DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKING

SYSTEM

A MINI PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

SIVAKUMAR G 212920114048
THOMAS EDISON J 212920114052
SARAVANAN B 212920114501

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

In

“MECHANICAL ENGINEERING”

ST. JOSEPH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

CHENNAI-602117

ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI-600 025

MAY 2023

1
 ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI-600025
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this mini project “DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF

ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKING SYSTEM” is the bonafide work of
“SIVAKUMAR G(212920114048), THOMAS EDISON J(212920114052) AND
SARAVANAN B (212920114501)” who carried out the project work under my
supervision submitted for the vice voce examination held
on:……………………………………

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Mr. Dr. B.GNANASUNDARA Mr.S.KANTHASAMY,M.E.,Ph.D.

JAYARAJA, M.E, Ph.D..,
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING ENGINEERING

ST. JOSEPH COLLEGE OF ST. JOSEPH COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING ENGINEERING

CHENNAI-602117. CHENNAI-602117.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

2
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We wish to express our sincere thanks to our beloved founder Rev.

Fr.Dr.JE. ARULRAJ DMI, Management, Administrator Re. Fr. XAVIER
MANOJ MMI, of this institution of St. Joseph College of Engineering providing
required.

We proudly render our heartfelt thanks to our Principal Dr.T,AHILAN,

M.E., Ph.D., for the constant encouragement and support given by him for the
progress and completion of our project.

Our immense thanks is also to the Head of the Department

Mr.Dr.B.GNANASUNDARA JAYARAJA,ME,Ph.D., for his effective
leadership, encouragement and guidance in the project.

We would thank you our project coordinator Mr.S.KANTHASAMY

,ME,Ph.D., for their valuable sujections and constant motivation throughout the
cource of our project.

We are very much indebted to extend our thanks to our guide Mr.C.
SELVAMANI, M.E.(Ph.D)., for his valuable ideas accompanied bymoral
support throughout the conduct of the project.

We wish to extend our sincere thanks to all Faculty member of the

Department of Mechanical Engineering for their Valuable suggestions and kind co-
operation for the successful completion of our project. We also thank, most
importantly, our family members, friends for their blessing and great support.

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 ABSTRACT

The aim of this project is to DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF

ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKING SYSTEM using IR switch. By means of this

project we can avoid the accident of the vehicle. It also saves the life of the driver

and passenger. The aim of this project is to design and develop a control system

based on electronically controlled automatic vehicle stopping by IR switch.

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 CONTENTS

PAGE NO.

CHAPTER 1. Introduction about the Project

1.1 Types 8

1.2 Characteristics 10

1.3 Brake boost 16

1.4 Noise 17

1.5 Design and Function 19

1.6 Brake Mechanism in Wheel 20

CHAPTER 2. SPECIAL FEATURES ADDED 25

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CHAPTER 3. Construction

3.1 Wheel system 29

3.2 Solenoid Coil 35

CHAPTER 4. Need of the project 45

CHAPTER 5. Block Diagram 46

CHAPTER 6. Working Principle 47

CHAPTER 7. Advantages, Disadvantages and applications 48

CHAPTER 8 Conclusion 49

References 50
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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Brake

Disc brake on a motorcycle

A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. The rest of this article is

dedicated to various types of vehicular brakes.

Most commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat, though other

methods of energy conversion may be employed. For exampleregenerative braking

converts much of the energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for later use.

Other methods convert kinetic energy intopotential energy in such stored forms as

pressurized air or pressurized oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields

6
to convert kinetic energy into electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which is

converted into heat. Still other braking methods even transform kinetic energy into

different forms, for example by transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.

Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other

forms such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air). Some

vehicles use a combination of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars with

both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes with both wheel brakes and drag

flaps raised into the air during landing.

Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity ( ), an object

moving at 10 m/s has 100 times as much energy as one of the same mass moving at

1 m/s, and consequently the theoretical braking distance, when braking at the

traction limit, is 100 times as long. In practice, fast vehicles usually have significant

air drag, and energy lost to air drag rises quickly with speed.

Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts

and shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp. Mostfixed- wing

aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on the undercarriage. Some aircraft also feature

air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight. Notable examples include gliders

and someWorld War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter

7
aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a safe

speed in a steep descent. The Saab B 17 dive bomber used the deployed

undercarriage as an air brake.

Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake

while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling downhill some

vehicles can use their engines to brake.

When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed,

ultimately a piston pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel

down. On the brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against

the drum which also slows the wheel down.

1.1 Types

Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetics.

One brake may use several principles: for example, a pump may pass fluid through

an orifice to create friction:

 Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into "shoe"

or "pad" brakes, using an explicit wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such

as parachutes, which use friction in a working fluid and do not explicitly wear.

Typically the term "friction brake" is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and

8
 excludes hydrodynamic brakes, even though hydrodynamic brakes use friction.

Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a

rotating wear surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to rub

on the outside of a rotating drum, such as a band brake; a rotating drumwith

shoes that expand to rub the inside of a drum, commonly called a "drum brake",

although other drum configurations are possible; and pads that pinch a rotating

disc, commonly called a "disc brake". Other brake configurations are used, but

less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes include a flat shoe which is clamped

to the rail with an electromagnet; the Murphy brake pinches a rotating drum, and

the Ausco Lambert disc brake uses a hollow disc (two parallel discs with a

structural bridge) with shoes that sit between the disc surfaces and expand

laterally.

 Pumping brakes are often used where a pump is already part of the

machinery. For example, an internal-combustion piston motor can have the fuel

supply stopped, and then internal pumping losses of the engine create some

braking. Some engines use a coil override called a Jake brake to greatly increase

pumping losses. Pumping brakes can dump energy as heat, or can be

9
 regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure reservoir called a hydraulic

accumulator.

 Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is

already part of the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric

vehicles use the electric motor as a generator to charge electric batteries and also

as a regenerative brake. Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives use the electric

motors to generate electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and dumped

as heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit buses, do not already have an electric

motor but use a secondary "retarder" brake that is effectively a generator with an

internal short-circuit. Related types of such a brake are eddy current brakes, and

electro-mechanical brakes (which actually are magnetically driven friction

brakes, but nowadays are often just called “electromagnetic brakes” as well).

1.2 Characteristics

Brakes are often described according to several characteristics including:

 Peak force – The peak force is the maximum decelerating effect that can be

obtained. The peak force is often greater than the traction limit of the tires, in

which case the brake can cause a wheel skid.

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 Continuous power dissipation – Brakes typically get hot in use, and fail

when the temperature gets too high. The greatest amount of power (energy per

unit time) that can be dissipated through the brake without failure is the

continuous power dissipation. Continuous power dissipation often depends on

e.g., the temperature and speed of ambient cooling air.

 Fade – As a brake heats, it may become less effective, called brake fade.

Some designs are inherently prone to fade, while other designs are relatively

immune. Further, use considerations, such as cooling, often have a big effect on

fade.

 Smoothness – A brake that is grabby, pulses, has chatter, or otherwise exerts

varying brake force may lead to skids. For example, railroad wheels have little

traction, and friction brakes without an anti-skid mechanism often lead to skids,

which increases maintenance costs and leads to a "thump thump" feeling for

riders inside.

 Power – Brakes are often described as "powerful" when a small human

application force leads to a braking force that is higher than typical for other

brakes in the same class. This notion of "powerful" does not relate to continuous

power dissipation, and may be confusing in that a brake may be

11
 "powerful" and brake strongly with a gentle brake application, yet have lower

(worse) peak force than a less "powerful" brake.

 Pedal feel – Brake pedal feel encompasses subjective perception of brake

power output as a function of pedal travel. Pedal travel is influenced by the fluid

displacement of the brake and other factors.

 Drag – Brakes have varied amount of drag in the off-brake condition

depending on design of the system to accommodate total system compliance

and deformation that exists under braking with ability to retract friction material

from the rubbing surface in the off-brake condition.

 Durability – Friction brakes have wear surfaces that must be renewed

periodically. Wear surfaces include the brake shoes or pads, and also the brake

disc or drum. There may be tradeoffs, for example a wear surface that generates

high peak force may also wear quickly.

 Weight – Brakes are often "added weight" in that they serve no other function.

Further, brakes are often mounted on wheels, and unsprung weight can

significantly hurt traction in some circumstances. "Weight" may mean the brake

itself, or may include additional support structure.

 Noise – Brakes usually create some minor noise when applied, but often create

squeal or grinding noises that are quite loud.

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1.3 Brake boost

Most modern vehicles use a vacuum assisted brake system that greatly increases the

force applied to the vehicle's brakes by its operator.[1] This additional force is

supplied by the manifold vacuum generated by air flow being obstructed by the

throttle on a running engine. This force is greatly reduced when the engine is running

at fully open throttle, as the difference between ambient air pressure and manifold

(absolute) air pressure is reduced, and therefore available vacuum is diminished.

However, brakes are rarely applied at full throttle; the driver takes the right foot off

the gas pedal and moves it to the brake pedal - unless left-foot braking is used.

Because of low vacuum at high RPM, reports of unintended acceleration are often

accompanied by complaints of failed or weakened brakes, as the high-revving

engine, having an open throttle, is unable to provide enough vacuum to power the

brake booster. This problem is exacerbated in vehicles equipped with automatic

transmissions as the vehicle will automatically downshift upon application of the

brakes, thereby increasing the torque delivered to the driven-wheels in contact with

the road surface.

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1.4 NOISE

Although ideally a brake would convert all the kinetic energy into heat, in practice

a significant amount may be converted into acoustic energy instead, contributing

to noise pollution.

For road vehicles, the noise produced varies significantly with

tire construction, road surface, and the magnitude of the deceleration. Noise can be

caused by different things. These are signs that there may be issues with brakes

wearing out over time.

Inefficiency

A significant amount of energy is always lost while braking, even with regenerative

braking which is not perfectly efficient. Therefore a good metricofefficient energy

use while driving is to note how much one is braking. If the majority of deceleration

is from unavoidable friction instead of braking, one is squeezing out most of the

service from the vehicle. Minimizing brake use is one of the fuel economy-

maximizing behaviors.

While energy is always lost during a brake event, a secondary factor that influences

efficiency is "off-brake drag", or drag that occurs when the brake is not intentionally

actuated. After a braking event, hydraulic pressure drops in the

14
system, allowing the brake caliper pistons to retract. However, this retraction must

accommodate all compliance in the system (under pressure) as well as thermal

distortion of components like the brake disc or the brake system will drag until the

contact with the disc, for example, knocks the pads and pistons back from the

rubbing surface. During this time, there can be significant brake drag. This brake

drag can lead to significant parasitic power loss, thus impact fuel economy and

vehicle performance.

1.5 Design and function

Compressed air brake systems are typically used on heavy trucks and buses. The

system consists of service brakes, parking brakes, a control pedal, air storage tank.

For the parking brake, there is a disc or drum brake arrangement which is designed

to be held in the 'applied' position by spring pressure. Air pressure must be produced

to release these "spring brake" parking brakes. For the service brakes (theones used

while driving for slowing or stopping) to be applied, the brake pedal is pushed,

routing the air under pressure (approx 100–120 psi or 690–830 kPa) to the brake

chamber, causing the brake to reduce wheel rotation speed. Most types of truck air

brakes are drum units, though there is an increasing trend towards the use of disc

brakes in this application. The air compressor draws filtered air from the
15
atmosphere and forces it into high-pressure reservoirs at around 120 psi (830 kPa).

Most heavy vehicles have a gauge within the driver's view, indicating the availability

of air pressure for safe vehicle operation, often including warning tones or lights.

Setting of the parking/electromagnetic brake releases the pressurized air pressure in

the lines between the compressed air storage tank and the brakes, thus actuating the

(spring brake) parking braking hardware. A sudden loss of air pressure would result

in full spring brake pressure immediately.

A compressed air brake system is divided into a supply system and a control system.

The supply system compresses, stores and supplies high-pressure air to thecontrol

system as well as to additional air operated auxiliary truck systems (gearbox shift

control, clutch pedal air assistance servo, etc.).

Supply system

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The air compressor is driven by the engine either by crankshaft pulley via a belt or

directly from the engine timing gears. It is lubricated and cooled by the engine

lubrication and cooling systems. Compressed air is first routed through a cooling

coil and into an air dryer which removes moisture and oil impurities and also may

include a pressure regulator, safety coil and a smaller purge reservoir. As an

alternative to the air dryer, the supply system can be equipped with an anti

freeze device and oil separator. The compressed air is then stored in

a reservoir (also called a wet tank) from which it is then distributed via a fou

1.6 BRAKE MECHANISM IN WHEELS

Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and

shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp. Most fixed-wing aircraft

are fitted with wheel brakes on the undercarriage. Some aircraft also feature air

brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight. Notable examples include gliders and

some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter aircraft and many dive

bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a safe speed in a steep

descent. The Saab B 17 dive bomber used the deployed undercarriage as an air brake.

, or airplanes with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during

landing. Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential energy in such stored

forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Still other braking methods even
17
transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example by transferring the energy

to a rotating flywheel.

Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other

forms such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air). Some

vehicles use a combination of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars with

both wheel brakes and a parachute

A braking mechanism according to the present invention for braking the wheels of

a wheeled truck assembly includes a handle mounted to one beam which, when

braking force is applied, urges a rod toward the other beam. The rod operates a lever

mounted to the other beam which engages the actuation rod of the vehicle's

pneumatic braking system, thereby operating the linkage included in the pneumatic

system to separate the beams, bringing the brake pads into contact with the wheels

to brake the wheels.

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 1.7 REACTION FORCE TRANSMISSION MECHANISM FOR
PNEUMATIC

BRAKE BOOSTER

The present invention relates to a reaction force transmission mechanism for a

pneumatic brake booster including a largely incompressible reaction plate that is

interposed between an input member and an output member and encased at the

peripheral side and has lateral abutment surfaces for the input member and the output

member, wherein the abutment surface close to the input member can be acted upon

by a pressure member which is adapted to be fixed to a control housing and,

consequently, can be excepted from the transmission of the reaction force to a

vehicle driver. To improve its service life, the reaction plate includes a recess in

the area of the abutment of a coil piston extension, in which recess a substantially

incompressible, elastic insert is placed.

We are involved in the manufacturing of high quality pneumatic failsafe disc brakes

that finds application in steel mills, wind turbines, textile machinery and and any

industrial application that involves stopping or starting of machinery. These are

manufactured using superior quality material and are appreciated for durability,

reliability, high tensile strength and dimensional accuracy. Further, our entire range

of disc brakes can easily be customized as per the definite needs of our clients.

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RAILWAY AIR BRAKES

An air brake is a conveyance braking system actuated by compressed air. Modern

trains rely upon a fail-safe air brake system that is based upon a design patented by

George Westinghouse on March 5, 1872. The Westinghouse Air Brake Company

(WABCO) was subsequently organized to manufacture and sell Westinghouse's

invention. In various forms, it has been nearly universally adopted.

In the air brake's simplest form, called the straight air system, compressed air pushes

on a piston in a cylinder. The piston is connected through mechanical linkage to

brake shoes that can rub on the train wheels, using the resulting friction to slow the

train. The mechanical linkage can become quite elaborate, as it evenly distributes

force from one pressurized air cylinder to 8 or 12 wheels.

The pressurized air comes from an air compressor in the locomotive and is sent from

car to car by a train line made up of pipes beneath each car and hoses between cars.

The principal problem with the straight air braking system is that any separation

between hoses and pipes causes loss of air pressure and hence the loss of the force

applying the brakes. This deficiency could easily cause a runaway train. Straight air

brakes are still used on locomotives, although as a dual circuit system, usually with

each bogie (truck) having its own circuit.

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The job of a passenger train brakeman wasn't too difficult, as he was not exposed

to the weather and could conveniently move from car to car through the vestibules,

which is where the brake wheel was (and still is, in many cases) located. Also,

passenger trains were not as heavy or lengthy as their freight counterparts, which

eased the task of operating the brakes.

A brakeman's job on a freight train was far more difficult, as he was exposed to the

elements and was responsible for many more cars

1.8 ADVANTAGES

The advantages of the brakes include: brake can be used in dynamic applications;

field serviceable; easy flange connection according to IEC and NEMA standards;

low maintenance because very few parts are exposed to wear; compact design; easily

interchangeable because of independent brake module; cast-iron housing andgood

thermal capacity for use in harsh environments; long life; and certifiedaccording to

the European Explosive Directive

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Air brakes must have a safe level of pressure to disengage the parking brake, so if

your brake system is faulty you can't move the vehicle. An air brake system is a little

less complex than a typical ABS setup. An airbrake system *WITH* ABS is abit

more complex. Air brakes are a proven technology that will apply more pressure

that hydraulic brakes and will stop a heavy vehicle far quicker with a foolproof

system. One leak in hydraulics and it's game over. Air brakes are almost foolproof.

1.9 SPECIFICATIONS OF PNEUMATIC BRAKES

Specifications for pneumatic brakes include torque rating, speed, power, maximum

pressure, linear force, and linear speed. Spring-return brakes require power to

engage. Spring-actuated brakes require power to disengage. Non-contact brakes

use methods such as magnetic fields and eddy currents. Friction brakes generate

friction between contact surfaces. Wrap spring brakes transmit torque from the input

to the output through a wrapped spring that uncoils to disengage the brake.

Pneumatic brakes with teeth engage only during stops or at slow speeds. Oil shear

brakes achieve engagement through the viscous shear of transmission fluid between

the brake plates.

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1.10 TYPES OF PNEUMATIC BRAKES

There are several basic types of pneumatic brakes. Band brakes, the simplest

pneumatic brake configuration, feature a metal band lined with heat and wear

resistant friction material. Drum brakes, which are commonly used on automobile

rear wheels, actuate when shoes press against a spinning surface called a drum. Disc

brakes consist of a caliper that squeezes brake pads against a rotor. Cone brakes

include a cone that is lined with heat and wear resistant material that presses against

a mating cup surface. Typically, pneumatic brakes are used in large motorized

vehicles such as buses because they provide reduced braking distances.

Selecting pneumatic brakes requires an analysis of measurements and mounting

configurations. Important measurements include diameter, the cross-sectional width

of the assembly; length, the dimension along the axis of rotation; and weight. Shaft

configurations can be in-line along the axis of the load, parallel but offset from the

axis, or perpendicular (right angle) to the axis

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1.11 DISC PNEUMATIC BRAKES-A TYPE

The brake shoe carries the brake lining, which is riveted or glued to the shoe. When

the brake is applied, the shoe moves and presses the lining against the inside of the

drum. The friction between lining and drum provides the braking effort. Energy is

dissipated as heat.

Modern cars have disc brakes all round, or discs at the front and drums at the rear.

An advantage of discs is that they can dissipate heat more quickly than drums so

there is less risk of overheating.

The reason for retaining drums at the rear is that a drum is more effective than a disc.

LIMITATIONS

• Brakes are too sensitive: pedal linkage binding or defective hydroboostcauses

this.

• Excessive noise originating in the hydroboost unit is an indication of the

following problems: low power steering fluid, air in the power steering fluid,

a loose power steering belt, or a restriction in the hydraulic hoses.

• Limited braking force can be applied.

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 CHAPTER 2

SPECIAL FEATURES ADDED

• Pneumatic brakes are available with a variety of special features. Some

devices use electrical or electronic signals to monitor parameters such as

position, speed, torque, lockup, or slip status. Others prevent play or backlash

during load engagement and prevent direction reversal during load

disengagement. Adjustable torque, the torque at which the brake disengages

or can be manually adjusted, is used primarily for torque limiters. Washdown-

capable pneumatic brakes use housing materials that are ratedfor washdown

cleaning. Bidirectional pneumatic brakes can be set up to rotate in either

direction.

2.1 Brake

2.1.1 Control system

The control system is further divided into two service brake circuits: the parking

brake circuit and the trailer brake circuit. This dual brake circuit is further split into

front and rear wheel circuits which receive compressed air from their individual

reservoirs for added safety in case of an air leak. The service brakes are applied by

25
means of a brake pedal air coil which regulates both circuits. The parking brake is

the air operated spring brake type where its applied by spring force in the spring

brake cylinder and released by compressed air via hand control coil. The trailer brake

consists of a direct two line system: the supply line (marked red) and the separate

control or service line (marked blue). The supply line receives air from theprime

mover park brake air tank via a park brake relay coil and the control line is regulated

via the trailer brake relay coil. The operating signals for the relay are provided by

the prime mover brake pedal air coil, trailer service brake hand control (subject to a

country's relevant heavy vehicle legislation) and the prime mover park brake hand

control.

2.1.2 Advantages

Air brakes are used as an alternative to hydraulic brakes which are used on lighter

vehicles such as automobiles. Hydraulic brakes use a fluid (hydraulic fluid) to

transfer pressure from the brake pedal to the brake shoe to stop the vehicle. Air

brakes have several advantages for large multitrailer vehicles:

 The supply of air is unlimited, so the brake system can never run out of its

operating fluid, as hydraulic brakes can. Minor leaks do not result in brake

failures.

26
 Air line couplings are easier to attach and detach than hydraulic lines; there

is no danger of letting air into the hydraulic fluid. So air brake circuits of trailers

can be attached and removed easily by operators with no training.

 Air not only serves as a fluid for transmission of force, but also stores potential

energy. So it can serve to control the force applied. Air brake systems include an

air tank that stores sufficient energy to stop the vehicle if the compressor fails.

 Air brakes are effective even with considerable leakage, so an air brake system

can be designed with sufficient "fail-safe" capacity to stop the vehicle safely even

when leaking.

27
 CHAPTER 3

CONSTRUCTION

This project consists of following components

 1. WHEEL SYSTEM

 2.BRAKE LEVER

 3.SOLENOID COIL

 4.BRAKE SYSTEM

28
3.1 WHEEL SYSTEM

3.1.1 Rim

The rim is the "outer edge of a wheel, holding the tire." It makes up the outer circular

design of the wheel on which the inside edge of the tire is mounted on vehicles such

as automobiles. For example, on a bicycle wheel the rim is a large hoop attached to

the outer ends of the spokes of the wheel that holds the tire and tube.

3.1.2 Hub

The hub is the center of the wheel, and typically houses a bearing, and is where the

spokes meet.

29
A hubless wheel (also known as a rim-rider or centerless wheel) is a type of wheel

with no center hub. More specifically, the hub is actually almost as big as the wheel

itself. The axle is hollow, following the wheel at very close tolerances.

3.1.3 Spokes

A spoke is one of some number of rods radiating from the center of a wheel (the

hub where the axle connects), connecting the hub with the round traction surface.

The term originally referred to portions of a log which had been split lengthwise into

four or six sections. The radial members of a wagon wheel were made by carving a

spoke (from a log) into their finished shape. A spokeshave isa tool originally

developed for this purpose. Eventually, the term spoke was more commonly applied

to the finished product of the wheelwright's work, than to the materials he used.

30
3.1.4 WIRE

The rims of wire wheels (or "wire spoked wheels") are connected to their hubs by

wire spokes. Although these wires are generally stiffer than a typical wire rope, they

function mechanically the same as tensioned flexible wires, keeping the rim true

while supporting applied loads.

Wire wheels are used on most bicycles and still used on many motorcycles. They

were invented by aeronautical engineer George Cayley and first used in bicycles

by James Starley. A process of assembling wire wheels is described as

wheelbuilding.

3.1.5 Tire

A tire (in American English and Canadian English) or tyre is a ring-shapedcovering

that fits around a wheel rim to protect it and enable better vehicle performance by

providing a flexible cushion that absorbs shock while keeping the wheel in close

contact with the ground. The word itself may be derived from the
31
word "tie," which refers to the outer steel ring part of a wooden cart wheel that ties

the wood segments together (see Etymology below).

The fundamental materials of modern tires are synthetic rubber, natural rubber,

fabric and wire, along with other compound chemicals. They consist of a tread and

a body. The tread provides traction while the body ensures support. Before rubber

was invented, the first versions of tires were simply bands of metal that fitted around

wooden wheels to prevent wear and tear. Today, the vast majority of tires are

pneumatic inflatable structures, comprising a doughnut-shaped body of cords and

wires encased in rubber and generally filled with compressed air to form an

inflatable cushion. Pneumatic tires are used on many types of vehicles, such as

cars, bicycles, motorcycles, trucks, earthmovers, and aircraft.

3.2 SOLENOID COIL

A solenoid coil is an electromechanically operated coil. The coil is controlled by

an electric current through a solenoid: in the case of a two-port coil the flow is

32
switched on or off; in the case of a three-port coil, the outflow is switched between

the two outlet ports. Multiple solenoid coils can be placed together on a manifold.

Solenoid coils are the most frequently used control elements in fluidics. Their tasks

are to shut off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids. They are found in many

application areas. Solenoids offer fast and safe switching, high reliability, long

service life, good medium compatibility of the materials used, low control power

and compact design.

Besides the plunger-type actuator which is used most frequently, pivoted-armature

actuators and rocker actuators are also used.

3.2.1Operation

There are many coil design variations. Ordinary coil can have many ports and fluid

paths. A 2-way coil, for example, has 2 ports; if the coil is closed, then the two ports

are connected and fluid may flow between the ports; if the coil is open, then ports

are isolated. If the coil is open when the solenoid is not energized, then the coil is

termed normally open (N.O.). Similarly, if the coil is closed when the solenoid is

not energized, then the coil is termed normally closed. There are also

33
3-way and more complicated designs. A 3-way coil has 3 ports; it connects one

port to either of the two other ports (typically a supply port and an exhaust port).

Solenoid coil are also characterized by how they operate. A small solenoid can

generate a limited force. If that force is sufficient to open and close the coil, then

a direct acting solenoid coil is possible. An approximate relationship between the

required solenoid force Fs, the fluid pressure P, and the orifice area A for a direct

acting solenoid value is:

Where d is the orifice diameter. A typical solenoid force might be 15 N (3.4

lbf). An application might be a low pressure (e.g., 10 pounds per square inch (69

kPa)) gas with a small orifice diameter (e.g., 3⁄8 in (9.5 mm) for an orifice area of

0.11 sq in (7.1×10−5 m2) and approximate force of 1.1 lbf (4.9 N)).

When high pressures and large orifices are encountered, then high forces are

required. To generate those forces, an internally piloted solenoid coil design

may be possible.[1] In such a design, the line pressure is used to generate the high

coil forces; a small solenoid controls how the line pressure is used. Internally

piloted coils are used in dishwashers and irrigation systems where the

34
 fluid is water, the pressure might be 80 pounds per square inch (550 kPa) and the

orifice diameter might be 3⁄4 in (19 mm).

In some solenoid coils the solenoid acts directly on the main coil. Others use a

small, complete solenoid coil, known as a pilot, to actuate a larger coil. While

the second type is actually a solenoid coil combined with a pneumatically

actuated coil, they are sold and packaged as a single unit referred to as a solenoid

coil. Piloted coils require much less power to control, but they are noticeably

slower. Piloted solenoids usually need full power at all times to open and stay

open, where a direct acting solenoid may only need full power for a short period

of time to open it, and only low power to hold it.

A direct acting solenoid coil typically operates in 5 to 10 milliseconds. The

operation time of a piloted coil depends on its size; typical values are 15 to 150

milliseconds.

3.2.2 Internally piloted

While there are multiple design variants, the following is a detailed breakdown

of a typical solenoid coil design.

A solenoid coil has two main parts: the solenoid and the coil. The solenoid

converts electrical energy into mechanical energy which, in turn, opens or

35
closes the coil mechanically. A direct acting coil has only a small flow circuit,

shown within section E of this diagram (this section is mentioned below as a pilot

coil). In this example, a diaphragm piloted coil multiplies this small pilot flow,

by using it to control the flow through a much larger orifice.

Solenoid coils may use metal seals or rubber seals, and may also have electrical

interfaces to allow for easy control. A spring may be used to hold the coil opened

(normally open) or closed (normally closed) while the coil is not activated.

36
 A- INPUT SIDE

B- DIAPHRAM

C- PRESSURE CHAMBER

D- PRESSURE RELIEF

E- SOLINOID

F- OUTPUT SIDE

The diagram to the right shows the design of a basic coil, controlling the flow of

water in this example. At the top figure is the coil in its closed state. The water

under pressure enters at A. B is an elastic diaphragm and above it is a weak spring

pushing it down. The diaphragm has a pinhole through its center which allows a

very small amount of water to flow through it. This water fills the cavity C on

the other side of the diaphragm so that pressure is equal on both sides of the

diaphragm, however the compressed spring supplies a net downward force. The

spring is weak and is only able to close the inlet because water pressure is

equalized on both sides of the diaphragm.

37
Once the diaphragm closes the coil, the pressure on the outlet side of its bottom

is reduced, and the greater pressure above holds it even more firmly closed. Thus,

the spring is irrelevant to holding the coil closed.

The above all works because the small drain passage D was blocked by a pin

which is the armature of the solenoid E and which is pushed down by a spring.

If current is passed through the solenoid, the pin is withdrawn via magnetic force,

and the water in chamber C drains out the passage D faster than the pinhole can

refill it. The pressure in chamber C drops and the incoming pressure lifts the

diaphragm, thus opening the main coil. Water now flows directly from A to F.

When the solenoid is again deactivated and the passage D is closed again, the

spring needs very little force to push the diaphragm down again and the main coil

closes. In practice there is often no separate spring; the elastomer diaphragm is

molded so that it functions as its own spring, preferring to be in the closed shape.

From this explanation it can be seen that this type of coil relies on a differential

of pressure between input and output as the pressure at the input must always be

greater than the pressure at the output for it to work. Should the pressure at

38
 the output, for any reason, rise above that of the input then the coil would open

regardless of the state of the solenoid and pilot coil.

3.2.3 Components

Example core tubes. Non-magnetic core tubes are used to isolate the fluid

from the coil. The core tube encloses the plugnut, the core spring, and the

core. The coil slips over the core tube; a retaining clip engages the depression

near the closed end of the core tube and holds the coil on the core tube.

Solenoid coil designs have many variations and challenges.

Common components of a solenoid coil:

 Solenoid subassembly

 Retaining clip (a.k.a. coil clip)

39
  Solenoid coil (with magnetic return path)

 Core tube (a.k.a. armature tube, plunger tube, solenoid coil tube,

sleeve, guide assembly)

 Plugnut (a.k.a. fixed core)

 Shading coil (a.k.a. shading ring)

 Core spring (a.k.a. counter spring)

 Core (a.k.a. plunger, armature)

 Core tube–bonnet seal

 Bonnet (a.k.a. cover)

 Bonnet–diaphram–body seal

 Hanger spring

 Backup washer

 Diaphram

 Bleed hole

 Disk

 Coil body

 Seat

40
The core or plunger is the magnetic component that moves when the solenoid is

energized. The core is coaxial with the solenoid. The core's movement will make

or break the seals that control the movement of the fluid. When the coil is not

energized, springs will hold the core in its normal position.

The plugnut is also coaxial.

The core tube contains and guides the core. It also retains the plugnut and may

seal the fluid. To optimize the movement of the core, the core tube needs to be

nonmagnetic. If the core tube were magnetic, then it would offer a shunt path for

the field lines. In some designs, the core tube is an enclosed metal shell produced

by deep drawing. Such a design simplifies the sealing problems because the fluid

cannot escape from the enclosure, but the design also increases the magnetic

path resistance because the magnetic path must traverse the thickness of the core

tube twice: once near the plugnut and once near the core. In some other designs,

the core tube is not closed but rather an open tube that slips over one end of the

plugnut. To retain the plugnut, the tube might be crimped to the plugnut. An O-

ring seal between the tube and the plugnut will prevent the fluid from escaping.

41
 The solenoid coil consists of many turns of copper wire that surround the core

tube and induce the movement of the core. The coil is often encapsulated in

epoxy. The coil also has an iron frame that provides a low magnetic path

resistance.

3.2.4 Materials

The coil body must be compatible with the fluid; common materials are brass,

stainless steel, aluminum, and plastic.

The seals must be compatible with the fluid.

To simplify the sealing issues, the plugnut, core, springs, shading ring, and other

components are often exposed to the fluid, so they must be compatible as well.

The requirements present some special problems. The core tube needs to be non-

magnetic to pass the solenoid's field through to the plugnut and the core. The

plugnut and core need a material with good magnetic properties such as iron, but

iron is prone to corrosion. Stainless steels can be used because they come in both

magnetic and non-magnetic varieties. For example, a solenoid coil might use

304 stainless steel for the body, 305 stainless steel for the core tube, 302 stainless

steel for the springs, and 430 F stainless steel (a magnetic stainless steel for the

core and plugnut.

42
3.2.5 Types

Many variations are possible on the basic, one-way, one-solenoid coil described

above:

 one- or two-solenoid coils;

 direct current or alternating current powered;

 different number of ways and positions;

 Common uses

Solenoid coils are used in fluid power pneumatic and hydraulic systems, to

control cylinders, fluid power motors or larger industrial coils. Automatic

irrigation sprinkler systems also use solenoid coils with an automatic controller.

Domestic washing machines and dishwashers use solenoid coils to control water

entry into the machine. Solenoid coils are used in dentist chairsto control air and

water flow. In the paintball industry, solenoid coils are usually referred to simply

as "solenoids." They are commonly used to control a larger coil used to control

the propellant (usually compressed air or CO2). In addition to this, these coils are

now been used in household water purifiers (RO systems).

43
Besides controlling the flow of air and fluids, solenoids are used in pharmacology

experiments, especially for patch-clamp, which can control the application of

agonist or antagonist.

44
 CHAPTER 4

NEED OF THE PROJECT

 .To protect the driver and

passenger life

 To protect the vehicle from

accident

 For safe driving

45
 CHAPTER 5

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Power

Electro magnet Brake Vehicle stop

mechanism

Control unit

46
 CHAPTER 6

WORKING PRINCIPLE

In this project we are using to stop the vehicle by apply the Brake. Here we are

placing the switch which is fixed in the body of the engine . Whenever an obstacle

comes in front of the vehicle, the corresponding signals are given to the control

unit and hence the brake system is activated by a solenoid coil. Then the vehicle is

stopped by mechanical drum brake arrangement.

47
 CHAPTER 7

ADVANTAGES

 Operating principle is very

easy

 Installation is very easy

 Simple in
construction Accident
avoidance system
 Low cost automatic
project
 Less power
consumption

DISADVANTAGES

 Additional cost is required to install this in four wheeler

APPLICATION

 It is applicable in ALL automobiles…,

48
 CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION

Thus the electromagnetic stopping system project was successfully completed. In

this technology further the use of environmental technologies while delivering

comforts and driving pleasure. It is a very good substitute and replacement for a

conventionalBrake

49
 REFERENCES

Motorauthority.com

^ Credit-suisse.com.

^ RailPower Technologies Corp. (2006-07-12). "GG Series: Hybrid Yard

Switcher" (PDF).

^ "RailPower To SupplyY TSI Terminal Systems Inc. with hybrid power plants

for rubber tyred gantry cranes" (PDF) (Press release). 2006-10-10.[dead link]

^ "Railpower to supply TSI Terminal Systems Inc. with hybrid power plants for

rubber tyred gantry cranes" (Press release). RailPower Technologies Corp.. 2006-

10-10.

^ Thomas, Justin (2007-03-27). "Hybrid Truck Unveiled by Kenworth".

TreeHugger.

^ "Kenworth Unveils T270 Class 6 Hybrid Truck Targeted at Municipal, Utility

Applications" (Press release). Kenworth Truck Company. 2007-03-21.[dead link]

^ Hetzner, Christiaan (2007-11-12), Hard sell for hybrid trucks, Reuters

^ Komarow, Steven (2006-02-13). "Military hybrid vehicles could boost safety,

mobility". USA Today.

^ "Hybrid Electric HMMWV". GlobalSecurity.Org. Retriev

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51