‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬

Al Balqa Applied University

Faculty of Engineering

Department of Surveying & Geomatics

The effects of industry in South of Amman based on Geomatics

“Dark side of Industry”

Proved by:

Abdullah Raed Abu Alrub

Yahia Messaoud Mansour
Deya Frencees Haddadin

Supervised by:

Prof-Samih Al Rawashdeh

Presented to the Department of Surveying & Geomatics Engineering

Al Balqa Applied University, Al Salt Jordan

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of Bachelor

JUN, 2022
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 Acknowledgments

First and foremost , praises and thanks to the God , the Almighty , for His
showers of the blessings throughout our application work to complete the
application successfully .

We would like to express our deep and sincere gratitude to our research super
visor , Prof Samih Al Rawashdeh ; forgiving us the opportunity to do our
application . His dynamic , vision , sincerity and motivation have deeply inspired
us .

Finally , We thanks our professors and teaching assistants in the department of

Surveying and Geomatics Engineering at Al Balqa Applied University .

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Table of Content

Abstract ………………………………………….…………………. (4)

Chapter One: Introduction ………………………………………......(5)

1.1 Introduction to Geology ………………………………….…(5)
1.2 Introduction to GIS ……………………………………….…(6)

Chapter Two: Methodology …………………….……….…………..(7)

2.1 Supervised Classification ……………………….……….….(7)
2.2 Un-Supervised Classification ……………………………….(7)
2.3 Object-based image analysis “OBIA” ……………………..(8)
2.4 Indices ……………………………………………………....(9)

Chapter Three: Materials and Data …………………………...…...(11)

3.1 Data to be used ……………………………………………(11)
3.2 Software to be used ………………………………………..(12)

Chapter Four: Processing ………………………………………….(16)

Chapter Five: Results and Discussion ……………………….……..(28)

Chapter Six: Conclusion and Recommendation ……………………(38)

References …………………………………………..………………(39)

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 Abstract

The paper presents a methodology for study area classification. First, it describes
the geology for the study area and Geographic information system.

The methodology was practically approbated in experiments using PCI-Geomatica

and ArcGIS software and field visit.

This allowed determination of specific method realizations that show the best
classification result; all intermediate results are recorded.

Finally, the best classification method for this methodology is maximum-likely-

hood .

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Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Introduction to geology

geology is the study of the structure, evolution and dynamics of the Earth and its
natural mineral and energy resources. Geology investigates the processes that have
shaped the Earth through its 4500 million (approximate!) year history and uses the
rock record to unravel that history. It is concerned with the real world beyond the
laboratory and has direct relevance to the needs of society.

Geologists study the materials, processes, products, physical nature, and

history of the Earth. Geomorphologists study Earth's landforms and landscapes in
relation to the geologic and climatic processes and human activities, which form
them.

An example of geology is the study of rocks and stones. An example of

geology is learning about how the Earth was formed. The scientific study of the
origin, history, and structure of the earth. The scientific study of the origin, history,
and structure of the solid matter of a celestial body.

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 1.2 Introduction to GIS

Geographic Information System ‘ GIS ’ is a technological field that

incorporates geographical features with tabular data in order to map, analyze, and
assess real-world problems.

The key word to this technology is Geography – this means that some portion
of the data is spatial. This means that the data is in some way referenced to
locations on the earth. Coupled with this data is usually tabular data known as
attribute data.

Attribute data can be generally defined as additional information about each

of the spatial features. An example of this would be schools. The actual location of
the schools is the spatial data. Additional data such as the school name, level of
education taught, student capacity would make up the attribute data. It is the
partnership of these two data types that enables GIS to be such an effective
problem solving tool through spatial analysis.

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Chapter Two: Methodology

In this section, we briefly review the advantages and limitations when using
either Supervised or Un-Supervised classification methods in document
classification. Then we will discuss the Object-based image analysis.

2.1 Supervised Classification

Supervised classification is the technique most often used for the

quantitative analysis of remote sensing image data. At its core is the concept of
segmenting the spectral domain into regions that can be associated with the
ground cover classes of interest to a particular application. In practice those
regions may sometimes overlap. A variety of algorithms is available for the
task, and it is the purpose of this chapter to cover those most commonly
encountered. Essentially, the different methods vary in the way they identify
and describe the regions in spectral space. Some seek a simple geometric
segmentation while others adopt statistical models with which to associate
spectral measurements and the classes of interest. Some can handle user-defined
classes that overlap each other spatially and are referred to as soft
classification methods; others generate firm boundaries between classes and are
called hard classification methods, in the sense of establishing boundaries
rather than having anything to do with difficulty in their use. Often the data
from a set of sensors is available to help in the analysis task.

2.2 Un-Supervised Classification

Unsupervised classification is where the outcomes (groupings of pixels

with common characteristics) are based on the software analysis of an image
without the user providing sample classes. The computer uses techniques to
determine which pixels are related and groups them into classes. The user can
specify which algorism the software will use and the desired number of output
classes but otherwise does not aid in the classification process. However, the
user must have knowledge of the area being classified when the groupings of
pixels with common characteristics produced by the computer have to be
related to actual features on the ground (such as wetlands, developed areas,
coniferous forests, etc.).

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2.3 Object-based image analysis (OBIA)

Object-based image analysis (OBIA) involves pixels first being grouped

into objects based on either spectral similarity or an external variable such as
ownership, soil or geological unit. Many variables may be determined,
categorised as spectral, shape and neighbourhood. Examples of spectral
variables are mean value and standard deviation of a specific spectral band;
shape variables include size, perimeter and compactness; neighbourhood
variables indicate, for example, the mean difference of an object compared to
darker ones. Each object is also part of a ‘super-object', obtained by combining
several neighbouring objects into one larger, and each can be subdivided into
smaller objects: ‘sub-objects'.

Using OBIA, knowledge on a landscape may be included by introducing

rules. When a group of trees, grass and water is found in the neighbourhood of
dense housing it is likely to belong to a city park. In contrast, a group of trees
surrounded by many others probably belongs to a forest. It is possible to make
this distinction with OBIA, but not using traditional spectral image analysis. In
general, OBIA provides increased accuracy and detail for classification
purposes.

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2.4 Indices

An indexed image uses direct mapping of pixel values to color map values.
The color of each image pixel is determined by using the corresponding value of X
as an index into map . A color map is often stored with an indexed image and is
automatically loaded with the image when you use the imread function.

An indexed image consists of an array, called X in this documentation, and a

colormap matrix, called map. The pixel values in the array are direct indices into a
colormap.

The colormap matrix is an m-by-3 array of class double containing floating-

point values in the range [0,1]. Each row of map specifies the red, green, and blue
components of a single color. An indexed image uses direct mapping of pixel
values to colormap values. The color of each image pixel is determined by using
the corresponding value of X as an index into map.

A colormap is often stored with an indexed image and is automatically loaded

with the image when you use the imread function. After you read the image and
the colormap into the MATLAB workspace as separate variables, you must keep
track of the association between the image and colormap. However, you are not
limited to using the default colormap--you can use any colormap that you choose.

The relationship between the values in the image matrix and the colormap
depends on the class of the image matrix. If the image matrix is of class single or
double, it normally contains integer values 1 through p, where p is the length of the
colormap. the value 1 points to the first row in the colormap, the value 2 points to
the second row, and so on. If the image matrix is of class logical, uint8 or uint16,
the value 0 points to the first row in the colormap, the value 1 points to the second
row, and so on.

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 The following figure illustrates the structure of an indexed image. In the
figure, the image matrix is of class double, so the value 5 points to the fifth row of
the colormap.

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Chapter Three: Materials and data

3.1 Data to be used

The satellite images series are designed to provide information for

hydrologic, oceanographic, meteorological and earth studies data. There are
seven channels in Landsat 7 data, including visible (0.58-0.68 um), near
infrared (0.76- 0.90 um), mid-infrared (3.53-3.93um), thermal infrared (10.3-
11.3um, 11.5-12.5 um) channels. The visible channel detects the solar reflected
radiance and measures the reflectance; the thermal-infrared channels measure
the earth-emitted radiance and therefore indicate the surface temperature. The
mid-infrared channel measures both the reflected radiance and the earth-emitted
radiance. Landsat satellites 14 satellites, with a swath of 2700 km, and ground
resolution of 30m. It can monitor the whole globe in one day. The spectral
channels and high spatial resolution make it able to detect vegetation, soil,
water, smoke, forest fire, clouds, fog, and some meteorological phenomena.

A frame of Landsat image was ordered from http://ww.wsgs.com , which is

taken in Jordan on September 7, 2020. The ordered data is then calibrated to get
8-bit gray levels and view zenith angles and location. The mid-infrared channel
is divided into two parts, the reflected part and the emitted part. Therefore, there
are seven channels (ch1, ch2, ch3, ch3t, ch4, ch5, ch6 and ch7) after calibration.
All the seven channels will be used in this project. The ch3t, ch4 and ch5
channels are first gray-flipped before classification.

We have chosen five images to cover the area during the period from 2004
to 2020. All images were taken to the same area to show the changes during the
period.

We used PCI-Geomatica to classify the images and find the cover area and
compare them to find the changes happened in the study area. Then we used
ArcGIS to build all maps.

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3.2 Software to be used

 PCI Geomatica

PCI Geomatica is a remote sensing and photogrammetry desktop

software package for processing earth observation data, designed by the
PCI Geomatics company. The latest version of the software is Geomatica
2018. Geomatica is aimed primarily at faster data processing and allows
users to load satellite and aerial imagery where advanced analysis can be
performed. Geomatica has been used by many educational institutions
and scientific programs throughout the world to analyze satellite imagery
and trends, such as the GlobeSAR Program, a program which was carried
out by the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing in the 1990s.

A very popular edition of Geomatica is known as Freeview, which

permits users to load multiple types of satellite images as well as
geospatial data that is stored in different formats. The software is
available for download over the web, and has registered several
thousands of downloads.

Geomatica includes a web coverage service interface that complies

with the OGC Web Coverage Service (WCS) Interface Standard, which
is a key area in which PCI Geomatics has contributed. Remote Sensing
data providers distribute data in diverse formats, which makes sharing
information across many different platforms challenging. WCS seeks to
alleviate some of the data sharing challenges by publishing the
geographic information and layers openly over the web.

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  ArcGIS

ArcGIS is a family of client software, server software, and

online geographic information system (GIS) services developed and
maintained by Esri. ArcGIS was first released in 1999 and originally was
released as ARC/INFO, a command line based GIS system for manipulating
data. ARC/INFO was later merged into ArcGIS Desktop, which was
eventually superseded by ArcGIS Pro in 2015. ArcGIS Pro works in 2D and
3D for cartography and visualization, and includes Artificial Intelligence
(AI).

Esri also provides server side ArcGIS software for web maps, known
as ArcGIS Server.

ArcGIS Pro is a 64-bit GIS software that is the more modern version
of ArcGIS Desktop. Unlike ArcGIS Desktop, the ArcCatalog and ArcMap
functionalities are accessed through the same application, most commonly
through the Catalog pane. The graphics requirements for ArcGIS Pro are
considerably higher than for ArcGIS Desktop in order to support the
upgraded visualization. ArcGIS Pro also supports streamlined workflows
that involve publishing and consuming feature layers using ArcGIS Online.

ArcGIS Pro 1.0 was released in January 2015.

ArcGIS Pro 2.6 was released in July 2020. Noted features added included:

 Voxel layers are 3D representations of data over space and time and are
saved in a netCDF file. Voxel layers are used to visualize complex layers
such as atmospheric and oceanic data or space-time cubes. These layers are
used to analyze spatial patterns of data in specific situations. Voxel layers
generally encompass extensive areas and slices can be used to delineate
areas of the layer that need further analysis. Voxels can be shown with other
geospatial data to further visualize the study area.

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 Trace networks are used to evaluate connectivity models like railroads.
Edges and junctions along with network attributes are used to understand the
movement of goods through the network. The connectedness of the network
is established based on the concurrence of geometric features. Trace
networks are used alongside network topology to make more tools available
such as trace and validation.

 Interactive suitability analysis using the new Suitability Modeler is a

way to figure out an optimal location for a building project or other similar
initiative. This is done by feeding the model with certain criteria to find
areas that would be suitable for the project. The suitability modeler is an
interactive way to visualize and assess the suitability model. The suitability
modeler allows a user to see how each criterion changes the model and make
a more educated decision for the project. Feedback is also given from the
modeler to help the user understand the model better.

 Graphics layers store geometric features and do not need to be in a feature

class to visualize. Graphics layers go on top of other layers on a map to
better illustrate the purpose of the map. Graphics layers are used to add extra
information to map such as text or highlight important features. There can be
multiple graphics layers in a map and can be grouped together.

 Parcel adjustment using least squares adjustment is way to adjust parcel

fabric to find the optimal position for parcel fabric points. The parcel fabric
is a network that measures the distance of lines and angles between points.
There are two types of least squares adjustment for parcel fabric. These are
free network adjustment and weighted/constrained adjustment. Free network
adjustment uses no control points and the layer is adjusted for the
measurements to be most optimal, and Weighted/constrained adjustment
uses control points and the layer is adjusted within the scope of the scope of
the points. A least squares adjustment can be run after a new parcel-fabric is
created or new data is added to an existing parcel fabric.

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 Link analysis develops a network of connected of objects and determines
the patterns that exist. Link analysis is done to find what patterns in a
network are most important and finds new patterns that were previously
unknown. Link analysis uses link charts to visualize the network. Link charts
represent the objects in a network using nodes and these nodes can be
people, buildings, or devices. Objects are usually moving such as people or
vehicles, and link charts show how they interact with each other over both
space and time. Link analysis is done to better understand the network. This
is done by finding the shortest path between nodes, showing what nodes
have the strongest connections, and finding the nodes that are nearest to each
other.

 Project recovery is an automatic way of saving a project so work is not lost.

When ArcGIS pro is opened it will prompt the user if they want to keep all
the unsaved changes that were backed up. The backups are also stored in the
.backups folder in the project home. The interval of time that the project
saves automatically can be determined by using the backup settings

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Chapter Four: Processing

Key Characteristic of training area:

a) Shape: Shapes of training areas are not important provided that shape does
not prohibit accurate delineating and positioning of outlines of regions on
digital images. Usually it is easiest to define rectangular or polygonal areas;
as such shapes minimize the number of vertices that must be specified.

b) Location: Location is important as each informational category should be

represented by several training areas positioned throughout the image.
Training areas must be positioned in locations that favour accurate and
convenient transfer of their outlines from maps and aerial photographs to the
digital image. As the training data are to represent variation within the
image, they must not be clustered in favoured regions of the image, which
may not typify conditions encountered throughout the image as a whole.

c) Number: The optimum number of training areas depends on number of

categories to be mapped, their diversity, and the resources that can be
devoted to delineating training areas. Each information category, or each
spectral subclass, should be represented by a number (perhaps 5 to 10 at
minimum) of training areas to ensure that spectral properties of each
category are represented.

d) Placement: Traning areas should be placed in image in a manner that

permits convenient and accurate location with respect to distinctive features
such as water, or boundary between distinctive features on image. They
should be distributed throughout the image so that they provide the basis for
representation of diversity present within the scene.

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Selection of appropriate classification algorithm

Various supervised classification algorithms may be used to assign an

unknown pixel to one of a number of classes. The choice of a particular
classifier or decision rule depends on the nature of the input data and the
desired output. Parametric classification algorithm assumes that the observed
measurement Xe for reach class in each spectral band during the training phase
of the supervised classification are Gaussian in nature i.e. they are normally
distributed. Non parametric classification algorithm makes no such
assumptions. Among the most frequently used classification algorithms are the
parallelepiped, minimum distance, and maximum likelihood decision rules

1. Parallelepiped Classification Algorithm:

This is a widely used decision rule based on simple Boolean "and/or" logic.
Training data in n spectral bands are used in performing the classification.
Brightness values from each pixel of the multispectral imagery are used to
produce an n-dimensional mean vector.

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2. Minimum Distance to Mean Classification Algorithm:

This decision rule is computationally simple and commonly used. When

used properly it can result in classification accuracy comparable to other more
computationally intensive algorithms, such as the maximum likelihood
algorithm. Like the parallelepiped algorithm, it requires that the user provide
the mean vectors for each class in each band mck from the training data. To
perform a minimum distance classification, a program must calculate the
distance to each mean vector, mck from each unknown pixel (BVijk).

3. Maximum Likelihood Classification Algorithm:

The maximum likelihood decision rule assigns each pixel having pattern
measurements or features X to the class c whose units are most probable or
likely to have given rise to feature vector x. It assumes that the training data
statistics for each class in each band are normally distributed, that is, Gaussian.
In other words, training data with bi-or trimodal histograms in a single band are
not ideal. In such cases, the individual modes probably represent individual
classes that should be trained upon individually and labeled as separate classes.
This would then produce unimodal, Gaussian training class statistics that would
fulfill the normal distribution requirement.
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 Classification Accuracy Assessment:

Quantitatively assessing classification accuracy requires the collection of

some in situ data or a priori knowledge about some parts of the terrain, which
can then be compared with the remote sensing derived classification map. Thus
to asses classification accuracy it is necessary to compare two classification
maps

1) the remote sensing derived map, and

2) assumed true map.

The assumed true map may be derived from in situ investigation or quite
often from the interpretation of remotely sensed data obtained at a larger scale
or higher resolution.

 Overall Classification Map Accuracy Assessment

To determine the overall accuracy of a remotely sensed classified map it is

necessary to ascertain whether the map meets or exceeds some predetermined
classification accuracy criteria. Overall accuracy assessment evaluates the
agreement between the two maps in total area or each category. They usually do
not evaluate construction errors that occur in the various categories.

 Site Specific Classification Map Accuracy Assessment

This type of error analysis compares the accuracy of the remote sensing
derived classification map pixel by pixel with the assumed true land use map.
First, it is possible to conduct a sitespecific error evaluation based only on the
training pixels used to train the classifier in a supervised classification. This
simply means that those pixel locations i, j used to train the classifier are
carefully evaluated on both the classified map from remote sensing data
products and the assumed true map. If training samples are distributed
randomly throughout the study area, this evaluation may consider representative
of the study area. If they act biased by the analyst a prior knowledge of where
certain land cover types exist in the scene. Because of this bias, the
classification accuracy for pixels found within the training sites are generally

19
higher than for the remainder of the map because these are the data locations
that were used to train the classifier.

Conversely if others test locations in the study area are identified and
correctly labeled prior to classification and if these are not used in the training
of the classification algorithm they can be used to evaluate the accuracy of the
classified map. This procedure generally yields a more credible classification
accuracy assessment. However additional ground truth is required for these test
site coupled with problem of determining how many pixels are necessary in
each test site class. Also the method of identifying the location of the test sites
prior to classification is important since many statistical tests require that
locations be randomly selected (e .g using a random number generator for the
identification off unbiased row and column coordinates) so that the analyst does
not bias their selection.

Once the Criterion for objectively identifying the location of specific pixels
to be compared is determined, it is necessary to identify the class assigned to
each pixel in both the remote sensing derived map and the assumed true map.
These data are tabulated and reported in a contingency table( error matrix),
where overall classification accuracy and misclassification between categories
are identified.

It takes the form of an m x m matrix, where m is the number of classes under

investigation. The rows in the matrix represent the assumed true classes, while
the columns are associated with the remote sensing derived land use. The
entries in the contingency table represent the raw number of pixels encountered
in each condition; however, they may be expressed as percentages, if these
number becomes too large. One of the most important characteristics of such
matrices is their ability to summarize errors of omission and commission. These
procedures allow quantitative evaluation of the classification accuracy. Their
proper use enhances the credibility, of using remote sensing derived land use
information.

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 Classification error matrix:

One of the most common means of expressing classification accuracy is the

preparation of classification error matrix sometimes called confusion or a
contingency table. Error matrices compare on a category-by-category basis, the
relationship between known reference data and the corresponding results of an
automated classification. Such matrices are square, with the number of rows
and columns equal to the number of categories whose classification accuracy is
being assessed. Figure 7 is an error matrix that an image analyst has prepared to
determine how well a Classification has categorized a representative subset of
pixels used in the training process of a supervised classification. This matrix
stems from classifying the sampled training set pixels and listing the known
cover types used for training (columns) versus the Pixels actually classified into
each land cover category by the classifier (rows).

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Selection of Spectral Indices

Spectral indices are combinations of the pixel values from two or more
spectral bands in a multispectral image. Spectral indices are designed to
highlight pixels showing the relative abundance or lack of a land cover type of
interest in an image.

 Vegetation Index For Agriculture In Digital Solutions

Integration of satellite-based analytics can increase the current value of

farming apps, as well as resolve their certain present limitations. In particular,
by incorporating vegetation indices into their products, software providers can
unlock and enjoy the following benefits for their business:

1. availability of high-level analysis;

2. possibility to expand their service;
3. access to different images sources in one place;
4. reduction of internal expenses;
5. additional value of their products.

Numerous advantages of vegetation indices in remote sensing also

help improve customer experience. Satellite imagery vs. other aerial data
allow:

1. saving costs on drone operations, data processing, and interpretation;

2. covering larger territories compared to aerial imagery;
3. reducing expenses for field inspection: additional UAV observations are
more costly than regular satellite revisits;
4. getting data analytics within a shorter time in a preferred format;
5. monitoring fields irrespective of wind gusts.

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 With satellite images, agri software providers can significantly expand
their existing pool of aerial data, as well as save their time and resources,
while end-users can access more data faster. Thus, vegetation indices in
remote sensing are useful in the distant high-level analysis of the crop state. If
any issue arises, farmers can double-check only the spotted areas instead of
inspecting the whole field.

1. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)

Among the typical spectral vegetation indices, NDVI is one of the most
suitable to track crop development dynamics since it measures photo
synthetically active biomass in plants. However, this vegetation index is quite
sensitive to soil brightness and atmospheric effects, mitigated in other indices
like EVI, SAVI, ARVI, GCL, or SIPI.

Formula: NDVI = (NIR – RED) / (NIR + RED)

Key fact: NDVI is the most common vegetation index in remote sensing. It can
be used throughout the whole crop production season except when vegetation
cover is too scarce, so its spectral reflectance is too low.

When to use: NDVI values are the most accurate in the middle of the season at
the stage of active crop growth.

2. Red-Edge Chlorophyll Vegetation Index (RECl)

The ReCI vegetation index is responsive to chlorophyll content in leaves that

is nourished by nitrogen. ReCI shows the photosynthetic activity of the canopy
cover.

Formula: ReCI = (NIR / RED) – 1

Key fact: Because chlorophyll content directly depends on nitrogen level in

plants, responsible for their “greenness”, this vegetation index in remote
sensing helps detect areas with yellow or shed foliage.

When to use: ReCI values are most useful at the stage of active vegetation
development but are not suitable for the season of harvesting.
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3. Normalized Difference Red Edge Vegetation Index (NDRE)

The NDRE index combines the Near-infrared (NIR) spectral bands and a
specific band for the narrow range between the visible red and the red-NIR
transition zone (the so-called red-edge region). For the best data precision, it is
recommended to use NDRE in combination with NDVI.

Formula: NDRE = (NIR – RED EDGE) / (NIR + RED EDGE)

Key fact: The given vegetation index applies for high-density canopy cover.

When to use: NDRE is typically used to monitor crops that have reached the
maturity stage.

4. Modified Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index (MSAVI)

The MSAVI vegetation index is designated to mitigate soil effects on crop

monitoring results. Therefore, it is applied when NDVI can’t provide accurate
values, particularly, with a high percentage of bare soil, scarce vegetation, or
low chlorophyll content in plants.

Formula: MSAVI = (2 * Band 4 + 1 – sqrt ((2 * Band 4 + 1)2 – 8 * (Band 4 –

Band 3))) / 2

Key fact: Since MSAVI is adjusted to soil effects and is sensitive to early
vegetation in the field, it works even when the earth is hardly covered with
crops.

When to use: MSAVI is useful at the very beginning of crop production season
– when seedlings start to establish.

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 Other Indices

1. Moisture Stress Index (MSI):

Moisture Stress Index is used for canopy stress analysis, productivity

prediction and biophysical modeling. Interpretation of the MSI is inverted
relative to other water vegetation indices; thus, higher values of the index
indicate greater plant water stress and in inference, less soil moisture content.
The values of this index range from 0 to more than 3 with the common range
for green vegetation being 0.2 to 2 (Welikhe et al., 2017).

Formula of MSI = MidIR / NIR

2. Green Coverage Index (GCI):

In remote sensing, the Green Chlorophyll Index is used to estimate the

content of leaf chlorophyll in various species of plants. The chlorophyll
content reflects the physiological state of vegetation; it decreases in stressed
plants and can therefore be used as a measurement of plant health (EOS,
2019).

Formula of GCI = (NIR) / (Green) – 1

3. Normalized Burned Ratio Index (NBRI):

Forest fires are a severe manmade or natural phenomena that destroy

natural recourses, live stock, unbalances the local environments, release huge
amount of Green House Gases etc. NBRI takes advantage of the near infrared
and short wave infrared spectral bands, which are sensitive in vegetation
changes, to detect burned areas and monitor the recovery of the ecosystem
(GU, 2019).

Formula of NBR = (NIR – SWIR) / (NIR+ SWIR)

25
 4. Bare Soil Index (BSI):

Bare Soil Index (BSI) is a numerical indicator that combines blue, red,
near infrared and short wave infrared spectral bands to capture soil variations.
These spectral bands are used in a normalized manner. The short wave
infrared and the red spectral bands are used to quantify the soil mineral
composition, while the blue and the near infrared spectral bands are used to
enhance the presence of vegetation (GU, 2019).

Formula of BSI = ((Red+SWIR) – (NIR+Blue)) / ((Red+SWIR) +

(NIR+Blue))

5. Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI):

Normalize Difference Water Index (NDWI) is use for the water bodies
analysis. The index uses Green and Near infra-red bands of remote sensing
images. The NDWI can enhance water information efficiently in most cases.
It is sensitive to build-up land and result in over-estimated water bodies. The
NDWI products can be used in conjunction with NDVI change products to
assess context of apparent change areas (Bahadur, 2018).

Formula of NDWI = (NIR – SWIR) / (NIR + SWIR)

6. Normalized Difference Snow Index (NDSI):

The Normalized Difference Snow Index (NDSI) is a numerical indicator

that shows snow cover over land areas. The green and short wave infrared
(SWIR) spectral bands are used within this formula to map the snow cover.
Since snow absorbs most of the incident radiation in the SWIR while clouds
do not, this enables NDSI to distinguish snow from clouds. This formula is
commonly used in snow/ice cover mapping application as well as glacier
monitoring (Bluemarblegeo, 2019).

Formula of NDSI = (Green-SWIR) / (Green+SWIR)

26
 7. Normalized Difference Glacier Index (NDGI):

Normalized Difference Glacier Index (NDGI) is used to help detect and

monitor glaciers by using the green and red spectral bands. This equation is
commonly used in glacier detection and glacier monitoring applications
(Bluemarblegeo, 2019).

Formula of NDGI = (NIR-Green)/(NIR+Green)

8. Atmospherically Resistant Vegetation Index (ARVI)

As the name suggests, the Atmospherically Resistant Vegetation Index is

the first vegetation index, which is relatively prone to atmospheric factors
(such as aerosol). The formula of ARVI index invented by Kaufman and
Tanré is basically NDVI corrected for atmospheric scattering effects in the
red reflectance spectrum by using the measurements in blue wavelengths
(EOS, 2019).

Formula of ARVI = (NIR – (2 * Red) + Blue) / (NIR + (2 * Red) + Blue)

9. Structure Insensitive Pigment Index (SIPI)

The Structure Insensitive Pigment Index is good for analysis of vegetation

with the variable canopy structure. It estimates the ratio of carotenoids to
chlorophyll: the increased value signals of stressed vegetation (EOS, 2019).

Formula of SIPI = (NIR – Blue) / (NIR – Red)

27
Chapter Five: Results and Discussion

5.1.1 NDBI - Index

Fig 5-1 “ NDBI - Index ”

By using NDBI-Index we can see the water bodies where as higher value
represent build-up areas.

28
5.1.2 NDMI - Index

Fig 5-2 “ NDMI - Index ”

By using NDMI-Index we can see the vegetation water content.

29
5.1.3 2004 - Map

Fig 5-3 “ 2004 Map ”

Map in figure “ 5-3 ” shows the study area on 2004, most of the area was
soil and vegetation.

30
5.1.4 2008 - Map

Fig 5-4 “ 2008 Map ”

Map in figure “ 5-4 ” shows the study area on 2008, most of the area was
soil and vegetation.

This image had taken in the summer, this is why the vegetation cover is
smallest than the last image.

31
5.1.5 2012 - Map

Fig 5-5 “ 2012 Map ”

Map in figure “ 5-5 ” shows the study area on 2012

You can notice that urban area is in increase and the soil of type 3
is in increase, which means the chemical state of the area is changed .

32
5.1.6 2016 - Map

Fig 5-6 “ 2016 Map ”

Map in figure “ 5-6 ” shows the study area on 2016

Vegetation cover decreased, and soil of type 3 increased significantly

33
5.1.7 2020 - Map

Fig 5-7 “ 2020 Map ”

Map in figure “ 5-7 ” shows the study area on 2020.

Most of the area changed and covered by urban area and the soil type is
changed as well.

34
5.1.8 Analysis Map

Fig 5-8 “ Analysis Map ”

After study completed we noticed that the area is under the risk of
desertification. It receives little rainfall, with 200-250mm a year. With high
temperatures and People are turning away from farming and start working in the
industrial city in “Al-Qastal”. And most of its soil chemical structure changed and
its salinity increased.

35
5.1.9 The proportion of classes in study area

2020 2004
Vegeta Vegeta
tion tion
Urban Urban

Soil Soil

Fig 5-9 “ The proportion of Study area ”

Figure “4-9” Show the percentage of all classes in the study area as a chart
“The proportion of classes”

As a result, the study area is under a huge desertification risk due to various
factors including climatic variations and human activities and soil pollution cue to
industry city in the area. Or, to put it in another way, desertification results in
persistent degradation of dry land and fragile ecosystems due to man-made
activities and variations in climate.

Jordan could face decreasing water supplies, viable farmland and food, if the
arid and semi-arid lands of the country suffer from further degradation and become
more desert-like. “If these arid areas desertify, we will have a problem with food
security,” says Dr Jawad Al-Bakri, Associate Professor at the University of
Jordan’s Department of Land, Water and Environment and co-director of a NATO-
sponsored project aimed at addressing these challenges through remote-sensing
technology.
36
 Several studies have shown that Jordan is at risk of rapid desertification. It
receives little rainfall, with 90 per cent of the country receiving less than 200mm a
year. Deforestation, soil erosion, inappropriate land use and cultivation practices,
climate change and drought all contribute to increasing desertification. Rapid
urbanisation has also taken a toll.

Continuing desertification could have a far-reaching environmental, social and

economic impact. The Badia area of Jordan is a case in point. It is the main region
for livestock production and many people in Badia depend on the rangeland to
make a living. Faced with the prospect of losing their livelihood, many of the
farmers in Badia might move into the cities looking for work, putting more
pressure on urban areas. “We will have a serious problem if this [desertification]
continues,” says Dr Al-Bakri.

Less arable land and fewer farmers could also mean decreased food
production. “As a result of such reductions, food insecurity and poverty will
continue to increase” points out Dr Ayman Suleiman, Associate Professor at the
University of Jordan’s Department of Land, Water and Environment.

A project funded under NATO’s Science for Peace and Security (SPS)
Programme is attempting to address these threats. Scientists are conducting
research in the Yarmouk Basin, a 1400 square kilometre area in the Badia region.
Most of the area is at risk for high rates of soil loss by wind and water, which can
lead to desertification.

Researchers will develop a system to monitor changes in the soil, water,

vegetation and climate using remote sensing tools and geographic information
system models. This way it will be possible to warn the Jordanian government that
desertification is taking place, before it is too late to take action.

“In this project, we are trying to come up with ways by which we can monitor
desertification as it is happening. That way suitable prevention measures will be
targeted at the right place and at the right time,” says Dr Suleiman.

37
Chapter Six: Conclusion and Recommendation

We increased the area of classification to include the whole area, and we

noticed that there is a huge area around the airport which is not using and empty,
and that area is under the risk of desertification as well.

We can use these areas and plant them with perennial trees, which can live and
rise in very low amount of water in order to; save the soil, climate, the atmosphere
and decrease the effects of smoke that comes from industry.

38
References

1. Royal Geographic Center

2. Prof-Samih Al Rawashdeh; Give us all needed info.

3. Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology

4. https://www.memr.gov.jo/EBV4.0/Root_Storage/EN/Project/summary_
of_mineral_resources_in_Jordan.pdf

5. Geology Green : https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Geology-Career-

Pathways/What-is-Geology/Subject-Areas

6. https://geology.com/

7. Natural Resources Authority in Jordan

8. Natural Resources Authority in Jordan; Pure Limestone book

9. Natural Resources Authority in Jordan; Dolomite book

10.North Atlantic Treaty Organization “NATO” Science for Peace and

Security (SPS) Programme

39