EEN3700 Unit 1B 1ST CLASS

EEN3700 CLASS 1B
WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES
Compiled By: Mashava C.T

Introduction
Welcome to Unit 1 of our course, where we delve into the intricate

details of conventional water treatment processes. Throughout this unit,
we will explore the fundamental methods employed in treating water to
make it safe for consumption and various other purposes.
Introduction
On completion of this unit, you should be able to:
• Differentiate between the different types of treatment processes

• Discuss the importance of pre-treatment in water treatment.
• Discuss the characteristics of suspended and colloidal particles
• Discuss the difference between filtration and disinfection processes
• Design the different components of water treatment processes
Introduction
Water treatment processes typically fall into three main categories:
1. Pre-treatment processes:
1. Screening
2. Grit chambers
2. Primary treatment processes:
1. Plain sedimentation
3. Secondary treatment processes:
1. Sedimentation
2. Filtration
4. Tertiary treatment processes:
1. Chlorination
• In this unit, we will examine each of these processes in detail, understanding their mechanisms and
significance in purifying water.
Treatment Processes
• Pre-treatment processes:
• Screening: Removing large debris and particles from water.
• Grit chambers: Settling out heavier particles like sand and gravel.
• Primary treatment processes:
• Plain sedimentation: Allowing suspended solids to settle at the bottom through
gravity.
• Secondary treatment processes:
• Sedimentation: Further settling of solids.
• Filtration: Passing water through layers to remove finer impurities.
• Tertiary treatment processes:
• Chlorination: Disinfecting water by adding chlorine to kill bacteria and other harmful
organisms.
Functions of Water Treatment Unit
The types of treatment required for
different sources
Steps in Conventional Water Treatment
Processes
Introduction to Screening
Screening Process:
• Straining operation to remove floating materials (huge and hard) and

coarse solids from water systems.
• Removes large floating and suspended substances (e.g., rags, cans,

rocks, branches, leaves, roots, wood).
Purposes of Screening
Objectives:
• Separate and remove larger materials to restrict the entry of suspended

solids or floating (huge & hard) materials.
• Prevent downstream mechanical plants (pumps, pipes, and other

equipment) from clogging or damage.
• Launch a water course for the subsequent treatment process.

Types of Screens
Screen Types
• Different sizes of openings
depending on the volume of
screening.
• Generally, screens can be either:
• Bar Type
• Mesh Type
Screen Cleaning Methods
Screen Cleaning:
• Manual Cleaning: Done using hand rakes.
• Mechanical Cleaning: Done using sturdy motor-operated steel rakes.

• Common issue: Jamming of mechanical rakes.
• Solutions: Replace teeth or remove the obstruction.

Pre-treatment Processes: Grit Chambers
and Pre-sedimentation
Grit Chambers
• Basins to remove inorganic particles from wastewater.
• Prevent damage to pumps and accumulation in sludge digesters.
• Protect moving mechanical and hydraulic equipment from wear

caused by abrasion.
• Reduce blockage in pipelines.

and Pre-sedimentation
Aerated Grit Chamber Design:
• Standard spiral flow aeration tank with air diffusion tubes on one side.
• Grit particles settle at the tank bottom.
• Particle settling rates depend on particle size and bottom velocity of spiral
flow.
• Heavier particles settle, lighter organic particles carried by spiral motion.

and Pre-sedimentation.
Cleaning Grit Chambers: Cleaning Methods
• Manual Cleaning: Shovels, at least once a week.
• Mechanical Cleaning: Scraper blades collect grit, elevated by mechanisms
like bucket elevators, jet pumps, and air lifts.
• Remedies for slow scraper speed: Increase scraper speed.
and Pre-sedimentation.
Pre-sedimentation
• Temporary storage of raw water for 1-2 hours (detention time).
• Particles settle out by gravity.
• Used when raw water turbidity is high or variable.

Pre-treatment Processes: Grit Chambers and
Pre-sedimentation.
Pre-sedimentation Process
• Turbid particles (sand, grit, organic matter) settle.
• No coagulants added.
• Sludge at the bottom removed using bottom scraper and
hopper.
Pre-sedimentation.
Coagulation and Flocculation
• Processes to separate suspended solids from water.
• Objectives: Turn small particles into larger flocs (precipitates or

suspended particles).
• Flocs removed in subsequent processes (sedimentation or filtration).

Pre-sedimentation.
Coagulation and Flocculation Steps
• Successive steps to overcome forces stabilizing suspended particles.
• Allows particle collision and floc growth.
• Incomplete steps lead to unsuccessful subsequent steps.

Pre-sedimentation.
Characteristics of Suspended and Colloidal Particles
• Very small (0.001 - 1 μm), usually negatively charged.
• Charge arises from:

• Ionization
• Adsorption
• Isomorphous replacement
• Structural imperfections
Pre-sedimentation.
Colloidal Particles
• Remain in suspension without aggregating due to negative charge.
• Too small for removal by sedimentation or sand filtration.
• Removal methods:
• High-force centrifugation
• Filters with very small pore spaces
Coagulation Process in Water Treatment
Coagulation Process
• Goal: Alter surface charge of particles contributing to color and

turbidity.
• Particles adhere to one another and settle by gravity.
• Achieved by adding chemicals/coagulants to form flocs.

Role of Coagulants: Floc Formation
• Coagulants like alum are added to form sticky particles called "floc."
• Floc attracts dirt particles, combined weight sinks during

sedimentation.
Factors Affecting Coagulation
• Dosage of Chemical Coagulant
• pH Adjustment
• Turbidity
Standard Coagulation Process
• Coagulant chemicals added, pH adjusted to minimize solubility of

reaction products.
• Pollutants removed by adsorption or entrapment in precipitated

coagulant.
• Direct reaction of coagulant with pollutant produces insoluble salt.

Chemical Considerations: Impact of Chemicals
• Adding chemicals increases dissolved solids.
• Salts of aluminum and iron used in both wastewater and potable water
treatment.
• Aluminum and iron form insoluble hydroxide precipitates attracting

pollutants.
Role of pH in Coagulation-pH Adjustment
• Crucial for effective precipitation with aluminum and iron salts.
• pH correction may be needed unless natural alkalinity is sufficient.

Use of Lime-Lime in Coagulation
• Added to aid settlement by weighting sludge with high-density

particles.
• Reactive with acids, works after neutralization of acids.
• Benefits include production of insoluble calcium sulfate when used

with sulfate salts.
Special Coagulants
• Ferrous Sulfate and Lime
• Ferrous sulfate (copperas) requires oxygen for reaction leading to

ferric salt precipitation.
• Results in a large drop in dissolved oxygen, requiring available

oxygen for use.
Types of Coagulants
• These are common Coagulants
• Metallic ions with high charge density, some organic coagulants.
• Aluminum compounds (e.g., Al₂(SO₄)₃ - alum), iron compounds (e.g.,

FeCl₃, Fe₂(SO₄)₃).
Ferric vs. Ferrous Salts-Comparison
• Ferric salts better flocculants than ferrous salts.
• Copperas (FeSO₄) oxidized to Fe₂(SO₄)₃ or FeCl₃ during aeration or

chlorination.
• Iron doses vary between 10 and 90 mg Fe³⁺/L.

Complex Coagulants
• These are advanced Options
• Polyaluminium silicate sulfate (PASS) with specific advantages but
higher cost.
• Coagulation efficiency dependent on coagulant dose, pH, colloid

concentrations, and agitation intensity.
• Lime used to adjust pH and as co-flocculent.

Flocculation Process in Water Treatment
Flocculation Process
• Stimulation by mechanical means to agglomerate destabilized particles

into compact, fast-settleable flocs.
• Gentle agitation results from velocity differences in coagulated water.
• Initial rapid (or flash) mix disperses coagulant, followed by slow

mixing for floc growth.
Flocculation vs. Coagulation-Differences
• Flocculation: Physical process to aggregate fine solids into larger

particles using low shear.
• Coagulation: Chemical process to destabilize particles.
• Flocculation uses static or dynamic mixers, often confused with

coagulation but distinct.
Role of Flocculants
• Water-soluble organic polymer coagulants (molecular weight 10⁵ - 10⁶).
• Types: Anionic (+ve), Cationic (-ve), Ampholytic (mixed +ve and -ve).
• Cationic polymers based on nitrogen, anionic polymers on carboxylate.

Factors Affecting Flocculation-Key Factors
• Number of particles present.
• Relative volume occupied by particles.
• Velocity gradient (G) in the basin.

Mixing Methods-Mixing Processes
• Rapid (Flash) Mixing: Disperses coagulant uniformly in water.

• Small basin, 30-60 seconds detention period, 20-60 cm head loss.
• Destabilizes colloids, forms nucleus for floc.
• Slow Mixing: Facilitates contact between destabilized particles for

floc formation.
Types of Mixers
• Hydraulic Mixing: Hydraulic jump mixers, overflow weirs.
• Mechanical Mixing: Revolving paddles with horizontal/vertical

shafts.
• Diffuser Mixing
Gravitational Flocculation
• Baffle Type Mixing Basins.
• Water flows by gravity.
• Baffles induce velocity gradients for floc formation.

Mechanical Flocculation-Mechanical Flocculators
• Revolving paddles with horizontal or vertical shafts.
• Paddles suspended from oscillating beams moving up and down.

Common Flocculants
• Salts of Al(III) and Fe(III) used in water and wastewater treatment.
• Salts dissociate to form trivalent ions, which hydrate to form aquo

metal complexes (Al(H₂O)₆³⁺, Fe(H₂O)₆³⁺).
Hydrolytic Reactions-Reaction Process
• Aquo metal complexes undergo hydrolytic reactions, replacing H₂O

molecules with OH⁻ ions.
• Forms soluble species like Al(OH)²⁺, effective as coagulants.
• Strong adsorption onto the surface of negative colloids.

STATIC MIXER DESING
STATIC MIXER DESING
STATIC MIXER DESING
STATIC MIXER DESING
STATIC MIXER DESING
STATIC MIXER DESING
STATIC MIXER DESING
STATIC MIXER DESING
STATIC MIXER DESING
Sedimentation Process in Water Treatment
Sedimentation Process
• Follows coagulation and flocculation stages.
• Flow introduced upward through a "sludge blanket" in a gravity

settlement tank.
• Delay time between coagulant and polymer addition is essential but

sometimes omitted.
Sedimentation Tank Design
• Good flow distribution across tank bottom is key.
• Tanks can be:

• Rectangular or circular
• Inclined or hopper bottomed

Sedimentation (Settling or Clarifiers)
• Physical process to remove unstable and destabilized suspended

particles by gravity.
• Reduces velocity of liquid to transport suspended material.
• Water resides for at least 3 hours (Plain sedimentation).

Effectiveness of Sedimentation
• Turbidity Reduction
• Effective sedimentation can achieve 99.9% reduction of turbidity.
• Flocs settle and collect at the bottom of the tank.

Sludge Blanket in Sedimentation
• Settling sludge particles captured in the bottom by the sludge blanket.
• Clarified water drawn from weirs at the top of the tank.
• Height of sludge blanket controlled by removal of sludge.

Sludge Removal Techniques
• Removal via:
• Weirs
• Bell mouths
• Hoppers
• Sludge cones
• Pumping
Basic Design Parameters
• Refer to Table 1.3 for specific design parameters for sedimentation

tanks.
Common Treatments and Design
Considerations in Water Treatment
Common Treatments
• Processes:
• Coagulation/Flocculation
• Settlement
• Filtration
• Flotation
• Benefits:
• Very good nonspecific removal of solids, fats/oils/greases, colloidal matter,
and substances like dyestuffs.
Membrane Treatments
• Increasing popularity due to cost reduction.
• Still more expensive and less robust than traditional processes.
• Not yet the first choice for designers.

Common Design Mistakes
• Hard to Control Elements: Create operational or maintenance

problems.
• Examples:
• Mixing tanks with hours of retention time for pH control.
• Actuated valves for acid or alkali addition from elevated tanks by gravity.
Importance of pH Control
• Required range: pH 5-9 for overall process.
• Crucial for downstream processes:

• Flocculation
• Coagulation
• Precipitation
• Disinfection
• Aerobic and anaerobic biological treatments
Additional Design Errors
• Lack of flow and load balancing tanks.
• Using high-shear centrifugal pumps on shear-sensitive material (e.g.,
polymer flocs).
• Comminutors instead of screens for gross solids.
• Plastic piping on high temperature effluent streams.
• Poor layout details.
• Inappropriate selection of piping, fittings, equipment, and
instrumentation.
Handling Special Materials
• Handling Entrained Solids, Gases, Fats, Oils, and Greases
• Select materials and equipment capable of managing these elements.
• Avoid using unsuitable materials and equipment.

Kludges" in Maintenance
• Examples:
• Hammers on a string for percussive maintenance of diaphragm pumps and
solids hoppers.
• "Hammer rash" on hoppers, indicating the need for a hammer on a string.

Classification of Conventional Settling
Basins
Introduction
• Settling basins are classified based on shape, flow direction, and inlet
point.
• Figures 1.7-1.8 illustrate different types of settling basins.

Basins
Classification by Shape
• Rectangular Basins
• Efficient for continuous flow.
• Circular Basins
• Suitable for radial flow and easy sludge removal.
Basins
Classification by Flow Direction
• Flow Direction from Inlet to Outlet
• Horizontal Flow
• Water moves horizontally through the basin.
• Vertical Flow (Upflow)
• Water moves vertically, allowing particles to settle as water rises.
Basins
Classification by Inlet Point
• Peripheral Feed
• Water enters at the periphery and flows towards the center.
• Centre Feed
• Water enters at the center and flows outward.
Basins
Visuals of Settling Basins
• Figures below
• Illustration of different types of settling basins.
• Visual aids to understand the classification better.
Particle Types and Types of Settling in
Sedimentation Tanks
General Types of Particles
• Discrete/Individual Particles
• Size and velocity are constant during settling.
• Density range: 2000 – 2650 kg/m³.
• Flocculant Particles
• Size and velocity fluctuate during settling.
• Particles flocculate and grow bigger in size.
• Density range: 1030 – 1070 kg/m³.
Sedimentation Tanks
Types of Settling
• Based on particle types, there are four types of settling:

• Type I: Discrete Settling
• Type II: Flocculant Settling (Settling plus Coagulation)
• Type III: Hindered or Zone Settling
• Type IV: Compression Settling

Sedimentation Tanks
Type I: Discrete Settling
• Settling of individual particles.
• No interaction between particles.
• Particles settle independently.

Sedimentation Tanks
Type II: Flocculant Settling
• Settling combined with coagulation.
• Particles flocculate and settle together.
• Size and velocity of particles increase during settling.

Sedimentation Tanks
Types III and IV Settling
• Type III: Hindered or Zone Settling

• Particles settle as a mass.
• Common in wastewater treatment.
• Type IV: Compression Settling

• Particles compress due to weight of the particles above.
• Mostly in wastewater treatment.
Sedimentation Tanks
Focus on Types I and II Settling
• Detailed discussion on Type I (Discrete Settling) and Type II

(Flocculant Settling).
• Types III and IV are more common in wastewater treatment (Unit 3).
Sedimentation Tanks
Visuals of Settling Types
• Illustrations of different settling types.
• Helps to understand the distinctions and applications of each type.

Sedimentation Tanks
Examples of Discrete Particles
• Sand
• Grit materials (a mixture of abrasive particles such as sand, broken

glass, etc.)
Sedimentation Tanks
Figure below Discrete Settling
• Illustration showing the settling of discrete particles.
• Highlights the lack of flocculation and constant settling velocity.
Figure: Discreet particle settling (source: Davis 2010)
Sedimentation Tanks
Sedimentation Tanks
Sedimentation Tanks
Sedimentation Tanks
Sedimentation Tanks
Type II: Flocculent Particle Settling
Flocculent Settling
• Settling of flocculant particles in dilute suspensions.
• Known as flocculant sedimentation.
• Particles flocculate during sedimentation.

Characteristics of Flocculent Settling
• Interaction between neighboring particles.
• Particles settle and coalesce, increasing in size and velocity.
• Particles constantly changing due to inter-particle collision.

• Size, shape, and specific gravity are variable.
• Settling velocity is variable.

• Occurrences of Flocculent Settling
• Occurs During
• Alum or iron coagulation.
• Primary sedimentation basins.
• Settling tanks in trickling filtration.

Visual Representation-Flocculent Settling Process
• Illustration showing the interaction and coalescence of flocculant

particles.
• Highlights the dynamic nature of particle size and settling velocity.

Summary
• Flocculent particle settling involves particles interacting and

coalescing during sedimentation.
• This process increases particle size and settling velocity.
• Common in coagulation processes, primary sedimentation basins, and

trickling filtration settling tanks.
DESIGN FOR RECTANGULAR BASINS
Zones of Rectangular Sedimentation Basins
• Inlet (Influent) Zone
• Distributes flow uniformly across the inlet to the tank.
Zones of Rectangular Sedimentation Basins- Settling Zone
• Largest portion of the sedimentation basin.
• Provides a calm area necessary for suspended particles to settle.

Zones of Rectangular Sedimentation Basins-
Sludge Zone
• Located at the bottom of the tank.
• Provides storage for sludge before it is removed for additional treatment or

disposal.
Zones of Rectangular Sedimentation Basins-
• Outlet (Effluent) Zone

• Provides a smooth transition from the sedimentation zone to the outlet.
• Controls the depth of water in the basin.

Zones of Rectangular Sedimentation Basins
• Visual of Rectangular Basin Zones
• Illustration showing the five zones:

• Settling Zone
• Sludge Zone
• Outlet (Effluent) Zone
Zones of Rectangular Sedimentation Basins:
• Rectangular basins have distinct zones each serving a specific purpose.
• Inlet zone for uniform flow distribution.
• Settling zone for particle settlement.
• Sludge zone for sludge storage.
• Outlet zone for smooth transition and water depth control.

Zones of Rectangular Sedimentation Basins-Inlet Zone
• Diffuser Wall:
• Positioned between the flocculation and settling tanks.
• Reduces velocity and spreads flow evenly.
• Placed approximately 2 m downstream of the inlet pipe.
• Port velocities: 0.20 to 0.30 m/s for sufficient head losses.
• Hole size: 0.10 to 0.20 m in diameter.
• Hole spacing: 0.25 to 0.60 m apart.
• Figure 1.12: Diffuser walls for rectangular channels.
Zones of Rectangular Sedimentation Basins:
• Pipe Connection: Connects flocculation and settling tanks.
• Velocity must balance to avoid floc settling or breaking.
• Recommended velocity: 0.15 – 0.6 m/s

Settling Zone
• Depends on the following design parameters:

• Settling characteristics of the suspended matter.
• Surface loading (overflow rate) (Vo).
• Width/Length ratio OR diameter.
• Detention time.
• Inlet Zone: Uses diffuser walls and pipe connections to manage flow
and velocity.
• Ensures even distribution and prevents floc settling or breaking.
• Settling Zone: Optimized based on settling characteristics, surface

loading, basin dimensions, and detention time.
Outlet Zone
• Components:
• Composed of launders running parallel to the length of the tank.
• Weir channels used with weir length of 1/3 – ½ the basin length.
• Weir Loading:
• Checked by weir loading (Q/A): Launder weir loading: 140 – 320 m³/d.m.
• Maximum 250 m³/d.m.
• High weir loading can cause resuspension of particles near effluent launders.
Effluent Weirs:
• Placed as far from the inlet as possible.
• To increase weir length and decrease loading, double-sided weirs can be used.
• Typical weirs are 90° V notch metal plates bolted onto the effluent collection
trough.
• Sludge Zone:
• Adequate depth and slope for effective sludge accumulation and removal.
• Sludge collector speed must be maintained within specified range.
• Outlet Zone:
• Proper weir design and placement ensure effective water flow and prevent
resuspension.
• Weir length and loading are critical factors for efficient operation.
FILTRATION PROCESSES
What is Filtration?
•Filtration is the final step in removing solid particles from water.
•It is a solid-liquid separation technique.
•Involves passing water through a porous medium (usually sand) to
remove suspended or colloidal matter.
Purpose of Filtration-Why is Filtration Important?

• Reduces turbidity to required levels.
• Removes particles too small for sedimentation.
• Reduces the load on the disinfection process, increasing its efficiency.
• Ensures low turbidity for effective disinfection and clear water.

Particulates Removed by Filtration-Types of Particulates Removed

• Particles present in the source water.
• Particles generated during previous treatment processes:

• Coagulation
• Flocculation
• Softening
Filtration Medium
• Usually a bed of sand.
• Traps and retains suspended matter within pores or on the surface.
• Ensures effective removal of particulates.

Filtration Systems in Water Treatment-Types of Filtration Systems

• Sand Filters: Common filtration medium.
• Multimedia Filters: Use multiple layers (sand, gravel, anthracite) for a wider
range of particle sizes.
• Membrane Filters: Include microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and

reverse osmosis for finer particles and contaminants.
Summary:
• Filtration is crucial for achieving water quality standards.
• Protects public health by ensuring effective disinfection.
• Plays a vital role in the overall water treatment process by removing small
particles and reducing turbidity.
MECHANISM OF FILTRATION
Principal Mechanisms of Filtration:
• Straining
• Sedimentation
• Impaction
• Interception
• Adhesion
• Adsorption – chemical or physical
• Flocculation
• Biological growth
• (Refer to Davis, 2010 for detailed mechanisms)
Filter Classification Based on Media Type

• Monomedia:
• Sand or coal (anthracite)
• Dual Media:
• (Typically uses anthracite and sand)
• Multimedia:
• Anthracite, sand, and garnet
Filter Classification Based on Filtration Rate (Types)

• Slow Sand Filter
• Rapid Sand Filter
• High-Rate Filters
Filter Classification Based on Filtration Rate Control

• Gravity Filters
• Pressure Filters
Dual-Media Filter Beds

• Usually employ anthracite and sand.
• Other materials: activated carbon and sand.
• Advantages of Granular Activated Carbon:

• Excellent mechanical filtration of particulate matter.
• Removes organic compounds causing taste and odor problems.

Multimedia Filter Beds

• Typically use anthracite, sand, and garnet.
• Other materials: activated carbon, sand, and garnet.
• Garnet: a generic term for various silicates of iron, aluminum, and calcium.
• Specific gravity range: 3.6 - 4.1.

Advantages of Multimedia Filters

• Longer filtration runs.
• Higher filtration rates.
• Ability to filter water with higher turbidity.

Sand Filtration Process- Overview of Sand Filtration

• Sand filtration is a simple process in which water is allowed to filter through a
layer of sand.
• The sand is contained in a specially constructed container.
• (Add relevant image of a sand filtration setup)

Mechanism of Sand Filtration- How Sand Filtration Works

• During filtration, small remaining floc particles are removed by the sand
grains.
• These particles are retained in the bed of sand.
• Clean water flows out from the bottom of the sand bed.
• (Add relevant image or diagram showing the filtration process)

Benefits of Sand Filtration- Advantages of Sand Filtration

• Simple and cost-effective.
• Efficient removal of small particles and floc.
• Produces clean water suitable for further treatment or use.
• (Add bullet points and relevant image if available)

Introduction to Slow Sand Filters- What are Slow Sand Filters (SSF)?
• SSF are only monomedia type filters.
• Comprise of a sand bed (about 1-2 m deep), gravel, collector pipes, etc.
• Typically, several SSFs are used per treatment plant for redundancy.
• (Include Figure 1.15 or a relevant image of SSF setup)

Components of SSF-Components of Slow Sand Filters

• Sand bed: 1-2 meters deep.
• Gravel layer.
• Collector pipes.
• (Include diagram labeling each component)

Operation and Characteristics of SSF

• Relatively simple operation with no chemicals required.
• Typical low loading rate: 0.1 - 0.2 m/hr.
• Rarely used in municipal water treatment systems due to low loading rate.
• (Add relevant image or diagram showing water flow through SSF)

Mechanisms of Filtration in SSF- Filtration Mechanisms in SSF

• Uses physical straining to remove particles.
• Biological degradation occurs within the sand bed.
• Operates on the principle of percolation of water through soil.
• (Include relevant image or diagram illustrating these mechanisms)

Introduction to Rapid Sand Filters
What are Rapid Sand Filters (RSF)?

• RSF can be single media, dual media, or multimedia.
• RSF is less deep compared to SSF, with typical thickness from 0.5–1.0m.
• Commonly used in municipal water treatment systems.
• (Include relevant image or diagram of RSF setup)

Characteristics of RSF- Characteristics of Rapid Sand Filters

• Higher loading rates than SSF, typically 5 to 32 m/hr (120 to 360 m³/d.m²).
• Operate with higher efficiency and speed.
• (Include relevant image showing RSF layers and thickness)

Operation and Cleaning- Operation and Cleaning of RSF

• After a period of operation, RSF are cleaned by backwashing.
• Backwashing involves an upward flow of water.
• Cleaning intervals are a few hours, with backwashing taking about 10-15
minutes once per day.
• (Include Figure 1.16 or a relevant image/diagram showing the backwash

process)
Advantages of RSF- Advantages of Rapid Sand Filters

• Efficient removal of particulate matter.
• Higher loading rates mean faster processing.
• Commonly used in large-scale municipal water treatment.
• (Add bullet points and relevant image if available)

• Definition of RSF: "RSF operates on the principle of sedimentation

followed by filtration."
• Importance of RSF: "Ensures removal of turbidity and particles for

clean water supply."
Coagulation Prior to Filtration
• Importance: "Smaller particles pass through RSF; hence, coagulation

is mandatory."
• Explanation: "Coagulation helps clump particles together for effective

removal during filtration."
Duration and Turbidity Control
• Filter Run Duration: "Filter runs last 48–72 hours."
• Turbidity Requirement: "Target remaining turbidity ≤ 0.5 NTU post-

filtration."
Redundancy and Design Considerations
• Handling Flow with One Filter Out of Service: "Design must

accommodate flow with one filter offline."
• Redundancy: "Multiple RSFs used to ensure continuous operation and

redundancy."
Conclusion
• Recap of Key Points: "RSF operates on sedimentation and filtration

principles. Coagulation is essential for effective filtration. Filter runs
last 48–72 hours, targeting ≤ 0.5 NTU turbidity. Redundancy is
ensured through multiple RSFs."
• Importance of RSF: "Critical for providing clean water supply."

Disinfection Processes in Water Treatment
Introduction to Disinfection
• Definition: "Disinfection ensures the removal of harmful organisms

from water to make it safe for consumption."
• Importance: "Prevents the spread of waterborne diseases and ensures

public health."
Primary Disinfection - Break Point Chlorination
• Explanation: "After filtration, water undergoes primary disinfection through
break point chlorination."
• Chlorine Concentration: "Maintained between 0.8-1.5 mg/l to kill all
organisms."
• Microbiological Content: "Standard plate count ≤ 30 colony forming
units/ml."
Secondary Disinfection - Monochloramine
• Introduction to Monochloramine: "Formed when HOCl reacts with
ammonia."
• Effectiveness: "Less effective than free available chlorine but more stable in
water."
• Concentration: "Maintained at 0.8-1.2 mg/l to ensure a minimum residual
chlorine of 0.2 mg/l in distribution."
Types of Water Disinfectants
• List of Disinfectants: Chlorine, Chlorine Dioxide, Ozone, Peroxone,

Bromine, Bromine Chloride, Iodine, Ultraviolet Radiation.
• Brief Description of Each: "Different disinfectants with varying

effectiveness and applications."
Disinfection Mechanisms
• Explanation: "Various mechanisms through which disinfectants act on

microorganisms."
• Examples: Damage to cell wall, alteration of cell permeability,

alteration of organism DNA, inhibition of enzyme activity.
Chlorination Process
• Overview: "Chlorination is widely used due to its effectiveness and

residual disinfection capability."
• Factors Affecting Chlorination: Disinfectant dose, turbidity, organic

matter, pH, temperature, concentration, and chemistry of disinfectant.
• Dosage: "Explained based on a case study at Bronkhorstspruit WTW."

Chlorination Equipment
• Description: "Chlorine gas cylinders, chlorinators, water recirculation

pumps, gas scales."
• Maintenance and Storage: "Ensuring safe handling and storage of

chlorine gas cylinders."
Disinfection Byproducts
• Explanation: "Chlorine reacts with organic compounds to form disinfection

byproducts (DBPs)."
• Examples: Trihalomethanes (THMs), halogenated acetic acids (HAAs).
• Health Risks and Mitigation: "Minimizing DBPs through organic matter

removal."
Conclusion
• Importance of Disinfection: "Critical for ensuring safe drinking water

and public health."
• Acknowledgment of Other Disinfection Methods: "Chlorination

discussed in detail; other methods also available."
Chlorine Reactivity
• Introduction: "Chlorine reacts with substances in water, influencing its
effectiveness as a disinfectant."
• Figure 1.19: "Illustration of Chlorine Reactivity"
• Description: "The figure depicts the stages of chlorine reactions in water."
• Axes Explanation: "X-axis represents chlorine dosage, Y-axis represents residual
chlorine."
• Reaction Stages: "Explanation of reactions from initial addition to the break
point."
• Concept of Demand: "Amount of chlorine used to oxidize substances in water."
• Residual Calculation: "Residual = Dosage - Demand"
• Combined and Free Residual: "Different forms of residual chlorine explained."
Advantages of Chlorine
• Importance: "Chlorine offers several advantages as a disinfectant in
water treatment."
• List of Advantages:
• Readily Available Forms: Gas, liquid, or powder.
• Cost-Effectiveness: Economical option.
• Ease of Application: High solubility facilitates application.
• Residual Formation: Leaves residual in solution for continued disinfection.
• Microbial Toxicity: Effective against harmful microorganisms.
REFERENCES
THE END!!!
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EEN3700 Unit 1B 1ST CLASS

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EEN3700 CLASS 1B

WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

Compiled By: Mashava C.T

Welcome to Unit 1 of our course, where we delve into the intricate

• Differentiate between the different types of treatment processes

• Straining operation to remove floating materials (huge and hard) and

• Removes large floating and suspended substances (e.g., rags, cans,

• Separate and remove larger materials to restrict the entry of suspended

• Prevent downstream mechanical plants (pumps, pipes, and other

• Launch a water course for the subsequent treatment process.

• Manual Cleaning: Done using hand rakes.

• Mechanical Cleaning: Done using sturdy motor-operated steel rakes.

• Solutions: Replace teeth or remove the obstruction.

• Basins to remove inorganic particles from wastewater.

• Prevent damage to pumps and accumulation in sludge digesters.

• Protect moving mechanical and hydraulic equipment from wear

• Reduce blockage in pipelines.

• Grit particles settle at the tank bottom.

• Heavier particles settle, lighter organic particles carried by spiral motion.

• Temporary storage of raw water for 1-2 hours (detention time).

• Particles settle out by gravity.

• Used when raw water turbidity is high or variable.

Coagulation and Flocculation

• Processes to separate suspended solids from water.

• Objectives: Turn small particles into larger flocs (precipitates or

• Flocs removed in subsequent processes (sedimentation or filtration).

• Successive steps to overcome forces stabilizing suspended particles.

• Allows particle collision and floc growth.

• Incomplete steps lead to unsuccessful subsequent steps.

• Very small (0.001 - 1 μm), usually negatively charged.

• Charge arises from:

• Remain in suspension without aggregating due to negative charge.

• Too small for removal by sedimentation or sand filtration.

• Goal: Alter surface charge of particles contributing to color and

• Particles adhere to one another and settle by gravity.

• Achieved by adding chemicals/coagulants to form flocs.

Role of Coagulants: Floc Formation

• Floc attracts dirt particles, combined weight sinks during

Factors Affecting Coagulation

• Dosage of Chemical Coagulant

Standard Coagulation Process

• Coagulant chemicals added, pH adjusted to minimize solubility of

• Pollutants removed by adsorption or entrapment in precipitated

• Direct reaction of coagulant with pollutant produces insoluble salt.

Chemical Considerations: Impact of Chemicals

• Adding chemicals increases dissolved solids.

• Aluminum and iron form insoluble hydroxide precipitates attracting

Role of pH in Coagulation-pH Adjustment

• Crucial for effective precipitation with aluminum and iron salts.

• pH correction may be needed unless natural alkalinity is sufficient.

Use of Lime-Lime in Coagulation

• Added to aid settlement by weighting sludge with high-density

• Reactive with acids, works after neutralization of acids.

• Benefits include production of insoluble calcium sulfate when used

• Ferrous Sulfate and Lime

• Ferrous sulfate (copperas) requires oxygen for reaction leading to

• Results in a large drop in dissolved oxygen, requiring available

• These are common Coagulants

• Metallic ions with high charge density, some organic coagulants.

• Aluminum compounds (e.g., Al₂(SO₄)₃ - alum), iron compounds (e.g.,

Ferric vs. Ferrous Salts-Comparison

• Ferric salts better flocculants than ferrous salts.

• Copperas (FeSO₄) oxidized to Fe₂(SO₄)₃ or FeCl₃ during aeration or

• Iron doses vary between 10 and 90 mg Fe³⁺/L.