T A T I O N O F M U L T I R A T E S Y S T E M S
all be modelled [2]. The method is compatible with (can include)
table based techniques [3]. Three node types are defined: an ordinary node value (eg. the
input and outputs of gains, delays and quantisers), a signal node
To be most useful, a simulation tool for sigma-delta modulation or list of values (eg. for complete signals, F F T records, F F T
systems must allow many parameters to be swept through a range window functions etc.) and a file node type (eg. for reading in
of values, eg.: D C input level, integrator offsets, amplitude and input signals, printing out results, communicating with other
frequency of input signal (to determine the variation in SNR), processes such as externally defined elements or graph plotting
number of quantisation levels or the word length of the digital programs). Evaluating a node involves executing all the
filters, gain values (to determine sensitivity due to capacitor operations with outputs connected to that node.
mismatch, integrator gain and bandwidth). There is also a
variety of analyses which may be performed on various signals in Each element as entered by the user, is represented in the
the system (eg. the raw output and the decimated output). A computer by a number of operations. A single operation may
flexible approach has been adopted whereby all the signal have many inputs (the dependent nodes) and a single output, all
sources, and all the analysis features ( F F T , power spectral of which may be simple nodal values, complete signals, or files
1328
0-7803-0593-0/92 $3.001992 I E E E
(Fig. 2). The operation also has a number of ciocA-dependem each simulation run, and during a warm up period (to allow filter
nodal inputs, which determine how the operation will behave in transients to die down) and during the actual simulation period.
multirate systems. Elements with several outputs are realised by The system can be simulated many times in a single program run.
several operations.
The user does not need to understand how the network of
Three rules govern the behaviour of all the operations in a elements entered is transformed into a network of operations and
multirate system: the user never comes into contact with the clock dependent
1. A node will only be calculated if any operation contributing to that inputs. The modular approach adopted allows new element
node is known to be active. definitions to be added easily without altering the core of the
2. An operation will only be active if at least one of its clock program.
dependent inputs is connected to a node known to have changed.
3. To allow forratechanges, it is possible to force a node to be either Some Common Elements Expressed as Operations
active or not by applying a forced clock to the node. This rule
overrides the two above. Gain elements including nonlinear gains such as saturation,
overflow, absolute value, quantisers, piecewise-linear non-
The rule for operation ordering is based on the standard linearities, dB/linear conversion etc. are each represented as a
precedence rule: single operation (Fig. 3). The left hand clock dependent input
4a An operation cannot be evaluated until all it's inputs (the dependent ensures that the output is recalculated whenever the input
nodes) are known. changes. The right hand clock dependent input ensures that the
4b A node cannot be recalculated until all the active operations directly operation is included in any recalculation of the output node, even
contributing to that node satisfy Rule 4a if the input has not changed. Input elements are similar to gain
elements but with no dependent node. The output of a signal
Scheduling Algorithm source usually has a forced clock applied to provide a starting
condition for the algorithm.
The scheduling must be done in two passes. The first pass
determines which nodes change and therefore must be
recalculated, and the second pass then places only the operations The delay element is represented by two operations (Fig. 4).
which are active into a computable order. This is because the output must be available for calculation before
the input has been calculated. The definition of a delay element
Pass One effectively "opens up" any loops (loops must contain a delaying
A l l nodes are unknown. element) and changes the topology from having loops to a tree
A p p l y r u l e 3. T h i s w i l l make some nodes structure, without any loops. Referring to Fig. 4, 'delay 1' is
known ( e i t h e r t o have changed o r n o t ) dependent on 'delay 2' and so 'delay 2' is always executed first
and p r o v i d e s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e The link between the two operations is not realised using a node
next stage. ensuring that no loops are formed. Note that all this is hidden
R e p e a t e d l y a p p l y r u l e s 1 and 2 t o d e t e r m i n e from the user who simply enters an instruction line 'delay xl x2'
w h i c h o t h e r nodes a r e known t o be to implement a delay from node x l to node x2.
active.
Any nodes w h i c h cannot be d e t e r m i n e d a r e Sample-rate changes are implemented by a modified linear gain
deemed i n a c t i v e . element For both the mathematical resample (Fig. 5), and the
sample & hold element (Fig. 6), the new sample rate is forced
Now all nodes are known to be either active or not. upon the output node (making use of Rule 3, above). A
• Pass Two decimating FIR filter (Fig. 7) is efficiently realised using a
cascade of a circular buffer operation followed by an FIR
All nodes w h i c h a r e n o t a c t i v e are known operation which takes a vector dot product of the vector of
(because t h e y have n o t changed) . A l l previous inputs with the filter coefficients. The rate change is
o t h e r s a r e n o t y e t known. implemented between the two operations so that the vector
Repeatedly t r y t o e v a l u a t e every node. If a product is taken only when necessary. This scheme also works
node can be e v a l u a t e d (Rule 4) t h e n add for non-decimating FIR filters. Interpolating FIR filters are more
to the l i s t of p o i n t e r s t o operations efficiently realised by a poly phase structure [1].
a l l t h e o p e r a t i o n s s a t i s f y i n g Rule 2.
A c l e a r node o p e r a t i o n must be e n t e r e d
a u t o m a t i c a l l y ahead o f t h e s e . This More complex elements can have several outputs. The additional
node i s now known. outputs come from additional operations dependent on the output
I f any nodes can n o t be d e t e r m i n e d , t h e n t h e of the main operation.
network contains e i t h e r a delay f r e e
l o o p or has no i n p u t - e r r o r . Significant memory can be saved when implementing certain
operations which act on complete signals, eg FFTs, by
The above scheduling algorithm must be invoked once for each performing the operation in place, where the output data is stored
distinct set of clock states. in the same memory locations as the input data. The destruction
of the input data can be delayed by assigning the outputs of all
The definition of an operation ensures that the network operation operations dependent on the input to the FFT (or other) element
is well defined in multirate systems, even when signals at as dependent nodes to the FFT element This gives the illusion
different rates are combined. Rate changes can have either a of separate input and output nodes even although storage is not
mathematical resampling action (ie. output is zero between input assigned to both. Elements which can use this technique include
samples), or have a sample and hold type response, depending the FFT, PSD (for conversion of a FFT record to a squared
on the connection of the clock dependent inputs. Each operation magnitude spectrum), log_sig (for conversion to a dB scale) and
has six function pointers associated with it (the functions can be various signal shortening operations to reduce the number of data
empty). These define the run time operation during the very first points for graph plotting.
and very last clock cycle, immediately prior and immediately after
1329
HI. THE PROGRAM IN USE [3] G.T Brauns, "Table-Based Modeling of Deha-Sigma
Modulators using ZSIM", IEEE Trans. Comp. Aided. Des., vol
Fig. 8 shows a simple sigma delta modulator in flow graph form 9, no. 2, p 142-150, Feb 1990.
suitable for simulation. The nodes must be labelled and entered [4] D. Messerschmitt, "A Tool for Structured Functional
as a net list An input signal must also be included which can be Simulation", IEEE Sel Areas in Comm. vol SAC-2, no. 1, pp
built up from a variety of ac and dc sources, or taken from a file. 137-147,Jan 1984.
The output must also be sent to file (which can be either a [5] J. Bier et al, "Gabriel: A Design Environment for DSP".
terminal, disk file, or a UNIX pipe to an external program). IEEE Mirco, pp 28-45, Oct. 1990.
Normally some form of analysis would be done on the output [6] B. Boser, K.-P. Karmann, H. Martin, and B. Wooley,
before it is sent to a file. The 'sweep' element is similar to a dc "Simulating and testing oversampled analog-to-digital
source except that its value changes from one simulation to the conveners," EEEE Trans. Computer-Aided Des., vol CAD-7, pp
next (but within the same program run). This may be used to 668-674, June 1988.
modulate the input signal (either the amplitude or frequency) or to [7] Kuniharu Uchimura et al, "Oversampling A-to-D and D-to-
adjust the value of some of the gains, or to adjust the word- A Converters with Multistage Noise Shaping Modulators," IEEE
lengths in digital systems. This provides great flexibility and is Trans. ASSP, vol. 36, no. 12, pp. 1899-1905, Dec 1988.
very simple to use. [8] K. C.-H. Chao, S. Nadeem, W.L. Lee, and C.G Sodini,
"A Higher Order Topology for Interpolative Modulators for
Normally, built in, single operation integrators would be used for Oversampling A/D Converters," IEEE Trans. Circuits &
the integrators in Fig. 8. These can include non-ideal effects [2]. Systems, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 309-318, March 1990.
By quantising the input and modelling numerical overflow [9] T.C. Leslie and B. Singh, "An improved Sigma-Delta
propeTly. digital systems can be simulated in the same manner. Architecture", IEEE ISCAS 1990, p372-375
Both analogue and digital elements may exist in the same system. [10] J.C. Candy, "A Use of Double Integration in Sigma Delta
Modulation", IEEE Trans. Comm., vol. COM-33, pp. 248-258,
Determination of SNR. TOP and IMP. March 1985
The SNR, THD and IMD can be estimated by performing a least FIGURES
squares fit of a number of reference signals (eg. DC, the input
signal and its harmonics) onto the output of the modulator [6]. pre- convert re-order run
This can be done in either in the time or the frequency domain. processor to - o operations circuit
The least squares element has several inputs which are signals
(the reference signals) and a number of outputs representing the operations
signal power, the noise power, the proportion of each reference
signal in the signal being analysed and the power of each of
reference signal. These can be then be combined to calculate the
SNR, THD, IMD as required. Fig. 9. shows the analysis part of convert to ops | run
a network. The user constructs the analysis network in the same
way as for Fig. 8. Each blockrepresentsa single element, which library ot element types
may be composed of several operations. The SDM could be that
of Fig. 8. Its output is stored to form a signal. The multirate
logic automatically ensures that the least squares estimation, ratio, Fig. 1 The program runs in four stages and makes use a large
dB conversion, rectangular to polar and print operations are only library of element types.
executed only once, after each simulation ran. The great
flexibility afforded by the above technique arises by not splitting
the simulation and analysis parts of the program. dependent ( ~ generic
inputs ""S - output
operation
IV. CONCLUDING REMARKS
A method for efficient simulation of multirate sigma-delta
systems has been presented. The algorithm has been encoded
using the ' C language, under the UNIX operating system. The
program has proved to be very useful and powerful. The
program has been used to evaluate many different topologies and clock dependent
has replicated the results of the purpose written programs used to inputs
analyse a third order cascade [7], a fourth order single loop ADC
[8] and a converter with a multibit quantiser but with single bit
feedback [9]. Fig. 2 Each operation has a single output, but can be dependent
on several input nodes. The clock dependent inputs
determine the exact behaviour of operations in multirate
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS networks.
Support from Wolfson Microelectronics, Edinburgh, UK and
the Science and Engineering Research Council is gratefully
acknowledged.
gam
REFERENCES linear/
nonlinear
[1] R.E. Crochiere and L.R.Rabiner, "Multirate Digital Signal
Processing", Pretice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs NJ, 1983
[2] C M . Wolff and L.R. Carley, "Simulation of Delta-Sigma
Modulators Using Behavioural Models," IEEE ISCAS 1990,
p376 Fig 3 Representation of a simple gain.
1330
400
resample
output
input
delay 1 delay 2
Fig. 5 The resample operation is only executed when the input

changes and the output node is active (as determined by
Fig. 4 The delay element is composed of two operations which the forced clock).
are executed at different times. Coefficients
sample
Ahold input circular FIR output
buffer [vector dot
sroduct)
\ i
Clock
Fig. 6 The sample and hold operation is executed at the rate of F i 7 Decimating FIR filter. The input is stored at the input
the output rate ^ ^ cajcuia^d the lower rate.
o u t p u t i s o n l y a t
Integrator 1 Integrator 2
quantiser
Fig. 8 A second order sigma-delta modulator [10]. For simulation, the nodes must be labelled and the system entered
as a net List.
open
tsignal power
file
oise power
.SNR
SDM store
Least ratio ratio print
Squares todB to file
Estimation
ac Element
source JB-> ref.1
inear rectangular
to polar K i
print
to file
ref.2 magnitude j
phase
sweep signal nodes file node
ref.3
Fig.9. Block diagram representation of a simple analysis.
1331
4 01
PAPER 50
Proc. I.E.E.E. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on C i r c u i t s and Systems, Chicago, 1993.
Design of High Order Audio Sigma-Delta Modulators

with M i n i m u m Weighted Noise
D M. Hossack* and J.I. S e w e l l "
"Wolfson Microelectronics Ltd,

Lulton Court, Bernard Terrace, Edinburgh E H 8 9 N X , U K .
"Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering,

University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8 L T , U K .
Abstract - This paper discusses the design of sigma- this ensures that the sigma-delta loop is not delay free [4). There is no
delta modulators specifically for digital audio. constraint on where in the unit circle the poles may lie; the constraint is
Approximation techniques for the signal transfer function that the multipling constant must be unity while the high frequency
and the noise transfer function are described which give gain must be around +3 dB. A convenient way to satisfy these
an audible noise improvement over classical functions. requirements is to use BuUerworth or Inverse Chebyshev high pass
The noise transfer function shapes the quantisation noise filter pole positions and to adjust the cutoff frequency to move the
to be least audible to the ear, while the signal transfer poles towards or away from the unit circle to adjust the gain to the
function is given preemphasis to match the dynamic range desired value. A simple computerised iteration process can be used to
of the modulator to the dynamic range of typical audio achieve this.
sources. These functions are then transformed into
snitched capacitor networks for the loop filter in an ADC. B. NTF numerator design
These give a combined improvement of 24 dB in weighted
SNR for the example modulator, a seventh order, 32 times The zeros of the N T F can be chosen almost independently from
oversampling one bit modulator. the poles because, for reasonable oversampling rates, moving the
zeros through the signal band has very little effect on the response in
the noise band. Rather than using classical approximations (either
Butterworth with all zeros at D C , or inverse Chebyshev with an
I. INTRODUCTION equiripple noise response), the method adopted here involves placing
the zeros so as to minimise the audible effect of the shaped
Sigma-delta modulation has recently become the preferred method quantisation noise. Fig. 1 shows the typical response of the ear to
for conversion between analogue and digital domains for audio low level sounds. This curve, referred to as the F-curve, was derived
signals. The main reason for this is the inherently high linearity which
can be achieved with standard C M O S 1C processes without the need
for trimming. T h i s paper discusses the design of the loop filter
transfer functions for higher order modulators which are optimised for
the particular case of audio.
Audio Weighting Curves
Three areas of audio sigma-delta modulator design are described
20
here. Firstly, the determination of stable noise transfer functions
( N T F ) designed using arbitrary approximation methods so as to
minimise the audible effect of quantisation noise. The possibilities of
introducing preemphasis into the signal transfer function ( S T F ) are
then introduced and a direct method for the design of analogue loop
modmed
filters is given. The paper concludes with an example.
curve
20
To avoid confusion with standard filler terminology, the terms
signal band and noise band are used here. The signal band refers to
the audio region (typically 0 to 20kHz) and is the stop band of the
-40
N T F and is contained in the pass band of the S T F . The noise band
refers to all other frequencies.
I I . NTF and STF DESIGN •«0

/
The design of the loop filter starts with the determination of a
stable denominator. T w o numerators are required for this -80-
denominator: a high pass function for the N T F and a lowpass function
for the S T F . These functions can then be transformed to give a single
loop filter. 100 ) M • i i ••••H 1
10 100 1000 10000 100000
A. NTF/STF denominator design
Frequency (Hz)
The key to the design of stable high order sigma-delta loops is the
N T F denominator. The poles must be chosen to limit the high
frequency gain to be around 3 dB [1]. It is also necessary to ensure
that the coefficient of the highest power in the denominator is unitv - Fig. 1 Tbe shape of the F-curve which models (hefrequencyresponse of the ear.
0 7803-1254-6/93S03.00S 1993 IEEE 180

from ISO data [2]. T o limit high audio frequency noise lo more typical Alternatively, the S T F may be modified to include some pre-
levels, this curve is modified so as to flatten out at -40 dB. emphasis. For audio, this can give some improvement by better
matching the dynamic range as a function of frequency of the audio
We want to minimise: source material to the A D C . Typically less dynamic range is required
at high frequencies and this can be traded for more dynamic range at
low frequencies. The pre-emphasis can be removed by the decimation
filter to give an overall flat frequency response, but with a frequency
dependant overload range. It should be noted, however, that "peaky"
responses imply large Q factors which cause the time-domain
(1) response from die input to the comparator to exhibit overshooting and
ringing in response to transient inputs such as step functions. The
overshoot can take the modulator beyond its stable region. Thus the
N(z) = £ an , 1
<Jo=l amount of preemphasis that can be applied in practice is limited.
with ;=n (2)
in. LOOP FILTER REALISATION
and D ( z ) is a stable denominator and W(z) is the chosen weighting For the case of analogue to digital converters it is possible to
directly convert the N T F and S T F into the capacitance values used in
i=n
the cascaded switched capacitor ( S C ) resonator topology . The loop
a 2
function. Thus we want to fit X ' ' to the constant -1 over the filter is formed by a cascade of the first and second order sections
shown in Fig. 2 [4]. Each section has a cascade input, and feed-ins
signal band, with a frequency dependant weighting function. This is
from the signal input and comparator feedback signal. This topology
achieved by using least squares techniques. Direct solution from the
can also be used for digital modulators. The capacitor values could be
normal equations proved to be numerically problematic, but good
determined by solving the difference equations representing the
results were obtained using a singular value decomposition method
network to determine the transfer function in terms of the capacitor
[3]. The order of the problem can be halved by forcing the zeros to lie
values and then solving the sets of equations arising by equating
of the unit circle: coefficients of z. This is cumbersome for higher orders and is not
amenable to automated design by computer. A general design
For n even: procedure is described here.
n/2
fir. I
X "i^""' + z
'l t 0 z
" +
For the first order section in Fig 2.:

i=l
a* = a„ D-+1 < i < n Y _ fj z-'

2 (3)
X " 1 - -i z (6)
(ie. coefficients are symmetric)
and for the second order section:
For n odd:
. [Lid
1 +(b-2)z-i +z-2 (7a)
fir. £ a.iz"-* - z') to z" - 1
Y ^ f u i r ' ( l - z ')
n+i 2
= -an.i X 2 1 + (b-2)z> + z- (7b)
(4)
(ie. coefficients are anti-symmetric)
In both cases the weighting function is:

cascade input
W(z) = p(z)Dec(z)| (5)
where F(z) is the F-curve and Dec(z) is the Decimation filter response.
The magnitude of Dec(z) can often be assumed to be 1/STF over the
I 3 > output
signal band so as to give an overall flat signal response. signal input

h
The functions are evaluated over a mesh of frequencies throughout
the signal band. If the real decimation filler response is known, then
the mesh can be carried into the noise band to take into account the
noise which is aliased back into the signal band. I -
C. STF Design
Only the numerator of the S T F can be designed independently

from the N T F . A number of possibilities are available. Once choice
1
would be a constant (or a constant multiplied by a power of z ) .
a
ntA input \ S*onaJ input
This gives a low pass response with flat response through out the
audio band with a lot of attenuation at high frequencies. A n alternate II-
choice would be to place the zeros on top of the S T F poles (which are
the same as the N T F poles). This is seen to reduce the capacitance feedback input
spread after scaling. However unless an additional summer is used,
the order of the numerator is constrained to be one less than the *2 I.I-
denominator (for the cascaded resonator topology) and so at least one
pole must remain uncancelled. For odd n, the result is a smooth first Fig.2 The first and second order secUons used lo build up high order loop
order lowpass S T F with cutoff well beyond the signal band. fillers.
181
404
As only capacitor ratios are required, the integrating capacitors and

the coupling capacitors are initially chosen as unit capacitances,
leaving only the resonance capacitors (b) and the signal and the
feedback feed-in capacitors unknown (Sj and fj). The final values of noise
the unit capacitances will be determined by scaling the network to limit
maximum signal swings and minimum capacitances.
Knowing the S T F and N T F , the design of the loop filter is straight

forward. From Fig 3.: ItJtiUDaCK SL output
NTF : . N _ y . D _ Nq D N
n l f « f - mf
_ >
Dmf Q" D + N Q D N„„ (8)
and:
ctb - N'tf _ Y . Nsig

D -X- D + Nq N(i = N
s t f g t l /
(9) Fig. 3 Linear model of sigma-delta loop. Both the NTF and STF are realised
using the same circuit and so share common poles.
Thus from (8), the zeros of the N T F form the poles of the sigma-
della loop filter. The zeros are easily obtained from the N T F
coefficients because they are known to lie on the unit circle. The loop filter consists of a cascade of one first order section and three second
filter therefore has poles on the unit circle and so is not stable and the order sections. The coefficients fj and Sj are equivalent to the feed-in
response is quite unlike standard filter responses. The resonance capacitors in Fig.2, and the Dj(z) represent the second order section
capacitors (b in F i g . 2) can be determined directly by equating denominators as in (7). Each bj is implemented by a single resonator
coefficients of the N T F numerator (N u"), and the denominator of
n feedback capacitor. Assuming the N T F denominator has highest
(7b). A s in ordinary cascaded biquad filter design, there is a choice power of z equal to unity, the loop filler will contain the necessary one
over section ordering Experience has shown that implementing the sample delay. Thus the nth order loop filter transfer function has a
lowest frequency zeros toward the input lowers the final capacitance numerator with only n non-zero coefficients as opposed to n +1 for a
spread. general nth order polynomial. These n coefficients are used to
determine the n unlcnown feed-in capacitors (fj) by the set of equations
The feedback capacitor values (fj) can be obtained from the (10). Since N ^ = N jg (9), the same approach can be used to obtain
S
solution of: the input capacitance values (Sj).
• I =Mq (10) The loop must then be simulated in the time domain and capacitors
scaled to limit the maximum internal swings. It is possible to reduce
where I is the column vector of unknown capacitances, UQ is the capacitance spread by reducing some of the internal signal swings.
column vector of desired loop filter numerator coefficients and the While in the case of ordinary S C filters this is at the expense of
columns of A contain the coefficients of the transfer functions from dynamic range, the action of the noise shaping serves to greatly
each feedback input to the output which are now known as the values reduce the effect of thermal noise from the integrators and switches
of the b coefficients have already been determined. The transfer towards the comparator. Only the noise from the first op-amp and the
function coefficients for A are easily determined from the switches around it (and to a lesser extent, the second) are critical to the
representation of the loop filter given in Fig 4. The seventh order loop performance of the complete modulator.
signal input
first second s second s second

order order order order
section seclion section section
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
D z OJz) tl(z) .output
1
to com
parator
t 1 t 1
feedback
from
comparator
4
Dj(z) = 1 + ( b, - 2 ) z-' + z-2

Fig. 4 Simplified representation for a sevenih order loop filter.
182
This whole procedure (including simulating for the purposes of
scaling) has been automated and can convert N T F s and S T F s of any with preemptiaa
Signal Transfer
order into S C loop fillers. The output files are suitable for direct Functions
analysis and simulation by the S C N A P suiie, S W 1 T C A P and a
discrete time simulator. The topology and this method are also
applicable for bandpass systems.
IV. EXAMPLE
The example is a very high order (7th). very low oversampling Noise Transfer
ratio (32) modulator. This was chosen to investigate the potential Chebyshev Functions
performance of very low oversampling one bit modulators. The hit
rale al the output of this modulator is only a faclor of two over
ordinary 16 bit pulse code modulation (PCM).
Fig. 5 shows the N T F and S T F compared to a classical design and

in Fig 6 the N T F curves have been weighted by the F-curve and Minimised • with end
decimaior response. A s a result of the weighting function, the without preomphasis
optimised response exhibits a zero near the frequency where the ear is
most sensitive. The weighted S N R curves shown in Fig 7 show
significant kinks at around -50 dB input signal. This is due to signal
Froquoncy (Hz)
correlated components in the signal band. However with the
application of 1st order high pass dither applied in front of the
comparator (at a level comparable to the maximum signal swing), Fig. 5 Unweighted signal and noise transfer functions
these components disappear with little impact on S N R or dynamic
range.
Of the two classical designs shown, the Butterworth one (all N T F

zeros at D C ) performs better under the F-curve weighting than the
inverse Chebyshev design. This is because the noise power in the
Butterworth case is most significant at the high audio frequencies
where the ear is very insensitive, and has less power in the low audio
frequency range where the ear is most sensitive.
The improvement in weighted S N R due to optimum placing of

N T F zeros was 16 dB and an additional 8 dB improvement gained by
adding the preemphasis to the S T F .
The S T F s were given a D C gain of -6 dB so that the modulator

becomes unstable for inputs above 0 dB (0 dB defined to be power in
a sinusoid with peak amplitude equal to the quantiser output.) The
r
onset of instability can be delected and with proper design it is
possible lo limit multiple resel cycles from the output to give a cleanly
overloading system [4].
The simulations were all performed using a mullirate discrete time O 5000 10000
simulator [5].
Froquoncy (Hi)
V. CONCLUSIONS
Rg. 6 Weighted noise transfer functions.
It has been shown that significant audio improvement can be
achieved in sigma-delta modulator designs by shaping the N T F and
S T F with non-classical functions. The direct transformation of these
functions into S C loop fillers has also been illustrated. The methods Minimal Weighted
should also be applicable to other application areas where a non-flat Noise Designs
noise spectrum and/or non-flat overloading characteristics are • pra-amphaai!
appropriate.
no-preomph
REFERENCES
[1] K . C . S . Chao, S. Nadeem, W . L . Lee and C . G . Sodini. "A

higher order topology for interpolative modulators for
oversampling A / D converters". I E E E C A S Mar 1990, pp309-
318.
|2) R . A . Wannamaker, "Psychoacoustically optimal noise
shaping", Journal of the Audio Engineering Society, vol 40,
no 7/8, July/August 1992, pp611-620.
(3] W . H . Press, S.A. Teukolsky, B . P . Flannery and W . T .
----- butterworth
Veiterling, "Numerical Recipes in C : The Art of Scientific
Computing", Cambridge University Press, 1988 '•*•"•* chebyshev
14] R . W . Adams, "Theory and practical implementation of a fifth -T^-n 1 . , • , . . r-
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20
order sigma-delta A / D converter". Journal of the Audio
Engineering Society, vol 39, no.7/8. July/August 1991. Input (dB)
ppl515-528.
15) D. Hossack and J.I. Sewell, "A method for the evaluation of Comparison of weighted noise performance of 7th order sigma-delta
Rg. 7
multirate sigma-delta systems". I E E E I S C A S . San Diego, May modulators with various NTFs and STFs.
1992, ppl328-1331.
183
4 06
PAPER 51
P r o c e e d i n g s o f IEE C o l l o q u i u m on O v e r s a m p l i n g Techniques and S i g m a - D e l t a M o d u i a t
London, March 1994.
Issues in the Design off Low Oversampling Ratio Single Bit

Sigraa-Delta Modulators
0 0
D.M. Hossack , J. Reid\ and J.l. SewelT
Wolfson Microelectronics Ltd, Lutton Court, Bernard Terrace, Edinburgh EH8 9NX
Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering,

University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8LT
Abstract The linear delta modulator is shown to be a special case of the more general
sigma-delta modulator, in which the signal and noise transfer functions are equal. Thus
the extensive knowledge of delta-modulator systems may be applied to sigma-delta
modulators and the more recent research interest in sigma-delta modulators applied to
further refine delta modulator systems. High order sigma-delta systems may be
designed which retain the single pole -6dB/octave overloading characteristics, but with
the advantages of higher order noise shaping. Techniques for adaptive step size, both
instantaneous and syllabic may be adopted to give companding operation. By damping
the loop integrators slightly, the cutoff phenomenon may be used to give a noise gating
effect.
These techniques have been used for a design study for the integration of a switched
capacitor speech coder/decoder with a bit rate of 32kbits/s to 64kbits/s. The resulting
system gives a significant performance improvement with similar complexity compared
with a linear pulse code (PCM) approach using the same bit rate. In this application,
there is no requirement for digital decimators and interpolators to process the digital
data.
Introduction The recent interest in oversampled sigma-delta modulators has been

mainly due to the availability of high performance analogue and high density VLSI
digital IC processes making inherently linear A/D and D/A conversion possible. Earlier
interest in the closely related oversampled single bit system, the delta modulator, was
not because of the inherent linearity of the 2 level quantiser, but for its simplicity of
conveying analogue information digitally with a low bit rate. The motivation for this
work was to provide a robust and low cost method for digitising and reconstructing
speech signals on a mixed signal IC process. It is often cheaper in terms of silicon area
to implement functions in the analogue domain rather than digitally when using an
analogue process. The use of a process with well defined analogue characteristics is
mandated by system requirements such as signal coding/decoding, companding, soft
limiting, signalling tone generation/detection, general purpose ADCs and DACs (used
for signal strength measurements, battery monitoring, battery temperature monitoring
etc), power supply regulation and monitoring, power-on reset functions, loudspeaker
drivers, microphone amplifiers, signal level trims and volume controls. The methods
described here have been used to design sigma-delta modulators, suitable for speech
applications with low bit rates, which can be implemented in a cost effective manner on
a mixed signal IC process. The digital signal format used, an unframed single bit
between 32 - 64 ksamples/s corresponds to oversampling ratios between four and
eight.
Equivalence of Delta and Sigma-Delta Modulators In the basic delta

modulator, the input is applied after the loop filter, just before the quantiser. The basic
sigma-delta modulator differs in that the signal is applied in front of the loop filter. In
general the signal input may be applied anywhere in the noise shaping loop to perturb
© 1994 T h e Institution of Electrical Engineers
Printed and published by the I E E , Savoy Place, London W C 2 R OBL, UK
3/1
408
the system idling and so encode the input. The general sigma-delta loop is shown in
Figure 1. For a delta modulator N s i g ~ D , while for a basic sigma-delta modulator
=
NsiG N q . The signal transfer function (STF) is defined as the transfer function
from the signal input to the output and the noise transfer function (NTF) is defined as
the transfer function between the quantiser and the output (assuming that the quantiser
has been replaced by a linear gain).
Optimisation of Signal and Noise Transfer Functions The signal transfer

function may be designed to match the long term spectrum of the speech input (typically
between -6dB and -12dB per octave over 300-3kHz) while the noise transfer function
may be optimised with a higher order function to push noise away from the ears most
sensitive frequency ranges within the signal band [1]. However with low
oversampling ratios the noise shaping performance quickly becomes limited by the
information capacity of the bitstream output [2].
Figure 2 shows how the quantisation noise in a third order delta-modulator can be
rejected at the frequencies where the ear is most sensitive. This modulator gives an
SNR of 33dB over a 4kHz bandwidth (eight times oversampling). The delta modulated
signal is reconstructed using an integrator and a lowpass filter to remove most of the
quantisation noise.
The loop filter is implemented on silicon using standard switched capacitor filter
methods.
Companding Step size adaptation, as used in delta-modulator systems [3], can also
be used for sigma-delta modulation. This allows the oversampling ratio to be
significantly reduced while maintaining a single bit output per sample (Figure 3).
Syllabic companding extracts lowfrequencyenvelope information from the encoded bit
stream using a coincidence detector, which looks for strings of three or four ones or
zeros in the bit stream, together with a filter of time constant of the order of 10ms. The
coincidence detector has zero output, except when the last three or four samples are all
the same. This indicates that the modulator is potentially overloaded and that the step
size should be increased. The output of the coincidence detector is low pass filtered
with a cutoff frequency which allows the signal level variations to pass through. The
filtered coincidence level may be used directly to set the step size. Different
companding ratios may be implemented by changing the gain or shape of the mapping
between the filtered coincidence signal and the step size.
For syllabic companding it is necessary to encode and extract the signal level from the
bit stream in order to determine the current step size. This is done by considering the
effective operating point on an un-companded system. Figure 4 shows the limited
dynamic range of an un-companded second order sigma-delta modulator and Figure 5
shows the corresponding filtered coincidence levels. The 3-bit algorithm gives a better
indication c f the operating point over the amplitude region with best SNR performance.
The coincidence level is used to convey the signal envelope information. Figure 6
shows the coincidence level and corresponding step size for a companded system, and
Figure 7 shows how the SNR vs input amplitude curve of Figure 4 has been
"stretched" out over a wider dynamic range.
The long time constant required by the syllabic filter is better implemented using simple
digital methods rather than with switched capacitors. This gives more flexibilty in the
forming of the current step size from the coincidence filter output. The filter can be
efficiently implemented using a digital rate multiplier or with bit serial techniques. For
speech, the attack time constant is made smaller than the decay time constant in order to
provide a better match to the envelope of syllables. The variable step size required in
the analogue feedback path can be implemented by using a range of feedback capacitors
and also by switching the capacitor to the reference several times within a single sample
period. The non-linear function for mapping coincidence rate to step size may be
3/2
409
effected with no additional cost over a linear mapping.
The use of a coincidence detector is less effective for the third order system. To operate
the higher order system in its stable region requires that the input is smaller (maximum
peak -6dB relative to the feedback level) and consequently long trains of ones or zeros
cannot occur. Syllabic companding can be implemented however, by extracting the
magnitude of the reconstructed signal and using the magnitude to adapt the step
size [5], Companding causes the modulator to be used near its optimum operating
point for wider ranges of signal levels. For high order systems this can assist system
stability - any tendency to go unstable will be counteracted by an increase in step size.
An alternate form of companding again looks for patterns in the recent history of the bit
stream, but adapts the step size immediately relative to its previous size.
Noise Gating and Offset Cancellation By deliberately damping the loop

integrators slightly, the modulator can be forced into a ...1010101010... output pattern
for very small inputs. This contains no base band power and so the back ground
quantisation noise can be made to disappear in the absence of a speech input. This
effect is normally considered a defect in sigma-delta systems [4] but is widely used for
delta-modulator systems [5]. Offset cancellation can be provided in much the same
way as for (4-law and A-law PCM systems. The bitstream is integrated. Ideally there
will be an equal number of ones and zeros in the output and any deviation from this is
fed back to reduce the offset.
Bit E r r o r s Since each of the bits in the bitstream carries equal weight to all the
others, analysis of the effect of bit errors is simplified. A single bit error results in an
impulse of twice the current step size. A single bit error will have negligible effect on
the step size. Because of the oversampling, most of the energy in the impulse is
removed by the subsequent filter. The effect of a bit error in a non-oversampled PCM
system can be far greater, resulting in a full scale impulse with little subsequent
filtering.
Conclusions A variety of low bit rate, low complexity, coders have been studied
with a view to their cost and practicality for integration. Simulations have been
performed using real speech signal sources to compare performance. Recent work has
allowed sigma-delta modulators to be optimised for speech applications. A number of
techniques, originally devised for delta modulation, have also been employed.
References
[1] D. Hossack and J.I. Sewell, "Design of High Order Audio Sigma-Delta
Modulators with Minimum Weighted Noise", Proc. IEEE ISCAS, Chicago,
ppl80-183,May 1993
[2] M.A. Gerzon and P.G. Craven. "Optimal Noise Shaping and Dither of Digital
Signals," 87th AES Convention, preprint 2882 (J-l), New York, Oct 1989
[3] Chong Kwan Un, Hwang Soo Lee and Joo Seok Song, "Hybrid Companding
Delta Modulation", IEEE Trans on Communications Vol 29, No. 9,
pp 1337-1344, September 1981
[4] J.C. Candy and G.C. Temes, "Oversampling Methods for A/D and D/A
Conversion", in "Oversampling Delta-Sigma Data Converters", J.C. Candy
and G.C. Temes (Eds), IEEE Press, Piscataway, NJ, ppl-25, 1992
[5] R. Steele, "Delta Modulation Systems", Pentech Press, London 1975
3/3
4 10
signal
input clock fs
clocked
comparator
feedback
input ^ output
one bit OAC
Fig. 1. General Model for Delta and Sigma-Delta Modulators.
10000 20000 30000

Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 2. Unfiltered output spectrum of a third order delta modulator
clock fs
clocked
signal input I comparator
single bit output
Loop
Filter J
coincidence syllabic
detector filter
variable
level
DfiC
instantaneous combine
compand logic
Fig 3. Companding Sigma-Delta Modulator
3/4
EC
10 -
20
Input Signal Level (dB)
Fig.4. SNR vs input level for second order system.
100
80
60
40
3-bit
20
4-bit
Fig. 5. Coincidence detector output for second order system.
i.s
relative
step size
coincidenence level
yj.yj | 1 • 1 ' =T= = I

- 20 -1 0 0 10 20
Fig.6. Recovered coincidence level and derived step size for companded system.
30
20
CO
Effective Operating
Point
Derived Signal Level
20 i

Fig. 7. Derived signal level, effective operating point and resultant SNR for
companded system.
3/5
4 12
PAPER 55
4 13
481
E r a : . I . E . E . E . I r ^ e r r e t i c r a l Synprjsiun an C i r a i i t s and Systers, \ f e l . 2 , I m ± n , May 1994.
The Application of Redundant Number Systems to

Digital Sigma-Delta Modulators
David M. Hossack J.I. Sewell
Wolfson Microelectronics Ltd., Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering,
Lutton Court, Bernard Terrace, Edinburgh EH8 9NX, UK. University of Glasgow, Glasgow GI2 8LT. UK.
(+44) 31-667 9386 (+44) 41-330 4253
david@wolfson.demon.co.uk sewell@elec.glasgow.ac.uk
ABSTRACT system instead of the two's complement number system

normally used for digital signal processing applications.
The speed at which a digital sigma-delta modulator can
operate is limited by the latency of the loop filter. A digital REDUNDANT NUMBER SYSTEMS
sigma-delta modulator is presented which overcomes the
problem of long adder carry propagation delays. The design In a redundant number system, the individual digits can take
is sixth order and implemented using a single pipelined on more values than the radix of the number system. In this
resonator section. paper only the signed binary number representation (SBNR)
will be used. Valid SBNR digits are - I , 0, and +1 and each
INTRODUCTION digit has a significance of two times that of the digit to its
0 , 0 1 0 1 1
left (as in normal binary). Thus the numbers , ' ,
Digital sigma-delta modulators are increasingly being used
0 1 1 1
in oversampled digital to analogue converters [ I). Since the 1 all represent the decimal value -1.25. The symbol
modulator operates on oversampled data, the circuitry used is used to indicate a weight of - I . The advantage of the
must be fast. Conventional pipelining techniques cannot be redundant number system is that additions can be performed
applied to increase throughput due to the recursive nature of without long carry propagation chains. Figure I shows a
the loop. This paper discusses a technique which overcomes SBNR adder. Each adder cell consists of three subcells A,
this problem. B and C which perform an addition of digits with various
ranges of values. The final result is in the same SBNR
A sigma-delta modulator consists o f a loop filter and a format as the input and the carry/borrows can only propagate
comparator in a feedback loop. I f the comparator is a maximum of two digits. Thus the addition time is
considered as an additive noise source, then the transfer independent of the word length. A detailed discussion for
functions from the input to the output, and from the noise implementing these cells is given in [2].
source to the output can be determined. These are termed the
signal transfer function (STF) and noise transfer function Ideally, in a properly designed sigma-delta modulator, the
(NTF) respectively. Proper design of the loop filter ensures additions will never overflow, although this is difficult to
the modulator is stable. The signal transfer function is guarantee. Furthermore, the left most cells may produce
designed to pass the signals of interest while the noise
.1 ... i.. it
transfer function is designed to reshape the noise spectrum ii
appearing at the output so that there is little noise in the
frequency band o f interest. A digital implementation of a
sigma-delta modulator must perform all the calculations
required to obtain a single output sample before work can
start on the next sample. This dependency of the current
output on the immediately previous one limits the
application of pipelining techniques to speeding up the loop
operation. The delay between an input and its corresponding
output is termed the latency. For high speed operation it is
6
important to minimise the latency in feedback loops.
Recede
Recent work has overcome this latency problem for the case
v.! 1.1 1. 1.,
of high speed infinite impulse response (MR) filters [2].
This has been achieved by adopting a redundant number Figure I . Fully parallel adder using SBNR arithmetic
4 14
482
carry/borrows even when overflow has not occurred. The

cases of the two most significant digits as ' ' and ' I must 'pm 'npul Of to ne*\ stage
oievious stage Of oomparato
be recoded as 01 and 0' to limit word length growth.
tntsgrsto tagratot
Definite overflows and " and possible overflows '0
and '0 must also be caught and the output set to an
appropriate saturation level. From output of comparator
The SBNR adder of Figure I may be used directly to Figure 3. Second order resonator used for loop filter
construct a high speed sigma-delta modulator. However feedback coefficients (fl and f2) are determined by the
there is a further feature of redundant arithmetic which may solution of a set of linear equations involving the desired
be exploited. When conventional two's complement zeros of the open loop filter obtained by algebraic
arithmetic is used in a ystolic type structure, it is the least manipulation of the NTF [4]. Since the input to the gains
significant bits which are performed first since the more fl and f2 can only take on the values +1 and - I , no
significant bits depend on the least significant bits through multiplier circuit is required. The values of the resonator
cany propagation. This is not the case with redundant coefficients (b) are directly related to the open loop poles
arithmetic which allows the order of execution to be reversed which are at the same locations on the z-plane as the NTF
giving systolic type structures which operate most zeros. This is the only gain for which a full SBNR number
significant digit (msd) first. This is in line with the needs to be multiplied.
requirements for a sigma-delta modulator where it is only the
top few digits of the filter output which are required. Data The single delay around the two integrator loop places
skewed msd first has the property that gains of less than one stringent demands on the latency of the integrators. For
may be performed with negative latency. This is illustrated baseband sigma-delta modulators an additional delay can be
in Figure 2. Parallel data enters at the top and is skewed tolerated. The poles move off the unit circle giving the
such that the digits become available in groups of three. NTF zero at a similar frequency as before, but not infinitely
However after the right shift by three digits (a divide by deep. The depth of the NTF notches is of little consequence
eight operation), the digit representing the output is to the output noise level.
available before the digit of equal significance has entered at
the top. Thus the divide by eight operation can be It can be shown that the magnitude of the coefficient b in
considered to have a latency of - 1 . the feedback loop is small while the feedback coefficients
tend to be much larger. If the feedback coefficient is
SIGMA-DELTA TOPOLOGY sufficiently truncated the addition of the two words can be
achieved by merging the two words rather than by an
The sigma-delta modulator topology used in this work is arithmetic circuit.
based on a loop filter constructed from the cascade of
integrators and resonators [3]. Figure 3 shows a single SBNR ADDER
resonator. The gains si and s2 are for scaling only and are
initially assumed to be unity. The values of the comparator For the example sigma-delta modulator, it was decided that
the data would be skewed by one pipeline delay every third
\ digit, as was illustrated in Figure 2. This allows parallel
it It
computation of the top three digits which are required in
S.
O ll it parallel by the comparator. Three numbers need to be added
for each integrator. Rather than cascading two dual input
'I adders of the type in Figure I, a two stage design was
derived using the carry save concept of conventional two's
complement arithmetic. This is shown in Figure 4. Three
SAewod Data' SBNR numbers are added and the effect of transfer
propagation limited to the next three more significant digits.
\ This adder produces its output after a one clock cycle delay
from the pipeline cuts indicated.
SBNR COMPARATOR
Figure 2. Parallel to skewed data conversion followed by The sigma-delta modulator requires a comparator. In
divide by eight operation conventional two's complement arithmetic, the output of the
4 15
483
Figure 4. Three input pipelined adder operating on three at a time skewed data
comparator is simply the sign bit of the input. However coefficients (with sign applied by the comparator output) to
this is the result of a long carry propagation chain. In start entering the adder pipelines as early as possible. The
SBNR there is no specific sign bit. The sign of the overall single pipeline delay on each of the three inputs of the two
number is the sign of the left most non-zero digit. Logic is adders represent the pipeline delay internal to the adder.
required to extract this from a parallel SBNR word.
Fortunately the comparator performance in sigma-delta Note that whilst it is convenient to consider the resonator in
modulators is non-critical because any errors are reshaped Figure 6 as being multiplexed, this is not truly the case. At
with the full noise shaping function of the loop. In practice the same time as one adder is computing the most
only the top three or four digits need to be examined as the significant digit of the output, other parts of the same adder
additional truncation noise is less significant than the are computing other digits of the other resonators and even
quantisation error. different digits of the previous values of the same word. The
multiplexer for adjusting the scaling gain (between 1/32, 1/4
In the circuit presented, the comparator has one full pipeline and 112) and the multiplexer for feeding the output of one
delay in which to come to its decision and the speed of the resonator back into the input for the next must both take the
comparator circuitry is not a limiting factor. skew into account. These multiplexers are actually taking
different digits from each of their inputs to form the output.
SBNR S I G M A D E L T A MODULATOR
The number in brackets beside some of the gain blocks
A sixth order modulator consisting of a cascade of three indicates negative effective latency. These numbers need be
resonators was designed (Figure 5). The signal transfer taken into account when counting pipeline delays around
function was designed with signal band gain of -6dB to loops. Note that there is the correct multiple of three
ensure that a full amplitude input signal (+1 - I ) did not pipeline delays around all the resonator loops. However
cause the modulator to become unstable. The noise transfer there are only five delays around the loop which links the
function was designed with Butterworth poles so that the output of the resonator back to its input. This ensures that
signal transfer function could have a low pass Butterworth the data representing the output of the first resonator arrives
response and be implemented with a single feed-in at the right time to be interpreted as input to the second and
coefficient into the first integrator. similarly for data leaving the output of the second resonator
and entering the third. The output of the final resonator is
Each integrator output in the cascaded resonator topology is not feed back to the input - during this time the system
dependent only on the previous output of the previous input is sampled and multiplexed into the first integrator.
integrator. This fact is used to calculate the data in the three
resonators by using a single pipelined resonator with three The scaling factors were chosen to the nearest power of two
pipeline delays corresponding to a single z"' delay. The in order to roughly equalise the signal amplitudes at each of
coefficients to the single resonator are multiplexed and the the integrator outputs. The resonator coefficients were also
state information for the three resonators contained in the quantised to powers of two. Because the resonator
pipelines (Figure 6). The multiplexers are arranged such that coefficients are small (1/128) two extra pipeline delays
the function of the third resonator is performed first, become available which allows closing the resonator loop
followed by the second and then the first. This is to allow with only three pipeline delays (corresponding to a single z-
the comparator to come to a decision and for the feedback I delay) and so giving NTF zeros which lie exactly on the
4 16
484
•0 0078I2S 0 0078125 O0O78125

- < H ~ — 3 — - <
003125 | 0.125 | 0.25 |

28
I , A -2.23 A"* A - 26
Figure 5. Block diagram of sixth order sigma-delta modulator
Comparator
CH/3
Figure 6. Sixth order sigma-delta modulator using single pipelined resonator section
unit circle. Additional adders could use the three additional with an undistcrted single tone. The signal to noise ratio
delays available to place the NTF zero frequencies more from this simulation is 85dB with the input 20dB smaller
accurately. It is likely that a low latency SBNR multiplier than full scale. The modulator was designed for an
could be used to give programmable NTF zero frequencies oversampling ratio of 50.
with arbitrary precision.
This paper has concentrated on using SBNR arithmetic. The
Since the two's complement number system is a subset of fact that it was desirable to calculate three digits in parallel
SBNR there is no hardware overhead in converting input in suggests that a higher radix redundant number system may
two's complement form to the SBNR form required by the be more suitable and more efficient in hardware.
first adder. The word length of all SBNR data was 5 integer
digits and 20 fractional digits and this could be increased CONCLUSIONS
without decreasing the throughput rate.
Features of SBNR arithmetic have allowed the design of a
The sixth order system of Figure 6 has been simulated at the sixth order modulator (Figure 6) which produces a new
gate level using a commercial digital simulator. The output sample every third clock cycle, with the clock rate limited by
spectrum (Figure 7) shows the expected sixth order shaping a single proprogation delay through the adder of Figure 4.
Many other design decisions could have been made, ranging
from fully parallel designs where the order and word length
could both increase without affecting throughput, to more
heavily pipelined systems using a single adder.
REFERENCES
[lj J.C Candy, G.C. Temes (Eds), "Oversampling Delia-Sigma Data
Converters," IEEE Press, 1992
[2] R.F. Woods, J.V. McCanny. "Design of a High Performance IIR
Digital Filler Chip," IEE Proceedings Pan E, vol. 139, no. 3, May
1992, ppl95-202
[3] R.W. Adams, P.F. Ferguson and A. Gansesan, "Design of Single
Bit Noise-Shaping Loops with High Order Loop Filters", AES
89th Convention, Los Angeles, Sept. 1990, Preprint #2974.
[4] D M. Hossack, J.I. Sewell, "Computer-Aided Design of High Order
.0001 .001 .01 .1 Sigma-Delta ADCs," Proc. IEE Colloquium on Advanced A-D and
Frequency (sample rate = 1.0) D-A Conversion Techniques and Applications, pp 2/1-2/4,
London, May 1993
Figure 7. FFT of output of sixth order system
4 17
8. Publications on Educational Initiatives
Publication Page
[11] A course in computer-aided electronic circuit design for undergraduates 418
[27] A degree enhancement scheme in electronic engineering 422

4 18
PAPER 11
A course in computer-aided
electronic circuit design for
undergraduates
A. G . Martin and J . I. Sewell
An undergraduate course in electronic circuit design utilizing a computer

as its main aid is described. Experiences in designing and running such a
course for thirty students are discussed. The application to the design of
linear circuits only is outlined, but conclusions indicate that such courses
are so successful that expansion to other design spheres would be equally
rewarding. The importance of a controlled introduction to the computer
as the most significant design tool available is stressed, so that the student
appreciates the power at his finger-tips and does not become disenchanted
with the computer as merely a machine which runs programming exercises.
The problem of including a course which demands the successful circuit in a real design situation. Past experience
use of a computer by undergraduates «i engineering has shown that the point of unreality is reached when,
curricula has been of interest for some time. It is of course having produced a suitable design, the student wishes to
essential that the student engineer acquire a respect for breadboard his ideas for final proof. Particular points of
computational techniques and especially that he develop friction occur with designs marginally near the specification
a sense of how best to set a computer to work. when neither student nor tutor is sure of the performance.
With computer-aided instruction, as with any means of The policy of requiring designs to be proved on paper
learning, the object must be to create an initial exercise because of the impossibility of breadboarding many
which the student thinks he can solve. Once guided on to modern designs is rarely convincing. Computer checking
the right path the student should uncover a succession of of designs not only eliminates the breadboard problem
further goals, providing stimulation to learn for himself. because it is quicker but also acquaints the embryonic
Open-ended problems of this sort are often met by the designer with a modern technique. I f additionally, as in
designer and though design teaching is often omitted from this case, the student is meeting computer aid for the first
engineering courses it can provide a natural slot for time, an immediate effective demonstration of its versatility
computer familiarization. is achieved.
A well-constructed computer-aided design course A simplified representation of modern circuit-design
introduced at an early opportunity can demonstrate the philosophy is given by the design Row chart in Figure 1.
power of computational techniques without the student Some details of certain real-life situations have been
first stumbling through the constructed problems of omitted and the chart is terminated prematurely since no
introductory programming. As well as stimulation, some details of computer aids for circuit production are in-
disincentives must be made apparent, by pointing out that cluded. However, such material can be found elsewhere and
inspired paper work produces quicker but fewer results anyway it is not particularly significant for a first design
and by careful user monitoring to prevent wastage. A n course. I n the time allowed for the design course it is not
appropriate moment in an open-ended problem can be possible to complete the whole scheme, and therefore
chosen for introducing time limits so that cut and try has certain steps are omitted or left for the brighter student.
to be replaced by planned optimization. Hence in the computer-analysis step only a.c. steady-state
analysis was undertaken by all students. A limited number
Design projects of students did arrive at the stage of undertaking a simple
tolerance analysis of the circuit on the machine. However,
Electronic design work has been a feature of the under- this process could not amount to more than investigating
graduate course at the University of Hull for some time. worst-case effects on circuit response.
Projects are introduced just before the halfway stage in the
Convincing the student that he can solve the problems
course, when about 40h of circuit theory and electronics
is a matter of posing suitable problems. The student is
course-work have been given. The design laboratory is
invited to choose one from the following three:
intended to act as a focus to encourage the student to
consolidate the analytical techniques he has just learned. 1. Transistor pre-amplifier. Design an a.c. pre-amplifier
The motivation for learning in such a course is the which has an input impedance greater than 1 MQ and
prospect of producing with some independent effort a a voltage gain of 20 + 1. The maximum output
APRIL 1972 135

ance ratings; similar information on capacitors gives
[Circuit specifications] Device specitication
Transistors values, tolerances, voltage ratings and type of fabrication.
2. Resistor values The component selection which he makes can then be
and tolerances criticized on the grounds of availability, cost, too good or
Decide overall circuit 3. Capacitor values
configuration too poor quality.
and tolerances
4. Other components
~3_ T
The computer experiment
DC.design
1. Determine bias level
2. Check that no voltage and current limits The initial stages of the design course progressed from
are exceeded the shock of the unfamiliar requirement of innovation,
3. Check that no. dissipation-limits are exceeded
4. Ensure sufficient voltage swing available through problem selection and the sorting of component
X data and analytical skills, to eventual hand analysis of
• chosen circuit configurations. I t was expected that most
' - N O — ( A r e the above conditions satisfied? students would then check their designs and possibly
" I ^ t A.C.desiqn
correct one or two faults. However, tight time scheduling
Amplifiers Switching and other circuits
and the prospect of success encouraged a keen nucleus to
1. Frequency response] Time I M/S ratio of]
2. Time response /constants waveforms Time finish early. Line-printer output produced a catalytic
3. Impedance lor admittance) 2 Frequencyof constants effect on the work rate of the rest of the class.
requirements operation
3.Voltage levels of It was found that the average student required about
waveforms
12h of class time to produce a prototype circuit ready for
computer analysis (point A on the flow chart, Figure 1).
It may be Is design \ , N 'Aretheabove'
necessary to
x
possible with ™ J y
conditions The remaining 12h of the course were required to com-
retrace each step given devices^ satisfied ? plete the a.c. analysis on the computer, which of course
I NO YES revealed more defects than the simple theoretical analysis,
and to perform the necessary modifications at any or all
If design impossible Computer analysis;
recommend new devices d.c.aclsteady 0 of the steps indicated.
and recommence state or transient)
The circuit-analysis program used was the general
circuit analysis program GCAP 1 by Redac Software L t d .
I—<^ls response a c c e p t a b l e ? ^
It was run under the George 3 operating system, with a
* 1 n/-\ VCC
YES
NO suitable macroprogram on an I C L 1905E. The macro is
Adjust d.c. and / i s design for ic\NO_ Build breadboard. designed to counter some of the expected problems with
a.c.defining Test, plot
\ fabrication?
components responses, etc. inexperienced computer users. As classes are of thirty
YES
students, it would be wasteful to load the program for each
A
student. The macro loads the program once, and i f any
It may be [Computer tolerance analysis|
necessary to error occurs in a data set, it skips to the next data file and
I perform so on until the whole batch has been processed. Data input
modifications Is design
at all stages acceptable is via cards and the output is on a line printer. Two
of design NO Electronically'
Economically?, supervisory print-outs are also given, one of which lists all
the students in a particular run for the tutor's record. The
YES
other print-out provides a detailed analysis of the loading
lENDl and running of each file and hence is valuable in diagnosing
run-time errors.
Figure 1. A basic flow chart for modern circuit design.
Results of the experiment

voltage swing is to be less than 1 volt pk-pk and the
While the computer analysis of voltage and current
pre-amplifier is intended to drive a high-impedance
amplifiers only consolidates knowledge already learned, the
load such as an oscilloscope. The pre-amplifier gain
students attempting the design of oscillator circuits are
must be within the specified limits from 30 Hz to
faced with new (to the student) conceptions. Previous
100 kHz.
classwork has shown how simple unstable circuits can be
2. Phase-shift oscillator. Design an RC phase-shift analysed by hand. A circuit model has to be derived which
oscillator to generate a frequency of 1592 Hz. The is an accurate representation yet which cannot contain a
oscillator is intended to produce a small sinusoidal closed loop, since the resulting instability will not be
signal which will be fed into a high-input-impedance acceptable to the program.
amplifier before output to an external load.
A simple but effective technique has been evolved and is
3. Current-amplifier. Design a transistor amplifier with
illustrated by the typical final design shown in Figure 2.
a current gain of 10 having an input impedance of
The method is to break the feedback loop at the point of
less than 100 Cl and an output impedance of greater
low sensitivity after the emitter follower. I n coding the
than 10 k f i .
circuit for the computer the open loop is given the correct
A measure of reality is introduced by allow ing only two loading by repeating enough of the input circuitry, which
transistors, two power supplies 0-30 V d.c. and a virtually in this case would be the common emitter stage. A reason-
unlimited supply of resistors and capacitors of standard able estimate is made for the driving source resistance.
values and tolerances. The student is presented with Straightforward analysis as an amplifier is thus possible
complete manufacturers' data sheets on the transistors and the desired result is a gain of unity with a phase shift
3
(Mullard BC 108) and has to decide which have any of 0 or 360° at the specified frequency. The model depends
relevance to his situation. The resistor information shows on representing the closed loop as a section of an infinite
all the values available f r o m stores with power and toler- line circuit.

IOV
their understanding while their designs are in progress.
One spin-off which might be further developed would be
I20W5 to introduce, as the course progresses, the real-life prob-
BCI08
lems of deadlines and organization of time and effort.
W r H / W fvW-»—i
BCI08
I2O0
JI
IOOUF 20kfi 20k!? 2Ok0
OOI32uF
IOOUF
O OI3 2uF
OOI32iiF
8Ok0
1
33k0
From the flow diagram of Figure 1, it can be seen that
the course has concentrated on a simplified path through
the chart. Obviously any course is limited mainly by time
available, and hence only the design of linear circuits was
clone. The computer was used only for a.c. analysis and
I to some extent for tolerance analysis. Further extension

would therefore include d.c. analysis and perhaps a
Monte Carlo approach for the sensitivity. In the sphere of
switching circuits it is reasonable to envisage an entire
Figure 2. Final design of a phase-shift oscillator. The
course subsequent to the one described. It appears, however,
resistors marked with an asterisk have 2% tolerance.
The remainder have 10%. that such courses would demand at least 24 or perhaps 36h
of design laboratory time. Hence, much serious thought
must be given how to modify existing engineering degree
courses so that such vital and stimulating exercises may be
In actuality there are sub-steps, in that the first computer introduced.
run provides a more precise output impedance for re-use
as the driving source impedance. Next the circuit excluding The computer is inextricably involved in the routine of
the amplifier would be analysed to yield the required gain design in engineering and can provide 'hat exciting aspect
and the loading on the amplifier output. Neither of these of engineering course-work which seems to have been
are usually accurately calculable by approximate hand somewhat elusive in the last decade.
methods. After the feedback and possibly the phase have
been adjusted, a final run is made to check the response of Acknowledgements
the complete circuit. The assistance of the Staff of the Centre for Computer
Studies in preparing the operating system is gratefully
Concluding comments acknowledged. The authors also wish to thank Redac
Software L t d for the use of the analysis program.
Perhaps the best measure of the success of a teaching
course is the difference between the expected and the actual
response. A l l students succeeded in making a computer
analysis of their design, correcting the defects revealed and A. G. Martin graduated in electrical enrineering at the
making one or two further analyses. Quite a number, University of Sheffield in 1963. During the next three years
he w a s engaged in microwave research at Sheffield, and
about a third of the class, reached the weaned state of
obtained a PhD in 1968. He is now at the University of Hull,
independent investigation of the properties of their where he is pursuing his microwave interests and develop-
circuits. Early expectations were thus far exceeded. ing educational computer techniques.
In retrospect the significant spur to completing the
initial effort, which takes around 12h, perhaps spread over J . I. Sewell studied at Sunderland Technical College and
King's College, University of Durham, receiving the degree
a longer period, were the first returns of computer results. of B S c in electrical engineering in 1963. In 1966 he received
One of the jobs of the tutors is then to identify a few a PhD in electrical engineering from the University of
front-runners, who may not necessarily have shown the Newcastle upon Tyne. He became a Senior Research
best previous performance, and to optimize the moment at Associate at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne in
1966, and w a s engaged in the study of computational
which their efforts come to fruition.
methods in the design of active networks.
The object of creating a gradually evolving real design He joined the University of Hull in 1968 as a lecturer in
environment, where the student no longer tackles lecture the Department of Electronic Engineering, and is con-
course problems which often necessarily have unique ducting research into computational methods in network
solutions, has to some extent been met. The students are theory, the design of active network devices, and the
production of educational computer aids.
forced to re-examine their knowledge and to complete
APRIL 1972 137

4 2 2
PAPER 27
4 2 3
Int. J. Elect. Enging Educ, V o l . 18, pp. 29-34. Manchester U.P.. 1981. Printed in Great Britain
A DEGREE-ENHANCEMENT SCHEME I N ELECTRONIC

ENGINEERING
J. I. SEWELL
Department of Electronic Engineering University of Hull, England
1 INTRODUCTION
The British educational system has traditionally enjoyed a reputation of

worldwide acceptance, and in many ways it has considerable export signific-
ance. In recent years there has been growing disquiet that the education,
training and status of our engineers at large, may not be as satisfactory as had
been so tacitly assumed. The result of initiatives taken by the Institution of
Electrical Engineers to tackle this problem, in the sphere of electrical and
1
electronic engineering education, was the Merriman Report . More recently
the Finniston Inquiry has made its report on the larger problem of the whole of
engineering education and training.
It is an inevitable result of such investigations that certain general princinlps
are enunciated and some overall goals are stipulated, but the implementation
of these remains very much a local problem. In practice the translation into
actuality may prove to be a somewhat painful and major upheaval. However,
the mere fact that such initiatives cause us to examine our educational methods
with a critical eye is in itself beneficial. Nowhere is this more true than in
electronic engineering. Rapidly advancing technology needs to be com-
municated to students in the right context and against the right background. It
is all too easy to add on 'frill-thrilT courses and convince ourselves that we are
up-to-date. The mature educator must from time to time examine the core
material in the light of current developments, and seek to develop a coherent
story so that the freshly-educated engineer is able to comprehend the signific-
ance of new developments and assess their significance with respect to im-
mediate and future needs.
It had become increasingly obvious that the preparation of engineers to
assume the highest levels of design and development roles in industry was
going to require higher-grade courses at university. It is also true that not all
students would be able to cope with such courses and it would be unwise to
produce overqualified graduates for certain positions. Hence the emergence of
multilevel degree courses of varying length and content. At the present time it is
not easy to predict the exact nature and style of the various options. But for the
This paper was first presented at the Conference on Electronic Engineering in Degree Courses —
Teaching for the 80".s at the University of H u l l . England, in M a r c h 1980.
29
4 2 4
30
sake of stability within departments during the transition period, which may
last a number of years, some concrete plans have to be made and adhered to.
Since the degree courses in electronic engineering at the University of Hull
had traditionally consisted of four years full-time study, it was somewhat
logical to consider the pursuance of the proposals for 'enhanced' degrees where
the basic academic unit was four years in length.
2 BASIC E L E M E N T S O F E N H A N C E M E N T
2
Following the Merriman Report, the I E E . issued a guide outlining the
contents of degree courses in electrical and electronic engineering, which would
be the normal route to qualification as a chartered engineer in the future. The
salient points are listed and the ensuing course proposals are an attempt to
implement these in the light of local circumstances and resources.
(i) The complete course will be about five years in duration.
(ii) The enhanced course will contain 20-30% more academic material than
existing undergraduate courses.
(iii) The industrial involvement will be of about 18 months' duration.
(iv) There will be close links between the educational establishment and
employers of electronic engineers. A proper integration of practical and
theoretical studies is sought, with no rigid separation of industrial and
academic aspects of engineering.
(v) The course should contain topics such as industrial organisation, com-
munication and man-management skills.
(vi) The major technical components of the course will be supported by
suitable practical and project work, and contain elements of the design
approach.
(vii) The entry grades of A-level (General Certificate of Education, Advanced
Level) candidates should total nine points or over, equivalent require-
ments being demanded for other qualifications.
Superimposed upon these requirements are extra ones felt to be necessary for
the complete operation of the courses in the university environment.
(a) The course should offer some degree of choice of specialisation at the
highest level possible.
(b) There should be adequate provision for those students who find the
enhanced course studies too demanding, and need a safety net of a Pass
Degree course of non-enhanced standard.
(c) It is not at all clear that overseas students will wish to complete the full
enhancement requirements, and provision for a non-enhanced alternative
is necessary.
3 PROPOSED COURSE STRUCTURE

Fig. 1 shows a schematic diagram of the structure of the course. Points to note
are the escape routes at the end of the second and third years of academic
work, on to the non-enhanced Pass course. The industrial experience com-
ponent is satisfied by periods in industry during the third and fourth years and
31
F I RSI TH I RD FOURTH F I FTH

YEAR YEAR YEAR YEAR (3 options) YEAR
STUDIE5 T
S UDIES STUD I E 5 STJOIE5 i INDUSTRY
ÔN-
ENHANCED
3
ASS
lOOSSi
3.Sc. B. S c . Ennanced
Pass Honou r Degree
Non- and (l.Eng.
Enhanced Pass or
Dipl.Eng?)
FIG. J Enhanced degree scheme.
by a complete year during the fifth year. The fourth year of academic study
offers three options to the student, who can specialise in communications,
automatic control or computer engineering. O n completion of the fourth year,
the B.Sc. degree is awarded with the usual gradings of Honours and Pass
categories. Overseas students and those not wishing to proceed to full enhance-
ment may terminate at this point. T o complete the enhanced course, students
must submit a dissertation on their industrial training and experience at the
end of the fifth year, when the fully enhanced degree will be awarded
(Dipl.Eng., M.Eng. or whatever).
The complete details of the academic content of each year are shown in Figs.
2 and 3. It is perhaps easiest to consider each year as consisting of a block of
basic subjects, which begin with the foundations of electronic and mathemati-
cal studies and develop in natural progression. Hence, in the first year this
comprises mathematics, combinational logic and integrated logic circuits,
computer appreciation, electronic circuits, circuit theory, electromagnetics,
system dynamics, mechanics and engineering drawing. Core subjects in the
FIRS 1
! SECOND YEAS THIRD YEAR
i
Ka \ - e ~ a : i I i ec ; r o . " <
' c S v s i et"s and Digital E l e c t ror. i cs
;
Co-: i o-ia ' -cc S c a-- f. i c r o Co~D'j:e- Sy?:e~ ~
; 1
1 " »
' e c r a i ec Loc c C i r c ~ ;'. . L ! c c i "O ". i c Dev <
' ;es Tc 1 e c o n n u - i c a i i o r . s
CO-OJ'.C'- Arorc: a: . o- 1 r o j j c tor-. Te 1 e - Svste-s Tôr-.
i i L-C- r r ' c C i r c . ' : -: co^-tj" 'Cat i cnt A j ' . o r a ; ic Co-.: r c l
C i .- - L> : * e: r . Ne • i / o ^ - Ana ! y i i s Aef i e ' s . waveguides, 1ra^s-
r r , :
t i c : ' 'D"-ac.r-:-; i c s t t e ; : o ~ a p e : i s~ ^'Sîo" Lines-, C'Diica Wave-
S, : : o - I- \ ~ a ~ ' c h D i c i i a ' i 1 e: t ro- > guides
Na-nt-a; : :
p ; ;
ract ca i Circuit t - e s i c~ S t g n a i = A".a 1 v? s ;
" a : "ie™.at i c s Ges i •- : c 1
nee ' i n
c j
r
' c: ; ca ' r
C o n u - • ca : ;
C Q~D j t e r P"" Og a "V t -• c
r r> r r
E- J ' ->ee i r. _ a' ; E » ' o - : - :
St"':: Siair ~(:C^c'.OC\
1
_a " a: o • . *c ' - LSDC-'ot Dr\ WO "-.
F/G. _ Coi/r.s? outline for first three years of study.

32
6.Sc.(HONS) 5.Sc.(HONS) 5 . S c . (HONS)

ELECTRONIC ELECTRONIC CONTROL MICROELECTRONIC ANT
COMMUNICATIONS AND ROSCT COMPUTER
ENGINEERING ENGINEERING
Passive Network Synthesis Mu 1 t i v a r i a b 1 e C o n r o 1 Ac v a n e e d L o g \ c S v s t e-^-s

Ac t i ve N e t w o r k S y r u h e s i s Systems Cor-put e r A r c h i t e c t u r e
Infornat ion Tneory Digital Filters ana M i c r o p r o c e s s o r Sy s t e~
Cod i n g S i gna1 P r o c e s s i ng Des i g n
D i q i t a 1 Commun i c a t i o n s Acvanced Tecnniques ir Control So f t ^-a r e E n g i n e e r i n g
Mi c r o w a v e Techniques A c u a ; o i ' s ^nc S e n s o r y Feedback High Level So-'tware
Radar S y s t e m s R O L K U A c p ! l e a ; io.-.s a i : Sys t e ~ s
CoT.~un i c a t i o n S y 5 : e m s and S v s " e~ Dc s i cr, Ir, f o r m a ; i o n T n e o r v a " d
Sate 1 1 i t e s N o n - 1 1 nea r
Sys t e. s r,
Cocing
Digital Filters and Si gna1 Software Engineering Digital C o n n u r , i c a t i or- s
Proces s ing H i g h L e v e l So F t w a r e Sys t e n s Digital Filters a^d
Eng i n e e r i n q M a n a a e ^ e r , t Eric i n e e r i n o Ma ha genie h t S Igna" 1 P r o c e s s i n g
Project Projec t Er.q i n e e r i n g Manaqe~>en t
P r o j ec t
FIG. 3 Course outline of options available in fourth year of study.
second year are electronic systems and feedback, electronic devices, introduc-
tory telecommunications, network analysis, electromagnetism, digital elec-
tronic systems, mathematics, and solid state technology. In the third year these
are digital electronics, microcomputer systems, telecommunications, systems
theory, automatic control, aerials, waveguides, transmission lines, optical
waveguides, mathematics and signals analysis. The fourth year presents three
options of electronic specialisation with a few subjects common to two or more
options.
Added to the basic core are other essential and interlinking features which
progress from year to year. Fig. 4 shows the practical and project content. The
proportion of project work is increased steadily year by year until in the fourth
year each student undertakes a major project investigation which may be
directly related to an industrial problem. Fig. 5 displays the influence of the
computer in electronic engineering education. It is necessary now, more than
3
ever , to ensure the correct balance of these studies. All graduates should feel
competent in using both general machines for problem solving and the more
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year k
E1ect r o n i cs E1ect r o n i cs E l e c t r o n i cs Project

Laboratory Laboratory Laboratory
Laboratory
Proj ect Proj ect Projects
FIG. 4 Laboratory and project w ork scheme.
Year I Year 2 Year 3 Year h

Computer High Level Nume r i ca1
A p p r e c i a t i on Programmi ng Ana l y s i s
Opt i mi sa t i on
BAS 1 C
M i c r o Computer
Sys terns
FIG. 5 Computer education scheme.

4 2 7
33
dedicated system for particular application resulting from microprocessors.

Hence the teaching of B A S I C not only serves as an introduction to pro-
gramming, but has greater significance at a later stage in specific machine
controlled systems. In the third year there is an interesting balance between
essential computer mathematics such as numerical analysis and optimisation,
and microprocessor programming and operating systems. L o w level software is
taught to some options in the fourth year.
An important feature of the course is the integration of lectures given by

industrialists. This is shown for the various years in Fig. 6. Some subjects are of
a general nature whereas others draw upon specialised knowledge available
only from engineers actively engaged in the industrial scene. A considerable
amount of liaison already exists in the project work attempted by the fourth
year students. T h e design concept features heavily in this area of the course.
Finally, the business aspects of the course are shown in Fig. 7. Some of these
subjects are common with the last grouping. Business studies includes such
subjects as the balance sheet, work trees, cash flow, and marketing; it is com-
pleted by a substantial business game on the computer.
4 CONCLUSIONS
There is a sense in which engineering degree courses have never been easy.
They have always covered a wide range of introductory subjects and therefore
the workload imposed on students is usually heavier than in some other
disciplines. Fortunately these aspects have not proved completely unacceptable
in the past, since the motivation provided by vocational studies tends to
prevail. It is essential however, when attempting to implement the proposals for
enhancement, to maintain a correct balance of subjects in such a manner that
the student can recognise that his specialised technical knowledge is expanding
at a rate which exceeds his growing appreciation of general engineering
ambience. The problem is nowhere more critical than in electronic engineering
where there is the constant pressure of new technology. But what value is this
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4

Industrial P r a c t i ca1 Des i gn Project
Processes C i r c u i t Design Eng i n e e r i n g Laboratory
and D e s i g n Eng i n e e r i ng
and Engineering
Env i r o n m e n t Management
1
FIG. 6 Industrial lecturers' input.
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year k
Techn i ca1 Bus i n e s s Bus i n e s s Engineering

Cornmun i c a t i o n s Studies I Studies II Management
1 ndus t r i a l
Processes Engineering &
a n d Des i g n Env i r o n m e n t
FIG. 7 Business elements of course.

34 4 2 8
knowledge if no-one is capable of manufacturing and marketing the product? If

the student engineer can be educated in a more complete manner, without
danger of overload, then the future is a bright one, provided he can be sub-
sequently employed in a stimulating and demanding industrial environment.
Unfortunately many modern changes in education have actually resulted in
diluting the standards of entry, teaching and examination; to go forward
without care and vigilance by the universities and the professional bodies could
reduce even the most laudable schemes to little more than a shroud for compro-
mise and failure.
5 REFERENCES
[ 1] The Institution of Electrical Engineers, 'Qualifying as a chartered electrical engineer'. The
Merrimun Report (1978).
[2] The Institution of Electrical Engineers. Engineering degrees and the chartered electrical
engineer' (1979).
[3] Martin, A. G . . Midgley, D. and Sewell. J. I. 'Computer-aided engineering education'. Proc. of
Conference on the Teaching of Electronic Engineering in Degree Courses, University of Hull,
pp. 17. 1-17.2 (1973).
ABSTRACTS-ENGLISH, F R E N C H , G E R M A N , SPANISH
A degree-enhancement scheme in electronic engineering

A scheme is outlined which has a five year structure, with a fully integrated academic and industrial
training programme. The academic content is discussed in detail and includes main core subjects,
laboratory and project work, computer education, industrial lecturers' input and business elements
of the course.
I n cours de degre eleve en ingenierie electronique

Le schema d'un cours est esquisse, d'une duree de cinq ans, suivant un programme completement
integre du point de vue academique et apprentissage industriel. Le contenu academique est discute
en details et comprend les sujets principaux, les laboratoires et projets. 1'informatique, les donnees
relatives aux conferenciers industriels et les elements commerciaux du cours.
Ein Projekt zur Graderhohung in der elektronischen Technik

Das umrissene Projekt hat eine 5-Jahr-Struktur mit einem vollig integrierten akademischen und
industriellen Ausbildungsprogramm. Der akademische Inhalt wird im einzelnen besprochen; er
schliesst die hauptsachlichen Stammfacher, Labor- und Projektarbeiten, Computerunterricht,
Beitriige von Lehrern aus der Industrie und wirtschaftliche Elemente des Kursus ein.
I n plan de intensificacion gradual en ingenieria electronica

Se perfila un plan, estructurado en cinco anos, en el que se integra completamente un programa de
entrenamiento industrial y academico. Se discute con detalle el contenido academico del curso: los
temas principales. los trabajos de laboratorio y proyecto. la formacion en computadores. las
intervenciones de los profesores de la industria y los conocimientos elementales sobre negocios.
4 2 9
9. Papers under Review
Publication Page
[56] Efficient design of ladder-based active filters and equalisers 430
[57] Accurate semi-symbolic analysis of large non-ideal switched linear networks 468
[58] A systematic approach for ladder based switched-current filter design 473
[59] Multirate S C and SI filter system design by X F I L T 478

430
PAPER 56
431
E F F I C I E N T DESIGN OF LADDER-BASED A C T I V E F I L T E R S
AND E Q U A L I S E R S
1
Lu Yue, BSc, MSc,
2
N.P.J.Greer, MA, MSc, PhD,
1
J.I.Sewell, BSc, PhD, C Eng^FIEE,
(1) Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering

University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8LT, Scotland, UK
(2) Formerly with Wolfson Microelectronics Ltd., Edinburgh, EH8 9NX, UK

and is now with Philips Composants, Caen, France
1
4 32
ABSTRACT
Ladder-based active filters continue to attract attention from designers

because of their low sensitivity property. In this paper matrix methods for
ladder-based-filter and equaliser design are outlined, A modified and
extended canonical realisation is presented and applied to active-RC, SC
and transconductor-capacitor filter design. A filter and equaliser compiler
based on the proposed method is described. As an example, a 5th-order
Elliptic lowpass filter and a 6th-order group delay equaliser have been
designed. It is shown that the order of the equaliser can be reduced by the
application of special techniques for the approximation of the filter transfer
function. The comparison of sensitivity between a cascade of biquadratic
stages and the ladder-based realisation is given. Lower sensitivities to
component tolerance for both filter and equaliser are displayed by the
ladder-based design. The test results of the designed filter and equaliser
are also given.
1. INTRODUCTION
The oldest and probably best known method of active filter design is a cascade approach.
This commences by factorising a prescribed high-order transfer function into a product of
second-order terms, which are then realised by an appropriate choice of active biquadratic
sections. This method offers many attractions; principally it is straightforward to
implement and various practical circuit requirements are almost automatically satisfied,
such as dynamic range scaling which can be ensured by simple voltage or current scaling
in each section, and in SC realisations the capacitance spread is generally quite modest.
Consequently, many of the filter compilers available[l] adopt this approach as standard.
However for high order monolithic filters, the cascading of biquadratic sections leads to an
unacceptably high sensitivity of the response to component parameter variations. It is well
known that appropriately designed LC ladders have very low sensitivities to component
tolerance and hence active filters simulating the internal workings of doubly terminated
RLC ladder prototypes are widely used in high precision integrated filters. Passive ladder
prototypes for standard lowpass approximations are readily available from filter tables and
component values of all other types of frequency response (bandpass, bandstop and
highpass) can be obtained by applying standard frequency transformation and scaling
2
4 33
methods. Alternatively, computer programs can be used to generate a passive ladder

automatically for more general approximations. Various techniques have been introduced
which allow the expert user to optimise the prototype ladder development in order to
reduce the component spread and sensitivity of the subsequent active realisation. The
prototype ladder can often become unrealisable in passive terms, but still have feasible high
performance active implementations.
Progress from a prototype ladder to an active realisation can follow "direct" simulation,
when unwanted elements such as inductance or resistance are replaced by simulated
elements, or "signal flow graph" simulation which involves the representation of selected
currents and voltages (or combinations) of the prototype by proportionate voltages,
currents or charges in the active circuit. A powerful matrix based approach[2] has been
developed recently and applied to the design of SC, active-RC, and digital ladder filters
and equalisers. In the case of SC filters this has led to configurations which are far from
intuitively obvious but which offer improved performance with respect to parameters such
as settling time and capacitance spread. The matrix approach has also been used to develop
novel filter structures, ideally suited for transconductor-C realisation[5].
This paper presents various solutions to the problem of efficient active realisation of
ladder-based designs. One difficulty concerning canonic realisation of certain filter
functions has been recognised previously[6]; here, a general solution and a wide range of
its implementations are examined. The application of advanced approximation
techniques[7] also permits minimal realisations and improved performances in
filter/equaliser design. The filter compiler incorporating these techniques is demonstrated
and results from a fabricated video filter and group delay equaliser are presented.
2. REVIEW OF MATRIX BASED FILTER AND EQUALISER DESIGN

METHODS FOR ACTIVE CIRCUITS
A passive ladder can be represented by the standard nodal admittance matrix equation
J = (G+sC+s-lr)V (1)
Where V is a vector representing the nodal voltages and J is a vector representing the input
current sources. G,C, and T are admittance matrices formed by the contributions of
resistors, capacitors and inductors respectively. Equation (1) represents a set of equations
of second order in the Laplacian variable s. It is well known that a set of linear first order
algebraic equations can represent a signal flow graph and be realised by active building
blocks[8]. The matrix method[2] enables direct decomposition of the second order matrix
3
434
to give two inter-related first order equations, and these first order systems are then directly
implemented using the active building blocks.
2.1) Matrix methods for Active-RC Ladder-Based Filter Design
Either the C or the T matrix can be factorised, leading to left and right decompositions
respectively.
Factorise the C into
C=C,C r (2)
The following pair of equations is equivalent to (1)
(s-lr + G) V + C/W = J (3a)

C V - s-iW = 0
r (3b)
where W is the vector of intermediate variables.This decomposition is called RC Left

Decomposition. The actual methods employed to perform the decomposition indicated in
equation (2) are those commonly known to preserve the sparsity of the matrices: LU, UL
and the direct methods which decompose any matrix A into AI or IA[2].
If r is factorised as
r = r, r r (4)
then the RC Right Decomposition method is obtained and the following pair of equations is
equivalent to (1)
1
(C + s- G)V + s-^/W = s-!j (5a)
-s-lr V + W = 0
r (5b)
For the above decompositions, in order to maintain the sparsity of the matrix, no matrix
inverse is involved. If inverse matrix is used in the design process, some special circuits
can be obtained.
4
435
RC Left Inverse Decomposition
If the auxiliary variables are defined by W = sCV and (3b) is multiplied by C~l then the
design equations become
(s-T + G)V + W = J (6a)

1 1
V - C- s- W = 0 (6b)
RC Right- Inverse Decomposition
_1
Choosing W = s rV and multiplying (5b) by T"l the system equations become
1 1 1
(C + s- G)V + s- W = s- J (7a)
-s^v + r^Wrô (7b)
The equations (3,5,6,7) are equivalent to (1). Each set can be realised by active-RC
1
circuits. In these equations the matrix multiplied by s" is called integrated matrix and it will
be observed that in the active-RC circuit realisation, the entries in the integrated matrices
are realised by resistors and the entries in non-integrated matrices are identified with
capacitors. It can be shown that equation (6) yields a minimum capacitor realisation while
(7) produces a minimum resistor realisation[2].
2.2) Matrix Methods for SC Ladder-Based Filter Design
The design of a switched-capacitor filter starts from the prototype system equation (1),
which after bilinear transformation becomes
- 1
V =J (8)
Tl +z 2 1-z
Rearranging gives
—A + <|)B-l-D V = J(l + z) (9)

¥
- A + \(/B + D V = J(l + z- ) 1
(10)
5
436
where
A = 2C/T + Tr/2 + G for left matrix decomposition (11a)

A = 2C/T + Tr/2 - G for right matrix decomposition (lib)
B = 2TT (11c)
D = 2G (Hd)
= l/(l-z 1 (He)
= z-V(l !) (Hf)
The bilinear transformation has the advantage of both stability and exactness.
Unfortunately, bilinear integrators are sensitive to the stray capacitance and are not
practically useful. Instead a modified SC ladder-based structure utilising LDI integrators[2]
can be formed.
Factorise the matrix A and the SC Left Decomposition is obtained as
(<DB+D)V + A/W = 2J (12a)

A V + ¥ W = A/-1J
r (12b)
Factorise the matrix B and the SC Right Decomposition is obtained as
(A + <DD)V + B/W = J (13a)

- ¥ B V + W = -2B/ U
r (13b)
Again, the standard numerical techniques for matrix decomposition of A or B yield a range
of circuit implementations whose suitability in various applications have been exarnined[2].
For the sake of completeness, the two inverse decompositions are shown, though no
economical SC circuits are known to result from their application.
SC Left Inverse Decomposition
(<DB + D)V + W = (l+z)J (14a)

V + ^FA-iW = 0 (14b)
SC Right Inverse Decomposition
1 1
(A + <DD)V + <DW = J(l+z- )/(l-z- ) (15a)
- y V + B-1\V = Q (15b)
6
Generally the SC Left Decompositions demonstrate excellent properties regarding
component spread and dynamic range for bandpass designs. However, these structures
sometimes need more opamps in circuit realisation. They are not suitable for lowpass
filter design because of a peak in sensitivity at zero frequency.
The SC Right Decomposition approaches can demand fewer opamps in circuit realisation
and they demonstrate good sensitivity performance for lowpass designs. Undesirably
large component spread and poor dynamic range are unfortunately observed for certain
bandpass designs.
2.3) Matrix Methods for Transconductor-C Ladder-Based Filter Design
There are two main types of ladder-based transconductor-capacitor canonical filter

realisations, these are due to Topological Decomposition and Inverse Decomposition.
Inverse Decomposition is again divided into Right and Left Inverse Decomposition. The
building blocks for circuit realisation utilise both conventional transconductors Fig. 1 (a)
and low impedance input transconductors[9] Fig. 1(b). In Fig. 1(a) the capacitor Cj can
only realise a bidirectional path when driven by internal nodes. To facilitate the realisation
of some decompositions, low impedance input transconductors or transconductor/opamp
stages are required, these also have the added attraction of nullifying the effects of
parasitic capacitance.
TC Topological Decomposition
In the topological decomposition,
T
T=ADA (16)
where D is a diagonal matrix of the inverse inductance values of the prototype, A is a

conventional incidence matrix of inductors. The auxiliary variables are defined by:
W=(sg)-1DATV (17)
where g is a scaling factor with the dimension of transconductance, often set as g=l/aR
where the R is the ladder filter terminal resistor and a takes an optimum value close to the
fractional bandwidth of the filter.
Substituting (16) and (17) into (1) and rearranging gives
7
4 38
s -l 2
g A W + ( C+s-lgG)V = s-!gj
g (18a)
1 1 T
gD" W + s- A V = 0 (18b)
If the prototype ladder is equally terminated, the filter can be realised with one value of
transconductance. In a transconductor-capacitor realisation, the entries in non-integrated
matrices are realised by capacitors while the components in integrated matrices are
implemented by transconductances. All non-integrated matrices in the Topological
Decomposition are symmetrical, so realisation can utilise both conventional and low
impedance input transconductor structures. The auxiliary voltages W are directly
proportional to the currents in the inductors of prototype ladder. The topological
decomposition will generally lead to equivalent leapfrog topologies in active-RC and SC
and transconductance-capacitor designs, if conventional transconductors are used. In the
bandpass case, this decomposition cannot be guaranteed to generate stable active circuits
and alternative decompositions are required[5].
TC Right Inverse Decomposition
The auxiliary variables are defined by
w=(s-irv)/ g (19)
The resulting design matrix equations are:
1 1
gr- w- - v =o s (20a)
s -l 2
g w -lgG)V = s-igj
+ ( g C + s (20b)
In (20b), the integrated vector V is premultiplied by the matrix G. Only when the
prototype ladder has equal resistance at both terminations, would the transconductor-
capacitor filter require one transconductance value in the complete realisation. Because all
the non-integrated matrices in TC Right Inverse Decomposition are symmetrical, it can be
realised both using conventional transconductor and low impedance input transconductor
building blocks.
TC Left Inverse Decomposition
The Left Inverse Decomposition results from decomposing the C matrix into two matrices
as (2). Defining the vector of auxiliary variables by
8
4 39
W = (sC V)/g r (21)
The general TC Left Inverse Decomposition design equations are obtained by substituting
(21) into (1) and rearranging:
g2r-iqw + (s-!g + gr-iG)v = g r - i j (22a)

1
-s- gW + C V = 0 r (22b)
Only low impedance input transconductors can be used in the realisation of Eq.(22a,b),
because some of the non-integrated matrices are asymmetric. For C/ = I and C = C, the r
TC Left-IC Decomposition can be obtained from (22a,b) as:
g 2 -l r W + ( -I S g + g r-lG)V = gT-lj (23a)

1
-s" gW + CV = 0 (23b)
Since r~l and C are generally full and tridiagonal respectively, a relatively large number of
capacitors is required in the circuit realisation. However since all non-integrated matrices
_
( r l G and C) are symmetric, they can be implemented using conventional
transconductors.
When C/ = C and C = I , the TC Left-CI Decomposition is obtained:

r
1 l
g 2r- CW+(s- g+gr-lG)V = g T - l j (24a)
-s-!gW+V = 0 (24b)
This requires fewer capacitors than Left-IC because the only coupling capacitors are those
of the product matrix F'^C, these coupling paths must be implemented using low
impedance inputs since P^C is generally asymmetric. A singularly good application [5]
of this decomposition is for prototypes where C = T, when r ~ l C = I which is very
sparse and symmetric, and produces a highly efficient realisation with conventional
transconductors.
The important feature of equations (22-24) is that all of the integrated vectors are multiplied
by a single constant g, this allows the equations to be implemented as a transconductor-
capacitor circuit with a single value of transconductance.
9
440
2.4) Allpass Ladder-Based Transconductor-Capacitor Design
The equalisation of group delay is becoming increasingly important with high frequency
applications such as video communication systems. In analogue systems this equalisation
is often provided by one or more allpass biquadratic stages. However, where the equaliser
required is of order greater than two, sensitivity considerations would indicate that it is
preferable to use a ladder derived circuit. A ladder-based technique has been developed for
digital implementation[10] and extended to SC realisations[ll]. It is essential to
incorporate the advantages of this approach into the design of transconductor-C equalisers
for direct application in high frequency environments.
Consider allpass transfer functions of the form
P(-s)
H(s) = k
POO (25)
where P(s) is Hurwitz polynomial of order n and k = 1 if n is odd order and k = -1 if n is

even. The polynomial P(s) is separated into odd and even parts:
P(s) = E(s) + 0(s) (26)
Define
E(s)
if n is even
0(s)
Y(s) = .
O(s)
E
if n is odd
(s) (27)
Substituting (26) and (27) into (25) gives
H(s) = l l ^ l l = "
1+Y(s) 1+Y(s) ( 2 8 )
Since P(s) is Hurwitz, Y(s) can be expanded as a continued fraction, and equation (28) can
then be realised as the combination of a singly terminated RLC ladder and an active
summing stage. The singly terminated passive ladder network part can be simulated by a
transconductor-C circuit using the above matrix decomposition method and the overall
transconductor-C group delay equaliser structure is shown in Fig.2.
10
441
3. CANONICAL REALISATION FOR LADDER-BASED DESIGN
An analogue VLSI design is a multiple criteria optimisation procedure. One objective in

this procedure is to use a minimum number of active components, since these usually
occupy relatively large area, consume power, and are sources of noise. With the
development of personal communication equipment, these considerations will assume even
more importance in VLSI circuit design. In active-RC and SC filter design, it is generally
accepted that one-opamp-per-pole realisations are canonical for low sensitivity realisation.
Circuit configurations with less than one opamp per pole are usually quite sensitive to
component deviations, and in the SC case, they would usually require more switches,
capacitors, and clock waveforms. For transconductor-C filter ladder-based realisations
with conventional transconductors, two extra transconductors are needed for realisation of
the passive prototype ladder terminations. We define a canonical transconductor-C
filter with conventional transconductors as a one-transconductor-per-pole
realisation plus two termination transconductors, each possessing the same
value of transconductance. A transconductor-C filter with conventional
transconductors, which has one-transconductor-per-pole and two
termination transconductors, with a small number (< 3) of different
transconductance values, is defined as quasi-canonical realisation. If the
transconductor-C filter is realised using low impedance transconductors, two
transconductors for the termination realisation can be replaced by capacitance branches.
Therefore we define a canonical transconductor-C filter with low impedance
input transconductors as a one-transconductor-per-pole realisation, each
possessing the same value of transconductance. A transconductor-C filter
with low impedance input transconductors, which has one-transconductor-
per-pole, with a small number (< 3) of different transconductance values,
is defined as quasi-canonical realisation.
Previous work has shown that the problem of finding a canonical ladder-based active filter
can be solved by finding a canonical ladder prototype[6]. The conditions required for a
transfer function to be realisable by a canonical doubly-terminated ladder are that
numerator of the transfer function of a canonical even-order doubly-terminated ladder is an
odd polynomial, and that the numerator of the transfer function of an odd-order doubly-
terminated ladder is an odd polynomial if ICI is non-singular or an even polynomial if III is
non-singular. For most filter design problems the numerator of the transfer functions are
polynomials with purely even or odd terms. So the numerator parity alone determines
where a given transfer function can be realised by a canonical ladder. The solution is to
augment the transfer function, unrealisable by canonical ladder, to produce a transfer
11
function which is realisable by canonical ladder, and when the ladder is simulated by an
active circuit the original transfer function behaviour is then restored by a change in input
circuitry. If H(s) is a transfer function with all its zeros on the imaginary axis or at infinity,
then parity manipulation can be effected by s, 1/s, sAs^+coi^). The parity of the modified
transfer function H'(s) facilitates realisation by a canonical prototype ladder. A system
realising the original transfer function H(s) can be obtained by multiplying the input vector
J by the inverse of the modifying function.
1 1
(sC+s- r + G)V=s" J (29a)
1
(sC+s" r + G)V=sJ (29b)
1 2 1
(sC+s- r + G)V=(s+o)i s" )J (29c)
3.1) Canonical Ladder Simulation By Active-RC Circuits
In an active-RC circuit realisation, for RC Left Decomposition form, the system (29a-c)
can be decomposed in the following ways.
1 1
C/W + (s" r + G)V = s- J (30a)
-s-lW + C V = 0 r (30b)
1
C/W + (s- r + G)V = 0 (30c)
-s-lW +C V = C / - l j
r (30d)
1 2 1
C/W+(s- r+G)V=o>i s- J (30e)
-s-iW+C^Q-ij (30f)
Now canonical active-RC networks can be obtained directly from equations (30). These
circuits use n opamps, where n is the order of original transfer function H(s). The
1
coefficients of s" on the right-hand-side of the equations are implemented by resistors.
The different parity arrangements and decompositions available lead to different circuit
realisation efficiency. Eq.(30a,b) produce the same topological structure as the original
one, the only difference is that the input capacitance is changed to resistance. Analysis of
Eq.(30c,d) and (30e,f) shows that canonical realisation generally leads to the introduction
of extra passive components. However, if UL or IA decompositions are used, the number
of input branch elements can be minimised. For those two decompositions, only the input
node is changed in case Eq.(30c,d) or one additional resistor is added in case (30e,f). If
other decompositions are used, they can introduce up to N (number of nodes in prototype
ladder) extra input capacitor or resistor branches.
12
443
For RC Right Decomposition, the systems take the form
1
(C + s- G)V + s ^ W ^ (31a)
1 1 1
-s- r v + w = - s - r / - j
r (3ib)
1 1
(C + s- G)V + s" r/W = J (31c)
-s-ir V + W = 0
r (31d)
1 1
(C + s- G)V + s" r/W = J (31e)
1
- - i r v + w = -s- rricoi2j
s r (3if>
Eq.(31c,d) demonstrates a very efficient canonical form with input branches changed from
resistance to capacitance. The equations of (31a,b) and (31e,f) can only be efficiently
realised by UL or IA decompositions, since r/~lj produces a vector with only one non-
zero entry, which can be produced by one input branch only.
When RC Left Inverse Decomposition is used, the system is
1
W + (s"lr+G)V = s" J (32a)
1 1
-s- C" W+V = 0 (32b)
1
W + (s" r + G)V=0 (32c)
1 1
-s- C" W + V = C - ! j (32d)
1 2 1
W + (s- r + G)V = u)i s- J (32e)
1 1 1
-s- C" W + V = C- J (32f)
Equations (32a,b) can be very efficiently realised with the input branch changing from a
capacitor to a resistor. Realisation of equations (32c, d) would introduce N extra
capacitors, but without a resistive input branch. The system equations (32e,f) introduce N
extra capacitors plus the original resistor input branch. In the case of (32c, d) and (32e,f),
the characteristic minimum capacitor realisation of RC Left Inverse Decomposition would be
lost.
For RC Right Inverse Decomposition the system is rewritten as
13
444
(C + s-iOV + s-iWÔ (33a)

1 1
-s- V + r-lW = - s - r - l j (33b)
1 1
(C + s' G)V + s- W = J (33c)
1
-s- V + r-lW = 0 (33d)
1 1
(C + s" G)V + s- W = J (33f)
1 1 1 2
-s- V + r-lW = - s - r - o ) i J (33f)
Realisation of equations (33a,b) and (33e,f) would introduce N extra resistors. No

capacitor input branch is needed in equations(33a,b) while one capacitor input is needed
for (33e,f) realisation. Tl e minimum resistor feature may be lost in canonical realisation.
Equations (33c,d) can be efficiently realised with only the change of the original resistive
input branch to a capacitive one.
The following example illustrates the improvements possible. A 6th-order elliptic

lowpass active-RC filter is designed using the canonical design method and left-UL
decomposition. The simulated circuit response is shown in Fig.3, which exactly agrees
with the approximation. The circuit realisation contains 6 opamps, 13 capacitors and 11
resistors. If a canonical design approach were not available, then a 7th-order elliptic active-
RC would be necessary , requiring 8 opamps, 17 capacitors and 14 resistors.
3.2) Canonical Ladder Simulation by Switched-Capacitor Circuits
SC Left Decomposition canonical realisations for systems (29a), (29b) and (29c) become
A/W + (<DB + D)V = 2TOJ (34a)

X
- ¥W + A V = A f lTJ/2
r (34b)
A/W + (<DB + D)V = 0 (34c)

- ¥ W + A V = 2A/-1J/T
r (34d)
A/W + (<DB + D)V = 2T<Dcoi2j (34e)

1 2
-*FW + A V = A f (Tcoi /2+2A')J
r (34f)
The circuit realisation of Eq.(34a,b) and (34e,f) retains the basic topology with only the
introduction of 2 more switches and 1 more capacitor. The circuit realisation of Eq.(34c,d)
14
4 4 5
1
is very efficient, since J has only one non-zero input and if A f is an upper triangular
matrix, which occurs when UL or IA decompositions are selected, only one input branch is
required.
SC Right Decomposition canonical realisation for systems (29a), (29b) and (29c) are
(A + <M))V + OB/W = TJ/2 (35a)

1
-^BrV + W = - 2 W B f J (35b)
(A + <DD)V + OB/W = 2J/T (35c)

-^BrV + W = 0 (35d)
2
(A + <DD)V + <DB/W = (To)i /2+2/T)J (35e)
l 2
-¥B V + W = -2WE[- a>i 3
r (35f)
Eqns.(35a,b) and (35e,f) will yield identical topologies, having 2N more switches than a
realisation based on Eq.(13a,b). However, Eqns.(35c,d) lead to a very efficient circuit
realisation with N fewer capacitor input branches than demanded by Eqns.(13a,b; e,f)-
The SC Left Inverse Decomposition canonical realisation form can be written as
W + (OB + D)V = 2T<DJ (36a)

- ¥ A - i W + V = A-lTJ/2 (36b)
W + (<DB + D)V = 0 (36c)

_vj/ -l A w + v = 2A-lj/T (36d)
2
W + (<DB + D)V = 2T<D(Di J (36e)
1 1 2
-»FA- W + V = A- (T(Di /2+2/T)J (36f)
The realisation of Eq.(36c,d) introduces N more capacitors, and Eq.(36a,b) and (36e,f)
have same topologies which introduce 2(N -1) switches and 2JV capacitors.
The SC Right Inverse Decomposition canonical realisation forms are
(A + OD)V + d>W = TJ/2 (37a)

1
. v j / + B-!W = - 2 W B - ]
V (37b)
15
44R
1
(A + 4>D)V + W = 2B" JAT (37c)
/ 1
-4 V + B " W = § (37d)
2
(A + 0>D)V + <DW = (Tcoi /2+2/T)J (37e)
/ 1 1 2
-4 V + B - W = - 2 W B - 0 ) i J (37f)
Eq.(37c,d) can produce an efficient circuit realisation and Eq.(37a,b) and (37e,f) have
same topologies which have 2(N -1) more switches and N more capacitors.
The U L and IA decompositions are recommended for all cases of canonic SC filter
design, since they minimise the number of the input branches significantly and generally
produce efficient circuit configurations.
A typical 8th-order bandpass filter which satisfies the specification of a speech processing
channel is designed by canonical techniques using the Left-UL decomposition. The
simulated circuit response is shown in Fig.4 and closely agrees with the approximation.
The design statistics for different circuit designs is given in Table I, and the sensitivity
comparison of a ladder-based design and a cascade based design is given in Fig.5. The
lower curve is the sensitivity characteristics of Left-UL realisation and the upper curve is
the sensitivity characteristics of Sedra's[12] biquad cascade realisation. The index of
multiparameter sensitivity is defined as
2-, 1/2
aiH(co)|
S(co) = 8 . 6 8 6 ^ /100.0
|H(CO)| a Ci
where Q is an individual circuit capacitance.
Left- Left-IA Right- Right-IB E-F Sedra

UL UL Type[13]
No. Opamps 8 8 8 8 8 8
No. C 32 32 32 32 28 28
No. SW 34 34 38 38 34 40
Total C 340.76 319.87 355.61 409.20 424.72 392.54
C Spread 57.57 54.31 56.15 53.97 77.26 72.93
Table I. Statistics of 8th-order SC bandpass filter realisation
16
3.3) Canonical Ladder Simulation by Transconductor-Capacitor Circuits
a)TC Topological Decomposition
The design equations for a canonical topological decomposition are
1
CV = -s- [AgW + GV] (38a)
1 T 1
W = (sg)" [DA V-JA" ] (38b)
CV = s- [sj - AgW - GV]

1
(38c)
W = (sg^DATV (38d)
C V = s" 1 [sj - AgW - GV] (38e)

1
W = (sg)" [DATv-JA-lcoi2] (38f)
The validity of these equations is dependent upon the matrix A being square and having an
inverse, which is not usually the case. Even when A is square-invertable, the
implementation of s ' ^ A ' l j in Eq.(38b) and s'Â^coi^J in Eq.(38f) would introduce a
extra N (dimension of A matrix) transconductors with different transconductance values,
and this destroys the main advantage of a ladder-based transconductor-capacitor filter.
However, Eq.(38c,d) will always yield an efficient circuit structure no matter what form
A matrix assumes.
b) TC Right Inverse Decomposition
The canonical realisations are written as
CV = -s-l(GV + gW) (39a)

1
r - W = (sg)-l(V-r-lj) (39b)
CV = J - s - ^ G V + gW) (39c)
1
r - l W = (sg)" V (39d)
1
C V = J - s " ( G V + gW) (39e)
1 2 1
r - l w = (sg)- (V-coi r" J) (39f)
17
4 4 8
-
The terms (sg)~lr~lj in Eq.(39b) and (sg)~l(0i2r lj in Eq.(39f) can only be realised
by N extra transconductors with different transconductance values. However for
Eq.(39c,d), an efficient circuit realisation can be obtained.
c)TC Left Inverse Decomposition
Only the canonical realisation for Eq.(23) is given here, the other variations on the TC Left
Inverse Decomposition method give exactly the same results. The canonical equations can
be written as
1
C V = s" gW (40a)
g 2 p - i w = s-igr-ij - gr-iGv - s-^v (40b)
1
CV = s" gW+J (40c)
1 1
g 2p-1W = - r - G V - s" gV g (40d)
CV = s' gW + J 1
(40e)
2
g 2 -l r - l g r - l ( 0 i J - gr-iGV - s-!gV
W = s (40f)
- -
The terms s ' l g r J in Eq.(40b) and s"lgr l(Oi2j in Eq.(40f) can only be realised by N
extra transconductors with different transconductance values. Only Eq.(40c,d) can be
realised by canonical form.
As an example, we consider the design of an 8th-order Butterworth bandpass

transconductor-C filter. The transfer function for this filter is of the form
H ( S ) 2 2
^ 2 2
" ( s + p f ) ( s + p ^ ( s + p i ) ( s + pj)
Because the transfer function has even order denominator with even order numerator, a
canonical prototype ladder cannot be realised. Actually, the ladder derived from the
transfer function is shown in Fig.6, which has 5 nodes, so it requires fifth order matrices,
which in turn would lead to a tenth order transconductor-capacitor filter as shown in Fig.7.
If a canonical design approach is applied, the transfer function is changed to the form
^
H ( S ) 2 2 2 2 2
" (s + p )(s + pi)(s + p5)(s +p5)
18
4 4 9
and a modified ladder is obtained as in Fig.8. This is now a four node network, and using
any of the design equations (38c,d), (39c,d) or (40c,d), a canonical realisation can be
implemented. Fig.9 shows the canonical realisation circuit structure of Eq(39c,d).
Compared to the non-canonical realisation in Fig.7, two transconductors can be
eliminated.
3.4) Mixed Variable Representation Approach for Canonical Ladder-Based

Transcondoctor-Capacitor FiEter Design
The canonical filter design method above is called Transfer Function Modification
Approach, in which we focus on finding a canonical ladder prototype, and then using
matrix design method to obtain a canonical transconductor-capacitor filter. Because the
limitation of equal transconductance in transconductor-capacitor filter design, a large
number of designs cannot be realised in canonical form. To overcome the difficulty, an
alternative canonical design approach called Mixed Variable Representation Approach is
developed. Instead of finding a canonical ladder prototype, we try to find the best variable
representation in order to get a canonical transconductor-capacitor design from a non-
canonical ladder prototype. Generally a non-canonical ladder prototype contains more
nodes than a canonical ladder and this number also exceeds the number of poles being
realised. Hence when a voltage variable representation is used the size of matrix is
increased and this leads to more transconductors in a transconductor-capacitor filter
realisation. It is also noticed that the extra nodes are usually introduced by series L C or LR
branches. In a Mixed Variable Representation Approach, both voltage and current
variables are selected in a non-canonical prototype ladder to form vector V, and a compact
matrix form is obtained. Then the standard matrix design method is used to achieve a
canonical transconductor-capacitor implementation. The application of this approach and
the selection of the variables are very much dependent upon the structure of the non-
canonical ladder. To demonstrate the application of the approach, we redesign the 8th-order
Butterworth filter using the Mixed Variable Representation Approach. Examining the
circuit in Fig.6, we notice that there are five nodes in the prototype ladder, so using a nodal
voltage representation would requirefifthorder matrices in matrix design method, which in
turn would lead to a tenth order transconductor filter. Instead, we can construct the vector
V from two nodal voltages (Vi and V3), and the currents through the two L C series
branches (I2 and I4). We use voltage (VI2 and V14) proportional to the currents and the
terminating resistance, in order to preserve dimensional consistency. It is not necessary to
simulate the output voltage (V5) of the passive ladder explicitly, because all of I4 passes
through the termination resistor and V14 can therefore be treated as the output voltage. For
the mixed voltage-and-current representation of the eighth order Butterworth bandpass
ladder the matrices are:
19
4 5 0
fV. \ I 0
n
R
in.
f v
0 °]
1 I 0 -1 0
J= 0 ,v = ,G = (43a,b,c)
v 3
R 0 1 0 -1
0 v 0 -1 1,
0
(\_
0 0
0 0 0 A U
-1
0
-L
2
2
0 0 o 2
0
c = R ,r = R C 2
(43d,e)
0 0 c 0
3
o 0 0
0 0 0
V R 2
J -1
0 0 2
R C
47
Substituting (43a,b,c,d,e) into the left-decomposition equations (23a,b) gives the

transconductor-capacitor ladder shown in Fig. 10. Again a circuit realisation with eight
transconductors is obtained, though fewer capacitors are now required. A SPICE
simulation of the fully differential version is shown in Fig. 11.
4. F I L T E R AND EQUALISER DESIGN COMPILER: X F I L T
The field of filter automation is now fairly mature, however it is still a challenging area
with the continuing development of VLSI technology. Most filter compilers developed
today are normally devoted to only one design strategy and technology and are usually
restricted to the design of cascade biquad or provide very limited ladder-based structures
( often leapfrog ). These restrictions limit the designer's ability to combine and compare
techniques and examine the benefits of different topologies. For these reasons, a new
active filter and equaliser compiler called XFILT[14] has been developed to implement
passive-RLC, active-RC, switched-capacitor and transconductor-capacitor filters and
equalisers and incorporates a wide variety of filter structures proposed for ladder-based
realisations together with more conventional biquad configurations.
The X F I L T system structure is shown in Fig. 12. A graphical interface utilises standard
Xll[15] and is provided both as a user friendly interface to the designer and as a system
manager of all the software in XFILT. It offers a menu-driven interface for checking and
facilitating the entry of design parameters. The specifications of the filter can be read in
from menus or existing files. The menu-driven interface can prompt the user for the input
needed and reject incorrect input. Graphical display is another characteristic of the
20
interface. The graphs of the approximation function and different circuit responses are
given. A special feature of the XFILT graphical interface is that it provides a graphical
editor, utilising this the user can specify/modify arbitrary, or classical magnitude and group
delay templates with a mouse.
A range of standard approximation functions, Butterworth, Chebyshev, Inverse-

Chebyshev, Elliptic, Bessel and Legendre are available. In the arbitrary magnitude design
mode, the desired amplitude response of the filter is specified by a pair of piece-wise linear
boundaries ( a template ) of amplitude against frequency. Approximation routine[7] will
attempt to fit a response within the upper and lower boundary. The points where the
approximation touches the upper boundary in the passband and - °° in the stopband are
referred to as touch points. Manipulation of these touch points in an interactive manner
facilitates great flexibility in design. For instance, high order touch points in the passband
can ease group delay equalisation requirements and reduce sensitivity whereas in the
stopband they can create deep, high order notches for single frequency rejection. A touch
point editor allows the user to specify the sequence, type (fixed or free) and order of the
touch points in each band of the characteristic.
The filter circuit design falls into two structural categories: cascade biquad and passive
ladder simulation. Ladder simulation requires a passive ladder prototype which can either
be synthesised internally or read from an external file. There are three ladder prototype
synthesis modes: expert for experienced designers whereby complete control is exercised
over the classes and sequence of pole/zero removals; interactive in which only the sequence
of removals is selected and automatic when no manual intervention is necessary. All
ladder-based filter structures are derived by matrix decomposition methods given in
Section 2. In the cascade biquad mode, a variety of designs are available, including type-
E, type-F and all-pass biquads. The structure of the software enables the addition of any
required biquadratic sections, active-RC, SC and transconductor-C, in an easy manner.
Analysis facilities for frequency response, group delay, and amplitude sensitivity are
provided. The embedded general simulator is SCNAP4[16], though SPICE and
SWITCAP can also be called.
Because of circuit non-idealities such as finite amplifier gain-bandwidth and switch

resistance (in SC circuits), the filter response may not correspond precisely with the
approximation function. To improve the circuit designed, a template-correction based
optimisation method has been developed. The method is completely general and is
applicable to SC, active-RC, and transconductor-C filters. The software generates an error
function based on circuit simulation results and approximation transfer function, this is
21
then used to modify the template. The software automatically produces a new
approximation and circuit realisation. The main attraction of this approach is the low order
optimisation space, which always corresponds to the order of the original filter. The
process is quick and converges for realistic deviations due to practical circuit non-idealities.
5. LADDER-BASED TRANSCQNDUCTQR-C F I L T E R A N D EQUALISER

DESIGN E X A M P L E
For a lowpass video filter with specifications of passband edge frequency 1MHz, stopband
edge frequency 1.887MHz, passband ripple 0.28dB and stopband attenuation 50.5dB, a
5th-order elliptic ladder prototype will satisfy the requirements. Using the above matrix
decomposition method, a fully differential transconductor-C circuit realisation is given in
Fig.13, where all tranixonductors have the same value, and Fig.14 gives the SPICE
simulation result of the circuit. The transconductance spread is 1 and the capacitance spread
is 23.54. If a cascade of biquadratic stages is used, it is not possible to have equal valued
transconductances, but the alternative equal valued capacitance realisation demands a
6
transconductance spread of 7.3xl0 ! Fig. 15 shows the sensitivity comparison between a
ladder-based realisation and a cascade biquad configuration, and the obvious advantage of
ladder-based structure is clearly apparent.
The filter group delay variation within the passband is l.l|0,s, whereas the original
specifications require a maximum variation of 0.4|is. An initial 12th-order equaliser
design, which reduces the group delay variation to 0.13 |is with an equal ripple behaviour,
was considered. However with the help of XFILT compiler, the maximum group delay
variation can still be satisfied by utilising a 6th-order equaliser, though the equal ripple
behaviour no longer applies. The comparative sensitivity analysis for the ladder-based
equaliser and a typical cascaded biquad equaliser is shown in Fig. 16; the ladder-based
structure is again significantly better. A fully differential realisation of the 6th-order
equaliser is given in Fig. 17. The filter and equaliser were fabricated on a 1 micron CMOS
process, having double polysilicon and double metal and using a 5V power supply.
Fig. 18 shows the overall amplitude response of the filter and equaliser, the measured
results are typical ones from the range obtained . It will be noted from the circuit
response, that there is a loss of attenuation in the stopband including the disappearance of
the second notch, though the level of stopband attenuation remains within specification.
This retention of performance is due to deliberately allowing an initial filter approximation
with a very generous stopband attenuation to absorb process variations and inaccuracies,
and deterioration due to noise, though the noise level in the passband is typically
-128dBm. The passband response of the fabricated circuit shows some variation in ripple
level and corner frequency. Detailed investigation of the equaliser amplitude response
22
shows an arbitrary rippling behaviour over the passband of up to l.ldB, whereas the
computed amplitude response of the all-pass equaliser shows a completely flat
characteristic over a wide frequency range. These variations in equaliser response can be
directly attributed to the accuracy problems in realising the very wide spread in capacitance
2120:1 (transconductance spread is 1). It was also noted that the dynamic range of the
equaliser was considerably less than the filter. It is now possible to utilise various signal
scaling techniques at different stages of transconductance-C ladder-based designs and it
would be sensible to invoke these in any re-design. The group delay responses. Fig. 19,
show very effective equalisation within the passband, the initial computed group delay
variation of the filter is 1.02|as and the equalised value reduces to 0.395|J.s, the actual
response of the combined circuit shows a variation of only 0.1|is which easily satisfies the
initial specification.
Use of X F I L T has enabled further improvements to the equaliser. Simply increasing the
number of iterations in the group delay approximation stage improves the equal ripple
nature of the response at no extra cost in circuit terms. A more significant improvement in
silicon area can be achieved by utilising the arbitrary amplitude approximation facility for
the filter. The use of a 4th order touch point near the band edge reduces the group delay
variation of the filter to 0.72|is and thus lowers the equalisation requirements
considerably. Fig.20(a) gives the passband response of the modified filter and Fig.20(b)
shows the comparison of modified filter group delay and original filter group delay. A 4th-
order equaliser can now be used. There is a cost of about 4dB loss of attenuation in the
stopband of the filter.
6. CONCLUSION
Efficient ladder-based active filters and equalisers for active-RC, SC, and transconductor-
capacitor are presented. The canonical realisations of these filters are studied. Several
examples are given to demonstrate that the proposed canonical design method can be used
to considerable advantage. The XFILT software development has been based on the ladder
filter design methods given here, together with many cascade designs. A practical video
filter and equaliser IC implementation example is presented and the test results are given.
23
4 5 4
7. A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S
Technical support in the implementation and testing of the video filter and equaliser by
Wolfson Microelectronics is gratefully acknowledged. This work was supported by the
Science and Engineering Research Council and the Department of Trade and Industry.
REFERENCES
[ I ] .R.K.Henderson, LiPing and J.I.Sewell,"Analogue integrated filter compilation,"

Joun. of Analogue Integrated Circuits and Signal Processing, Vol.3, May 1993, pp.219-
228
[2].LiPing, R.K.Henderson and J.I Sewell,"A methodology for integrated ladder filter
design," I E E E Trans. CAS, Vol.CAS-38, No.8, August 1991, pp.853-868
[3].V.Gopinathan and Y.Tsividis, "Design considerations for integrated continuous-time
video filters," Proc.1990 I E E E ISCAS, New Orleans, May 1990, pp. 1177-1180
[4].M.Snelgrove and A.Shoval,"A CMOS biquad at VHF," Proc.IEEE CICC, 1991,
pp.9.2.1-9.2.6
[5].N.P.J.Greer, R.K.Henderson, LiPing and J.I.Sewell,"Matrix methods for the design
of transconductor ladder filters," Proc.IEE-Circuit.Devices Syst., Vol.141, No.2, April
1994, pp.89-100
[6].R.K.Henderson, LiPing and J.I.Sewell, "Canonical design of integrated ladder
filters," Proc. IEE, Pt.G, Vol.138, No.2, April 1991, pp.222-228
[7].R.K.Henderson, LiPing and J.I.Sewell,"Extended Remez algorithms for filter
amplitude and group delay approximation," Proc.IEE, Part G, Vol.138, No.3, June 1991,
pp.289-300
[8]A.S.Sedra and P.O.Brackett, Filter Theory and DesignActive and Passive, Pitman,
London, 1979
[9].N.P.J.Greer, and P.B.Denyer, "New folded cascode transconductor for bandpass
ladder filters," Proc. IEE , Pt.G, Vol.138, No.5, October 1991, pp.551-556
[10].B.Nowrouzian and L.T.Bruton,"Novel Approach to exact design of digital LDI
allpass network", Electron.Lett.,Vol.25, No.22, Oct. 1989,pp. 1482-1484
[ I I ] .LiPing and J.I.Sewell,"Active and digital ladder-based allpass filters," Proc. I E E ,
Part.G, Vol. 137, No.6, Dec.1990, pp.439-445
[12] K.Martin and A.S.Sedra, "Stray insensitive switched capacitor filters based on
bilinear Z-transform", Electro. Lett.,Vol.l5, 1979, pp.365-366
[13] P.E.Fleischer and K.R.Laker,"A family of active switched-capacitor biquads building blocks"
Bell Syst. Tech. J., Vol.58, pp.2235-2269, Dec. 1979
24
[14] Lu Yue, R.K.Henderson, and J.I.Sewell,"XFILT: an X-window based modern filter
and equaliser design system," 11th European Conference on Circuit Theory and Design,
Davos, 1993, pp.305-310
[15].D.A.Young, X window system programming and applications with Xt, Prentice
Hall, 1989
[16].Z.Q.Shang and J.LSewell,"Efficient sensitivity analysis for large non-ideal switched-
capacitor networks," I E E E ISCAS, Chicago, May 1993, pp.1405-1407
25
° (a) (b)
Fig. 1(a) First order section using a conventional transconductor
Fig. 1(b) First order section using a low impedance input transconductor
tZ7
HI
/-e e -e \
— [
Vout
ZD
Fig.2 Transconductor-C ladder based group delay equaliser structure
20
o
20
40 Circuit Response
3J
60
80
100
120
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Frequency (Hz)
Fig.3 6th-order Elliptic canonical active-RC lowpass filter response

0
20
40
60 Circuit Response
80
100
Approximation
120
500 1000
i
1500 2000
Frequency (Hz)
Fig.4 8th-order Elliptic canonical SC bandpass filter response
8.00
6.00 Biquad Based Realisation
ca
4.00
L a d d e r Based Realisation
on 2.00
0.00
680
Frequency (Hz)
Fig.5 Sensitivity comparison of SC ladder based and biquad based filters
Fig.6 8th-order Butterworth bandpass ladder prototype

I
tn tn t n \5 V5 J
\out
VI
2 V2 r v7l
Wl W2 W3 \V4 r w5
i
in
S L_f} LLff LM J_f}
m m ILTTTO rrrtxo. crrrm rrrin
rr j
5f f[[| l n]|| pi
Fig.7 Transconductor-C filter based on prototype in Fig.6
C4
Q c 2 R
R
1
Fig.S Modified 8th-order Butte-worth bandpass ladder prototype
z g
Vout
VI V2 I V3 I V4 T
I Wl I W2 I W3 W4
X T
Fig.9 Transconductor-C filter based on modified prototype

—L ~3,
U7 Vout
VI I V2 1 V3 I V4
Wl JH W2 W3 x- W4
I
I
-g /.+1
Vin
Fig. 10 Transconductor-C filter designed by mixed variable representation approach
BQ
Frequency ( M H z )
Fig.l 1 SPICE simulaton of 8th-order Butterworth transconductor-C ladder filter
SPECIFICATIONS
APPROXIMATION
< T
PROTOTYPE
DESIGN
BIQUAD F I L T E R
Ed DESIGN
LADDER FILTER
DESIGN
C/3
s
ON
F I L T E R N E T L I S T OUTPUT
SIMULATION
F R E Q U E N C Y RESPONSE, SENSITTVITY, NOISE
O
OPTIMISATION
Fig. 12 XFILT structure block diagram

4 6 0
as
V2
1
V3P
rc.o
03
SUA
dflA
I
o-o
CO
a*
3 = t?0 e
VHP in
AC*
1
CO?
<L>
d6*
00
> ¥ I & 5 § '
c a z z
B 5 « y s
20
20
40
\
r
3
60
a.
80
-100-
-120-1 i 1 1 r—*==i • 1 - i •
0.0e+0 1.0e+6 2.0e+6 3.0e+6 4.0e+6 5.0e+6 6.0e+6
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 14 SPICE simulation of transconductor-C video filter response
50
40
"P. 30
Cascade Based
20
Ladder Based
Z
1/3
10
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Fig. 15 Passband sensitivity of video filters

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F I G U R E CAPTIONS
Fig. 1(a) First order section using a conventional transconductor
Fig. 1(b) First order section using a low impedance input transconductor
Fig.2 Transconductor-capacitor ladder-based group delay equaliser structure
Fig.3 6th-order Elliptic canonical active-RC lowpass filter response
Fig.4 8th-order Elliptic canonical SC bandpass filter response
Fig.5 Sensitivity comparison of SC ladder-based and cascade based filters
Fig.6 8th-order Butterworth bandpass ladder prototype
Fig.7 Transconductor-capacitor filter based on prototype in Fig.6
Fig.8 Modified 8th-order Butterworth bandpass ladder prototype
Fig.9 Transconductor-capacitor filter based on modified prototype
Fig. 10 Transconductor-C filter designed by mixed variable representation approach
Fig. 11 SPICE simulation of 8th-order Butterworth transconductor-C ladder filter
Fig. 12 X F I L T structure block diagram
Fig. 13 Fully differential 5th-order transconductor-capacitor video filter circuit
Fig. 14 SPICE simulation of transconductor-C video filter response
Fig. 15 Passband sensitivity of video filters
Fig. 16 Video equaliser sensitivity comparison
Fig. 17 Fully differential 6th-order transconductor-C video equaliser circuit
Fig. 18 Overall amplitude response of filter and equaliser
Fig. 19 Filter and equaliser group delay responses
Fig.20(a) Video filter passband response using a 4th order touch point
Fig.20(b) 4th-order video equaliser group delay response
26
468
PAPER 57
Accepted f o r l.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Seattle, May 1995
ACCURATE SEMI-SYMBOLIC ANALYSIS OF LARGE

NON-IDEAL SWITCHED LINEAR NETWORKS
Z.Q.Shang and J.I.Seweil
Glasgow G12 8LT, Scotland
Tel: +44-141-3304253 Fax: +44-141-3304907
EMail: sewell@elec.glasgow.ac.uk, shang@elec.glasgow.ac.uk
and this adds to the complexity of the interpolation

ABSTRACT problem.
In this paper, an accurate semi-symbolic analysis The main contribution of this paper is the generation of
method based on polynomial interpolation techniques modified polynomials in a single variable z by
for large non-ideal switched linear networks (SC and interpolation, as required for analysis of large non-
SI) is presented. For the computation of frequency ideal switched linear networks. Ii is demonstrated that
responses, the semi-symbolic method demonstrates high accuracy can be manintained for large networks
significant improvements in speed over direct and the application to the computation of frequency
numerical methods and this increases with circuit size. responses is very attractive. The extension to noise
It is shown that semi-symbolic techniques can be used computation in switched linear networks is considered.
in the computation of noise for circuits containing a
limited number of clock waveform? but the
2. P O L Y N O M I A L I N T E R P O L A T I O N M E T H O D
performance rapidly deteriorates with network size.
Examples demonstrate the comparative speed and A large non-ideal switched linear network can be
accuracy performance over a range of circiuts. described by a system of equations the in z domain [21]
1. I N T R O D U C T I O N
1 p •v,(=)- IW,(z) "
- l "
The symbolic analysis of linear analogue circuits has
V (z)
2 ZW (z)
2
attracted the attention of many researchers over a P
2 1
considerable peroid of time. Many algorithms and

techniques have been developed and from these
determinant and flow graph methods appear to be
favoured in terms of flexiblity and efficiency [1-15].
A l l approaches suffer from restrictions inherent to the where ?/ =P C
( k k
problem, the escalation of computer time and memory Ck is the capacitance matrix of the kth time-slot and p k
requirements with increase in circuit size. Two typical is the extended state transition matrix. The r.h. side
solutions proposed are expression approximation! 16] contains polynomial approximations to the excitation
and hierarchial decomposition[17],some improvements vectors and appropriate sampling weighting factors, the
have resulted. However, despite all the effort, these vector V contains node voltages and branch currents.
methods still experience great difficulty with medium Since the pk malices and components of the r.h. side
to large networks. Whilst attention has been focussed vector can only be assembled by numerical techniques,
on continuous-time analogue circuits, some work has closed form symbolic solutions for the system
ben carried out on the symbolic analysis of ideal SC responses are impossible to obtain. However, a
networks! 18] and only exploratory investigations have polynomial interpolation scheme provides a natural
been reported into the semi-symbolic analysis of non- solution, this can be summarised as follows:
ideal SC networks[19] and noise performance [20].
for(i=0; i<P; i++) ( /* P is polynomial degree */
The only realistic scheme for large networks of any solve T(Zi)V = W ;
type is a semi-symbolic one, when polynomials in s or
calculate D(Zi) = detT(Zi);
z or both, with purely numeric coefficients, are
N(z ) = D ( z ) V :
i i
generated. It is well known that generation of
polynomials by interpolation is a very efficient 1
technique. However, the generation of polynomials in DFT (FFT) to generate the numerator polynomial:
mixed variables (s,z) is really the basic requirement for DFT(FFT)to generate the denominator polynomial:
the analysis of non-ideal switched networks (SC or SI).
For a system like (1). the denominator of the transfer I P. H,,(z)
function can be determined bv (4)
-P : H (:)
J : LB:
D(.- .) = det(z .I- E) where E = P P _
J ( P,
1 M w r
Then
For continuous-time systems, the above procedures are
straightforward, in the switched network case some
care has to be taken. This can demonstrated in a H 2 1
H , 2 J J<*>:
simple 2-phase clock system when: The error resulting from evaluation of H t interpolated
ja>o { polynomials is given in F i g . l . graph (b) and shows a
I -P, H,(z)
(2) great improvement in accuracy. Table 1 shows this
zl H,(2) technique applied to a wide range of SC circuits and
B~<-
several deductions can be made. Potentially all
solving the matrix equation (2) gives (M is the number of time slots) need to be interpolated,
P,B f J(0O2 though some are zero in the majority of circuits and
2
H,(z)- B,e" interpretive code makes most matrix arithmetic

P P, 2
common. This approach effectively needs M solutions
H (z)
2 B e
2
/ M T
' +P B,e^' 2 of equation (1) at each sample frequency, whereas a
ZI-P2P1 numerical simulator such as SCNAP4[21] needs one
The denominator polynomial is obtained from solution for each frequency point required. The
D(z) = d e t ( z I - P P , ) 2
DFT(FFT) process takes much less time than the
and the numerators are determined by computation of sampled frequency responses. Once
all transfer functions have been interpolated, repetitive
(z) (z)
f"< U(i"' ] expression evaluation is more efficient than direct
matrix solution, though for multirate circuits the
{N (z))2 \H (Z)) 2
The numerator and denominator polynomials are then efficiency gains decrease because of the increased
generated by interpolation using a DFT(FFT). When number of transfer functions. The polynomial
the frequency response is evaluated from the resultant interpolation methods can preserve acuracy even in the
polynomials and compared with directly computed analysis of quite large circuits.
results, the error is quite considerable, even for small
circuits. For a small SC treble tone control filter, the 3. SYMBOLIC M E T H O D FOR NOISE
error reponse for one of the transfer functions is shown EVALUATION
in Fig. 1, graph (a). The reason for this is that
3 -s • r 12 By utilising transpose techniques, all transfer functions
from each noise source to the output can be obtained by
solving an adjoint system. The problem can be
formulated as
<t> = d ' T ' W ,;
Define the adjoint system as

T'X° = - d
The noise contribution of each noise source is then
calculated by.
1 1
T — — i — > — 1 — — r
10 20 30 40 Again, for a simple a 2-phase switched linear network,
Frequency! kHz) the adjoint system is
Fig 1. Error of H (o>) (a) direct interpolation,
2 I -pi X? dD,
(b) modified interpolation -p; zl d£> 2
fractional powers of z are intoduced by the time-slot where D are sin(x)/x factors.
k
weighting factors and if the polynomials are re-defined After two adjoint system solutions at one sampling
to account for this, very high orders result and low frequency, noise transfer functions can be interpolated
accuracy follows. There is a simple solution, again from:
consider a 2-phase system and separately excite each X
l _ X
l l X
I 2 ' U
'
time-slot:
V 2y X
*-21
D-
I - P i " "H„(z)-
(3) The total noise power spectral density at the output is
.H,,(z) 0 calculated by superposition
P m 10-
S (tt>) = ' S; (co — n c o )
T
I I <D, s
,=0 i =o'
where Sj(£2) is the ith input noiê source power
spectral density and p is the number of bands to be
considered. Two circuits were tested and the run time
statistics are illustrated in Table I I . These show that for
switched linear networks, the symbolic method for
noise evaluation is less efficient than its numerical
counterpart and an examination of the relative
theoretical computational costs w i l l provide an
explanation for this.
4. T H E O R E T I C A L COSTS OF EXPRESSION
PxMxM
E V A L U A T I O N AND M A T R I X SOLUTION
2
Fig.2b P M dependence of the
Two basic definitions are utilised. A flop (floating expression evaluation
point operation) is defined to be the time required for a
particular computer system to execute the C code theoretical factors when comparing the computational
A+=C*D efficiency of numerical and symbolic approaches.
Similarly, a trop (trigonometric function operation) is Generally, a > P which means expression evaluation is
the time required for execute another C code faster than numerical matrix solution. For instance
A+= B*cos(OD) with the treble tone control filter, these two factors can
In SCNAP4, the last time-slot matrix solution takes be calculated as follows
2
2
about 5 N flops, where N is the matrix dimension. The a = ( 2 x 2 + 3 ) x 8 =448
2
solutions of all other slots require another 2(M - 1)N 2
P = 9 x ( 2 x 4 x 2 ) = 288
flops, this makes a total of (2M + 3 ) N flops per 2 The ratio a : P = 0.09:0.06 which are the values in the
2 tf example entry in Table I . Since P increases
frequency point. Fig 2a shows clearly the (2M + 3 ) N
quadratically with respect to the number of time-slots,
dependence of matrix solution approach. For symbolic
2 expression evaluation for multirate circuits is expected
expression evaluation, the network has M transfer
2 to be less efficient than for 2-phase circuits.
functions to be calculated, it requires about 2 P M
2
trops where P is the polynomial degree. The P M
The total cost situation for noise analysis by expression
dependence of the expression evaluation is shown in evaluation becomes more significant. I f a circuit has
Fig. 2b m noise sources, the total cost is m/3. Now, in large
non-ideal switched linear networks where there are
10' many switches and other active devices, m is likely to
be very large, hence the application of symbolic
1 . techniques to noise analysis is not very feasible. This
10
trend can be seen in Table I I , where limited noise
evaluation at only 100 frequency points compares
10 1
poorly with full SCNAP4 noise analysis [22].
5. CONCLUSIONS
10"
An application of a semi-symbolic analysis method to
large non-ideal switched-linear networks is presented.
10"
z 3 4 3
Accuracy and speed are compared with an equivalent
10 10 10 10 10° numerical simulator. Noise calculation utilising
(2M+3)xNxN symbolic expression evaluation approach is proposed,
2
Fig. 2a (2M + 3 ) N dependence of but it is shown to be of limited efficiency.
matrix solution approach ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2 2
Let a = (2M + 3)N , P = Y(2PM ),where y is a
Financial support by the British Council and the State
computer system related constant. On a SUN-Sparc
Education Commission of PR China is gratefully
ELC station, one trop takes about nine times longer
acknowledged.
than one flop, therefore y = 9. a and (5 are two useful
REFERENCES numerical and symbolic parameters by using hybrid
decomposition method". Proc. I E E E ISCAS. Singapore,
[I] G. Gielen, H. Walscharts. W. Sansen. "ISAAC: a Jun. 1991, pp. 794-797
symbolic simulator for analog integrated circuit/'. IEEE [13] G. Gielen, P. Wanibacq. W. Sansen. " Symbolic
JSSC, vol. SC-24, no. 6. pp. 1587-1597. Dec. 1989 approximation strategies and the symbolic analysis of
(2] S. Seda, M. Degrauwe, W. Fichtner, "A symbolic analysis large and nonlinear circuits", Proc. I E E E ISCAS.
tool for analog circuit design automation", Proc. 1EF.F. Singapore, Jim. 1991. pp. 806-809
ICCAD. 1988. pp.488491 [I4[ S. -M. Chang. J. F. Mackay and G. M. Wierzbr. "Matrix
|3] A. Libertore, S. Manetti, "SAPEC - a personal computer reduction and numerical approximation during
program for the symbolic analysis of electronic circuits", computation techniques for symbolic analysis". Proc.
Proc. I E E E ISCAS. Helsinki, May 1988, pp. 897-900 I E E E ISCAS, San Diego. May 1992, pp. 1153-1156
[4] A. Konczykowska, M. Bon, "Automated design software [15] G. Gielen, P. Wambacq, W. M. Sansen," Symbolic
for switched-capacitor IC's with symbolic simulator analysis Methods and applications for analog circuits: A
S C Y M B A L " , Proc. DAC, Anaheim, 1988, pp.362-368 tutorial overview", Proc. I E E E , vol. 82, no. 2, pp. 287-
[5] S. -D. Shieu, S. -P. Chan, "Topological formulation of 304, Feb. 1994
symbolic network functions and sensitivity analysis of [16] F. V. Fernandez, P. Wambacq, G . Gielen, A. R.-
active networks", I E E E Trans. CAS, vol. CAS-21, no 1 Vasquez, W. M. Sansen, "Symbolic analysis of large
pp. 39-45, Jan. 1974 analog integrated circuits by approximation during
[6] G . E . Alderson, P. M. Lin, "Computer generation of expression generation", Proc. I E E E ISCAS, London.
symbolic network functions - new theory and Jun. 1994, pp. 1.25-1.28
implementation", I E E E Trans. CT, vol. CT-20, no.l, pp. [17] S. Jou, M. Perng, C . Su and C K. Wang, "Hierarchical
48-56, Jan. 1973 techniques for symbolic analysis of large electronic
[7] P. Sannuti, N. N. Puri, "Symbolic network analysis - an circuits", Proc. I E E E ISCAS. London, Jun. 1994. pp.
algebraic formulation", I E E E Trans. CAS, vol. CAS-27. 1.21- 1.24
no. 8, pp. 679-687, Aug. 1980 [18] D.G.Johnson and J.I.Sewell,"Improved z plane
[8J J . K . Fidler, J . I. Sewell, "Symbolic analysis for polynomial interpolative analysis of switched capacitor
computer-aided circuits design - the interpolative networks'" I E E E Trans.CAS. vol.CAS-31, no.7. pp.666-
approach", I E E E Trans. C T , vol. CT-20. no. 6, pp. 728- 668, 1984.
741, Nov. 1973 [19] C.K.Pun and J.I.Sewell, "Symbolic analysis of ideal and
[9] K. Singhal, J. Vlach, "Symbolic analysis of analog and non-ideal switched capacitor networks". Proc.IEEE
digital circuit", I E E E Trans. CAS, vol. CAS-24. no. 11, ISCAS, Kyoto, June 1985, pp. 1165-1168
pp. 598-609, Nov. 1977 [20] C.K.Pun, A.G.HalI and J.I.Sewell, "Noise analysis of
110) M. M. Hassoun, P. M. Lin, " A new network approach to switched capacitor netorks in symbolic form", Proc. 29th
symbolic simulation of large-scale networks", Proc. Midwest Symp., Lincoln.Na., August 1986, pp. 807-810
I E E E ISCAS, Portland, May 1989, pp. 806-809 [21] Z. Q. Shang, J. I. Sewell, "Efficient sensitivity analysis
[ I I ] M. M. Hassoun, " Hierarchical symbolic analysis of for large non-ideal switched capacitor networks", Pioc.
large-scale systems using a Mason's signal flow graph I E E E ISCAS, Chicago, May, 1993, pp. 1405-1407
model", Proc. I E E E ISCAS, Singapore, Jun.1991, pp. [22] Z. Q. Shang, J. I. Sewell, "Efficient noise analysis
802-805 methods for large non-ideal SC and SI circuits" Proc.
[12] T. Matsumoto, N. Nakayama, K. Tsuji, "Symbolic I E E E ISCAS, London, Jun., 1994, pp. 5.565-5.568
analysis for large networks and systems including both
circuit circuit No.of polyn. sample DFT expr. cal. SCNAP4 peak err
name size slots degree (sec)^ (sec) (100 pts) (100 pts) (dB)
spft 112 24 20 241.14 16.42 23.61 89.06 le-8
lplO 60 16 15 24.26 4.46 7.25 17.99 le-9
nosl 1 48 4 15 1.17 0.33 0.59 3.47 le-5
b 8
P 43 2 11 0.20 0.06 0.15 1.70 le-9
bp6 36 2 10 0.15 0.04 0.06 1.18 le-6
nos5 24 4 8 0.27 0.12 0.31 0.88 le-11
bp2 15 2 5 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.23 le-10
tf 8 2 4 0.03 0.01 0.06 0.09 le-14
int 5 2 2 <0.01 0.01 0.04 0.07 le-14
Table I . Performance of the polynomial interpolation method

circuit circuit No.of polyn. sample DFT symbolic. SCNAP4
name size slots degree (sec) (sec) (sec) (sec)
tf 8 2 4 0.04 0.07 >1.03 0.09
bp6 36 2 10 0.80 1.59 >7.74 2.11
Table I I . Run lime statistics of symbolic method for noise evaluation.

473
PAPER 58
474
Accepted f o r I.E.E.E. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium o n Circuits and Systems, Seattle, May 1995
A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH FOR LADDER BASED

SWITCHED-CURRENT FILTER DESIGN
Lu Yue and JJ.Sewel!

University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8LT, Scotland, U . K
Tel: +44-141-3304253, Fax: +44-141-330 4907,
EMail: sewell@elec.glasgow.ac.uk, luyue@elec.glasgow.ac.uk
ABSTRACT where V and J are vectors representing the nodal

voltages and input current source and G, C and V are
A systematic approach for ladder based switched- matrices representing the contributions of conductors,
current (SI) filter design is described. Low sensitivity capacitors and inductors respectively. To improve circuit
and low parameter spread SI circuits realised by both realisation efficiency, alternating signs are introduced in
existing and novel structures can be derived from the V i.e, let V = [ V i -V2 V3 -V4 ] . This ensures that
proposed approach The method can be applied to all the all the entries in (1) are positive. Since the operational
filter types and is well suited for computer aided blocks in SI circuits process currents, all prototype
implementation. Techniques to improve dynamic range variables must be transformed to current variables using
and reduce circuit parameter spread are also presented. a scaling resistor (chosen to be 1 Q for convenience).
A lOth-order bandpass filter is used to demonstrate the The equation (1) then can be represented as
utility of the approach.
(sC + s~'r + G ) I = J (2)
1. INTRODUCTION After bilinear transformation

1
2 1 - z"
In recent years much research has been directed towards (3)
the development of switched-current filters. In this
T l + z"'
equation (2) becomes
paper, we present a systematic approach for ladder SI
filter design. The method can produce eight different 2 1-z"' T l + z"
realisation structures from one prototype ladder, all C + r + G I = (l + z-')J (3)
maintain the low sensitivity property, but demonstrate a
T l + z" 2 1
range of maximum ratios of transistor aspect ratios and Multiplying the system through by ( l + z ~ ' ) / ( l - z " ' ) and
the sums . The designer can sleet the smallest maximum some manipulation gives
ratio of transistor aspect rauos to maintain accuracy in
realisation and the minimum sum to obtain low power - A + y f + D I = (l + z-')J (4)
and small area realisations. The familiar leapfrog SI
design method used by many filter designers is shown to where
be a special case within the general structures. The
approach is an exact simulation of a prototype ladder and
(4a)
does not involve any approximation [1-2]. The bilinear 1-z-
transformation is adopted, but use of bilinear integrators 1
is avoided, this leads to simplification of existing circuit <t>= (4b)
structures [3-4]. The approach is totally general and 1-z-
applicable to any filter type (lowpass, bandpass, 2 T
bandstop, highpass and allpass) without recourse to A=-C+-r-G (4c)
special techniques [5-6]. Moreover, the approach is very T 2
suitable for computer aided implementation and has B = 2TT (4d)
already been implemented in a filter design system. D = 2G (4e)
The operators \|/ and <]> can now be realised by SI
building blocks. However equation (4) is still a second
2. M A T R I X BASED SWITCHED-CURRENT
order equation. To implement an SI filter, equation (4)
F I L T E R DESIGN
needs to be decomposed into two first order equations by
the introduction of a vector of intermediate variables. A
A passive ladder can be represented by the matrix
typical second-generation SI memory cell based first
equation
order SI building block as shown in Fig.l is used in the
(sC + s~T + G ) V = J (i) implementation of each first order equation. It has a
transfer function:
(5) Lcft-LU Decomposition
Let A = LU (where L and U arc the lower and upper
triangular matrices respectively) then Eq.(8) becomes
L W = (v|/B+D)I-(l+z-i).I (9a)
UI = -<t>W (9b)
Left-UL Decomposition
If A is decomposed as A = U L . the system design
equations are
(a)Typical circuit (b) Block symbol
UW = (i|)B+D)I-(l+z-').l (10a)
Fig.l SI Filter First Order Building Block
LI=-<)>W (10b)
In practice, any enhanced type memory cell can be
employed to form a first order building block, such as Left-IA Decomposition
cascode, regulated cascode, folded cascode, or class AB For the case A = I A , the design equations are
U
memory cells. W = (\)/B+D)I-(l+z- )J 1

(Ha)
A I = -<{>W (lib)
2.1. LEFT MATRIX DECOMPOSITION
APPROACH Left-Ai Decomposition
If A = A I . the following equations are obtained
U
Either the A or the B matrix can be factorised, leading to 1

AW = (yB+D)I-(l+z" )J (12a)
left and right decomposition respectively. Factorise the
I=-<|>W (12b)
matrix A into
A = A]A r (6) After matrix scaling, the input current J i in Fig.2 can be
The eqn.(4) can be expressed as represented as
1
AiX = -(\(fB+D)I+(l+z- )J (7a)
Jl=k(l+z-')Ji n (13)
A I = <)>X
r (7b)
For convenience in circuit realisation, let W = - X . and where J j is prototype ladder input current and k is a
n
equation (7) becomes
constant. The schematic diagram for the realisation of J i
1
A | W = (\|/B+D)I-(l+z- )J ySa) is shown in Fig.3(a) and a suitable circuit realisation is
A I = -$W
r (8b) given in Fig.3(b).
where W is the vector of intermediate variables. Using
the building block in Fig.l, equations (8) can be realised
by SI circuits. The one-to-one correspondence between
the circuit elements and the matrix entries indicates that
I 1 1
T,
the efficiency of the SI implementation is related to the .St
T, Tl
sparsity of the system matrices. To maintain the sparsily J
of the matrices, the well known L U , U L , or the direct
methods which decompose matrix A into A I „ or I A
( I is the identity matrix ) can be used. A standard
u
representation of the circuit produced by left

U
(a)
Ml 1
H (b)
1
decomposition of a typical 6th-order matrix system is Fig.3 Left Decomposition Input Factor SI Realisation
shown in Fig.2.
2.2. R I G H T M A T R I X DECOMPOSITION
APPROACHES
ITT IE Matrix B can also be factorised as

B = BiB r (14)
which leads to a group of right matrix decomposition
G3 methods. The following pair of equations is equivalent to
Eq.(4).
1 1
A I = -<t>(Bi\V+DI)+J( 1 + r ) / ( 1 -z- ) (15a)
W = \|/Brl (15b)
Fig.2 6th-order Left Decomposition SI Structure From equations (15a) and (15b). a typical 6th-order
system realisation structure can be obtained as shown in
Four relevant left decompositions follow: Fig.4.
476
3. CIRCUIT SCALING FOR SI FILTERS

Bin W, B,,, W, B,,,
Two kinds of scaling are involved in the mairix design
A23V3-
A V
P 2
A,,V :
approach, these are maximum dynamic range scaling and
A V, -
minimum transistor ratio scaling. Scaling within a
2 I
1 general mairix system is very straightforward, for !ef!

and right decomposition methods, the equation
- *A MX = J (23)
can be utilised.
Fig.5 6th-order Right Decomposition SI Structure In the dynamic range scaling phase, a frequency sweep
analysis of the Filter passband is performed, to determine
Four right decompositi ns follow: the maximum signal levels of the internal currents.
Scaling can be done by multiplying column j of M by the
Righl-LU Decomposition maximum value of the variable X j for all variables in X.
If B is decomposed as B=LU, the design equations are This is equivalent to creating a new variable X j / X j a x -
m
A I = -((((LW+DD+JO+z-'yO-z- ) (16a) 1 where Xjmax

is the maximum value attained by Xj.
W = yU (16b)
For the lowpass case, the Right-LU Decomposition The ratio of maximum to minimum element value in M
results in identical circuit structures to those derived by determines the transistor aspect ratios in SI circuit. For
a leapfrog approach. each row of equation in (21), a minimum entry can be
found. By dividing each entry in the same row by the
Right-UL Decomposition smallest entry, a scaled equation is obtained. The
Let B=UL, the system design equal ons become ; transistor aspect ratio can be reduced as long as the
1 1 maximum and minimum elements are not within the
A I = -0(UW+DI)+J( 1 +z- )/(1 -z- ) (17a)
same row of equations.
W = \yL (17b)
Right-IB Decomposition 4. DESIGN E X A M P L E

If B=IB, the system design equations are
1 1
The design method for ladder SI filter has already been
A I = -<)>(BW+DI)+J( 1 +z" )/(1 -r ) (18a) implemented in XFILT[7]. An example of lOth-order
W = \)/I (18b) bandpass filter is given here to show the utility of the
approach. The filter has 1.5dB passband ripple with
Right-Bl Decomposition passband extending from 800kHz to 1.2MHz, 50dB
For B = B I . the following design equations are obtained stopband attenuation and a sampling frequency of
1 1
A I = -<t>(IW+DI)+J( 1+z" )/(1-z- ) (19a) 10MHz. The matrix entries translate directly to ratios
W = yB (19b) of transistor width/length ratios (elsewhere called circuit
coefficient values or simply g ratios). Comparative
m
The input current J1 in Fig.5 is design results are shown in Table I, where the Left-UL
l + z~ is seen to be the most efficient realisation. By trying the
J1 = J, (20) all design methods, we can achieve, about 39.04%
1-z"
This can be realised by any bilinear SI integrator. Fig.5 reduction in g spread and 38.73% reduction in g
m m
is (he realisation structure based on the basic building sum. The simulated Left-UL circuit response is shown
block in Fig. 1. in Fig.6 and Fig.7 shows the circuit schematic with the
biasing circuits omitted. To compare the sensitivity
performance, the total multiparameter sensitivity
simulation over all gms has been carried out. The
sensitivity simulation results of a comparative biquad
realisation, having a maximum g spread of 63.78, are
m
also presented in Fig.8. It is clear that the ladder based

design demonstrates lower passband sensitivity,
especially in the vicinity of the corner frequencies.
Fig.5 Right Decomposition Input Factor SI Realisation
[7] L u Yue. R.K.Henderson, and J.I.Sewell, " X F I L T : An
Inlegs SWs g Spread g Sum
m m
X-window based modern filter and equaliser design
Left-LU 10 34 16.32 813.04 system". Proc. E C C T D ' 9 3 . 11th European Conf. on
Circuit Theory and Design. Davos, pp.305-310. Auaust
Left-UL 10 34 14.55 727.02
1993
Left-IA 10 34 21.93 1038.44
Left-AI 10 34 18.83 909.01
Right-LU 12 36 16.11 830.77
Right-UL 12 36 18.00 923.38
Right-IB 12 36 23.87 1186.68
Right-BI 12 36 16.11 836.49
Table I. Comparative design results for lOth-order
bandpass SI filters
5. CONCLUSION
0.OO«*O 5.00«*5 | ;o**6 I 50..6 2.00«*6
Frcqucocf (Hi)
A new approach to realise exact ladder based SI filters
has been presented. The bilinear transformation is used
in the design procedures. Eight different SI ladder based Fig.6 10th-order bandpass SI filler response
structures can be obtained from one prototype ladder.
Therefore it provides SI filter designers with a choice of
circuit realisations based on different requirements such
as power, area, maximum transistor aspect ratios,
sensitivity or noise performance. Techniques to improve ES T
_, ? s ea I a lis a
dynamic range and reduce circuit parameter spread are

also presented. The proposed approach is well suited for
a computer implementation and is already incorporated
• T
i i [• E3 B BJ T
i • EE3 13
into the XFILT filter design system.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1
Financial support by Science and Engineering Research

Zli Q n B a ' ra B E
Council, UK and Department of Trade and Industry. UK

is gratefully acknowledged.
1
| T
: • O B ) E22 E3 ' E3 B I D
REFERENCES
[1] G.W.Roberts, and A.S.Sedra, "Synthesising

switched-current filters by transposing the SFG of E3
a a
switched-capacitor filter circuits", IEEE Trans. CAS .
Vol.CAS-38, No.3, pp.337-340. March 1991
[2] T.S.Fiez, and D.J.Allstot.TMOS switched-current Fig.7 Circuit schematic realisation of SI filter
ladder filters", IEEE J. of Solid-State Circuits, Vol.25.
No.6, pp. 1360-1367. December 1990
[3] I.Song and G.Robert, "A 5th order bilinear switched-
current Chebyshev filler", Proc. 1993 IEEE ISCAS,
Chicago, pp. 1097-1100, May 1993
[4] N.C.Battersby and C.Toumazou, "A 5th order
bilinear elliptic switched-current filter", Proc. 1993 IEEE
Custom Integrated Circuit Conference, San Diego,
pp.6.3.1-6.3.4. 1993
[5] A.C.M.de Queiroz and P.R.M.Pinheiro. "Exact
design of switched-current ladder filters", Proc. 1992 7 0«*S 9.0a*S I li.e
IEEE ISCAS. San Diego, pp.855-858. May 1992 Frequency (Hi)
[6] A.C.M.de Queiroz and P.R.M.Pinheiro, "Switched-
current ladder bandpass filters", Proc. 1994 IEEE
ISCAS, London, pp.5.309-5.312. June 1994 Fig.8 Sensitivity simulation of the SI bandpass filter
4?8
PAPER 5 9
Accepted for l.E.E.E. International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Seattle, May 1995
M U L T I R A T E S C AND SI F I L T E R S Y S T E M D E S I G N
BY X F I L T
Lu Yue and J.I.Sewell
— •- Department of ElecffomcsancTElectric^'Engineefirig
Glasgow G12 8LT, U.K
Tel: +44-141-3304253, Fax: +44-141-330 4907
EMail: sewell@elec.glasgow.ac.uk,luyue@elec.glasgow.ac.uk
ABSTRACT
Strategies and algorithms for multirate SC and SI filter interpolator. Fig.3.

design are presented in this paper. By using analogue
multirate signal processing techniques, much more SilliMDiti SnwtiiDg
V«jl
efficient SI or S C circuit realisations can be obtained. DmoSer lBtrpdtter Hhr

Fttir
The paper shows how multirate systems can be
synthesized within the filler design system XFILT. Fig.3 Multirate System With a Decimator and Interpolator
1. INTRODUCTION To obtain much further reductions of the area,

component spread and speed requirements; a multistage,
Analogue multirate signal processing techniques have multirate decimator and interpolator structure was
developed in order to address some of the problems developed. Fig.4. This structure also yields considerable
encountered in the progress towards sinê chip savings in power consumption^].
realisation of communication front-end systems and the
extension to high frequency applications. The main aim ispHDt
of multirate S C systems is to relax the specifications Fkr team I ! Flkr
of the anti-aliasing filters and the speed of some

Fig.4 Multirate System With Multistage Decimator
amplifiers, and also reduce the total capacitance and
and Interpolator
spread in narrow bandpass filters[l-3]. The interest in
multirate SI systems is driven by similar arguments Alternatively, another structure shown in Fig.5 can
regarding containment of parameter spread and sum, and also be used to optimise the system performance.
pre-filtering requirements.
tapMMi
2. M U L T I R A T E S Y S T E M STRUCTURE rib ltr
ViD Voul Fig.5 Another multirate system
AoU>aTuuiog SampM Data SmootAiDg
FSlsr Filter The decimators and interpolators have numerous
Fig.l An analogue sampled-data filter system implementations and the sampled data filter realisations
divide into ladder-based and biquad configurations, each
The typical structure of an analogue sampled-data filter with a variety of circuit implementations in SC and SI.
system, is illustrated in Fig.l. Traditionally only one The scope for optimisation at the system level is quite
clock frequency was employed in these systems. To apparent and the multirate extensions to X F I L T [5]
improve system performance and reduce the cost, the attempt to address this.
sampled data filter can be a cascade of several sampled
3. M U L T I R A T E S Y S T E M DESIGN
data filters using different sampling frequencies, as
STRATEGIES
shown in Fig.2. Most popularly, the sampled data filter
Via
Aoti-iliaat SinMDiU Signal [Mi Various strategies for decomposing the design into
Fiur Fttur!
RlWn
multirate and multistage sections are known. An
alternative scheme can be developed by consdering
Fig.2 Multirate System With Multistage Filters Fig.6 where a decimator implements a sampling rate
decrease from M F to F and an interpolator
S s
following the anti-aliasing filter becomes a decimaior implements a sampling rate increase from F to L F . s S
and the final sampled data filter becomes an

as low sampling frequency and high sampling frequency
pans.
Sampled DaU Film
C! Hlltr Hl(z) = Hn w(z)Hlhigh(z)

0 (10)
HFi'Fi Fi/Lfi and
raw Fi
Uili) IWrti Rtl)
HD<z) = H low(z)H high(z)
D D (")
Hill
Therefore the whole system transfer function can be
expressed as
Fig.6 Multirate system design example
H(z) = HDhigh(z)HDlow(z)HsD(z)Hllow(z)Hihi h(z) g
The transfer function of any decimator or interpolator (12)

can be expressed as
Instead of following the traditional way by designing
b +b z-'+b z- +...+b z- 2 K the decimator, SD filter and interpolator in straight
H ( - ) 0 1 2 K
d / l _1 2 N
(1) cascade, a new design methodology is proposed
' l + a,z +a z~ +...+a z~ 2 N
consisting of two FIR filters with the higher sampling
frequency and one IIR filter with the lower sampling
where the unit delay period corresponds to the high frequency whose transfer function is
sampling period 1/MF in decimator case or 1/LFs in S
the interpolator case. A well known modification of the HF(Z) = HDIow(z)Hsc(z)Hllow(z) (13)
original z-transfer function (1) leads to [6].
Correction of sin(x)/x effects is generally required in
N(M-I)
multirate designs and this is readily facilitated by
1
(bo + ^ z " + b z - + . . . + b z - ) 2
2
K
K c
X i "' z
XFILT within one section .
:
H d / i (z)
l + d,z- 1 M
+ d,z- 2 M
+ ... d z' + v
= K
"' 4. M U L T i R A T E F I L T E R DESIGN
(2) EXAMPLE
Hd/i(z) can be decomposed into two parts. Decompose
4.1 SI BANDPASS FILTER DESIGN
Hd/i(z) as:
Hd/i(z) = Hi(z)H2(z) (3) A simple example will illustrate the improvements that
where can be obtained in SI filter design. A video frequency
N(M-n bandpass filter with a passband from 4.25MHz to
z K
H , ( z ) = ( b + b , z ' ' + b z ~ + . . . + b z ~ ) J^z
0 2 K 6.8MHz, stopbands from 0.1 Hz to 3.75MHz and from
i=0 7.25MHz to 60MHz. passband ripple 2dB and stopband
(4) attenuation 30dB, can be realised by an 8th-order
and elliptic filter using a cascade of four SI biquads with a
single sampling frequency of 72MHz. Two critical
H (z) = 2
parameters in the circuit realisation of SI filters are gm
1 M 2 M N M
Ud z- 1 + d z- 2 + ... d z- + N spread (deriving from the spread of transistor aspect
(5) ratios) and g sum. A small g spread will maintain
m m
the accuracy of Filter response and a small g sum will

m
H((z) is of FIR transfer function form with sampling lead to a lower power consumption. The design results
frequency M F and can be realised by a FIR decimator
C are given in Table 1. To reduce the spread of transistor
structure. H2(z) is of the IIR transfer function form aspect ratio and gm sum, a multirate multistage
with sampling frequency F and can be realised by an s
structure is adopted as shown in Fig.7, where the
HR decimator. lowpass filter has a 72MHz sampling frequency and the
highpass filter has a sampling frequency of 36MHz.
The transfer function for the whole sampled data system The lowpass filter also has an anti-aliasing function up
is to 67MHz. The lowpass filter is realised by cascaded
H(z) = H D ( Z ) H S D W H I ( Z ) (9) biquads and has a g sum of 547.81 units and a g
m m
sprvjd of 26.19. The highpass filter is a ladder derived

where H D ( Z ) represents the decimator transfer function. structure and has a gm sum of 437.42 and a g spread m
Z r
HSD( ) f ° middle filter transfer function and H](z) for of 19.79. The overall multirate SI system has a gm
the interpolator transfer function. For the decimator and sum of 985.23 and a g spread of 26.19. The
m
interpolator, the transfer function can also be expressed multirate design technique has reduced the g sum by m
4 81
40.0% and the g spread by 86.4%.

m The overall rate clock of 320kHz. Design 2 obtains an optimum
frequency response is given in Fig.8. total capacitance and capacitance spread, with a
reduction of 8dB of the signal handling capability of the
Vin SC filter[4] and Design 3 is without loss of signal
Lowpass Higbpass handling capability[4]. Design 4 is a multirate system
--72MHz- 3€MHz produced by XF1LT. here the SC bandpass filter is
realised by a ladder structure and the decimator and
Fig.7 Multirate bandpass SI filter system
interpolator are implemented by cascading F-dampcd
g Spread biquads. From Table II it can be seen that multirate
m g Sum
m
systems have significant advantages over a single rate
Single Rate 192.78 1651.73
system in capacitance spread. Design 4 also leads to
Multirate 26.19 985.23
64.86% and 39.19% reductions in capacitance spread
Table I. SI Filter Design Results and total capacitance respectively. Figs. 10(a) and (b)
give the filter responses around midband and over a
20 wide frequency band. The cosl of a multirate structure is
the introduction of more opamps, switches and clock
waveforms.
•o -20 Total C C OPs No. No. No.

Spread C SW Clock
3 -<0
WF
Design 1 717.35 221.23 6 25 32 2
E -60 Design 2 972.50 87.80 12 57 75 9
Design 3 1002.3 151.10 12 57 75 9
-80 57
Design 4 436.36 77.73 14 72 4
Table 2. Comparison of Baseband Bandpass Filter
'00 I • I • I •
0.0e*0 4.06*6 8.0A+6 1.26+7 Design
Frequency (Hi)
20
Fig.8 SI multirate bandpass filter response
4.2. NARROW BANDPASS BASEBAND FILTER DESIGN
The design of a narrow band SC bandpass filter is often

complicated by large capacitance spread. One solution
is shown in Fig.9. The centre bandpass filter with low
sampling frequency will reduce capacitance ratio but
18000 IOOOO 20000 21000 22000
give rise to unwanted alias and image frequency- Frequency (Hz)
translated components at low frequencies, which have
(a)
to be attenuated using an anti-aliasing filter and an anti-
imaging filter, respectively, with increased selectivity.
The design example [4] here is a bandpass filter with

maximum ripple 0.28dB, desired midband frequency is SO
20kHz, and corresponding -3dB bandwidth is 480Hz. It
is required that a minimum rejection of 40dB of the
alias signals up to 300kHz. Below 300kHz, the oo
frequency bands of the input continuous-time spectrum
thai relate to the desired system passband have to be
1 SO J
attenuated, also by a minimum of 40dB. O lOOOOO 200000 300000 4OOOO0
Frequency (Hz)
Input Decimator
SC Filter
Interpolator
L=4
(b)
M=4
Fig.10 Frequency response of baseband filter
fs:320kHz fs:80kHl fs:.U0kHz
4.3 SINGLE-PATH FREQUENCY-TRANSLATED
Fig.9 Baseband bandpass filter system SWTTCHED-CAPACTTOR BANDPASS FILTER SYSTEM
Table II shows the comparison of three different design The single-path frequency-translated (SPFT) approach is
results. Design 1 is a traditional design using a single a paricularly effective solution to the very narrow band
filler problem. The basic design performance 5.CONCLUSION
parameters for a typical 80Hz bandwidth filter at 20
kHz are quoted from [1] and shown in Table 3. where
Design 1 is a single rate realisation, and Design 2 a In this paper, some strategies and algorithms for
multirate implementation. The parameters of the multirate SC and SJ_ filter design by XF1LT have been
scheme produced by XFTLT are given as Design J."and presented. Several design examples demonstrate the
the overall system is shown in Fig.l 1. utility of the multirate X F I L T in producing improved
solutions to difficult filter problems.
[npul DtdDBtcr lotopcietor
Flltr M=12 Pltir
SC Filer
ft:U&Hi 16UU'
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Fig.l 1 SPFT Bandpass Filter System
The first and last filters are simple 2nd order bandpass Financial support by Science and Engineering Research
sections, the decimator and interpolator both have Council, UK and Department of Trade and Industry. UK
bandpass characteristics and the centre filter is ladder is gratefully acknowledged.
derived. Only 4 clock waveforms are used and the
whole structure is strays-free.
REFERENCES
0
20 [1] J.E.Franca and D.G.Haigh,"Design and applications

of single-path frequency-translated switched-capacitor
-40
systems", I E E E Trans. C A S , vol.CAS-35, No.4.
pp.394-408, April 1988
-80 [2] J.E.Franca and R.P.Martins,"IIR Switched-capacitor
decimator building blocks with optimum
80 fri i ^ i fri » JBJ s j y a ^ n ^ n y i a ^ tfi i | n , implementation," I E E E Trans. C A S , vol.CAS-37,
19400 19800 19800 20000 2 0 2 0 0 20400 20600 No.l, pp.81-90, January 1990
Frequency (III)
[3] C.Ouslis, M.Snelgrove and A.S.Sedra,"Multi-rate
(a) switched capacitor filter design with aggressive
sampling-rates:filtor X in action", Proc. I E E E
ISCAS'92, San Diego, pp.1183-1186
[4] J.E.Franca, Switched Capacitor Systems for Narrow
Bandpass Filtering, Ph.D Thesis, Imperial College.
k
SO 1985
[5] Lu Yue, R.K.Henderson, J.I.Sewell, " X F I L T : An
X-window Based Modern Filter and Equaliser Design
s -100 System", European Conference on Circuit Theory and
ISO
0 50000 100000
Frequency (Hit
i
t50000
Design, Davos, Switzerland, Aug. 1993, pp.305-310.
[6] R.Crochiere and L.Rabiner,"Multirate digital signal
processing", Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, 1983
(b)
Fig. 12 SPFT system response
Total C C Spread No. OP No. C No.SW No. Clock

WF
Design 1 7942.70 1396.00 6 25 32 2
Design 2 1147.6 87.8 13 64 1 13 17
Design 3 434.39 66.22 14 59 78 4
Table 3. Comparison of SPFT System Realisation

Analogue Filter Networks, Developments in Theory, Design and Analysis (1995) [J.I. Sewell]

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Durham E-Theses

Analogue lter networks: developments in theory,

• a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses

B.Sc. (Dunelm), Ph.D. (Newcastle-upon-Tyne)

C.Eng., F.I.E.E., F.I.E.E.E.

The copyright of this thesis rests w i t h the author.

No quotation from it should be published without

his prior written consent and information derived

A submission to the University of Durham

for admission to the degree of

against you, and disputed the passage with you?"

Walt Whitman, 1819-1892

This work is dedicated to the female members of my family:

Ruth Sewell - my wife: having an appreciation of scholarship, maintains my "disputed

Anna and Deborah Sewell - my daughters: as yet without an understanding of scholarship,

seem set to continue my "disputed passage".

3. Statement of Contribution and Originality

4. Publications on Active Filter Synthesis and CAD

5. Publications on Network Analysis and CAD

6. Publications on Communication Circuit Design

7. Publications on the Analysis and Design of Sigma-Delta Modulator Systems

8. Publications on Educational Initiatives

9. Papers under Review

Name: JOHN ISAAC SEWELL

1947 - 51 Winton Primary School, Cumbria.

1951 - 53 Soulby Primary School, Cumbria.

1953 - 55 Appleby Grammar School, Cumbria.

1955 - 60 Kirkby Stephen Grammar School, Cumbria.

G.C.E. 'O' Level 1958 G.C.E. ' A ' Level 1960

1959 English language

October 1960 - June 1962 Sunderland Technical College

October 1962 - June 1963 King's College, University

October 1963 - September 1966 University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne

October 1966 - Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering.

The work was supported by an S.R.C.

July - October 1963 System Computers Ltd., Gateshead.

October 1966 - September 1968 University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

October 1968 - September 1976 University of Hull.

October 1976 - September 1984 University of Hull

October 1984 - September 1985 University of Hull

October 1985 - present time University of Glasgow.

September 1990 - 1993 University of Glasgow

May 1995 - July 1995 University of Toronto

5. Professional Qualifications and Distinctions

Fellow of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, Chartered Engineer.

6. University Teaching Duties

1968- 1985 Third Year Course - Telecommunications 40 hrs/year

1979- 1983 First Year Laboratory - 120 hrs/year

1985 - 1986 Fourth Year Course - Control 20 hrs/year

1986- 1989 First Year Course - Electrical Engineering 20 hrs/year

1986- 1994 Fourth Year Course- Signal Processing 20 hrs/year

1989- 1993 Second Year Course- Electrical Engineering 20 hrs/year

1988- 1990 Engineering Applications Laboratory 4 hrs/year

1968- 1990 Tutorials

1969 - 1990 Final Year Project Supervision

7. University Research Duties

Supervisor of the following research students:

C. Fridas M.Sc. awarded 1973

L.G. Grant Ph.D. " 1978

F.G.A. Coupe Ph.D. " 1980

C. Lau M.Sc. " 1982

C.K. Pun Ph.D. " 1987

L.B. Wolovitz - Ph.D. " 1987

R.K. Henderson - Ph.D. " 1990

Analogue lter networks: developments in theory,