The Moderating Role of Individualism Collectivism

Journal of Food Products Marketing
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The Moderating Role of Individualism/Collectivism

and Materialism: An Application of the Theory of
Planned Behavior (TPB) in Halal Food Purchasing
Afzaal Ali, Mehkar Sherwani, Adnan Ali, Zeeshan Ali & Shahid Sherwani
To cite this article: Afzaal Ali, Mehkar Sherwani, Adnan Ali, Zeeshan Ali & Shahid Sherwani
(2020) The Moderating Role of Individualism/Collectivism and Materialism: An Application
of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) in Halal Food Purchasing, Journal of Food Products
Marketing, 26:9, 581-599, DOI: 10.1080/10454446.2020.1846148
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10454446.2020.1846148
Published online: 11 Nov 2020.
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JOURNAL OF FOOD PRODUCTS MARKETING
2020, VOL. 26, NO. 9, 581–599
https://doi.org/10.1080/10454446.2020.1846148
The Moderating Role of Individualism/Collectivism and

Materialism: An Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior
(TPB) in Halal Food Purchasing
Afzaal Alia, Mehkar Sherwanib, Adnan Alic, Zeeshan Alid, and Shahid Sherwanie
a
Department of Marketing, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan; bBusiness School, University of
International Business and Economics, Beijing, China; cSchool of Management, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China;
d
School of Economics and Management, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, China; eSchool of Management and
Engineering, ZhengZhou University, Zhengzhou, China
ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the determinants of halal meat Individualism/collectivism;
consumption within Chinese and German Muslims population using the materialism; halal food;
Theory of Planned Behavior as a conceptual framework. The role of the China; Germany; TPB
cultural dimension of individualism/collectivism and materialism is explored.
A quantitative research methodology using an online questionnaire survey
was used. Data were collected from 650 consumers mainly originating from
Turkey and currently living in China and Germany. A positive personal
attitude toward the consumption of halal meat, motivation to comply with
others, the perceived control over consuming halal meat, and the availability
of halal meat predicts the intention to eat halal meat among Muslims’
consumers. This article extends the rare literature analyzing Chinese and
German consumers’ inclination to buy halal food. It also extends the under
standing of the role of individualism/collectivism and materialism as mod
erators of antecedents of consumers’ purchasing intentions for halal meat.
Introduction
No doubt, Islam is the fastest-growing religion due primarily to the young age and high fertility rate of
Muslims (Lipka & Hackett, 2017; Sadiq, 2019). Today, there are approximately 1.9 billion Muslims in
the world (World Population Review, February 17, World Population Review, 2020). Moreover, as of
2010, Muslims represented an estimated 23% of the world population of 6.8 billion, close to a quarter
of the world’s population as well as making Islam the world’s second-largest religion behind
Christianity. Furthermore, it is projected that this figure will grow to 2.8 billion or 30% of the world’s
population by 2050 (Drew DeSilver & Masci, January 31, 2017; Pew Research Center, 2015). Just like
numbers, the consumer market of halal food appears as a promising global market to respond to
Muslims’ needs for halal products (Amalia, Sosianika, & Suhartanto, 2020). For instance, according to
the Global Islamic Economy 2019/20 report, Muslim spends on food and beverage was valued at 1.4
USD trillion in 2018 and forecast to reach 2.0 USD trillion by 2024 (Salama, November 11, 2019).
Islam like many other religions prescribes a set of dietary guiding principles for its followers to
follow (Bonne, Vermeir, Bergeaud-Blackler, & Verbeke, 2007; Huda, 2019). As a general rule, Islamic
dietary law makes a distinction between food and drink that are halal and those that are haram, as
prescribed in the Holy Quran (Abu-Hussin, Johari, Hehsan, & Mohd Nawawi, 2017; Ali, Ali, Xiaoling,
& Sherwani, 2018; Huda, 2019). Halal (Arabic: halāl ‫ )حلال‬is an Arabic word that translates to
_
permissible, lawful, permitted, allowed, approved and legal into English (Abd-Latif, Mohamed,
Sharifuddin, Abdullah, & Ismail, 2014; Abu-Hussin et al., 2017). The word halal in the Holy Quran
CONTACT Afzaal Ali afzaal.ali@iiu.edu.pk Department of Marketing, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan
© 2020 Taylor & Francis
582 A. ALI ET AL.
is contrasted with haram, which means unlawful, forbidden, or prohibited (Alam & Sayuti, 2011; Ali,
Xiaoling, Sherwani, & Ali, 2017). Therefore, Muslim only consumes foods that are aligned with their
religious principles as the Holy Quran specifically instructs Muslims to only consume halal food (Ali
et al., 2017; Zailani, Jafarzadeh, Iranmanesh, Nikbin, & Selim, 2018).
As a relatively large number of Muslims also live in non-Muslim countries, therefore, several
producers and suppliers of famous consumer goods in Western countries have entered in the halal
industry to take advantage of fast-growing consumer market segment (Hong, Sun, Beg, & Zhou, 2019;
Wilkins, Butt, Shams, & Pérez, 2019). For instance, Australia’s leading supermarket chain,
Woolworths has launched its own Al-Sadiq halal brand (Moore, 19 January 2019). Similarly, Italian
chocolate company Ferrero is now offering 33 halal-certified products and is planning to convert all
factories as per halal-certified standards within the next few years (Neo, 05 March 2019). Moreover,
a famous Japanese restaurant operator Zensho Holdings acquired Malaysia’s halal chain. The Chicken
Rice Shop (TCRS) to make an entry in the halal food business (The Thomson Reuters, June 12, 2019).
Furthermore, Tesco in the UK, Carrefour in France, Walmart in the US have dedicated halal sections
in their stores (Wilkins et al., 2019). Also, many other restaurants and fast food companies such as
McDonald’s and KFC have standardized their products by switching to halal to satisfy the Muslim
market segment in Western countries (Awan, Siddiquei, & Haider, 2015; Wilkins et al., 2019).
These trends signify that the demand for halal products in 50 Muslim (Hackett & Huynh June 22,
2015), as well as non-Muslim countries, is expected to increase manifolds. As a result, the expansion of
the halal market can create an everlasting opportunity for local and international business organiza
tions to mushroom and gain market share (Awan et al., 2015; Wilkins et al., 2019). In that vein,
specifically, international business organizations are pursuing a risk-free growth strategy in the global
halal market, because the majority of Muslim consumers who are religiously committed will always
purchase halal products no matter where they are in the world (Ali et al., 2017; Zailani et al., 2018).
Religion shapes consumer attitude, norms, and behavior. Therefore, consumers show greater
satisfaction when businesses acknowledge and pay attention to religious differences, because the social
meaning of a product may not be the same in different religions. A product’s religious and cultural
purpose (e.g., halal food) besides the credence quality attributes of a product impact consumer
purchasing behavior. As it is widely discussed that the halal food market continues to grow globally
(Amalia et al., 2020; Hong et al., 2019), it becomes more important for researchers and marketing
managers to understand how different cultural factors influence Muslim consumers halal food
purchasing behaviors. Culture is an important dimension to explain consumer behavior (Cherry,
March 24, 2020) and is defined by Hofstede (1980, p. 25) as “the collective programming of the mind
that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from others”. For example, studies in
the past have disclosed that individuals from individualistic and collectivistic cultures differ in their
sensitivity to social norms and attitudes (Cherry, March 24, 2020; Riemer, Shavitt, Koo, & Markus,
2013). People in individualistic culture are more person-centric (Hassan, Shiu, & Parry, 2016) and
social behavior tends to be dictated by the attitudes and preferences of individuals (Cherry, March 24,
2020). Whilst people in the collectivist culture are considered as an integral part of a group and they
tend to be more influenced by the opinions and judgments from others (e.g., family, friends, and
religious group) (Kacen & Lee, 2002; Triandis, McCusker, & Hui, 1990). As individualism than
collectivism is associated with independence from others and considering personal interests more
important than those of the group, therefore individualist individuals’ halal food purchasing decision
might be less influenced by the opinion, pressure, and judgment from others and more by personal
factors. While collectivist individuals’ halal food purchasing decision might be more influenced by
others and less by personal factors due to cohesiveness within-groups.
Another important concept, materialism is being considered due to its relevant role regarding
identity, culture, and consumption (Borroughs & Rindfleisch, 2002; Micken & Roberts, 1999).
Materialism has been recognized as being primarily cultural in origin (Ogden & Cheng, 2011;
Soron, Dawson, Kasser, & Starke, 2005). As religion influences the importance put on material life,
therefore, it councils consumers in developing attitudes toward holding and using material goods and
JOURNAL OF FOOD PRODUCTS MARKETING 583
services (Shah, Mohd, & Hisham, 2011). All big religions including Islamic religion have viewed
material passion as morally unacceptable (Belk, Ger, & Askegaard, 2003), advocating rather the virtues
of sharing, giving, selflessness, and sacrificing (Bakar, Lee, & Hazarina Hashim, 2013). Specifically,
Islam primarily promotes a collectivistic living style and Muslims generally live in a strong family
system (Ali et al., 2017), which may result in less materialism among them. However, some researchers
(e.g., Muhamad & Mizerski, 2010; Yousaf & Malik, 2013) suggested that materialistic values and
purchasing decisions can differ in respect to consumer’s compliance to a specific faith. In a similar
vein, Bokhari (2007) and Perlez (2007) noted religious awakening in the Muslim world due to
increasing materialistic needs among Muslims (Aziz & Shamsul, 2004). This shows, to some extent,
if not completely, Muslims are losing their Islamic values such as collectivism and no/or less
materialism under the influence of western values such as materialism. Therefore, like other important
factors, cultural factors such as individualism/collectivism and materialism may also impact halal food
purchasing behaviors of Muslims. Owing to these reasons, this study supports the idea that under
standing how determinants of halal food purchasing vary across the cultural dimension of individu
alism/collectivism and materialism is an urgent, understudied need.
Various earlier researches have made great strides in examining and measuring similarities and
differences in purchasing behaviors of consumers with respect to both between and within consumers
of individualistic and collectivistic cultures, and materialism level. Nevertheless, importantly, market
ing efforts to extend these measurements when examining similarities and differences in halal food
and Muslim consumers purchasing behaviors have achieved only limited success. Moreover, the
identification of important cultural factors that may influence the relevant determinants of purchasing
behavior surely can help marketing managers of halal food companies in developing and executing
suitable strategies for understanding and targeting Muslim consumers. This research has two major
purposes. The first purpose of this study is to investigate the determinants of halal meat consumption
within Chinese and German Muslim population using the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) as
a conceptual framework. The second purpose consists of measuring whether—within a religion and
migration context—the validity and predictive power of the TPB are influenced by accounting for the
cultural dimension of individualism/collectivism and materialism.
Due to several important reasons, we focused on China and Germany. First, we targeted Turkish
Muslims in Germany and Uygurs Chinese Muslims in China who are Turkic-speaking minority ethnic
groups originating from and culturally affiliated with Turkey. Second, the applicability of cultural
dimensions, i.e., individualism/collectivism and materialism value concepts requires comparative
study of culturally diverse cultures to understand consumer behaviors and attitudes. Finally, this
study concentrated on the sizable Muslim population living in non-Muslim countries.
Literature review
TPB model is an extension of Fishbein’s Theory of Reasoned Action model (Ajzen, 1991). TPB is
a theory in social psychology that postulates three conceptually independent determinants namely: a)
attitude toward behavior, b) subjective norm and c) perceived behavioral control (PBC) all together
lead to the formation of a “behavioral intention” which in turn influences the behavior (Bashir, Bayat,
Olutuase, & Abdul Latiff, 2019; Holdsworth et al., 2019). Attitude toward the behavior refers to the
“degree to which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the favorable in question” (Ajzen,
1991). Attitude is the main important predictor of behavioral intention (Bashir et al., 2019; Kotchen &
Reiling, 2000). According to Leonard, Graham, and Bonacum (2004), attitude includes judgment on
whether the behavior under consideration is good or bad, and whether the actor wants to do the
behavior. The term subjective norms or motivation to comply is defined as “the perceived social
pressure to perform or not to perform the behavior” (Ajzen, 1991). Subjective norms are the opinion of
others who are close/important to the person such as relatives, colleagues, close friends, or business
partners (Holdsworth et al., 2019). Moreover, Conner and Armitage (1998) argued that if an
individual believes that people significant to him/her approve or disapprove the behavior they are
584 A. ALI ET AL.
more or less likely intend to perform the behavior. Finally, the term PBC refers to “the perceived ease or
difficulty of performing the behavior” (Ajzen, 1988). According to Ajzen (1991), those who have
a higher degree of control over themselves have a stronger intention to perform a particular behavior
(Bashir et al., 2019; Holdsworth et al., 2019). Similarly, Ajzen (2005) and Conner and Armitage (1988)
described that PBC is an individual perception, whether the individual has all available means and
opportunities to perform a certain behavior. Several types of researches have found TPB as a very
useful model in predicting consumer intention and behavior in a wide range of fields (Bashir et al.,
2019; Holdsworth et al., 2019) and it also appears a very helpful model in explaining the halal food
behaviors (Ahmed, Al-Kwifi, Saiti, & Othman, 2014; Ali et al., 2018, 2017). Consistent with this TPB
postulate, the first three hypotheses are as follows:
Hypothesis 1. Positive attitudes toward the purchase of halal meat will positively influence the
intentions to purchase halal meat.
Hypothesis 2. Motivation to comply with others during the decision-making process to purchase halal
meat will positively influence the intentions to purchase halal meat.
Hypothesis 3. Perceived behavioral control over consuming halal meat will positively influence the
intentions to purchase halal meat.
Habit and availability of halal food

A habit is a routine of behavior that is repeated regularly and tends to occur subconsciously (Butler &
Hope, 1995). Habit formation is the process by which new behaviors become automatic (Habit
Formation. March 10, 2020). New habits are often harder to develop and old habits can be difficult to
break because the behavioral patterns which humans repeat become imprinted in neural pathways.
However, through repetition, it is possible to form and maintain new habits (Balintfy, Contie, Defibaugh,
Tabasko, & Wein, 2012; Habit Formation. March 10, 2020). As a person does not need to engage in self-
analysis when undertaking routine tasks, therefore, habitual behavior often goes unnoticed in persons
exhibiting it (Afroaussie, 05 May 2013). In food-related behaviors, several researchers (e.g. Honkanen,
Olsen, & Verplanken, 2005; Verbeke & Vackier, 2004) have included habit as an independent predictor
in the TPB to predict consumer purchasing intentions. Similarly, previous research has shown that
control factors such as perceived availability may facilitate or inhibit the performance of the behavior
(Conner & Armitage, 1998; Verbeke & Lopez, 2005). For instance, Krystallis and Chryssohoidis (2005),
and Padel and Foster (2005) reported that perceived barriers such as price and availability are significant
obstacles that hinder organic food consumption. In the same context, low perceived availability of
sustainable food consumption may hinder someone from its consumption (Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006)
as evident for example in the case of halal meat as stated by Bonne et al. (2007). Based on stated
arguments, we included habit and availability measures as separate components of the TPB.
Hypothesis 04. Availability of halal food will positively influence the intention to purchase halal meat.
Hypothesis 05. Habitual purchasing of halal meat will negatively influence the intention to purchase
halal meat.
Cultural dimension: individualism versus collectivism

Originated from Hofstede’s work (Hofstede, 1980, 2001), the notion of individualism versus collecti
vism illustrates differences in basic beliefs that individuals hold as regards their interaction with others,
perceived importance of unity with others, and priority of group goals (Millan, Pelsmacker, & Wright,
2013; Pemer, Sieweke, Werr, Birkner, & Mohe, 2014). As a general rule, in individualistic cultures,
people tend to be independent and self-oriented whereas those from collectivistic cultures are more
interdependent and group-oriented (Jain, Desai, & Mao, 2007; Oliver & Lee, 2010). Thus, people in an
individualistic society are expected to focus primarily on the care of self and one’s immediate family.
Moreover, they are less likely to rely on others (for example family members, peers, and social groups),
and personal identity is more important for them than social identity (Oliver & Lee, 2010; Pohlmann
& Hannover, 2006). In contrast, in collectivistic cultures, people being dependent on others prefer
having a tightly knit social framework. As a result, people in a collectivistic society expect relatives, the
clan, or other in-groups to look after them (Jain et al., 2007; Oliver & Lee, 2010).
Moreover, collectivism emphasizes interdependence, in-group harmony, social hierarchies, coop
eration, family security, group-oriented goals, and a low level of competition (Burholt, Dobbs, &
Victor, 2018; Hofstede, 1980; Oliver & Lee, 2010). Also, they tend to subordinate personal goals to in-
group goals, to feel compelled to conform to in-groups, to participate in more in-group activities, and
to be more concerned within-group interests. In collectivist cultures, social identity is more important
to people than personal identity (Burholt et al., 2018; Tychmanowicz, Filipiak, & Sprynska, 2019).
Kim, Forsythe, Gu, and Moon (2002) argued that consumers may choose particular products/brands
not only because these products provide the functionality or performance benefits expected, but also
because products can be used to express their personalities besides fulfilling their internal psycholo
gical needs, such as the need for change or newness (emotional purposes) or social status or affiliation
(symbolic purposes). Furthermore, consumer needs for particular products or brands vary consider
ably with cultural differences and the socio-economic among consumer markets (Kim et al., 2002).
Furthermore, Yau (1994) added that consumer’ values, which reflect social influences and environ
ment, should affect consumer’s needs to be fulfilled through consumption behavior.
As in the context of food consumption, multiple factors can affect the decision-making process;
therefore this behavior has been known to be complex (Vabo & Hansen, 2014). For instance, De
Castro (1995) found that a change in food consumption behavior is also caused by social influences
apart from attitudinal effect. He observed a higher level of food choice conformity when people eat in
a group, in particular when it is composed of familiar people. Teng and Wang (2015) argued that
family and peer pressure provides a source of reference for consumption intention of certain foods
(McIntosh, 1996). According to Jain et al. (2007), individualist’ people tend to value individual in
preference to collective goals and are guided by personal attitudes. In contrast, people who are
collectivists, value collective goals, and use social norms as well as duties to figure their behavior.
They also view the self in the context of the collective. Pöhlmann and Hannover (2006) argued that
collectivists tend to have a self that emerges from the social relations in which they take part.
As mentioned, collectivistic people tend to view themselves in the context of the collective whereas
individualistic people tend to define the self as autonomous and independent of others (Jain et al.,
2007). In a research study on Malaysian consumers, Voon, Ngui, and Agrawal (2011) found that they
are likely influenced by the advice or opinions of significant others, particularly those whom that they
hold high regard for due to its collectivistic culture. In the same vein, Vabo and Hansen (2016) argued
that it is supposed that for collectivistic individuals, the perceived behavioral control will have a lower
effect on intentions compare to individuals who are categorized as individualistic. This is thought to be
a major reason that individualistic people are less concerned about society, and as a result, accentuate
the internal feelings of control instead of being concerned about societal issues. On the other hand,
collectivistic individuals are more inclined to follow the perceived directions of the collective, or
society, and they are as a result also likely to lower the importance of perceived behavioral control.
In case of Muslim consumers, Ali et al. (2017) mentioned that normally they live in a strong family
system (collectivistic society) where the social influence from family, peers, and religious scholars and
institutions influences individual’s daily decision making much more. Moreover, according to them,
the religion of Islam also promotes this way of living among Muslims. As China and Germany are
non-Muslim countries, therefore, halal food is not readily available like any Muslim country.
Furthermore, there might be some problems with the authenticity of the available halal food.
Besides, Chinese society promotes a collectivistic culture (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010;
586 A. ALI ET AL.
Wang & Gagne, 2012) that might be helping Chinese Muslims in retaining their collectivistic family
culture. However, this might be compelling some Chinese Muslims to live in a strong family system
rather than they want to live and take decision independently without or less social influence. On the
other hand, in general, Germans practice an individualistic culture (Hofstede, 2001; Oyserman, Coon,
& Kemmelmeier, 2002) that might be hindering German Muslims in retaining their collectivistic
family culture. However, this might be helping some German Muslims to adopt individualistic culture
as well as making the decision independently without or less social influence. Due to these reasons,
a person with high individualistic cultural values might get influenced by personal factors (i.e. positive
attitude toward halal meat and perceived control over consuming halal meat consumption) during the
decision-making process for halal meat. Whereas a person with high collectivistic cultural values
might get influenced by social factors (i.e. motivation to comply with the opinion of other important
persons and institutions) during the decision-making process for halal meat. Therefore, we
hypothesize:
Hypothesis 06. Individualistic (versus collectivistic) consumers will rely more on individual factors
like personal attitude and perceived behavioral control compared to motivation to comply with others
during halal meat purchasing decision (see Figure 1).
Materialism
Fundamental motives of materialism, i.e., self-promotion conflicts with those that underlie religious
values that include humility, selflessness, and spirituality (Ilter, Bayraktaroglu, & Ipek, 2017). All
through history, majority of the religions have viewed material passion as morally unacceptable (Belk
et al., 2003), instead of supporting the virtues of sharing, giving, and sacrificing (Ilter et al., 2017). In
a similar vein, Cukur, De Guzman, and Carlo (2004) also reported that all major religions commonly
emphasize on lowering the importance of worldly possessions and success to uphold spiritual aspira
tions, and the preservation of traditional laws and beliefs. Previous researchers also found a negative
relationship between materialism and religiosity (Bakar et al., 2013; Ilter et al., 2017). According to Shah
et al. (2011), religions influence the emphasis placed on material life. They further added that religions
Figure 1. Model of hypothesized relationships.

guide individuals in developing attitudes toward owning and using goods and services. Moreover,
research supports that materialistic values and purchasing decisions can vary regarding the extent of
consumer’s adherence to a particular faith (Muhamad & Mizerski, 2010; Yousaf & Malik, 2013).
Materialism is an important construct in marketing and has received extensive investigation in the
literature (e.g. Bakar et al., 2013; Ilter et al., 2017; Mai, 2019). Though materialism has frequently been
related with Western countries (Eckersley, 2006; Kilbourne, Dorsch, & Thyroff, 2017; Mai, 2019),
previous studies have advocated that materialism exists also in less developed countries and it appears
to be rising in the emerging markets (Cho, Jin, & Watchravesringkan, 2016; Masoom & Sarker, 2017).
According to Eckersley (2006), materialism is usually seen as a defining element of the so-called
Western culture which is typically more individualistic than collectivistic. He further explained that if
individualism is a factor associated with greater materialism, then it must follow that a collectivistic
orientation will have an inverse relationship with materialism. In a relevant research study, Awanis,
Schlegelmilch, and Cui (2017) argued that the dominant view of materialism regards materialists as self-
prioritizing persons who compete against prosocial and collective goals on the side of lifestyle led by
possessions, status, and money. To further cement the argument, several researchers suggested materi
alism is positively correlated with individualism and negatively correlated with collectivism (Clarke &
Micken, 2002; Wong, 1997). As mentioned above, in an individualist culture, one way to express
independence is through independent decision making, such as making a purchase decision based on
individual factors without the influence of others (Jain et al., 2007; Vabo & Hansen, 2016). Whereas in
a collectivistic culture, a collectivist decision making is more likely influenced by social factors than by
individual factors such as advice from parents, peers, or friends, etc. (Vabo & Hansen, 2016; Voon et al.,
2011). Several prior research studies have found that high individualism people are more materialistic
and high collectivism people are less materialistic (Awanis et al., 2017; Clarke & Micken, 2002;
Eckersley, 2006). Therefore, this implies that highly materialistic people rely more on individual factors
such as attitude and perceived behavioral control while low materialistic people rely more on motivation
to comply with others during the decision-making process for purchasing halal meat.
As the religion of Islam advocates, Muslims living in a strong family system (Ali et al., 2017) in
addition to China predominantly holds collectivistic cultural values (Wang & Gagne, 2012), therefore, it is
expected that Chinese Muslims at large are less materialistic. On the other side, like Germans in general
practice individualistic cultural values (Hofstede, 2001), therefore, Muslims in Germany somewhat (if not
completely) might be influenced by individualistic German culture and are following independent kind of
lifestyle. That’s why, generally, it is expected that Muslims in Germany are also more materialistic. In our
study, it is expected that those Chinese Muslim consumers holding the low level of materialistic values
rely more on motivation to comply with others such as family, friends, or religious scholars and religious
institutions than individual factors like personal attitude and perceived behavioral control during the halal
food purchasing decision. Whereas those German Muslim consumers holding a high level of materialistic
values rely more on their positive attitudes and perceived behavioral control while making a purchase
decision to buy halal food. Based on the above discussion, the following hypothesis is presented:
Hypothesis 07. High (versus low) materialistic consumers will rely more on individual factors like
personal attitude and perceived behavioral control compared to motivation to comply with others
during halal meat purchasing decision (see Figure 1).
Methodology
Sample and data collection
A total of 650 self-identified consumers of halal meat; 336 from China and 314 from Germany
participated in the survey. We used a structured questionnaire to collect cross-sectional data from
Muslims mainly originating from Turkey and currently living in China and Germany. For this
588 A. ALI ET AL.
purpose, we used purposive sampling technique and stationed ourselves across Beijing in China and
Berlin in Germany in front of Muslim restaurants, halal meat shops, and mosques in October 2019.
We developed an online survey (e.g., through website https://kwiksurveys.com/) and send/share it to
those respondents who were willing to participate in this study. Initially, we decided to collect 700
responses; 350 from each city. However, after dropping 13 questionnaires due to outliers and extreme
responses, finally, we got 650 responses. We choose an online survey as an instrument because this
allows respondents enough time to think before filling up the questionnaire, thus reducing the non-
response rate. Moreover, we first designed our survey in the English language. To collect data from
German Muslims, we used the original English version questionnaire, as English language under
standing of German people is good. However, we translated the survey into the Chinese language with
the help of professionals who were masters in both languages and academic research work to tape
Chinese Muslims responses.
Measurement of constructs
The study used measurement scales that have been validated in earlier studies. Respondent’s attitude
toward halal meat was operationalized using a 3-items based on Mostafa (2009). Similarly, 4-items
scale was adapted to measure motivation to comply with others with Armitage and Conner (1999).
Moreover, we measured perceived behavioral control on a three items scale which was adapted from
Han, Hsu, and Sheu (2010). Perceived availability pertaining both to product and information
availability (4-items) and habit (2-items) were measured by the scale adapted from Ahmed et al.
(2014). Furthermore, the individualism/collectivism dimension was measured using six items from
Donthu and Yoo (1988). Also, we used Sirgy et al.’s (2012) 10-items scale of materialism as it was
developed purposely for cross-cultural materialism research. Finally, the behavioral intention was
measured using three items (Oliver & Lee, 2010).
The demographic profile of respondents

Descriptive statistics show (see Table 1) that considerably more male respondents (63.1%) than female
respondents (36.9%) filled out questionnaires. Similarly, considerably more respondents were married
(71.2%) than single (27.2%) respondents. In terms of a respondent’s age, 301 respondents (46.3%)
were in “between 36 to 45” age category followed by “between 26 to 35” age category (34.3%) ”between
46 to55” age category (10.6%) and “less than 25” age category (8.0%) respectively. More respondents
had a “Bachelor degree” (50%) followed by “Master degree” (24.9%), and “any other education” (25.1%)
correspondingly. Finally, in terms of income level, majority of the respondents were earning “20,000
RMBs/3,500 Euros” or less followed by “Between 20,001–25,000 RMBs/3,501–4,500 Euros” (16.9%) and
“More than 25,000 RMBs/4,500 Euros” (11.1%) in a month respectively.
Data analysis
Before going for the main analysis, we followed Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, and Podsakoff (2003)
procedures to control for evaluation apprehension and common method variance. In the first step, we
assured respondents regarding the confidentiality and academic use of data to get honest answers.
Secondly, we used Harman’s single factor test to access the potential common method bias (CMV).
The un-rotated factor solution resulted in eight factors with Eigenvalues greater than 1 accounted for
89.55% of the total variance. Nevertheless, the first single factor accounted for only 25.34% suggesting
the absence of CMV in the data (Podsakoff et al., 2003). After that, we used a two-step approach to
perform Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis as proposed by Arbuckle (2006). For the
analysis of data, we used the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and Analysis of
Movement Structure (AMOS). In the first stage, we tested the psychometric properties of the under
lying constructs by measurement model, followed by using SEM to test causal relationships among
Table 1. Demographic profile of respondents.

F (%) F (%)
China Germany Total
Gender
Male 219 (65.6) 191 (60.4) 410 (63.1)
Female 115 (34.4) 125 (39.6) 240 (36.9)
Marital status
Single 96 (28.7) 81 (25.6) 177 (27.2)
Married/living together 235 (70.4) 228 (72.2) 463 (71.2)
Divorced 3 (.9) 5 (1.6) 8 (1.2)
Widower/Widow - 2 (.6) 2 (0.3)
Age
Less than 25 years old 24 (7.2) 28 (8.9) 52 (8)
Between 26 to 35 years old 120 (35.9) 103 (32.6) 223 (34.3)
More than 5 years 5 (1.5) - 5 (0.7)
Education level
Bachelor Degree 139 (41.6) 186 (58.9) 325 (50)
Master Degree 58 (17.4) 104 (32.9) 162 (24.9)
Any Other 137 (41.0) 26 (8.2) 163 (25.1)
Income level (Per-Month)
Less than 10,000 RMBs/1500 Euros 77 (23.1) 29 (9.2) 106 (16.3)
Between 10,001–15,000 RMBs/1,501–2,500 Euros 81 (24.3) 90 (28.5) 171 (26.3)
More than 25,000 RMBs/4,500 Euros 36 (10.8) 36 (11.4) 72 (11.1)
latent variables in the second stage. Assessment of goodness-of-fit (GOF) was made by multiple
indicators: χ2 (chi-square), χ2/df (chi-square to a degree of freedom ratio), GFI (goodness-of-fit
index), CFI (comparative fit index), TLI (Tucker-Lewis index), and RMSEA (root mean square
error of approximation). Researchers reported that the model fit is good when χ2/df between 2 and
5, indices ≥ 0.90, and RMSEAs ≤ 0.08 (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998).
Scale reliability and validity of the measurement model

We established scale reliability through computation of Cronbach’s α using IBM SPSS Statistics
(version 22.0). As depicted in Table 2, scales exhibited relatively high reliability coefficients for both
sample sets, with all Cronbach α scores over 0.7 (Kline, 2005). Assessment of goodness-of-fit was made
by multiple indicators: (a) Chinese sample; χ2 = 3213.23, df = 979, χ2/df = 3.282, GFI = 0.931,
AGFI = 0.923, CFI = 0.974, TLI = 0.970, RMSEA = 0.033 and (b) German sample; χ2 = 4347.43,
df = 1385, χ2/df = 3.139, GFI = 0.927, AGFI = 0.921, CFI = 0.968, TLI = 0.959, RMSEA = 0.029.
Unidimentionality of all constructs has been established through the standardized root mean
square residual (SRMR ≤ 0.08; Hu & Bentler, 1998) and CFI (recommended ≥ 0.9; Kline, 1998).
CFI and SRMR values revealed that all the constructs for both samples are unidimensional.
Moreover, we established construct validity through convergent validity and discriminant valid
ity by conducting CFA (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). Two approaches were used to
attain convergent validity: (a) all the scales yielded acceptable values; factors loadings are
significant and >0.50 (Bagozzi, Yi, & Phillips, 1991) and (b) Average Variance Extracted
(AVE) values are >0.50 (Ruvio & Shogam, 2008), and composite reliabilities (CR) are >0.70
(Hair et al., 1998). Statistics presented in Table 2 evidenced strong convergent validity for both
samples. Furthermore, we used Fornell and Larcker (1981) methodology to establish discrimi
nant validity. Based on this test, the square root of the AVE of each construct must be greater
than the correlation between constructs. Tables 2 and 3 show that all constructs for both samples
have acceptable discriminant validity.
590 A. ALI ET AL.
Table 2. Confirmatory factor analysis and validity measures.

China Germany
Variable Loading Cronbach alpha CR AVE Loading Cronbach alpha CR AVE
Attitude .90 .93
Att1 .86 .85 .78 .90 .84 .79
Att2 .88 .89
Att3 .90 .88
Att4 .89 .89
Motivation to comply with others .94 .91
MC1 .90 .85 .78 .87 .88 .77
MC2 .87 .90
MC3 .88 .89
MC4 .89 .86
Perceived Behavioral Control .89 .90
PBC1 .88 .81 .77 .90 .81 .79
PBC2 .89 .86
PBC3 .86 .90
Availability .93 .90
Avail1 .88 .88 .77 .90 .87 .78
Avail2 .87 .86
Avail3 .89 .88
Avail4 .86 .89
Habit .93 .91
Hab1 .88 .74 .76 .90 .75 .80
Hab2 .86 .89
Individualism/Collectivism .92 .91 .75 .93 .90 .78
IC1 .86 .86
IC2 .86 .88
IC3 .85 .90
IC4 .88 .87
IC5 .87 .88
IC6 .88 .90
Materialism .91 .94 .79 .90 .92 .78
Mat1 .90 .88
Mat2 .88 .86
Mat3 .89 .90
Mat4 .90 .88
Mat5 .87 .86
Mat6 .91 .87
Mat7 .90 .88
Mat8 .87 .89
Mat9 .86 .90
Mat10 .88 .89
Purchase Intention .91 .89 .75 .93 .80 .79
PI1 .85 .89
PI2 .89 .87
PI3 .86 .90
Descriptive analysis
Table 3 shows correlation values, mean scores, standard deviations, and √AVEs for the constructs (on
a 1–5 scale). Mean scores for intentions to purchase halal meat were higher for the German sample
(M = 4.63, SD =.315) compared to the Chinese sample (M = 4.25, SD = .351), indicating that German
consumers have greater intentions to purchase halal meat than Chinese consumers. Regarding positive
attitude toward halal meat consumption, the mean scores for the German sample were also much
higher (M = 4.62, SD = .335), compared to the Chinese sample (M = 4.43, SD = .335), which suggests
that German consumers have more positive attitude levels toward consuming halal meat than Chinese
consumers. Moreover, according to the data, mean scores for motivation to comply with others were
found higher for the Chinese sample (M = 4.68, SD = .351), than the German sample (M = 4.01,
SD = .481), which hints that Chinese consumers are more concerned about the opinion of others
regarding consumption of halal food than German consumers. Perceived behavioral control over
Table 3. Correlation between the constructs and descriptive statistics.

1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Sample China (n = 334)
Gender 1
MS .003 1
Age .024 .213** 1
Education .071 .081 .073 1
Income .009 .170* .114* .131 1 .88
Atti .041 .131* .120* .009 .017 1 .89
MC .004 .110* .259** .038 .046 .182* 1 .88
PBC .009 .117* .158** .042 .010 .154* .192** 1 .88
Avail .005 .024 .001 .013 .003 .041 .078 .065 1 .87
Habit .014 .018 .039 .027 .031 −.015 −.002 −.045 .051 1 .87
I/C .013 .023 .063 .030 .152* .018 .217** .178* .055 −.017 1 .89
Mat .132* .040 .150* .061 .148* .252** .070 .233** .036 .016 .090 1 .87
Intention .009 .031 .042 .011 .058 .310** .370** .327** .218** −.062 .281** .190* 1
Means 1.22 1.71 2.64 2.37 2.35 4.43 4.68 4.25 4.13 1.57 4.50 2.32 4.25
SD .412 .453 .815 1.285 1.231 .335 .351 .350 .651 .455 .279 .339 .351
1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Sample Germany (n = 316)
Gender 1
MS .010 1
Age .043 .011 1
Education .051 .018 .092* 1
Income .027 .052 .103* .059 1 .89
Atti .049 .045 .164* .093 .013 1 .88
MC .037 .031 .068 .024 .022 .093* 1 .89
PBC .045 .027 .171* .079 .070 .297** .063 1 .88
Avail .015 .009 .002 .012 .030 .052 .056 .006 1 .90
Habit .011 −.007 −.014 −.003 .039 −.015 −.009 −.047 .004 1 .88
I/C .052 .049 .084 .021 .185 .356** .159* .190*** .039 .021 1 .88
Mat .037 .017 .048 .037 .214** .271*** .061 .184* .021 .030 .209** 1 .89
Intention .059 .028 .061 .043 .052 .389** .175* .340** .258** −.012 .238** .193** 1
Means 1.41 1.74 2.58 1.48 2.99 4.62 4.01 4.61 4.52 1.73 4.01 4.15 4.63
SD .493 .437 .763 .643 1.159 .335 .481 .376 .450 .316 .552 .328 .315
Significance at: * p < 0.05 and ** p < 0.01. Values in bold and italics indicate √AVEs of respective constructs. MS = Marital status,
Atti = attitude, MC = motivation to comply others, PBC = perceived behavioral control, Avail = availability, I/C = individualism/
collectivism, Mat = materialism.
consuming halal meat mean scores were found significantly higher for the German sample (M = 4.61,
SD = .376) than the Chinese sample (M = 4.25, SD = .350). This indicates that German consumers have
more control over their own halal food-eating pattern than Chinese consumers. In terms of halal food
availability, German respondents are significantly convinced of the availability of halal meat (M = 4.52,
SD = .450) than Chinese consumers (M = 4.13, SD = .651). Furthermore, mean scores depicted that
Chinese (M = 1.57, SD = .455), as well as German consumers (M = 1.73, SD = .316), do not consider
halal food consumption an automated process rather it is a reasoned decision-making process due to
a high level of personal importance attached to this decision.
Also, consistent with the data, mean scores for individualistic/collectivistic way of living were
found significantly higher for the Chinese sample (M = 4.50, SD = .279), than the German
sample (M = 4.01, SD = .552), which reveals that Chinese are living in a strong family system
(i.e. collectivistic society) than German consumers. It is well documented that just like other
western world, German society in general practices individualistic way of living. However,
importantly, the mean scores disclose that despite individualistic German culture, Muslims in
Germany are firmly holding Islamic teachings that encourage its followers to live in a strong
family system. Finally, mean scores for materialism show that German sample to some extent if
not completely downing toward materialism (M = 4.15, SD = .328) than the Chinese sample
592 A. ALI ET AL.
(M = 2.32, SD = .339), which hints that in line with religious teachings Chinese consumers are
abstaining from materialistic life.
Hypotheses testing
We tested the proposed hypotheses through SEM, using AMOS. The results of the hypotheses
testing for both countries are shown in Table 4. The findings show that consumer attitudes
toward purchasing halal meat are positively and significantly related to purchase intentions in
Germans (β = 0.356**, Þ < 0.01), and in Chinese (β = .316**, Þ < 0.01) therefore H1 is supported
for both countries. The results indicate that motivation to comply with others is significantly and
positively related to intentions to purchase halal meat for Chinese consumers (β = 0.369**,
Þ < 0.01). However, motivation to comply with others for Germans consumers is positively but
less significantly related to purchase intention (β = 0.199*, Þ < 0.05), accordingly H2 is also
supported for both countries. Moreover, the results further demonstrate that consumer’s per
ceived behavioral control over consuming halal meat is significantly and positively related to
purchase intentions in Germans (β = 0.337**, Þ < 0.01), and Chinese (β = 0.227*, Þ < 0.05), thus
H3 is supported for both countries. Furthermore, results reveal that availability of halal food is
positively and significantly related to purchase intention in China (β = 0.262**, Þ < 0.05) and in
Germany (β = 0.294**, Þ < 0.01), consequently H4 is also supported for both countries. Finally,
the results indicated that habitual purchasing of halal meat is not significantly related to
intentions to purchase halal meat in either Chinese (β = −.002, Þ > 0.05), or in Germans
(β = −.028, Þ > 0.05), therefore H5 is supported.
Determinants of behavioral intention- total sample

We used subgroup analysis to test the moderating effects of individualism/collectivism and
materialism by following the procedure employed by Kohli (1989). For this purpose, we
classified the score of moderating variables into three groups. The highest 40% of respondents
(i.e., 4 and 5 scale values on a five-point Likert scale) considered high on that dimension whereas
the lowest 40% of respondents (i.e., 1 and 2 scale values on a five-point Likert scale) considered
low. Moreover, we eliminated the middle 20% of respondents (i.e., 3 scale value) from the
analysis to maximize contrast between the low and high groups and to look at the possible
Table 4. Summary of multiple regression analyses.

Individualism/Collectivism Materialism
China Germany Low High Low High
ß (Þ) ß (Þ) ß (Þ) ß (Þ) ß (Þ) ß (Þ)
Control variable
Gender .019 (.478) .005 (.779) .007 (.601) .029 (.383) .018 (.303) .022 (.548)
MS .033 (.365) .013 (.462) .016 (.446) .004 (.773) .007 (.694) .063 (.256)
Age .043 (.291) .048 (.273) .035 (.426) .043 (.469) .029 (.539) .011 (.601)
Education .012 (.576) .014 (.481) .003 (.707) .020 (.525) .005 (.723) .035 (.528)
Income .002 (.828) .024 (.432) .024 (.314) .017 (.546) .009 (.796) .006 (.723)
Main Variables
Attitude .316** (.000) .356** (.000) .363** (.000) .235* (.000) .228* (.000) .326** (.000)
MS .369** (.000) .199* (.004) .057 (.260) .381** (.000) .344** (.000) .097 (.081)
PBC .227* (.000) .337** (.000) .343** (.000) .082 (.126) .050 (.173) .348** (.000)
PA .262** (.000) .294** (.000) .286** (.000) .254** (.000) .089 (.095) .296** (.000)
Habit −.002 (.800) −.028 (.440) −.035 (.217) −.041 (.184) −.028 (.268) −.053 (.159)
R2 .443 .376 .357 .372 .401 .381
Adjusted R2 .431 .363 .342 .359 .390 .372
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.
differential predictive value of the TPB components depending on the level of individualism/
collectivism and materialism.
Role of individualism/collectivism (H1)

Results in Table 4 show that attitude toward halal meat consumption (β = 363**, Þ < 0.01), perceived
control over consuming halal meat (β = 0.343**, Þ < 0.01), and availability of halal meat (β = 0.286**,
Þ < 0.01) predicts purchase intentions for individualistic consumers. While collectivistic consumers’
purchase intentions are predicted by attitude toward halal meat consumption (β = 235*, Þ < 0.05) and
the motivation to comply others (β = 0.381**, Þ < 0.01). Moreover, individualistic Muslims’ meat
consumption decisions are solely influenced by personal factors. In contrast, collectivistic Muslims’
intentions to consume halal meat are also determined by the personal factors in addition to
a motivation to comply with others. With these findings, we can conclude that our sixth hypothesis
that individualistic (versus collectivistic) people rely more on individual factors compared to the
motivation to comply during the decision-making process for halal meat is partially accepted.
Furthermore, the habit does not influence behavioral intentions for both individualistic and collecti
vistic consumers. Also, the availability of halal meat influences the behavioral intentions of indivi
dualistic as well as collectivistic consumers.
Role of materialism (H2)

The intentions of consumers to purchase halal meat with low materialism are determined by the
attitude toward halal meat consumption (β = 228**, Þ < 0.05) and motivation to comply with others
(β = 0.344**, Þ < 0.01). However, for consumers with high materialism, intentions are influenced by
attitude (β = 0.326**, Þ < 0.01), perceived behavioral control over consuming halal meat (β = 0.348**,
Þ < 0.01), and the availability of halal meat (β = 0.296**, Þ < 0.01). Moreover, less materialistic
respondents are more prone to take the opinion of other important persons and institutions into
account during the decision-making process for halal food. While respondents who consider them
selves more materialistic believe that their consumption decision is a matter of their attitude toward
halal meat, perceived control over consuming halal meat, and the availability of halal meat.
Furthermore, less materialistic consumers are more interested to surrender to the influence of others
and follow religious instructions, while more materialistic consumers are less interested to surrender
to social pressure instead rely more on individual factors like personal attitude, perceived control, and
availability of halal food. This confirms our seventh hypothesis that individuals with high (versus low)
materialism will rely more on individual factors like personal attitude and perceived behavioral control
compared to the motivation to comply during the decision-making process for halal meat.
Furthermore, the availability of halal meat influences behavioral intentions of high materialistic
consumers but not low materialistic consumers. Finally, the habit does not influence behavioral
intentions for either high or low materialistic consumers.
Discussion and conclusion

This research has two major purposes. First, the TPB was used to investigate halal food consumption
in the Chinese and Germans sample. In general, the classical TPB determinants of intention explain
more variance in intention to consume halal meat and the regression coefficients are high compared to
previous halal food choice studies (see Ali et al., 2018, 2017) using the TPB. Although the consumption
of halal meat for Muslims is quite different from the consumption of regular meat or other foods for
non-Muslims (Bonne et al., 2007), we think the more explained variance and high regression
coefficients are due to large and cross-cultural sample. Second, we added two determinants that are
associated with food decisions within a religion and migration context (i.e. individualism/collectivism
and materialism) that could help us better understand the notion of religious food consumption
594 A. ALI ET AL.
decisions. In general, we can conclude that a positive personal attitude toward the consumption of
halal meat, motivation to comply with others, the perceived control over consuming halal meat and
the availability of halal meat contribute to predicting the intended consumption of halal meat among
consumers. Moreover, similar to Ali et al.’s (2017) study with international Muslim students sample
and Ali et al.’s (2018) study with Chinese Muslim sample, the current research also reveals that halal
meat consumption is not driven by habitual behavior. Perchance, consumers consider halal meat
consumption as a well thought over process (Bonne et al., 2007), and the non-significance of habitual
behavior reflects consumer’s high level of personal importance attached to halal meat consumption
(Ali et al., 2018).
Likewise, individualistic consumers rely on their attitudes toward halal meat, perceived control
over consuming halal meat, and availability of halal meat, whereas collectivistic consumers rely on
their attitudes in addition to a motivation to comply with others and availability of halal meat during
the decision-making process for halal food. Furthermore, consumers with low materialism intend to
eat halal meat because of positive attitude and motivation to comply with others, whereas consumers
with high materialism, however, are influenced by their attitudes toward halal meat, the degree of
control they feel to have over eating halal meat and availability of halal meat.
The religion of Islam promotes collectivism and non-materialism among its followers (Ali et al.,
2017; Cukur et al., 2004), therefore, in general, Muslims all over the world live in a strong family
system (i.e. collectivistic society). As a result, social influence from various stakeholders including
friends, family members, religious scholars, and religious institutions influence Muslims’ daily deci
sion making much more (Ali et al., 2017). This is also confirmed by the current study findings which
showed motivation to comply with others is an important factor, and collectivistic and less materi
alistic consumers cannot ignore it. Moreover, results show that such consumers heavily rely on social
influence put by others during the decision-making process for purchasing halal food. One important
reason for the motivation to comply with others during the decision-making process might be because
of consumers’ perception that purchasing of halal food is socially acceptable behavior in a Muslim
society.
On the other side, individualistic and materialistic consumers reported that motivation to comply
with others is not that important a factor for them during the decision-making process for halal food.
Instead, they rely on their attitudes, perceived control over consuming halal meat, and the availability
of halal meat than following other religious prescriptions. These consumers might perceive that
buying halal food may not necessarily be socially acceptable behavior for them. Moreover, increasing
materialism might be giving a boost to individualistic living styles and somewhat keep these con
sumers away from the possible social influence of others, and instead allow them to make decision
making based on individual factors.
Managerial implications
No doubt, religion and religiosity not only influences what and when of marketing but also play
a significant role in determining how of marketing (Deb & Sinha, 2016). Specifically, in the case of
Muslim consumers, religious association attached to halal foods consumption perhaps makes the
decision-making process that precedes halal consumption more important and different from regular
meat consumption. As a result, we think this requires different marketing techniques should be used to
stimulate halal food versus regular food consumption. Moreover, the current study findings confirmed
that different “decision” segments exist within the halal food market. For instance, collectivistic and
less materialistic consumers would be more appealed to buy halal food by messages focusing on the
social importance of consuming halal. Similarly, marketing managers can promote halal food products
to these consumers by publicizing Islamic values (i.e. collectivism and non-materialism) in their
advertising campaign. This will certainly help those consumers to retain and promote their cultural
values as well as associate themselves with such halal food products on one hand and also help
companies to add them to their customer list on other hand. Furthermore, individualistic and more
materialistic consumers can be motivated through communications by slogans that focus on indivi
dual’s opportunity to makes his/her own choice in the first place and the control consumers have over
attaining halal meat on the same side.
Due to religious teachings, Muslims try to hold religious identity in all situations whether they are
living in minority or majority, and this makes them very sensitive about the halal and haram concept
of food (Ali et al., 2018). Also, an overwhelming majority of Muslims eat halal food whether they are at
home or away or whether it is easily available or not (Ali et al., 2017). That’s why this religious context
makes the decision-making process for halal food very important and different from regular food.
Besides, the findings of the current study confirm that halal meat consumption is not driven by
habitual behavior. Instead, consumers consider halal meat consumption as a well thought over process
and this further reflects consumer’s high level of personal importance attached to halal meat con
sumption. This advocates that Muslims prefer those food-related products or/and brands which they
can closely associate with their religious beliefs and feelings. Hence, a food-related product or/and
brand with religious touch and accredited from credible halal food certification body is something they
would prefer to buy.
Although a large segment of Muslim consumers offers an attractive market to the seller of halal
food in 50 Muslim (Hackett & Huynh June 22, 2015) and many non-Muslim countries. However, all it
needs to do is to focus on the well-established local halal market segment initially by producing halal
food as per procedure recommended by credible halal food certification bodies. Then, ensuring the
availability of halal food to final consumers in the hygiene environment by establishing the consistent
halal value chain can help businesses to position their products to obtain new differentiation advan
tages not only in existing but also in new international markets. To conclude, identifying cultural
dimensions and studying various aspects of cultural differences would enable halal food marketers to
understand consumer behaviors and attitudes. The findings provide valuable and practical suggestions
to marketing managers for cross-cultural adaptation of marketing strategy. Such findings may be of
interest and value to marketers whose business goal is to target Muslim consumers and promote halal-
certified food products in the market. Briefly, in practical terms, more knowledge about cultural effects
on Muslim consumers’ halal food purchasing behaviors enables marketers to better develop their
strategies and increase their rate of engagement with consumers.
Limitations and future research directions

First of all, this study looked at just one dimension of culture, individualism/collectivism. As per
Hofstede (2013), there are other cultural dimensions, namely, masculinity versus femininity, uncer
tainty avoidance, power distance, long-term orientation, and indulgence versus restraint. Future
researchers can also use these dimensions in halal food context to test their validity in the current
sample as well as another cultural context. Second, this study is based on a single food product, i.e.,
meat. Future studies may consider multiple products such as personal care products (e.g. cosmetics),
condiments and beverages, etc., to support the generalizability of these results. Third, the existing or
enhanced model of current research can be applied in the context of halal service industry such as halal
finance, halal tourism, and halal banking, etc., to confirm whether or not current findings can also be
generalized for the halal services business. Finally, we used individualism/collectivism and materialism
as moderators variables. Future research should also examine the moderating effects of demographic
factors such as age, education level, country of origin, and income level to increase the predictive
power of the current model.
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The Moderating Role of Individualism/Collectivism

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The Moderating Role of Individualism/Collectivism and

Habit and availability of halal food

Cultural dimension: individualism versus collectivism

Figure 1. Model of hypothesized relationships.

The demographic profile of respondents

Table 1. Demographic profile of respondents.

Scale reliability and validity of the measurement model

Table 2. Confirmatory factor analysis and validity measures.

Table 3. Correlation between the constructs and descriptive statistics.

Determinants of behavioral intention- total sample

Table 4. Summary of multiple regression analyses.

Role of individualism/collectivism (H1)

Role of materialism (H2)

Discussion and conclusion

Limitations and future research directions

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