Bahir Dar University

Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Introduction to Electrical Machines

Chapter 2
Transformers
By Tayachew Z.
7/5/22
1
Outline
§ Introduction
§ Construction
§ Principle of operation
§ Ideal and Practical Transformers
§ Equivalent circuit
§ Phasor diagrams
§ Transformer testing
§ Parallel peration
§ Three phase transformers

2 7/5/22
Introduction
§ Transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another electrical
circuit without a change in the frequency in a magnetic field system.
• Primary winding- receives energy from the supply mains.
• Secondary winding - delivers electrical energy to the load. 𝐼! 𝐼"

𝑒! 𝑒"
§ Primary and secondary windings of a transformer are not
connected electrically, but are coupled magnetically.
§ Types depending on application
• Step up/ unit transformers- located at the output of a generator and its function is to step up the voltage
level.
• Step down/ substation transformers- located at transmission substations/ main distribution centers to lower
voltage levels for 1st level distribution purposes.
• Distribution Transformers – located at small distribution substations to lower the voltage levels for 2nd
level distribution purposes.
• Special Purpose Transformers - to measure voltages and currents like PT and CT.

3 7/5/22
Introduction
§ Functions of transformers:
• Changing voltage and current levels from one circuit to other circuit.
• Source and load impedance matching for maximum power transfer in electronics and control circuits
• Isolation purposes like isolating d.c from a.c or isolating one circuit from another circuit in low power
electronics and control applications
• AC electrical power can be generated at one central location, its voltage stepped up for transmission over long
distances at very low losses and its voltage stepped down again for final use. Transformers are central to those
applications.

Electric Power Transmission

4 7/5/22
Construction
§ Depending on the windings wound on the magnetic core
§ Core type
§ Shell type
§ Core-stack of thin silicon-steel laminations ~0.35 𝑚𝑚 insulated by
varnish to reduce eddy current losses.
§ The vertical portions of the core are usually called limbs or legs and the
top and bottom portions are called yoke.
§ Core Type:
§ The windings surround a considerable part of steel core
§ requires less iron but more conductor material. Shell Type
§ Two-legged core (single phase) Core Type
§ most of the flux is confined to high permeability core.
§ leakage flux, links one winding and not the other to improve
performance. This is done by placing e half LV and HV windings in
each leg.
§ LV winding is placed adjacent to the steel core and HV winding
outside, in order to minimize the amount of insulation required.
§ Flux has a single path around the legs or yokes
§ The winding type is concentric
5 7/5/22
Construction
§ Shell type Transformers
• The steel core surrounds a major part of the windings
• Three leged core (single phase)
• The low voltage and high voltage windings are wound over the central limb and are interleaved or
sandwiched.
• The flux in the central limb divides equally and returns through the outer two legs.
• Better for low voltage, low power and has good voltage regulation
• The winding type is interleaved (sandwitched)
• During the transformer construction first the primary and secondary winding are wound, then the laminations are
pushed through the coil openings, layer by layer and the steel core is placed. The laminations are then tightened
by means of clamps and bolts.
• Low-power transformers (< 25 𝑘𝑉𝐴) are air cooled whereas larger power transformers are immersed in oil for
better cooling. In oil-cooled transformer, the coil serves as a coolant and also as an insulation medium.

6 7/5/22
Working principle
§ Based on Faradays Law of electromagnetic
induction or mutual induction between the two coils.
• When the primary winding is connected to an
alternating voltage source 𝑉! , an alternating current 𝐼!
starts flowing through 𝑁! winding turns.
• The alternating mmf 𝑁! 𝐼! sets up an alternating flux 𝜙
which is confined to the high permeability iron path.
• This alternating flux induces voltage 𝐸! in the primary
winding and 𝐸" in the secondary winding due to
mutually induced flux.
• If a load is connected across the secondary winding,
load current 𝐼" starts flowing.

7 7/5/22
Ideal Transformer
§ For a transformer to be ideal, the various assumptions are as follows:
• Winding resistances are negligible.
• All the flux set up by the primary links the secondary windings - no leakage fluxes (all flux linked to the
core material).
• The core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) are negligible.
• The core has constant permeability, i.e. the magnetization curve for the core is linear.

Ideal transformer Schematic diagram of

𝑑𝜙
(ideal) transformer
𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥, 𝜙 𝑣! = 𝑒! = 𝑁!
𝑑𝑡
𝑒! 𝑒" 𝑑𝜙
𝑣" = 𝑒" = 𝑁"
𝑑𝑡
#! $!
= =𝑎
#" $"
𝑎 = 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

8 7/5/22
EMF equation of Transformer -- Ideal
• The Rms value of emf 𝐸% induced in the primary winding
§ Let the voltage 𝑉% applied to primary winding is sinusoidal is given by
(or sine wave). Then the current 𝐼% and, therefore, the flux 𝐸%&'( 2𝜋
𝐸% = = 𝑓𝑁% 𝜙& = 2 𝜋𝑓𝑁% 𝜙&
𝜙 will flow with the variations of 𝐼% and expressed as: 2 2
𝐸% = 4.44 𝑓𝑁% 𝜙&
𝜙 = 𝜙& sin 𝜔𝑡
• For ideal transformers:
where 𝜙& is the maximum value of magnetic flux 𝑑𝜙
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 is the angular frequency in 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐 and 𝑓 is 𝑣% = −𝑒% = 𝑁% 𝑜𝑟 𝑉% = −𝐸%
𝑑𝑡
the supply frequency in 𝐻𝑧. +, )
• Similarly, 𝑒* = −𝑁* = 𝑁* 𝜔𝜙& sin 𝜔𝑡 − =
• The emf 𝑒% induced in the primary winding 𝑁% turns by +-
)
*
the alternating flux 𝜙 is given by: = 𝐸*&'( sin 𝜔𝑡 −
*
= 4.44 𝑓𝑁* 𝜙& ,
𝑑𝜙 𝜋
𝑒% = −𝑁% = −𝑁% 𝜔𝜙& cos 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑁% 𝜔𝜙& sin(𝜔𝑡 − ) Thus taking the ratio ,
𝑑𝑡 2
.# $#
• The maximum value of 𝑒% (𝐸%&'( ) occurs when .$
= $$
= 𝑎 (transformer ratio)
)
sin(𝜔𝑡 − ) is equal to 1, thus;
* .# .$
Or = = 4.44 𝑓 𝜙&
𝐸%&'( = 𝑁% 𝜔𝜙& , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 $# $$
𝜋 • If 𝑁! > 𝑁" → 𝑎 < 1 → step-up transformer.
𝑒% = 𝐸%&'( sin(𝜔𝑡 − )
2 • If 𝑁! < 𝑁" → 𝑎 > 1 →step-down transformer.
9 • If 𝑁! = 𝑁" → 𝑎 = 1 →for isolation purposes. 7/5/22
 Current in Ideal Transformer Power in Ideal Transformer
• If load is connected to the transformer a current 𝑖" • The power supplied to the transformer by the primary
starts to flow in the secondary winding ,and the circuit:
secondary winding will provide mmf 𝑁" 𝑖" for the 𝑃#$ = 𝑉! 𝐼! cos 𝜃! where 𝜃! is angle between 𝑉! 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼!
core. • The power supplied by the transformer secondary
• This will immediately make a primary winding circuit to its loads is given by:
current 𝑖! flow so that a counter-mmf 𝑁! 𝑖! can
𝑃%&' = 𝑉" 𝐼" cos 𝜃" where 𝜃" is angle between 𝑉" 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼"
oppose 𝑁" 𝑖" . Otherwise 𝑁" 𝑖" would make the core
flux change drastically and the balance between 𝑣! • But the primary and secondary windings of an ideal
and 𝑒! would be disturbed. transformer have the same power factor since voltage
• Thus, the net mmf required to establish a flux in the and current angles are unaffected hence 𝜃! − 𝜃" = 𝜃.
ideal core is zero, then: Thus,
𝑁! 𝑖! − 𝑁" 𝑖" = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑚𝑓 = 0 𝑉!
𝑃%&' = 𝑉" 𝐼" cos 𝜃 = 𝑎𝐼 cos 𝜃 = 𝑉! 𝐼! cos 𝜃 = 𝑃#$
𝑁! 𝑖! = 𝑁" 𝑖" 𝑎 !
V! W X • The same idea can be applied for reactive power and
V"
= W" = Y apparent power
!
5! 6" 7! 𝑉! 𝐼! = 𝑉" 𝐼" = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑆)
In transformers: = = =𝑎
5" 6! 7" 10 7/5/22
Impedance transfer in ideal Transformers Example
• Consider the case of a sinusoidal applied voltage and a 1. A single phase transformer has 350 primary and 1050
secondary impedance 𝑍* , secondary turns. The net cross-sectional area of the
𝑉*
𝑍* = core is 55 cm2. If the primary winding be connected
𝐼* to a 400 V, 50 Hz single phase supply, calculate
• The input impedance is
𝑉% 𝑘𝑉* 𝑉*
• the maximum value of flux density in the core
𝑍% = = = 𝑎* = 𝑎* 𝑍* and
𝐼% 𝐼* ⁄𝑎 𝐼*
• the voltage induced in the secondary winding.
𝑍% = 𝑎* 𝑍* = 𝑍* /
• An impedance from the primary side can also be 𝐸! = 4.44 𝑓𝑁! 𝜙( = 4.44 𝑓𝑁! 𝐵( 𝐴)
transferred to the secondary side given by:
1 𝐸!
/
𝑍% = * 𝑍% 𝐵( = = 0.93 𝑇
𝑎 4.44 𝑓𝑁! 𝐴)

*# !+,+ '&-$.
• 𝐸" = 𝐸! × = 400 𝑉× = 1200 𝑉
*$ /,+ '&-$.

11 7/5/22
Ideal Transformer Phasor Diagram
▸No Load Phasor Diagram
§ The no load applied current 𝐼0 equivalent to magnetizing current is in phase with the flux.
§ The current 𝐼0 is assumed to flow along the path 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑𝑎, the emf 𝑒! is induced in such a direction as to oppose
the cause per the Lenz’s law as its direction is indicated to oppose 𝑣! .
§ At time equal to zero, the flux is at zero phase, and it is drawn horizontally. The values of 𝑒! and 𝑒" are
maximum negative at t = 0 , and drawn downward in the vertical axis.

No load phasor diagram time domain diagram

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 Ideal Transformer Phasor Diagram
▸Phasor Diagram on Load (S closed)
§ According to Lenz’s law, the direction of secondary current 𝐼* should be such
that the secondary mmf 𝐹* = 𝑁* 𝐼* is opposite to mutual flux 𝜙 in the core
(current leaving node n to m)
• The secondary mmf 𝐹* reduces mutual flux 𝜙 . Any reduction in 𝜙 would
reduce 𝐸% . If the applied voltage 𝑉% is constant, 𝐸% and, therefore, mutual flux
𝜙 in the core must remain constant. This can happen only if the primary draws
more current 𝐼% / from the source, in order to neutralise the demagnetizing
effect of 𝐹* . In this manner, 𝐼* causes the primary to take more current 𝐼% / , in
addition to 𝐼0 such that:
𝐼% / 𝑁% = 𝐼* 𝑁*
• Let 𝐼* to lag behind 𝑉* by an angle 𝜃*
• mmfs 𝐹% 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹* tend to magnetize the core in opposite directions, they are
shown in phase opposition
• Total primary current is phasor sum of load component of primary current 𝐼1
(𝐼% / ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼0 ,
𝐼% = 𝐼% / + 𝐼0 on load phasor diagram
13 7/5/22
Practical Transformers
§ In practical transformer the windings have resistances, not
all windings link the same flux, permeability of the core
material is not infinite, and core losses occur when the
core material is subjected to time-varying flux.
§ In ideal transformer all flux links to the secondary, but in
reality there is flux leakage which is 𝜙#$ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜙#% .
§ Taking into account the leakage flux, the flux that reaches
the secondary side is termed as mutual flux (𝜙& ).
§ Thus, the total average primary flux, 𝜙'$ is:
𝜙'$ = 𝜙& + 𝜙#'
𝑒! 𝑡 𝑑𝜙& 𝑒" 𝑡
= =
• From Faradays Law: 𝑁! 𝑑𝑡 𝑁"
)!
(* (*% (*&' 𝑒! 𝑡 𝑁!
𝑣$ 𝑡 = 𝑁$ = 𝑁$ + 𝑁$ = 𝑒$ 𝑡 + 𝑒#$ 𝑡 = =𝑎
(+ (+ (+ 𝑒" 𝑡 𝑁"
(*% • In a well-designed transformer 𝜙& ≫ 𝜙12 and
where 𝑒$ 𝑡 = 𝑁$ is the primary voltage due to mutual
(+ 𝜙& ≫ 𝜙13 , thus ratio of the total voltage is:
flux. 𝑣! 𝑡 𝑁!
= =𝑎
(*% 𝑣" 𝑡 𝑁"
• Similarly, 𝑒% 𝑡 = 𝑁%
(+
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 Practical Transformers
• The current flow in the primary winding while still the output of transformer is open has 2 components:
1. 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑖1 − current required to produce flux in the core
2. 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑖230 − current required to make up hysteresis and eddy current losses.
• 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑖1
• It is not sinusoidal but a combination of high frequency oscillation on
top of the fundamental frequency due to magnetic saturation.
• The current lags the applied voltage at 900
• At saturation, the high frequency components will be extreme as such
that harmonic problems will occur.
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑖230 𝐼) :
• when flux is at 0 𝑊𝑏, core-loss current is at a maximum hence it is in
phase with the voltage applied at the primary windings 𝑉4 .
• Core-loss current is non-linear due to the non-linearity effects of
hysteresis.
• Excitation current 𝐼0 that flows in the core is thus;
𝐼0 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼230
15 7/5/22
Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
• Taking into account real transformer, there are several losses that has to be taken into account in order to accurately model
the transformer, namely:
i) Copper (𝑰𝟐 𝑹) Losses – Resistive heating losses in the primary and secondary windings of the transformer. modelled
by resistor 𝑅! in the primary circuit and a resistor 𝑅" in the secondary circuit.
ii) Leakage flux – The fluxes 𝜙12 and 𝜙13 which escape the core. They then produce leakage inductance in the primary
and secondary coils.
𝑁5 𝜙12 𝑁5 *
𝐿5 = = leakage inductance of primary winding
𝑖5 ℜ
𝑁6 𝜙13 𝑁6 *
𝐿3 = = leakage inductance of secondary winding
𝑖6 ℜ
Thus, the leakage reactance’s are given by 𝑋! = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿2 and 𝑋" = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿" .
iii) The core loss current 𝒊𝒉8𝒆 (𝐼: ) is a current proportional to the voltage applied to the core that is in phase with the
applied voltage, 𝑉! – and modelled as a resistance 𝑅; (𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒) across the primary voltage source.
• Core Magnetization effect - The magnetization current 𝑰𝑴 is a current proportional (in the unsaturated region) to the
voltage applied to the core and lagging the applied voltage 𝑉! by 90° - and modelled as
reactance 𝑋= (𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒) across the primary voltage source.
• Thus the core excitation current 𝐼0 is the effect of core loss current and 𝐼: and core magnetization current 𝐼=
𝐼0 = 𝐼: + 𝐼=
16 7/5/22
 Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer • Using impedance, voltage, current transformation ratio, the exact
equivalent circuit can be transformed to primary or secondary side.
§ The resulting exact equivalent circuit of a transformer is: (!
=
)"
=
*!
=𝑎
(" )! *"

• Equivalent circuit referred to primary side: (𝑍+ , = 𝑎+ 𝑍+ )

.#
Core loss resistance , 𝑅: = >/
• Equivalent circuit referred to secondary side:
.# -
Magnetizing reactance, 𝑋= = (𝑍- , = 𝑍- )
."
>%
Core Loss is due to 𝑅: , P? :
*
𝐸%
𝑃: = 𝐸% 𝐼: = 𝐼: * 𝑅: =
𝑅:
Copper Loss due to 𝑅! and 𝑅" , P?@
𝑃:A,! = 𝐼! * 𝑅!
𝑃:A," = 𝐼" * 𝑅"

17 7/5/22
Approximate Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

Referred to Secondary side

• The voltage drops 𝐼8 𝑅4 and 𝐼8 𝑋4 are normally small and Referred to primary side
𝐸! ≈ 𝑉1. If this is true, then the shunt branch (composed
of 𝑅9 and 𝑋1 ) can be moved to the supply terminal (a 𝐼! 𝑎𝐼!
and b)

• In a transformer, the exciting current 𝐼0 is a small

percentage of the rated current of the transformer (less
than 5%). A further approximation of the equivalent
circuit can be made by removing the excitation branch (c
and d)

18 7/5/22
Transformer Phasor Diagram
§ Consider equivalent circuit in general form where “P” replaced by ‘1’ and “S” replaced by ‘2’ in each parameter.

§ Procedures at no load
• The magnetic flux 𝜙# being common to both the primary and secondary is drawn first. The induced emf 𝐸$ and 𝐸% lag 𝜙# by
90& . The voltage −𝐸$ is being replaced by 𝑉$ ' just for convenience.
• The no-load primary current 𝐼( called the exciting current of the transformer and can be resolved into two components.
• The component 𝐼# along 𝜙# is called the reactive or magnetizing current lags 𝑉1′ by 900
• The second is core loss current 𝐼) along 𝑉1′ and is inphase with 𝑉1′.

• Thus 𝐼( is phasor sum of 𝐼# and 𝐼) , 𝐼( = 𝐼# + 𝐼) or 𝐼( = 𝐼# % + 𝐼) % , the angle at which the exciting current 𝐼( leads the flux is
hystresis angle 𝛼. 𝜃& is no load power factor
• The primary leakage flux 𝜙*$ is drawn inphase with 𝐼( since doesn’t involve in the hystresis loop and the corresponding induced
emf 𝐸+$ lags 𝜙*$ by 90°. Since 𝐼( leads 𝐸+$ by 90°, it is possible to write 𝐸+$ = −j𝐼( 𝑥$
• The total primary voltage considering voltage drop at (𝑟1 + 𝑗𝑥1) = 𝑧1 is:
𝑉$ = 𝑉$ ' + 𝐼$ 𝑟$ + 𝑗𝑥$ = 𝑉$ ' + 𝐼$ 𝑧$
• Note that volatge drop 𝐼$ 𝑟$ is drawn inphase with the current 𝐼$ and voltage drop 𝐼$ 𝑥$ is orthogonal to it (and, equal and opposite to
𝐸+$

19 7/5/22
Transformer Phasor Diagram
§ Procedures on Load
• Assume the load to have a lagging power factor so that 𝐼2 lags secondary load
voltage 𝑉! by an angle 𝜃!
• First draw 𝑉! with 𝐼2 lagging V2 by the secondary power factor angle 𝜃!.
• The secondary leakage flux 𝜙%!is drawn inphase with 𝐼! and the corresponding
induced emf 𝐸&! lags 𝜙%! by 90° with magnitude 𝐸&! = −j𝐼!𝑥!
• Thus secondary induced voltage can be written as:
𝐸! = 𝑉! + 𝐼! ( 𝑟! + 𝑗𝑥! ) = 𝑉! + 𝐼! 𝑧!
• The mutual flux 𝜙 is drawn leading 𝐸! by 90° and exciting current 𝐼𝑒 is drawn
leading 𝜙 by the hysteretic angle 𝛼. Note that the phasor 𝑉! has purposely been
taken to the left of vertical line, so that 𝐸! is vertically downward and the mutual
flux 𝜙 is horizontal.
• The component of the primary current which neutralizes the demagnetizing effect of
𝐼! is 𝐼"' or 𝐼"' 𝑁" = 𝐼! 𝑁! and drawn opposite to 𝐼!.
• The phasor sum of 𝐼"' and 𝐼( gives the total primary current 𝐼" taken from the supply Lagging
mains . The voltage equation for primary circuit under load can be written as: Leading
power factor
𝑉" = 𝑉"' + 𝐼" ( 𝑟" + 𝑗𝑥" ) = 𝑉"' + 𝐼" 𝑧" power factor
• Angle 𝜃" between 𝑉" and 𝐼" is the primary power factor angle under load.

20 7/5/22
Transformer Test
• The experimental open circuit and short circuit tests of a transformer can be used to determine:
• The equivalent circuit parameters (resistances and inductances)
• The efficiency and voltage regulation of the transformer
§ Open- circuit (No-load) test
• Measurement taken at low voltage side of the transformer while high voltage side is left open circuited.
• The rated frequency voltage applied to low voltage side, is varied with the help of a variable ratio auto-transformer.
• When the voltmeter reading is equal to the rated voltage of the L.V. winding , all three instrument readings are recorded.
• The-ammeter records the no-load current or exciting current 𝐼𝑒. Since 𝐼𝑒 is quite small (2 to 6%) of rated current, the primary
leakage impedance drop is almost negligible, and for all practical purposes, the applied voltage 𝑉1 is equal to the induced
emf 𝐸1.
• The input power given by the wattmeter reading consists of core loss and ohmic loss. But the ohmic loss in the primary
(𝐼0 * 𝑟% ) varies from 0.04% to 0.36% of the full-load primary ohmic loss . Thus, the ohmic loss during open circuit test is
negligible in comparison with the normal core loss.

21 7/5/22
Open- circuit (No-load) test
• From the experiment the recoded measurements can be
𝑉V: = 𝑉% = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝐿𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝐼V: = 𝐼0 = 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑜 − 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑃V: = 𝑃: = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑃V: = 𝑉V: 𝐼V: cos 𝜃V: , § Thus the open-circuit test gives the following information:
• core loss at rated voltage and frequency,
20/
No load power factor, cos 𝜃V: = • the shunt branch parameters of the equivalent circuit, i.e.
W0/>0/

• From transformer phasor diagrams: 𝑅: and 𝑋=

• turns ratio of the transformer by placing voltmeter at HV
𝐼: = 𝐼0 cos 𝜃V: = 𝐼V: cos 𝜃V:
side.
𝐼& = 𝐼0 sin 𝜃V: = 𝐼V: sin 𝜃V:
• Core loss resistance 𝑅: ,
𝑉% 𝑉V: 𝑉V: *
𝑅: = = =
𝐼: 𝐼V: cos 𝜃V: 𝑃V:
• Magnetizing reactance 𝑋= ,
W# W0/
𝑋= = =
>% >0/ 6XY Z0/
22 7/5/22
Short circuit test
• The low voltage-side of the transformer is short-circuited and the instruments are placed on the high voltage side
• The applied voltage is adjusted by auto-transformer, to circulate rated current in the high voltage side.
• In a transformer, the primary mmf is almost equal to the secondary mmf, therefore, a rated current in the H.V. winding causes
rated current to flow in the L.V. winding.
• A primary voltage of 2 to 12% of its rated value is sufficient to circulate rated currents in both primary and secondary
windings.
• During short circuit in the equivalent circuit, it is clear that the secondary leakage impedance drop appears across the exciting
branch (𝑅: and 𝑋= in parallel).
• About half (1 to 6%) of the applied voltage appears across the secondary leakage impedance and, therefore, across the
exciting branch.
• The core flux induces the voltage across the exciting branch and hence the core loss, being approximately proportional to the
square of the core flux, is 0.01% to 0.36% of its value at rated voltage.
• The wattmeter, in short circuit test, records the core loss and the ohmic loss in both windings. Since the core loss has been
proved to be almost negligible in comparison with the rated voltage core loss, the wattmeter can be taken to register only the
ohmic losses in both windings.

23 7/5/22
Short circuit test
• At rated-voltage, the exciting current is 2 𝑡𝑜 6% of full load current. When the voltage across the exciting branch is 1 to 6%
of rated voltage, the exciting current may be 0.02 𝑡𝑜 0.36% of its full-load current and can, therefore,be safely ignored.
• Let 𝑉3; , 𝐼3; and 𝑃3; be the voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter readings, Equivalent series leakage impedance referred to
H.V. side can be given by:
W12
𝑍0[ = >12
212
• Equivalent resistance referred to HV side: 𝑅0[ =
>12$

• Equivalent leakage reactance referred to HV side: 𝑋0[ = 𝑍0[ * − 𝑅0[ *

• It is also possible to determine 𝑅0[ and 𝑋0[ from the power factor:
212
𝑃3; = 𝑉3; 𝐼3; cos 𝜃3; , cos 𝜃3; =
W12>12
W12 W12∠]3 W12
𝑍0[ = = = ∠ 𝜃3;
>12 >12∠^Z12 >12
• Thus the series equivalent impedance
𝑍0[ = 𝑍3. = 𝑅0[ + 𝑗 𝑋0[ = (𝑅! +𝑎* 𝑅" ) + 𝑗(𝑋! +𝑎* 𝑋" )
• If the leakage impedance parameters for both primary and secondary are required separately,
then it is usual to take 𝑅% = 𝑅* = %⁄* 𝑅0[ ) and 𝑋% = 𝑋* = %⁄* 𝑋0[ ) referred to the same side.

24 7/5/22
Polarity Test
• Polarities of the primary and secondary terminals at any instant must be known if the transformers are to be
operated in parallel or are to be used in a polyphase circuit.
• Lets have terminals A1 and A2, marked plus and minus arbitrarily in the HV side.
• Now terminal A1 is connected to one end of the secondary winding and a voltmeter is connected between A2
and the other end of the secondary winding.
• A voltage of suitable value is now applied to the HV winding. Let E1 and E2 be the emfs induced on HV and
LV sides respectively. If the voltmeter reading is equal to 𝐸1– 𝐸2 then secondary terminal connected to A1 is
positive and is marked a1, the LV terminal connected to A2 through the voltmeter is negative and is marked a2
as shown in (a)
• If voltmeter reading is equal to E1+E2, then the terminals connected to A1 and A2 are negative and positive and
are marked a2 and a1 respectively as shown in (b).
• The subscript numbers 1,2 on the HV and LV windings are so arranged that when A2 is negative with respect to
A1 , a2 is also negative with respect to a1 at the same instant. In other words, if the instantaneous emf is
directed from A2 to A1 in H.V. winding, it is at the same time directed from a2 to a1 in the L.V. winding.

25 7/5/22
Polarity Test
• When the voltmeter reads the difference E1–E2, the
transformer is said to possess a subtractive polarity and when
voltmeter reads E1+E2 the transformer has additive polarity.
• In subtractive polarity, the voltage between A2 and a2 (or A1
and a1) is reduced. The leads connected to these terminals
and the two windings are, therefore, not subjected to high
voltage stress. (a) (b)
Subtractive Additive
• In additive polarity the windings and the leads connected to Polarity Polarity
A1, A2, a1 and a2 are subjected to high voltage stresses. On
account of these reasons, subtractive polarity is preferable to
additive polarity. A2 a2 A2 a1
.
• Terminals A1 in the primary winding and a1 in the secondary
winding are usually marked as dots to indicate that they have
same polarity. . . .
A1 a1 A1 a2

26 7/5/22
Voltage regulation of a transformer
• Since a real transformer has series impedances within it, the output voltage of a transformer varies with the load even if the
input voltage remains constant and it is necessary to keep it in narrow limits.
• Full-load voltage regulation (VR) is a quantity that compares the output voltage of the transformer at no load with the output
voltage at full load given by
W"45 ^W"65
𝑉𝑅 = ×100%
W"65

• Since at no load, the primary leakage impedance drop is almost negligible, thus the secondary no load voltage is:
$$ W!
𝑉𝑠_` = 𝑉! = , 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑉𝑅 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠
$# '
7!
a8^W"65
𝑉𝑅 = ×100
W"65

• If the transformer equivalent circuit is in the per-unit system, then voltage regulation can be expressed as:
W!,!: ^W"65,!:
𝑉𝑅 = W"65 ,!A
×100%

• Usually it is a good practice to have as small a voltage regulation as possible. For an ideal transformer, VR = 0%. It is not
always a good idea to have a low-voltage regulation, though-sometimes high-impedance and high-voltage regulation
transformers are deliberately used to reduce the fault currents in a circuit.

27 7/5/22
Voltage regulation of a transformer
• To determine the voltage regulation of a transformer, the approximate
equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the secondary side can be
considered with excitation effects neglected:
• Consider its phasor diagrams, where the phasor voltage 𝑉" is assumed to )*⁄
+ > 𝑉𝑠 for lagging
be at an angle of 0°, and all other voltages and currents are compared to loads, so the VR >0
that reference. Applying KVL:
W!
= 𝑉" + 𝑅0[ 𝐼" + 𝑗𝑋0[ 𝐼"
'

)*⁄
+> 𝑉𝑠 for unity p.f, so the
VR > 0 but small

𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

)*⁄
+ < 𝑉𝑠 for leading p.f, so
the VR < 0

28 7/5/22
Transformer Efficiency and losses
§ Transformer Losses
• There are mainly two kinds of losses in a transformer, namely Core loss and Ohmic loss
• The core loss Pc occurring in the transformer iron, consists of two components, hysteresis loss Ph and eddy current loss Pe.
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃ℎ + 𝑃𝑒
• The hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core can be expressed by :
𝑃b = 𝑘b 𝑓𝐵& (
𝑃0 = 𝑘0 𝑓 * 𝐵& *
where 𝑘b - proportionality constant which depends upon the volume and quality of the core material and units used,
𝑘0 - Proportionality constant whose value depends on the volume and resistivity of the core material, thickness of laminations,
𝐵& - is maximum flux density in the core , and f is frequency of the alternating flux.
• The value of the exponent x (called Steinmetz’s constant) varies from 1.5 to 2.5 depending upon the magnetic properties of
the core material. Therefore, the total core loss is
𝑃: = 𝑘b 𝑓𝐵& %.d + 𝑘0 𝑓 * 𝐵& *
Ohmic Loss
• When a transformer is loaded, ohmic loss (I2R) occurs in both the primary and secondary winding resistances. Since the
standard operating temperature of electrical machines is 750 C. The ohmic loss should be calculated at 750 C.

29 7/5/22
Transformer Efficiency
• The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of the output power to input power. Thus:

8,-. 8,-. :2 ;2 <=> ?2

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝜂 = ×100% = ×100% = ×100%
8/0 8,-. 381,22 :2 ;2 <=> ?2 383- 383

• The copper loss can be determined if the winding currents and their resistances are known:

𝑃)& = 𝐼4 " 𝑅4 + 𝐼. " 𝑅. = 𝐼4 " 𝑅0@,4 = 𝐼. " 𝑅0@,.

• The copper loss is a function of the load current. The core loss depends on the peak flux density in the core,
which in turn depends on the voltage applied to the transformer.
• Since a transformer remains connected to an essentially constant voltage, the core loss is almost constant and can
be obtained from the no-load test of a transformer, Thus, the efficiency can be determined as:

:2 ;2 <=> ?2
𝜂= ×100%
:2 ;2 <=> ?2 3;2 # B45,2 383

30 7/5/22
Transformer Efficiency
Condition for maximum efficiency
• The core loss is constant and the load voltage 𝑉. remains practically constant. Thus efficiency depends on load
current 𝐼. and load power factor cos 𝜃. . For a constant value of terminal voltage 𝑉. and load power factor cos 𝜃. ,
the efficiency will be maximum when:

CD CD (:2 ;2 <=> ?2 3;2 # B45,2 383 ):2 <=> ?2 G:2 ;2 <=> ?2 (:2 <=> ?2 3";2 B45,2 )
=0→ = =0
C;2 C;2 (:2 ;2 <=> ?2 3;2 # B45,2 383 )#

𝑃) = 𝐼. " 𝑅0@,. 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ means core loss = copper loss

• For constant values of the terminal voltage 𝑉. and load current 𝐼. , the maximum efficiency occurs when
CD
C?2
= 0 → 𝜃. = 0 → cos 𝜃. = 1 𝑜𝑟 load power factor = 1
• Therefore, maximum efficiency in a transformer occurs when the load power factor is unity (i.e., resistive load)
and load current is such that copper loss equals core loss.

31 7/5/22
Example
1) A 15-kVA, 2300/1230V transformer is tested in an experiment to determine its excitation branch components, its series
impedances, and its voltage regulation. The following test data have been taken from the primary (HV) side of the
transformer:
Open circuit test ∶ 𝑉V: = 2300 𝑉, 𝐼V: = 0.21 𝐴, 𝑃V: = 50 𝑊
Short circuit test ∶ 𝑉3; = 47 𝑉, 𝐼3; = 6 𝐴, 𝑃3: = 160 𝑊
Based on the given data:
a) Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the high-voltage side.
b) Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the low-voltage side.
c) Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging power factor, 1.0 power factor, and at 0.8 leading power factor.
d) What is the efficiency of the transformer at full load with a power factor of 0.8 lagging?
Solution
a)
• Core loss resistance 𝑅: ,
• From the open-circuit test data, the no-load power factor is W# W0/ *f]] W
𝑃V: ^%
50 𝑊 𝑅: = = = ].]** g ≈ 105 𝐾W
𝜃V: = cos ^% = cos = 84] >/ >0/ ?e6 Z0/
𝑉V: 𝐼V: 2300 𝑉×0.21 𝐴 • Magnetizing reactance 𝑋= ,
• The core loss current and magnetizing current can be calculates as: W
𝑋= = > # =
W0/
=
*f]] W
= 11𝐾W
% >0/ 6XY Z0/ ].*]h g
𝐼: = 𝐼V: cos 𝜃V: = 0.21 𝐴 × cos 84] = 0.022 𝐴
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅7 and 𝑋8 are on HV side.
𝐼& = 𝐼V: sin 𝜃V: = 0.21 𝐴 × sin 84] = 0.208 𝐴
32 7/5/22
Example..
• From short circuit test, the short circuit impedance angle (lagging current power
factor angle) Refrerred to primary(HV)
<"# ;" ">? @
𝜃9: = cos ;" )"#="# = cos = 55.4?
AB )×> D

• The equivalent series impedance is then:

𝑉9: 47 𝑉
𝑍(E = ∠ 𝜃9: = ∠ 55.4? W = 7.833 ∠ 55.4? W = 4.45 + j6.45 W
𝐼9: 6𝐴
• Thus, the equivalent series resistance and reactance referred to primary (HV) side
are:
𝑅(E = 4.45 W and 𝑋(E = 6.45 W
Refrerred to secondary (LV)
b). To find the equivalent circuit referred to the low-voltage side, it is simply necessary
to divide the impedance by 𝑎* .
$!
Since 𝑎 = |$" = 10 the resulting values are.
𝑅: = 1050 W 𝑅(E,F = 0.0445 W
𝑋8 = 110 W 𝑋(E,F = 0.0645 W

33 7/5/22
Example..
c) the full load current on the secondary side of the transformer is
3;8<=> %j ]]] Wg
• 𝐼𝑠i'-0+ = = = 65.2 𝐴
W";8<=> *f] W
$$ W!
• At no load, the 𝑉𝑠_` = 𝑉! $#
= '
, thus
W!
'
= 𝑉" + 𝑅0[," 𝐼" + 𝑗𝑋0[," 𝐼"
• At 0.8 lagging power factor, the full load current 𝐼" = 65.2 ∠ −36.9] 𝐴 , 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠
𝑉*
= 230∠ 0? 𝑉 + 0.0445 W 65.2 ∠ −36.9? 𝐴 + 𝑗 0.0645 W 65.2 ∠ −36.9? 𝐴
𝑎
= 234.84 + 𝑗1.62 = 234.85∠ 0.40? 𝑉
• The resulting voltage regulation is
7!
a8^W"65 *fk.hj W^*f] W
𝑉𝑅 = ×100% = ×100% = 2.1 %
W"65 *f] W

• At unity power factor, the full load current 𝐼" = 65.2 ∠ 0] 𝐴 , 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠
𝑉𝑅 = 1.28 %
• At 0.8 leading power factor, the full load current 𝐼" = 65.2 ∠ 36.9] 𝐴 , 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠
𝑉𝑅 = −0.062 %

34 7/5/22
Example..
d) To find the efficiency of the transformer first calculate its losses. The copper losses are:
𝑃:A = 𝐼3 * 𝑅0[," = 65.2 𝐴 * 0.0445 W = 189 𝑊
• The core loss at 0.8 lagging power factor is given by:
(W!/')$ (*fk.hj W)
𝑃:Vi0 = m2
= %]j]W
= 52.5 𝑊

• The output power of the transformer at 0.8 lagging power factor is:
𝑃VA- = 𝑉" 𝐼" cos 𝜃𝑠 = 230 𝑉 65.2 𝐴 cos 36.9] = 12,000 𝑊
• Thus, efficiency of transformer at this condition is:
W" >" ?e6 Z" %*]]] n
𝜂= W" >" ?e6 Z" 82/: 82/
×100% = %*]]] n8%ho n8j*.j n
×100% = 98.03%

35 7/5/22
Parallel operation of single phase transformers
§ For supplying a load in excess of the rating of an existing transformer, a second transformer may be connected in parallel
instead of one large unit.
§ The conditions which must be fulfilled for the satisfactory parallel operation of two or more single-phase transformers are as
follows:
1. The transformers must have the same voltage ratios, i.e with the primaries connected to the same voltage sources, the
secondary voltage of all transformers should be equal in magnitude.
2. The equivalent leakage impedance in ohms must be inversely proportional to their respective KVA ratings. In other
words, per unit (pu) leakage impedance of transformers based on their KVA rating must be equal.
3. The ratio of equivalent leakage reactance to equivalent resistance 𝑋0[ ⁄𝑅0[ should be the same for all transformers.
4. The transformers must be connected with same polarities in the primary and secondary windings as shown below
(a).

(a) correct connection (b) wrong connection 7/5/22

36
Parallel operation of single phase transformers
• Out of the conditions listed above, condition (4) must be strictly fulfilled. If the secondary terminals are
connected with wrong polarities, large circulating currents will flow as shown in (b) and the transformers may
get damaged.
• Condition (1) should be satisfied as accurately as possible since different secondary voltages would give rise to
undesired circulating currents. For conductions (2) and (3), some deviation is permissible.
• Thus, fulfillment of condition (4) is essential whereas the fulfillment of the other conditions is desirable
• The polarities can be detected through a voltmeter reading. If the voltmeter reads the sum of two secondary
voltages, the polarities are improper and can be corrected by reversing the secondary terminals of any one of the
transformers. Zero voltmeter reading indicates proper polarities.
§ Advantages to operate transformers in parallel:
• Power system becomes more reliable. For instance, if one transformer develops a fault, the other
transformers can maintain the flow of power.
• Transformers can be switched on or off , depending upon the power demand. In this manner, the transformer
losses decrease and the system becomes more economical and efficient in operation.
• The cost of standby (or spare) unit is much less when two or more transformers are installed.

37 7/5/22
Three Phase Transformers
• Generation, transmission and distribution of electric energy is invariably done through the use of three-phase
systems because of its several advantages over single-phase systems.
• As such, a large number of three-phase transformers are inducted in a 3-phase energy system for stepping-up or
stepping – down the voltage as required.
• For 3-phase up or down transformation, three units of 1-phase transformers or one unit of 3-phase transformer
may be used.
• When three identical units of 1-phase transformers are used as shown in (a), the arrangement is usually called a
bank of three transformers or a 3-phase transformer bank. A single 3-phase transformer unit may employ 3–phase
core-type construction (b) or three phase shell type construction.
• A single-unit 3-phase core-type transformer uses a three-limbed core, one limb for each phase winding as shown
in (b).
• Each limb has the L.V. winding placed adjacent to the laminated steel core and then H.V. winding is placed over
the L.V. winding. Appropriate insulation is placed in between the core and L.V. winding and also in between the
two windings.
• The core structure can be built using stacked laminations as shown in (c). Both primary and secondary windings
of a phase are placed on the same leg.

38 7/5/22
Three Phase Transformers
• A 3-phase core-type transformer costs about 15% less than a bank of three 1-phase transformers. Also, a single unit
occupies less floor space than a bank. The disadvantage is that if one phase breaks down, the whole transformer must be
removed for repair.

(b) Three phase core type transformer

(a) Three phase transformer bank, both windings in star

(c) Three phase core type transformer,

39 stacked laminated core 7/5/22
Three Phase Transformer Connections
• The primary and secondary windings of three-phase transformers can be connected in 𝑌 or ∆ independently.
Thus, the following four standard connections could be possible:
a. Star-Delta ( 𝑌 − ∆)
b. Delta-Star ( ∆ − 𝑌)
c. Delta-Delta (∆ − ∆)
d. Star-Star (𝑌 − 𝑌)
• Impedance, voltage regulation and efficiency of can be calculated on per phase basis
• Transformation ratio, 𝑎 is defined in three phase system, that the ratio between line-to-line primary and
secondary voltages of same phases measured at no load.
:GH
𝑎=
:IJ

40 7/5/22
Three Phase Transformers
§ Star-Delta ( 𝑌 − ∆)
• This connection is commonly used for stepping down the voltage from a high level to a medium or low level.
The insulation on the HV side of the transformer is stressed only to 57.74% (!q / ×100) of line to line voltage.
• 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒: 𝐼! 𝑁! = 𝐼" 𝑁"
• 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼! = 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼
*$
• 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼" = 𝐼 = 𝑎𝐼
*# !

• 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 3 𝐼" = 3 aI

• 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
: ! :#
=
/ *$ *#
* : :
• Secondary phase voltage, 𝑉" = *# =H
$ / /
:
• Secondary line voltage = secondary phase voltage =
H /
: :
• Input VA = 3 𝐼 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝐴 = 3 𝑎𝐼 = 3 𝑉𝐼
/ H / 41 7/5/22
Three Phase Transformers
§ Delta - Star ( ∆ − 𝑌)
• This type of connection is used for stepping up the voltage to a high level. For example, these are used in the
beginning of HV transmission lines so that insulation is stressed to about 57.74% of line voltage.
• Also used as distribution transformers for providing mixed line to line voltage to high-power equipment and line
to neutral voltage to 1-phase low-power equipment. For example, 11kV/400V, delta-star distribution transformer
is used to distribute power to consumers by 3-phase four-wire system.
• 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒: 𝐼! 𝑁! = 𝐼" 𝑁"
!
• 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼! = 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼
/
*$ !
• 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼" = 𝐼 =𝑎 𝐼
*# ! /
:! :#
• Phase voltage per turn: =
*$ *#
* :
• Secondary phase voltage, 𝑉" = *# 𝑉1 = H
$
:
• Secondary line voltage = 3
H
; : ;
• Input VA = 3 V = 3 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝐴 = 3 𝑎 = 3 𝑉𝐼
/ H /
42 7/5/22
Three Phase Transformers
§ Delta-Delta ( ∆ − ∆)
• used for large LV transformers. It is because a delta connected winding handles line voltage, so it requires more turns per
phase but of smaller cross-sectional area. The absence of star point may be a disadvantage in some applications.
• In case a bank of three transformers is used, then one transformer can be removed for maintenance purposes while the
remaining two transformers (called an open-delta or V connection) can still deliver 58% of the power delivered by the
original 3-phase transformer bank.
• 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒: 𝐼% 𝑁% = 𝐼* 𝑁*
%
• 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼% = 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼
f
$# '>
• 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼* = 𝐼% =
$$ f
'>
• 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 3 f
= 𝑎𝐼
$ W
• Secondary phase voltage, 𝑉* = $$ 𝑉1 = ' (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉1 = 𝑉)
#
W
• Secondary line voltage = 𝑉* = '
> W '>
• Input VA = 3 V f
= 3 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝐴 = 3 ' f
= 3 𝑉𝐼

43 7/5/22
Three Phase Transformers
§ Star-Star ( 𝑌 − 𝑌)
• This connection is used for small HV transformers.
• With star connection, turns per phase are minimum and the winding insulation is stressed to 57.74% of line
voltage. Star-star connection is rarely used in practice because of oscillatory neutral problems.
• 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒: 𝐼! 𝑁! = 𝐼" 𝑁"
• 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼! = 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼
*$
• 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼" = 𝐼 = 𝑎𝐼
*# !
*# :
• Secondary phase voltage, 𝑉" = 𝑉1 =
*$ /H
: :
• Secondary line voltage = 3 𝑉" = 3 =
/H H
: :
• Input VA = 3 𝐼 = 3 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝐴 = 3 𝑎𝐼 = 3 𝑉𝐼
/ /H

44 7/5/22
Exercise
1. A 3-phase transformer is used to step-down the voltage of a 3-phase, 11kV feeder line. Per-phase turns
ratio is 12. For a primary line current of 20A, calculate the secondary line voltage, line current and output
KVA for the following connections:
(a) star-delta (b) delta-star (c) delta-delta (d) star-star. Neglect losses.
a) star-delta

45 7/5/22
Phase Shift and Vector group

• Some of the three-phase transformer connections will

result in a phase shift between the primary and secondary
line-voltages.
• Consider the phase voltages, for the 𝑌 − ∆ connections.
• The phases voltages of primary 𝑉I* and secondary 𝑉H are 30°
aligned, but line voltage 𝑉IJ of the primary leads the line
voltage 𝑉HK of the secondary by 30° phase shift . 30°

• Phase shift (𝛼) is thus, the lagging angle of the voltage on

the LV side with respect to the homonymous voltage on
the HV side.
𝑉'p 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑠 𝑉gq 𝑏𝑦 30°

46 7/5/22
Phase Shift and Vector group
s
• Vector group index (𝑖) is, 𝑖 =
f]°

• For 𝑌 − ∆ connection:
° f]°
𝛼 = 30 → 𝑖 = f]°
= 1 … 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑌𝑑1 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 1

• For ∆ − 𝑌 connection:
KK?°
𝛼 = 330° → 𝑖 = K?°
= 11 … 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝐷𝑦11 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 11
Yy0 Yd1 Dy11
• For 𝑌 − 𝑌 and ∆ − ∆ connections vector group is 0. Dd0

• Sometimes the vector group also depends on how the windings are
internally wrapped besides the connection type. Minutes : reference primary line-to-line voltage
• To operate transformers in parallel, the phase shift should be the Hour : secondary line-to-line voltage
same.

47 7/5/22
48 7/5/22