Splendid Science 8

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Copyright Material
Lali John
Teacher’s Book
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Shaftesbury Road, Cambridge CB2 8EA, United Kingdom
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477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
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Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.
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It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
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education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

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www.cambridge.org
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Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781009247764
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© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023

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This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
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no reproduction of any part may take place without the written

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permission of Cambridge University Press.
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First published 2023

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Printed in India by
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ISBN 978-1-009-24776-4
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
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of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,

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and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
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accurate or appropriate. Information regarding prices, travel timetables, and other
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factual information given in this work is correct at the time of first printing but
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Cambridge University Press does not guarantee the accuracy of such information
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NOTICE TO TEACHERS
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The photocopy masters in this publication may be photocopied or distributed

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[electronically] free of charge for classroom use within the school or institution that
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purchased the publication. Worksheets and copies of them remain in the copyright
of Cambridge University Press, and such copies may not be distributed or used in
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any way outside the purchasing institution.

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Every effort has been made to trace the owners of copyright material included in this
book. The publishers would be grateful for any omissions brought to their notice for
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acknowledgement in future editions of the book.

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Introduction
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Splendid Science is a well-graded and thoughtfully structured science course for classes 1–8. The series has
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been developed with the aim of helping students to not only learn science as a subject but also experience the
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beauty of science around them. The books propagate STEM education through an integrated pedagogy and
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enable students to consolidate their STEM concepts in an interactive, engaging and exploratory way.
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The series conforms to the vision of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 that emphasises on fostering
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knowledge, skills and abilities through competency-based, rather than content-based, education. Splendid
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Science is a wholesome science course that both instils and enhances 21st century skills, life skills and values.
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Each book follows a strong pedagogical framework involving a spiral learning approach. There is focus on 11
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parameters, including active knowledge constructions, reflective learning and project-based STEM learning.
There is equal emphasis on differentiated assessment and evaluation wherein students can attempt diverse
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types of questions and analyse their responses.

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In pursuance of the goals and objectives of the NEP 2020 issued on 29th July, 2020, the Department of School
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Education and Literacy has developed an indicative and suggestive Implementation Plan for School Education,
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called ‘Students’ and Teachers’ Holistic Advancement through Quality Education (SARTHAQ)’. SARTHAQ
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was released on 8 April 2021; the major focus of SARTHAQ is to define activities in such a manner that clearly
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delineates goals, outcomes and time frame, that is, it links recommendations of NEP with 297 defined tasks.
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Approach to the Student’s Book

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The content of each chapter in the Student’s Book is mapped to NEP 2020 recommendations and parameters
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of the pedagogy framework. There is graded progression in explanation of concepts. A variety of features have
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been used with specific objectives to build and maintain an inspiring science ecosystem. Each feature also
lists the development of specific skills. This listing will help students, teachers and parents assess whether the
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objective of instilling a particular skill has been met.

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Features to develop interest and understanding

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Chapter opener: The introductory page of each chapter lists the learning objectives and asks open-ended
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questions meant to arouse the learner’s curiosity.

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The opening image(s) previews the science topic students will be learning about.
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Chapter Preview gives the learning objectives or a list of competencies to be achieved in the
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given chapter.
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What you will learn lists the major topics students will be learning about.
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Why it is important to learn states why this chapter is being taught.

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Warm-up is an opportunity for students to check what they already know.

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Headings: Headings of main topics are in the form of questions to encourage enquiry-based learning.
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Do You Know?: Interesting and relevant science facts related to the topic.
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Real-world Connect!: Snippets highlighting real-life applications of concepts learnt.

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Look It Up!: Topics or questions to search online and discussion for extension of concepts learnt.
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Language Check: Task to promote vocabulary building and promote extended learning.
Green Check: Suggestions to apply science to make the environment clean.
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Test It Yourself!: Experiments to first make predictions and then test ideas which promote self-discovery.
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Keywords: Definitions to summarise important scientific vocabulary and for quick reference.
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Features to hone 21st Century Skills, Scientific Proficiency and endorse Active Learning
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21st
The 21st Century Skills are indicated by the icon
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Skills
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Experiential Learning: Fun, creative, exploratory, literary and collaborative activities for a truly hands-on
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experience.
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Puzzle Over: Questions to evaluate problem-solving and higher-order critical thinking skills.
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Skill Craft (Project Work/Research/Activity/Discuss and Answer/Field Trip): Hands-on interdisciplinary and
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subject-enrichment activities to hone 21st century skills.

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STEAM Worksheets: Assignments designed to introduce learners to integrated learning using science,
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technology, engineering, arts and mathematics.

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Scientific Proficiency Worksheets: Additional reinforcement to build scientific temper and evaluate students’
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scientific skills.
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Science Tools (grades 3 to 8): Introduction to some basic tools used in science such as measuring tape,
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weighing scale, thermometer, etc.

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Features to develop Life Skills and Values

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Life Communication
The UNICEF Life Skills are indicated by the icon .
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Skills
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Connect to Life (Skill Craft): Thought-provoking activities are based on the following key life skills
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recommended by the UNICEF:

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Cognitive skills: critical thinking, problem-solving and decision-making

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Personal skills: self-awareness and self-management

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Interpersonal skills: communication, negotiation, cooperation, teamwork, inclusion, empathy and

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advocacy
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Posters: Theme-based posters to develop essential life skills and to facilitate introspection and hone problem-
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solving skills.
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Features for assessment and evaluation

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Section Review: End-of-section questions on key concepts to help assess the learning objectives of a section
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before moving to the next section. This section is competency-based and provides innovative questions. In
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grades 6 to 8, the questions covered closely align with the learning objectives, learning outcomes and test
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items recommended by the NCERT.

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Chapter Review: End-of-chapter exercises are graded assessments that focus on key concepts to help
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evaluate various aspects of the student’s learning. This review section has been designed based on the key
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takeaways from the stipulations of SAFAL (Structured Assessment for Analysing Learning Levels).
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Each assessment is structured in subsections that match the proficiency strands of Fluency, Problem-solving,
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Reasoning, as well as Analysis & Creating. Assessments are graded on a recommended proficiency scale to allow
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differentiation for Foundation, Standard and Advanced levels. In the exercises, the questions suggested for each
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rubric are listed in three columns on the right side of each subsection:
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The left column (lightest shaded colour) is the Foundation (Basic) level.
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The middle column (medium shaded colour) is the Standard (Intermediate) level.
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The right column (darkest shaded colour) is the Advanced (High) level.
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Study Guide: End-of-unit section to reinforce, practise and develop learning skills in science.
Reviewing the Unit to summarise the core concepts of the chapters comprising a unit.
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Developing Scientific Vocabulary to practise the language of science by reviewing scientific terms and
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their meanings.
Recalling Concepts to test recall and understanding skills.
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Interpreting Graphics to complete concept maps as well as to create them, to develop the skill of
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creating schematic relationships between concepts.
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Thinking Critically questions to develop higher-order thinking skills.
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Test Papers: Two test papers for practice before term-end examinations.
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Features to provide support to Parents
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Parents’ Corner: End-of-unit supplemental information to parents to support their child at home, along with
resources for additional practice and revision in QR codes.
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At-home activities to recognise/apply concepts in the real-world scenarios. As

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Diagnostic test with analysis to identify/monitor a student’s skill learning curve.

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Revision tests to reinforce and practise concepts learnt.
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Solutions for sample NCERT exemplar questions and OLYMPIAD questions for practice.
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Approach to the Teacher’s Book

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Splendid Science Teacher’s Book is a handy, valuable resource for teachers to effectively plan and teach
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their lessons. It offers workable tips and strategies to optimally use every page of the Student’s Book. It helps
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teachers identify and focus on skills to be instilled through different components of the Student’s Book. It
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also provides additional resources to make the teaching–learning experience more wholesome and fulfilling.
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Following are the features of each Teacher’s Book:

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Overview
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This section provides an overview of the content coverage, which outlines the approximate time required for
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teaching each chapter along with the learning objectives and expected learning outcomes.
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Spiral Lesson Plans

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This core section is a unique feature of the Teacher’s Book. It gives a detailed, exhaustive guide for teaching the
chapter. Each page in this section has a screenshot of the chapter text for quick and easy reference. Around
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the screenshot are methodically arranged boxes with components

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to explain how the teacher should approach the contents of

Unit 1 | The World Around Us
2 LIVING AND NON-LIVING THINGS

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that particular page of the chapter. Each component lists the

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development of specific skills expected to be instilled in students.

Unit 1 | The World Around Us 21st Century Skills
• Collaborating
2 LIVING AND NON-LIVING THINGS
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• Analysing
This listing will help teachers assess whether the objective of
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• Exploring
Life Skills
instilling a particular skill has been met.
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CHAPTER PREVIEW
• Critical thinking
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• Living and non-living things

• Types of non-living things • Communication
Warm-up
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Wha
21st Century Skills: This component lists the skills intended to

7E Elicit, Engage, Explore
you will learn
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• About living and Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing

non-living things
Ask students to look at the picture
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• How living things are

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different from
non-living things
• How natural and human-
made non-living things
carefully and explain the task.
Then, ask questions such as the
following: be developed while understanding the concept in question.
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are different • Do bicycles grow?

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• Do plants grow?
• Can bulls move?
Why
• Can cars move? Do they move
Life Skills: This feature focuses on the various cognitive,
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it is important to learn
on their own?
Have you seen a puppy playing
on the road? How is it different Explain to students that one way to
from a toy puppy? The puppy differentiate between things around
personal and interpersonal skills intended to be developed.
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on the road is a living thing. us is to determine whether they are

The toy puppy is a non-living living or non-living.
thing.
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We must know what living and

WARM-UP 7E Elicit
non-living things are. We must
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also know how living things Name any six things you see in this picture.
7 Es of Learning: The teaching of each component and learning

are different from non-living Can you tell how these things are different from
things. one another?
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Activity Corner 7E Engage, Extend

tools is related to the 7 Es of learning—Elicit, Engage, Explore,
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Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing, Critical thinking

Ask students to observe and name a few things or objects around them. Ask them to identify, according to the discussion
they had in Warm-up discussion, which are living or non-living. Also, encourage them to specify why they think so. Explain, Elaborate, Extend and Evaluate.
Name of the thing Living/Non-living
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Concept Building/Teaching Ideas: These components 21st Century Skills
provide tips, strategies and additional material for

Scientific
Real-world Connect! Proficiency Adaptive reasoning
• Analysing
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Look carefully at a few plants growing in a pot or in a garden. After a few days, you • Observing
will see new leaves growing on them. What does this tell you? • Evaluating
explaining a particular concept. They also provide Section Review 1 7E Evaluate

Life Skills
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To understand the differences between living and non-living things.
suggestions for using particular teaching aids needed to

Maira wants to know if these things are living or non-living. Help her by matching
• Problem-solving
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the pictures to the correct box.
1. 2. 3.
Section Review 1
support and enhance the learning experience. 7E Evaluate, Engage
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
Non-living Living
thinking, Problem-solving
4. 5. 6. This section helps evaluate if students
have understood the concepts taught
Tools for Learning: The Student’s Book contains a variety

so far. Explain the exercise and let
students complete it on their own in
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Complete the sentence: Living things , , class. Then, discuss the answers so that
, and produce their own kind. students can verify their responses.
of features—Warm-up, Do You Know?, Look It Up!,

Provide remedial help to students who
What are the types of non-living things? are unclear about particular concepts.
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Green Check, Language Check, Test It Yourself!, Section
There are two types of non-living things—natural and human-made.
What are natural non-living things?
Non-living things that are found in nature are called natural non-living things.
Real-world Connect!
7E Engage, Extend
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They cannot be made by humans. Rivers, mountains, stones and clouds are Skills instilled: Scientific proficiency,
some natural non-living things. Adaptive reasoning
Review, Experiential Learning, Puzzle Over, Project Green Check Explain that new leaves mean that
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Water is a natural non- a plant is growing. This shows that
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living thing. Humans plants are living things.

cannot make water.
Work, Research/Activity and Connect to Life. This Some natural non-living things
So, we should use
water very carefully. Green Check 7E Engage, Extend
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Skills instilled: Environmental literacy,
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component provides specific instructions for taking up

Responsibility
This section instills environmental
literacy and makes students
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Concept Building 7E Engage, Explain, Elaborate
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sensitive towards the issue of water
activities in each feature, as it appears in the chapter. Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking
What are the types of non-living things? (pages 10 and 11)
conservation. Ask students questions
such as the following:
• Can we make water?
Explain that non-living things are of two types: natural and human-made
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• From where do we get water?
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non-living things. Use plenty of examples to explain the differences between • Can we live without water?
natural and human-made non-living things.
• Should we waste water?
Natural non-living things Human-made non-living things Discuss the answers to these questions.
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in nature
2. Cannot be made by humans.
1. Non-living things made
by humans
2. Not found in nature
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3. Examples: Water, soil, clouds 3. Examples: Plastic bottle, shirt,

television
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Teacher’s Support Additional Teacher’s Support resources in QR codes:

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Access additional Teacher’s Support resources that create energised textbooks and enable learning/teaching
more proficient and technology-driven through the given QR codes:
• Diagnostic test (unit-wise) • Lesson-wise PPT facilitates hybrid
At the end of each lesson plan, additional resources for
supports teachers to identify
students’ skill learning curve.
teaching model.
teachers are provided to enable teaching–learning process
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more proficient. These include unit-wise diagnostic test
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with analysis and chapter-wise lesson PPTs.

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Supervised Lab Work (grades 6 to 8): This section provides
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SUPERVISED LAB WORK

additional lab activities to reinforce the concepts learnt in
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1. Aim: To show the need for conservation using the cookie-eating experiment.
Materials required: Chocolate chip cookies – relatively hard cookies work best (2 per student),
toothpicks (2 per student plus extras) and paper plates (1 per student) a chapter.
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What to do:
1. Hand out the cookies, toothpicks and a paper plate to each person.
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2. Have students take one cookie and put it on the plate. Set the timer to one minute. Each student
gets one minute to try to ‘mine’ out as many chocolate chips as one can using only their fingers.
When the timer goes off, the students are to stop.
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Observation: Now have the students look at the cookie they ‘excavated’. Ask them if they would still
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want to eat the cookie without all the chocolate chips they mined out. Would they rather just eat the
chocolate chips?
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Worksheets and Sample Papers

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Two worksheets have been provided at the end of each lesson plan for a chapter. These contain additional
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questions for the chapter. These questions can be used for practice or for evaluating the knowledge gained
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by students. Teachers can use these worksheets as class or home assignments. Two sample papers have been
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provided after the lesson plans for each grade.

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Answers to Questions in Student’s Book, Worksheets and Sample Papers

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This section provides solutions to all exercises in the Student’s Book and worksheets and sample papers in the
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Teacher’s Book.
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Evaluation Sheets
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This section includes parameters/directives to evaluate STEAM and Scientific Proficiency worksheets.
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We hope teachers will enjoy teaching Splendid Science and implement the tips suggested for achieving
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best results.
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Approach to Active Learning (Digital) Resources
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Splendid Science has been specifically designed as a 360° digital teaching–learning solution. The textbooks
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are energised with high-quality digital content for learner engagement: animations, videos, slide shows,
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interactive units. Each book is structurally linked to Cambridge Learn Premium (CLP), an active digital resource
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for learner engagement.
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Tagging of digital assets using explicit icons (with QR codes) in Student’s Book: Several components in the
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Student’s Book feature as digital assets in CLP. For easy reference, each digital asset available in CLP has been
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tagged in the Student’s Book with a unique icon:
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ANM for animation INT for interactivity

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IVID for instructor-led video VID for short video
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for slide show

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SVID
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Whenever teachers come across any of these icons against a particular learning tool in the Student’s Book, they
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may make use of the respective digital aids in CLP digital assets to make teaching interactive, engaging and
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more effective.
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Using Cambridge Learn Premium

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CLP platform is a comprehensive digital learning solution for classrooms which integrates an enhanced eBook
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with interactive learning–teaching aids, rich audio-visual resources and lesson planner. It includes high-quality
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digital learning content for learner engagement: animations, videos, slide shows and interactive units. The
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platform hosts a number of tools to enable creation and delivery of lesson plans.
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Access to enhanced e-reader with teaching tools, rich audio-visual resources and lesson planner.
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Instructor-led videos simplify complex concepts for better understanding and encourage retention which
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further improves skill and task proficiency.

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Test Maker contains question bank, answers and solution sets, to aid quick preparation of tests and
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worksheets.
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Competency-based assessments help in effective evaluation with comprehensive question bank aligned
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to Bloom’s taxonomy.
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Contents
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Overview ............................................................................................................................................................ 1
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Detailed Lesson Plans and Worksheets ................................................................................................... 5
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Sample Papers ............................................................................................................................................. 263

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Coursebook Answers ................................................................................................................................ 266

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Evaluation Sheets
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STEAM Worksheets ............................................................................................................................ 312

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Scientific Proficiency Worksheets ................................................................................................. 317

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Worksheets’ Answers................................................................................................................................. 319

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Sample Papers’ Answers........................................................................................................................... 342

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Overview
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Chapter Chapter Name Time Allotted Objectives Outcomes
No. (Approx.)
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1. Crop 5 Periods • Understand the different kinds of crops • Students will be able to
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Production and grown in India differentiate between
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Management • Understand the difference between rabi and rabi and kharif crops
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kharif crops • Students will
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• Know different methods of crop production understand how crops

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are produced and
• Understand different methods applied in
different methods in
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crop production
crop production
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2. Microorganisms 5 Periods • Understand the microorganisms, their • Students will know

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• Understand how a microscope works of microorganisms

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• Distinguish between useful and harmful • They will also be able
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to distinguish between
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microorganisms
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useful and harmful

• Analysing role of microorganisms in food
microorganisms
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preservation
3. Synthetic Fibres 7 Periods • Understand what synthetic fibres are • Students will compare
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and Plastics • Distinguish between the different types of different types of

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synthetic fibres synthetic fibres

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• Analyse the advantages and disadvantages of • They will also

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understand how
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plastic is formed and

• Understand what plastics are and their uses
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its impact on our

• Evaluate the impact of plastic on our environment
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environment
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• Explain the action of conservation against the

use of plastic
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4. Metals and 6 Periods • Understand the meaning of metals and • Students will examine
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Non-metals non-metals and their occurrence metals and non-metals

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• Understand the physical and chemical and their occurrence

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properties of metals and non-metals • They will understand

• Understand the reactivity series of metals the process of rusting
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and corrosion
• Understand the common uses of metals and
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non-metals
• Understand the meaning of noble metals
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and alloys
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• Understand the process of corrosion of

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metals, rusting of iron and its prevention

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5. Coal and 6 Periods • Understand what natural resources and • They will also study
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Petroleum exhaustible and inexhaustible resources are about exhaustible

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• Study about coal and petroleum and how and inexhaustible

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they are formed resources

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• Understand the consequences of over- • Students will know

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extraction of fossil fuels how we can conserve

fossil fuels
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• Understand why conservation of fossil fuels

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is important
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No. (Approx.)
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6. Combustion 8 Periods • Know what combustion is (its products and • Students will know
and Flame conditions necessary for combustion) about chemical
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• Compare the different types of combustion substances and how
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a new substance is
• Determine fuel efficiency
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• Understand the characteristics of a reaction
good fuel
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• They will know about
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• Analyse the impact of burning fuels characteristics of good
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fuel
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7. Conservation 9 Periods • Understand deforestation and its • Students will know
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of Plants and consequences about conditions such
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Animals • Understand why conservation of forests as deforestation and its

impact
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• Students will describe
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• Understand the reasons responsible for loss

of biodiversity what biodiversity is
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• They will also

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• Compare extinct and endangered species

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recognise extinct and

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• Explore the ways in which we can conserve

endangered species
biodiversity
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8. Cell: Structure 8 Periods • Understand the discovery of cell and cell • Students will examine
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and Function theory cell and cell theory and

• Differentiate between unicellular and understand its various
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multicellular organisms shapes and sizes

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• Understand the various shapes and sizes • Students will be able

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to compare plant and

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of cells
animal cells
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• Explain the various parts of cell

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• Compare plant and animal cells

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• Study cell division

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9. Reproduction in 7 Periods • Learn what reproduction is and the • Students will know
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Animals different methods of reproduction about sexual and

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• Differentiate between the types of sexual asexual reproduction

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reproduction • They will also

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• Understand how reproduction in humans understand about

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takes place certain gender issues

and myths
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• Compare viviparous and oviparous animals

• Differentiate between the types of asexual
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reproduction
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• Understand what determines the gender of

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a baby
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• Study about gender issues and myths

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10. Reaching 9 Periods • Study hormones and endocrine system • Students will know
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the Age of • Understand puberty and adolescence about hormones and

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Adolescence endocrine system

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• Analyse the role of hormones during

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puberty • They will also

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understand nutritional
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• Understand the nutritional requirements

requirements and
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and personal hygiene

personal hygiene
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11. Force and 8 Periods • Understand what force is and what • Students will know what
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Pressure its effects are force is and its effects
• Study how to calculate the • Students will classify types of
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magnitude of force forces and also learn about
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of forces • The students will know about
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atmospheric pressure and
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• Understand what pressure is and
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the unit of pressure pressure exerted by liquids

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• Attribute the uses of force and
pressure in everyday life
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by liquids
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12. Friction 8 Periods • Understand what friction is • Students will define friction
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• Evaluate the causes of friction and know its causes

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• Relate the use of friction in • They will also examine

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everyday life advantages and disadvantages

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of friction
• Infer the advantages and
disadvantages of friction
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• Understand how to reduce friction

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13. Sound 8 Periods • Understand how sound is • Students will understand

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produced what sound is, vibrations,

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• Explain vibrations, amplitude, amplitude, time period,

frequency
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time period, frequency

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• Explain how sound travels • Students will relate the use of

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ears and how ears help us to

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hear sound
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of sound
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• Distinguish between types of

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sound (pitch, loudness, quality)

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• Study about echo and sound

absorption
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• Analyse how to make sounds with

musical instruments
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14. Electricity and 8 Periods • Understand what electric current is • Students will recognise
Circuits • Understand what electrical electric current and
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conductivity is conductivity
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• Study about impurities affecting • They will also know about

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conduction through liquids

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electrical conductivity of water

and electrolysis
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• Understand what electroplating is

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Chapter Chapter Time Allotted Objectives Outcomes
No. Name (Approx.)
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15. Some Natural 9 Periods • Understand electrical charges and • Students will understand
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Phenomena their significance various methods to charge
• Know the different methods to a body and study different
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charge a body (by friction, induction, ways of detecting and
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• Study ways of detecting and • Students will understand
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measuring charge (the electroscope) how to measure charge
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• Understand atmospheric electricity

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• Understand principle behind
lightning conductor
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• Understand precautions to be taken
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during lightning
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precautions in case of earthquakes

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16. Light 7 Periods • Understand how are we able to • Students will describe how
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see things we are able to see things

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• Understand refraction • They will also understand

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• Understand the phenomenon the working of human eye

of dispersion and defects of eyes
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• Understand the structure and • Students will examine the

technology used for
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working of the human eye

the blind
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• Understand the different defects of

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eyes and their correction
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• Know the technology used for the

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blind
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• Understand how to take care of eyes

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17. Stars and the 8 Periods • Study about the universe • Students will understand
Solar System about universe and know
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• Understand what see in the sky

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at night what makes the universe

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planets natural and artificial satellites

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• Study about small bodies in the

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solar system (asteroids, comets,

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meteoroids)
• Study about satellites (natural
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and artificial)
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18. Pollution of 6 Periods • Study about air pollution and its • Students will relate the
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Air and Water causes and effects pollution in air with human
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activities
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• Study why cleaning the air is

important • Students will also know how
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• Study about water pollution and its water can be purified and
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causes and effects why we should conserve

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water
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Unit 1 | Food
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CROP PRODUCTION AND
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MANAGEMENT
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21st Century Skills
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Unit 1 | Food
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• Observing
1 CROP PRODUCTION AND
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• Analysing
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• Exploring
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MANAGEMENT
• Thought provoking
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CHAPTER PREVIEW As Life Skills

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• Crops and their types

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• Agricultural practices • Critical thinking
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• Food from animal sources

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• Environmental literacy
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• Social and cultural skills

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Warm-up 7E Engage, Explore

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Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing

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Wha
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you will learn eat. Then ask them to identify the

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source of that food.

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• Differentiate between types

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of crops
Next, discuss why we need food
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• Sequence the steps involved

in agricultural practices and from where we get food.
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• Identify common food that

are sourced from animals
Explain that most of the food we
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eat is obtained from plants.

As
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After this, relate food with crops

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and their production.

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Why
21st
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it is important to learn WARM-UP Century Thought provoking

Skills
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We obtain food from plants and You have learnt that all living organisms need food.
animals. Therefore, we need to
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From where do animals including humans get food?

know how to grow plants and
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rear animals. Why do we need food?

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Activity Corner 7E Explain, Elaborate, Extend

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As

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Ask students to make a table with the following heads in their notebook. They should list at least 8 food items they like to
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eat, and identify the source of each food item.

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Name of the food Name of plant source Name of animal source

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We get our food from plants and animals. Food gives us energy which is utilised by living
• Analysing
organisms for carrying out essential life processes, such as digestion, respiration and excretion.
s
• Observing
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To meet the food requirement of a country such as India, it is important to produce large
• Technology literacy amounts of food from plant and animal sources. Several kinds of animals are reared to obtain
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milk, meat and eggs. In addition, food grains such as wheat and rice, pulses such as peas and
beans, and a variety of vegetables and fruits are also grown on a large scale.
Life Skills
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rs What is a crop? What are the types of crops?
We grow plants for food, fibre, timber, etc. When plants of the same kind are grown or cultivated
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• Problem-solving at one place on a large scale, it is called a crop. Fig. 1.1 shows various food items obtained from
t
en
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plants. Examples of crops are given below.

• Cereals: rice and wheat
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Teaching Idea 7E Engage, Explore
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• Pulses: green gram, lentils and black gram
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Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing, • Oil seeds: groundnut, mustard, sesame and sunflower
Critical thinking • Fruits: apples, oranges and mangoes
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• Vegetables: potatoes, onions, spinach and cabbage

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Ask students why food is essential. As Different crops require different climatic conditions
Talk about food availability and its
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such as temperature, humidity and rainfall for their

production, especially in relation to a growth. So, different crops are grown in different
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Fig. 1.1 Food items from crops
large population. seasons. Based on the season when crops are grown,
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India has two types of crops—kharif crops and rabi crops.

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Kharif crops: These crops grow during the rainy season. They are sown at the start of
Section Review 1 7E Evaluate
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the rainy season during June–July and are harvested by the end of the rainy season during
September–October. Kharif crops thrive in hot, humid, and wet conditions as these are
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favourable conditions for their growth. Some examples of kharif crops are paddy (rice), maize,
thinking, Problem-solving groundnut, cotton and jute. Watermelon, mango, spinach, and pumpkin are some fruits and
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This section helps in evaluating if vegetables which are kharif crops.

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students have understood the concepts Rabi crops: These crops grow during the winter season. They are sown at the start of the winter
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taught so far. Let students complete the

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season during October–November and are harvested at the end of the winter season during
exercise on their own in class. Then, March–April. Rabi crops thrive in cold and dry conditions as these are favourable conditions for
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discuss the answers so that students their growth. Some examples of rabi crops are wheat, barley, mustard and pea. Guava, oranges,
ge
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cauliflower, carrot, radish and turnip are some fruits and vegetables which are rabi crops.
can verify their responses. If students
21st
have doubts, revisit the respective
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Section Review 1 Century Critical thinking

Skills
section to clarify concepts.
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To classify the major crops based on the time they are sown in the field and to explain the
months in which kharif and rabi crop are cultivated.
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Concept Building Field A gets plenty of rainfall, has high-humidity condition and high temperature during the
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rainy season. Field B gets scanty rainfall, has dry conditions and low temperature during the
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7E Explain, Elaborate winter season.

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1. What crops should the farmer sow in Field A and Field B? (Wheat / Maize)
Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing 2. When should he/she sow the crops in Field A and Field B? (October / July)
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2 3. When could the crops be ready to be harvested in Field A and Field B? (April / September)
What is a crop? What are the types
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of crops?
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Explain the meaning of crops with the help of some examples, like cereals, pulses, oil seeds, fruits and vegetables.
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Ask students to classify their favourite items (those sourced from plants) as different crops. Explain that different kinds of
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crops are grown in different seasons.

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Discuss the two types of crops—kharif crops and rabi crops. Explain the differences between the two types with the help of
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the following table.

g
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Crop Season Sowing Harvesting Favourable Examples

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weather conditions
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Kharif Rainy June–July September– Hot, humid and wet Rice, Maize, Groundnut, Cotton, Jute,
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October Watermelon, Mango, Spinach, Pumpkin

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Rabi Winter October– March–April Cold and dry Wheat, Barley, Mustard, Pea, Guava, Oranges,
November Cauliflower, Carrot, Radish, Turnip
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What are the steps involved in agricultural practices? ANM • Analysing
s
The science of cultivation of food crops on a large scale is called agriculture. To have a • Observing
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good yield, farmers need to provide right conditions for the healthy growth of crops. The
series of activities performed by farmers, in a particular sequence, over a period of time are
• Exploring
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known as agricultural practices.
Life Skills
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The steps involved in agricultural practices are: preparation of soil, selection and sowing of
seeds, improving soil fertility, irrigation, crop protection, harvesting, and storage.
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What is soil preparation?
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• Self-awareness
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The preparation of soil is the first step before growing a crop. Soil preparation involves
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ploughing or tilling and levelling. If the soil is not rich in nutrients, farmers add some nutrients
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to the soil while ploughing. Language Check 7E Engage, Elicit
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Ploughing or tilling: The process of loosening and turning the soil is known as ploughing or
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tilling. This is an important step in crop production as it helps in the following:
thinking
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1. It allows the plant roots to penetrate deeper into the

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soil so that the growing plants are held more firmly As Language Check Integrated
Pedagogy
English Ask students to use a dictionary and find
out the meaning of the terms ‘ploughing’
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to the ground. Find out what the

words ‘tilling’ and ‘ploughing’ and ‘tilling’. Ask them to take the help of
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2. It helps create air spaces in the soil that allow the
mean in the English language.
their Hindi teacher to find out the Hindi
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roots of plants to breathe easily.

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What is ‘tilling’ called in Hindi?

equivalents of these terms.
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3. It brings up the nutrient-rich soil to the top so that

plants can use these nutrients to grow.
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4. It also uproots and helps in the removal of undesirable plants called weeds.
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Implements used in ploughing or tilling: Since the soil is hard and needs to be loosened,
farmers use a variety of tools or implements.
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1. A small manual implement called the hoe (Fig. 1.2) is used to plough or till the soil by
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breaking and loosening the soil.

t
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2. Soil is also ploughed with the help of a tool called plough. A plough can be made of wood
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(Fig. 1.3) or iron. Ploughs are drawn either by bullocks or other animals like horses. Concept Building
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3. These days, tractor-driven iron cultivators (Fig. 1.4) are increasingly being used to plough fields. 7E Engage, Explain, Elaborate
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Hoe is generally used in smaller fields, while ploughs and cultivators are used in larger fields.
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thinking, Social and cultural skills

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What are the steps involved in

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agricultural practices?
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Explain that growing of crops involves

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Fig. 1.2 Hoe Fig. 1.3 Plough Fig. 1.4 Cultivator a number of different activities done
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in a particular sequence. Draw the
following flow chart on the board to
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explain these steps.

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Selection
Preparation Improving Crop
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and sowing
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Irrigation Harvesting Storage

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of soil soil fertility protection

of seed
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What is soil preparation?

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Explain what soil preparation means and why soil needs to be ploughed. Talk about the implements used in the ploughing
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of soil. Show students the pictures of hoe, plough and cultivator.

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Discuss why earthworms are considered natural ploughs and friends of farmers.
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Organisms such as earthworms are ‘natural ploughs’ because the burrowing action of these
• Analysing
organisms helps in loosening and turning the soil. Earthworms also help in the decay of dead plants
s
• Observing and animals found in the soil. This process leads to the formation of a substance called humus,
es
• Exploring which is rich in nutrients for plants. No wonder, earthworms are known as friends of farmers.
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Levelling: After ploughing is over, big lumps of soil called crumbs may remain in the soil. The
crumbs need to be crushed to level the soil. This process is known as levelling.
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Life Skills
Levelling not only ensures that the crumbs of
•
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Critical thinking soil are crushed but also prevents soil erosion
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as it ensures that the ploughed soil is not
• Self-awareness
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blown away by wind or drained off by water.
en
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• Communication
Implements used in levelling: Levelling is
U
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done with levellers which are wooden or
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metal planks that crush the crumbs and level
ss
Test It Yourself! 7E Engage, Explore
the ground. The soil leveller can be pulled by
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical bullocks (as shown in Fig. 1.5) or by tractors.
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thinking, Problem-solving As After ploughing and levelling, the soil is now Fig. 1.5 Leveller
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ready for the seeds to be sown.

This section helps students understand
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how good and bad seeds are separated What is selection and sowing of seed?
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before seeds are sowed. The process of planting seeds in the soil is called sowing. To get high-yielding crops, the
s
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selection of seeds is very important. Healthy and good-quality seeds should be selected, as
Students can soak a few seeds in a diseased and low-quality seeds reduce crop yield. Once the seeds are selected, they can be sown.
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container in class and discuss the Care taken while sowing seeds: The following care must be taken while sowing seeds.
observations the next day.
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1. Seeds must be sown in soil that is moist and airy. They Test It Yourself! 7E Explore
should not be sown in dry soil or in soil flooded with water. If you take some seeds in
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a vessel and pour water

2. Seeds must be sown at an appropriate distance from
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over them, the good

Concept Building each other. If they are sown too close, it will lead to seeds settle down and
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overcrowding of plants. The growing plants will then not

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7E Elicit, Explain, Elaborate bad seeds float up!

get enough water, sunlight and nutrients. If sown too far,
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Thought there will be wastage of cultivable soil.

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ss
provoking, Social and cultural skills 3. Seeds must be sown at the proper depth in the soil. If sown too deep in the soil, they may not
be able to germinate properly. If sown or scattered on the top of the soil, they may be eaten up
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id
Show students a video of levelling. by birds or fly away in the wind.

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Discuss the benefits of levelling and

As
Sowing of seeds can be done either manually by broadcasting, or by using implements such as
the implements used for levelling.
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the seed drill.

&
Broadcasting: The manual sowing of seeds is called broadcasting. This is one of the oldest
What is selection and sowing
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methods of sowing seeds. This process involves scattering or sprinkling seeds on the soil using
s
of seed?
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hands as shown in Fig. 1.6. However, seeds sown in this manner are distributed unevenly and
may not ensure that all seeds are sown at the correct depth.
Explain the importance of selecting
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4
good seeds before sowing. Describe
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how good seeds are chosen.

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Draw a table with the following heads on the board to explain this stage of agricultural process.
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Care taken while sowing seeds Broadcasting Implements used in sowing

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Show them the videos of traditional seed drill and modern seed drill.
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Implements used in sowing: Seed drill is an implement used for sowing seeds. The advantages • Analysing
of using a seed drill are that seeds sown are distributed evenly and placed at the correct depth
s
• Observing
es
in the soil. This saves both time and effort. A traditional seed drill used for sowing seeds has a
funnel-shaped opening leading to two or three pipes having sharp ends. The seeds are dropped • Exploring
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into the funnel and passed through the pipes into the soil. The sharp ends create furrows into
which the seeds fall. A seed drill is generally driven by bullocks. These days, seed drills are also
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driven by tractors as shown in Fig. 1.7. Life Skills
rs Do You Know? 7E Extend
For certain crops like
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paddy (rice), farmers do • Self-awareness
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not sow seeds directly
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into the prepared field. • Communication

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The seeds are first sown
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in a small area of land and
Do You Know?
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allowed to grow into tiny
plants or seedlings. The
7E Extend, Engage, Explore
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Fig. 1.6 Broadcasting Fig. 1.7 Tractor-driven seed drill
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healthy seedlings are then

picked out and transferred
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As
After the seeds have been sown, it is important to ensure that the to the prepared field. The Skills instilled: Information literacy,
process of transferring
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soil conditions are suitable for the growth of plants. One of the Global awareness
the seedlings from the
ways to do this is by improving the fertility of the soil.
&
smaller area of land to the Talk about the amazing process of
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How can soil fertility be improved? prepared field is called

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transplantation. transplantation of rice. Ask students

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The more fertile the soil, the better will be the yield. Substances to research about more plants
that increase or improve the fertility of soil are called fertilisers. which require similar process of
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Fertilisers contain nutrients which plants need to grow. Fertilisers Look It Up! 7E Elicit
can be natural or human-made.
transplantation.
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Search online for

Natural fertiliser: Manure is a natural fertiliser. It is formed by answers and discuss
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the breakdown or decomposition of plant and animal remains, in class. Look It Up! 7E Explore, Extend
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and waste material. Manure supplies nutrients in small quantities, What is green manure?
How is it useful? Skills instilled: Critical thinking,
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and organic matter such as humus in large quantities. Humus in
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manure increases the soil fertility as it not only provides nutrients Information literacy, Environmental
literacy
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but also helps in aerating the soil. Since manure is natural, it does not cause land pollution.
m
However, manure does not contain all the different types of required nutrients. So, farmers
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Ask students if they know about green

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need to rely on human-made fertilisers.

manure and its uses. Discuss how
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id
Human-made fertilisers: These are chemical fertilisers that are manufactured in factories. A this manure is better than chemical
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chemical fertiliser is rich in a particular plant nutrient (such as nitrogen, phosphorus or potassium).
As
fertilisers.
Some examples of fertilisers are urea, ammonium sulphate, superphosphate, potash and NPK
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(N stands for Nitrogen, P for Phosphorus and K for Potassium). Human-made fertilisers have
&
plant nutrients in large quantities and in a concentrated form that is easily absorbed by plants.
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Concept Building
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7E Engage, Explain, Elaborate

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5 Skills instilled: Analysing, Thought

provoking, Social and cultural skills
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How can soil fertility be improved?

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Discuss the need to improve soil fertility. Introduce the concept and type of fertilisers. Explain the differences between
t
en
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natural and human-made fertilisers with the help of the following table.
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Natural fertilisers Human-made fertilisers

e
ss
g
• Formed by the breakdown or decomposition of plant • Manufactured in factory

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id
and animal remains and waste material • Rich in particular nutrients

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• Supply nutrients in small quantities and organic matter • Have plant nutrients in large quantities in
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in large quantity concentrated form

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• Help in aerating the soil • Take less time to improve the fertility of soil
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• Do not cause land pollution • Examples: urea, ammonium sulphate, superphosphate,

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• Do not contain all types of nutrients potash, NPK

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• Example: manure
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Explain the disadvantages of excessive use of human-made fertilisers.

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Explain the concept of crop rotation and how it helps in improving soil fertility without using fertilisers.
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So, human-made fertilisers help in quickly improving the fertility of the soil. However,
• Analysing
excessive use of these chemical fertilisers can lead to the soil losing its natural fertility and can
s
• Observing cause land as well as water pollution.
es
• Exploring Therefore, in order to maintain the fertility of the soil, ideally, chemical fertilisers as well as natural
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fertilisers should be used.
Improving soil fertility without fertilisers: Farmers sometimes leave a field fallow or
ity
Life Skills uncultivated in between two crops. The land is ploughed and tilled but seeds are not sown
• rs
Critical thinking during a growing season. This helps the soil replenish lost nutrients.
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• Self-awareness Crop rotation is the practice of planting different types of crops sequentially on the same plot of land
t
to improve soil fertility. When the maize or the wheat crop is grown in the field, it takes away a lot
en
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• Communication of nitrogen from the soil leaving the soil nitrogen deficient. When a groundnut crop is cultivated
U
m
on the same field, the nitrogen-fixing bacteria present in the root nodules of the groundnut plants
enrich the soil with nitrogen compounds and increase its fertility. As a result, nutrients in soil get
ge
Concept Building (pages 6–7)
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replenished over time. Now, the next step is to irrigate the field.
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id
What is irrigation?
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Thought As The watering of fields by artificial means to help plants grow is referred to as irrigation. The time and
frequency of irrigation depends on the type of crop, soil and season. Water for irrigation is generally
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provoking, Social and cultural skills

obtained from rivers, lakes, reservoirs, wells, canals, and tube wells. Water from these different water
&
What is irrigation? sources needs to be diverted to farms or fields. For this, different types of methods are used. In
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India, we see two main types of irrigation systems.

es
Explain what irrigation means Traditional irrigation systems: In traditional methods, water is lifted up by different methods
and how it helps in crop growth.
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from the well, tube well, canal or other water sources to deliver it to the fields. Human or animal
Show them videos of traditional labour is used in these methods. Some traditional methods of irrigation are moat (pulley-system),
irrigation systems mentioned in the
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chain pump, dhekli and rahat (water wheel). In some places, pumps driven by biogas, diesel, or
textbook. Discuss the advantages and electricity are also used to pump water to fields.
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disadvantages of traditional irrigation The moat system (Fig. 1.8) is also called the pulley
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Pulley
systems by making a table on the system. Here, water from a well is pulled using
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board with the following heads.
en
pulleys and sent to fields through water channels.

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Advantages of traditional Well

irrigation system
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ss
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Disadvantages of traditional
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irrigation system Buckets/Disks Fig. 1.8 Moat

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Tubes
The chain pump (Fig. 1.9) consists of two
&
Chain
wheels connected by chains. Buckets are
'C
Water source connected to the chain. As the wheels move,

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Fig. 1.9 Chain pump to small channels leading to fields.
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Concept Building (page 7) 7E Engage, Explain, Elaborate

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Introduce to the concept of modern irrigation systems. Explain the sprinkler and drip irrigation methods.
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Show videos of both types of methods. If possible, take students to a field to show them the traditional/modern
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Once the field is fertilised and irrigated, it is seen that many • Analysing
Look It Up! 7E Elicit
unwanted plants use these nutrients and water, and grow alongside
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the crops. Cultivated crops are also often damaged by small animals. Search online for answers • Observing
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and discuss in class.
What is crop protection?
• Exploring
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Can we grow plants
For a better yield, crops have to be protected from unwanted without soil?
plants (weeds) and animals.
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Life Skills
Weeds: Unwanted plants that grow alongside useful crops
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are called weeds. Amaranthus (chauli), Chaenopodium • Critical thinking
Real-world Connect!
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7E Extend
(bathua) and Parthenium (Gajar ghass) are some common • Environmental literacy
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Fertigation is a method of
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weeds. The growth of weeds in crop field is harmful
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fertiliser application in which • Social and cultural skills

because they compete with the growing crop plants for
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fertilisers are incorporated
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nutrients, water, space and light. Weeds generally grow within the irrigation water,
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quickly, absorb more nutrients and water, and therefore
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generally, by the drip system. Look It Up!
deprive crop plants of essential inputs. As a result, the
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The process of removing weeds from crop fields is called weeding. The ideal time for weeding is before Skills instilled: Information literacy,
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the weeds have flowered and this has to be done several times, as required. Weeding can be done Global awareness, Technology literacy
manually or by using chemicals called weedicides or herbicides.
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Ask students to find out if plants can
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Manual weeding: This can be done by pulling the weeds out by hand (Fig. 1.14a) or by cutting
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be grown without soil.

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them close to the ground with the help of implements. Ploughing also helps in removing large
number of weeds as this process uproots majority of them. Weeds Tell students that plants can be grown
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which appear during the growth of crop plants are removed without soil by using water culture,
manually by using a trowel (khurpa) as shown in Fig. 1.14b.
sand culture, gravel culture and
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Weedicides: In larger fields, where manual weeding is not adsorbed-nutrient technique. They
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practical, weeds can be controlled by using chemicals. These can know more about them using
chemicals that are used to kill weeds are called weedicides
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the internet.
or herbicides. These chemicals affect the weeds without
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harming the crops. They are diluted with water and sprayed a. Pulling weeds by hand
Real-world Connect!
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over the fields. 2,4-D ethyl ester and Butachlor are some
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examples of weedicides.
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Weedicides are highly poisonous and farmers are asked to

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cover their nose and mouth while manually spraying them.

Sometimes, small aircrafts are also used in large-scale spraying Global awareness, Innovation
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of weedicides. A safer alternative being tried out these days is

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biological control of weeds. Farmers deliberately use insects or Explain that fertigation means using
fertilisers while irrigating. Show
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some other organisms which consume and specifically destroy the b. Trowel (khurpa)
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weed plants. Apart from weeds, protecting crops from pests such as Fig. 1.14 Manual weeding pictures/videos to explain how
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rats and locusts is also very important. fertigation is done.

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What is crop protection?

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Weed Common name

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Emphasise that crops require a lot of care even after sowing, providing Amaranthus Chauli
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fertilisers and irrigating the field. Explain that crops need to be

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Chenopodium Bathua
protected from weeds, pests, etc. Discuss what weeds are. Tell students
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some common names of weeds given in the following table. Parthenium Gajar ghas
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Explain what weeding means. Take students to the school lawn and show how manual weeding is done with a trowel
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(khurpa). Talk about weedicides and the disadvantages of excessive use of weedicides. Explain what biological control of
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weeds means.
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Talk about pests and pesticides. Explain how pests can damage crops and how pesticides control pests.
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• Analysing Pests: Some animals such as rats and insects damage crops. Such animals are called pests.
Most pests can be destroyed by using poisonous chemicals called pesticides. These kill the
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• Observing pests without harming the crops. DDT is an example of a common pesticide.
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• Exploring After all these steps have been carried out, it will take five to six months for most food crops to
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mature and ripen, and be ready to be cut and gathered.
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What is harvesting? Look It Up! 7E Elicit
rs When the crop is ready, the wheat, paddy and corn fields turn Search online for answers and
• Critical thinking golden yellow. This indicates that the crops are mature and discuss in class.
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• Environmental literacy ready to be cut and gathered. The cutting and gathering of crop Name the harvest festivals
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after it is matured is called harvesting. celebrated in various parts of
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• Social and cultural skills
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India. Mark it on a map of India

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In India, harvesting is either done manually or by using and display it in class.
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motorised machines (Fig. 1.15). In small fields, crops are
Look It Up!
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manually harvested by cutting close to the ground, using a cutting tool called the sickle. In
7E Extend, Engage, Explore large fields, crops are harvested by motorised machines called harvesters.
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Skills instilled: Information literacy, As

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festivals celebrated in the different

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parts of India and mark them on the

political map of India.
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Let them find out about the customs Manual harvesting using a sickle Harvesting using a harvester
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and food which are related to these Fig. 1.15 Harvesting

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festivals. Threshing: After the crop is harvested, the grains are separated from the rest of the plant.
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The process of separating the grain from the crop plant is called threshing. This is carried out
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manually (Fig. 1.16) or by making oxen or buffaloes trample over the cut crop or sometimes
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with the help of a machine called thresher. These days, a machine called combine is used for
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both harvesting and threshing (Fig. 1.17).

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Fig. 1.16 Manual threshing Fig. 1.17 Harvesting and threshing

using combine
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What is harvesting?
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Explain what crop harvesting means. Discuss the differences between manual and machine harvesting.
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• Analysing
Real-world Connect! 7E Extend
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• Observing
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A combine cuts the crop, threshes it and separates the chaff from grain all in one go! However,
this leaves behind stubs of crop plants in the field. To clear the field, these stubs are sometimes • Exploring
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burnt by farmers. This causes air pollution, severely affecting air quality. This is especially seen in
North India in the months of September and October.
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Life Skills
Winnowing: After threshing, grains are separated from its outer
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covering called chaff. The process of removing seeds from the chaff is
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known as winnowing. This can be done manually with the help of • Environmental literacy
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wind (Fig. 1.18) or even by using a winnowing machine. Winnowing • Social and cultural skills
by wind involves the gentle dropping of the grain and chaff mixture
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from a height. The grains being heavier fall vertically down, while the
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chaff being lighter gets blown away by the wind and falls at a distance. Real-world Connect!
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The heap of grains separated from the chaff can then be packed 7E Extend, Engage, Explore
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and stored.
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How are grains stored?

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Crops are generally harvested once a year, but they are required for
Fig. 1.18 Winnowing Global awareness, Innovation
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consumption throughout the year. To make them available throughout Ask students if they have heard about
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the year, they must be stored properly. They must be pollution in parts of North India
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kept safe from spoilage due to moisture and protected

Test It Yourself! Funway learning because of stubble burning. Discuss
from insects and rats. The grains are generally dried in
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the Sun to remove as much moisture as possible. They Place dried Neem leaves in the consequences of stubble burning.
are then weighed and packed in bags and stored in containers of rice and dal at home Ask students to find out more about
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to keep small insects away. this topic.

godowns. In godowns (Fig. 1.19), the bags are regularly
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disinfected and pesticides are used to kill insects and

rats. Storing in bags, though not ideal, allows for easy transportation from one place to the other.
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When grains have to be stored in very large quantities for a long time, they are stored in large
Test It Yourself!
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structures known as granaries and silos (Fig. 1.20). 7E Explore, Engage, Extend
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing,

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neem leaves in rice and dal containers

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keep small insects away. Elaborate that

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dried neem leaves are used to store

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woollens during summer.

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Fig. 1.19 Packed bags of grains in a godown Fig. 1.20 Silos

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Winnowing
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Explain the process of separation of grains from the chaff. Discuss the science involved in winnowing.
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How are grains stored?

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Explain the purpose behind building godowns, granaries and silos.

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• Analysing Section Review 2 7E Evaluate INT
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• Observing To sequence the tasks involved in cultivating crops and to list the major steps of
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agricultural practices.
• Exploring
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1. The major steps of agricultural practices are given below.
1. Storage 2. Crop protection 3. Preparation of soil 4. Harvesting
Life Skills
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5. Improving soil fertility 6. Irrigation 7. Selection and sowing of seeds
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(a) 2, 3, 5, 1, 7, 6, 4 (b) 5, 6, 7, 3, 2, 1, 4
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• Self-awareness (c) 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 (d) 3, 7, 6, 2, 6, 4, 1
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• Communication To distinguish between manure and fertilisers and to identify ways in which nutrients in soil
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is replenished.
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2. Complete the given table.
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Manure Fertiliser
Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical It is a substance. It is a substance.
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thinking, Problem-solving It is formed by the decomposition of It is formed in by using chemicals.

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This section helps in evaluating if

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It adds organic matter or to the soil. It does not add organic matter or to
students have understood the concepts the soil.
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It supplies quantities of nutrients to It supplies quantities of nutrients to

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the soil. the soil.

exercise on their own in class. Then,
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discuss the answers so that students It does not cause or water pollution. In excess, it causes soil and water .
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section to clarify concepts. What are the various kinds of food we get from animal sources? IVID
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We get food not only from plants, but also from animals. Animals provide us different
kinds of food and food products. Some animals give us milk, some give us meat and some
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give us eggs. Food and food products obtained from animals are rich in proteins, fats,
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minerals and vitamins. Some of the types of food we obtain from animals are given below.
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1. We obtain milk from animals such as cow, buffalo and goat. Such animals are called
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milk-yielding animals or milch animals. Milk is used to prepare a variety of products

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such as butter, ghee, curd, and cheese.

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2. We obtain meat from animals such as goat, sheep, and fish. Such animals are called
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meat-yielding animals. Animals such as chicken, duck and turkey are reared for meat as
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well as eggs. Such animals are called meat-and-egg-yielding animals. The rearing of fishes
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on a large scale is known as pisciculture.

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3. We obtain honey from honeybees. The rearing of honeybees on a large scale is known
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as apiculture.
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What are the various kinds of food we get from animal sources?
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After discussing the agricultural practices to get food from plants, discuss the food we get from animal sources. Ask
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students to name food items we get from animals. Then make a table with the following heads naming the animal sources
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of food on the board. Explain each source in detail.

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Milk-yielding animals Meat-yielding

Pisciculture Apiculture Animal husbandry
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Animals reared at home or in farms have to be provided with proper food, shelter and care.
• Analysing
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Raising animals on a large scale for meat, fibre, milk, or other products, including their day-to-day
• Observing
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care is called animal husbandry. It is also called livestock farming. This is the practice
employed to increase the production of animal products, and includes feeding, breeding, and • Exploring
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disease control of animals.
Section Review 3 Life Skills
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7E Evaluate
To identify various food items based on their sources and to define animal husbandry.
Anna wants to rear animals on a large scale so that she can produce good-quality meat, milk and
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eggs to sell in large markets. • Analysing
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How can these food items be produced on a large scale? Tick the correct option. • Problem-solving
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(a) Using good animal husbandry practices (b) Providing food to the animals SVID
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(c) Keeping animals in godowns or silos (d) Providing water to the animals
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Keywords Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
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Agriculture: The science of cultivation of food Broadcasting: The manual sowing of seeds thinking, Problem-solving
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crops on a large scale As

Irrigation: The watering of fields by artificial
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Kharif crop: Crops sown in June and harvested means to help plants grow
in October students have understood the concepts
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Harvesting: The cutting and gathering of crop
Rabi crop: Crops sown in November and after it is mature taught so far. Let students complete the
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harvested in April Animal husbandry: Raising animals on a large exercise on their own in class. Then,
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Ploughing: The process of loosening or turning scale for meat, fibre, milk, or other products,
the soil including their day-to-day care discuss the answers so that students
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Scientific section to clarify concepts.

Experiential Learning Proficiency Procedural fluency
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Compost your kitchen waste!

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1. Collect kitchen waste and scraps such as vegetable and fruit peels, used tea leaves, and eggshells.
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2. In a small empty flower pot with a few drainage holes, place a thick layer of soil.
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3. Place the kitchen waste (green layer) on this layer. Place dried leaves, bits of newspapers, used
paper napkins or used kitchen rolls (brown layer) over this.
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4. Top it with a thin layer of soil. Sprinkle each layer with some water.
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5. Repeat till your pot is 3/4th full.

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6. Cover tightly, place a plate under the pot, and keep the pot in the Sun for 7 to 10 days. Mix it
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once in a few days, if possible.

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The black soil like material that you will now find in the pot is compost, a kind of manure. Use it to
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enrich the soil in which your houseplants grow.

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Note: Do not place bones or dairy products as they will rot and slow down the process
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of composting.
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Experiential Learning 7E Explore, Extend, Engage

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Initiative and self-direction, Observation, Social and cultural skills, Environmental literacy
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Discuss what compost is and how it is an excellent source of nutrients for plants. Discuss other benefits of making compost
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at home, such as using kitchen waste effectively. Ask students to make compost at home using the steps given. They can
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also first watch videos on compost-making on the internet.

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Puzzle Over (page 14) 7E Evaluate

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking, Adaptive reasoning

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Discuss the uses of plough and hoe in tilling a field and how they affect the productivity of soil.
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• Analysing 2. Research/Activity Century Initiative and self-direction
Skills
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• Observing
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Brainstorming with classmates—Production and development of food produce
• Exploring Generate a list of fruits and vegetables found in India. Make groups of classmates and each group
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select one fruit or vegetable that will be the main character or theme of your story. Conduct a
research and write the story about the production and development of a specific food produce
you chose.
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Questions to be answered could be:
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Critical thinking • From where did I originate? • What do I look like growing on the plant?
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• Self-awareness • What is my common name and what • How am I harvested?
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is my biological name?
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• Problem-solving • How am I transported?

• To what other plants am I related?
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• What health benefits do I offer?
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• How am I planted? • What potential problems could I cause, if any?
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Project Work (page 14) 7E Extend
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• Where am I grown and why? • How am I stored?
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Ask students to make a working model As 3. Discuss and Answer Life

Skills Critical thinking
of the drip irrigation method using a
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Are traditional agricultural practices in India better than modern methods? Yes/No! Discuss it
plastic pipe. in the class.
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Discuss how drip irrigation is better 4. Connect to Life Skills Communication

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than sprinkler irrigation. In India, a large amount of grains are destroyed in storage, due to various reasons. Conduct a
research and create a presentation on ‘The reality of food grain storage in India’.
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Research/Activity 7E Elaborate Life

Self¯check Skills Self-awareness
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Skills instilled: Information literacy, I can:

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Observing, Analysing differentiate between kharif and rabi crops and give at least two examples of each.
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This is a fun activity that will also help list the major steps in agricultural practices as well as discuss each in brief.
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discuss the various implements and their usefulness in agricultural practices.

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students reinforce their learning about

list a few food sources from animals.
agricultural processes as well as increase
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appreciate the importance of knowing how to grow plants and how to rear animals.
their general awareness. Explain what
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Refer to the Teacher’s book for additional activities to reinforce concepts.
Discuss and Answer

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1. To show that loosening the soil before sowing helps 3. To show that plants require the right amount of water
growth of seeds. to grow well.
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7E Elicit, Extend, Elaborate

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2. To show the effect of manure and chemical fertilisers

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on the growth of plants.

Skills instilled: Innovation, Observing,
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Analysing 15
Ask students to look up for more

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information on traditional and

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modern agricultural practices and Connect to Life 7E Elicit, Extend, Elaborate

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compare the two. They can also have a

Skills instilled: Innovation, Observing, Analysing
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debate on the topic.

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Discuss the importance of proper storage facilities for harvested crops. Ask
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what would happen if such facilities were not there. Students can give a
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presentation on the topic ‘The reality of food grain storage in India’.

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Teacher’s Support
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Access additional Teacher’s Support resources that create energised textbooks and enable
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learning/teaching more proficient and technology-driven through the given QR code:

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• Lesson-wise PPT facilitates hybrid teaching model.

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SUPERVISED LAB WORK
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1. Aim: To show that loosening the soil before sowing helps the growth of seeds.
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Materials required: Two metal trays (similar to empty dissection trays), enough soil to half fill the trays,
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a few Rajma seeds, a khurpa to dig the soil and a watering can with water.
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What to do:
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1. Mark the trays as A and B. Half fill both metal trays with soil.
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2. Push down the soil in Tray A as compact as one can. Leave it for 2-3 days to dry out so that the
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surface is hard and dry.

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3. Take a few Rajma seeds and place them by pushing them in the hard soil in Tray A.
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4. In Tray B, using a khurpa, loosen and turn the soil. Then, place a few Rajma seeds into the soil.
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5. Using a watering can sprinkle water to moisten the soil in both trays.
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6. Place the trays in a sunlit area for a week to 10 days or till some of the seeds germinate. Water the
soil, as required, during this time.
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Observation: The seeds in Tray A should show germination before Tray B. However, it is best to leave the
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two trays for another week and observe how the seeds grow. Seedlings in Tray B will grow better than in
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Tray A.
Conclusion: Loosening the soil before sowing seeds helps the roots grow well.
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This is an important step in crop production as it helps in the following:

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(a) It allows the plant roots to penetrate deeper into the soil so that the growing plants are held more
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firmly to the ground.

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(b) It helps create air spaces in the soil that allow the roots of plants to breathe easily.
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(c) It brings up the nutrient-rich soil to the top so that plants can use these nutrients to grow.
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Note: For best results, try this on a patch of land in the school garden, where a small portion of land can
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be loosened and the other portion nearby without loosening the soil.
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2. Aim: To show the effect of manure and chemical fertilisers on the growth of plants.
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Materials required: Three small earthen pots marked A, B and C, enough soil to fill the three pots,15 to
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20 germinated seeds of gram, and a watering can with water

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What to do:
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1. Fill plain soil in pot A, soil mixed with manure (cow dung or compost) in pot B and soil mixed with
urea in pot C.
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2. Moisten the soil and place five to six germinated seeds in each pot.
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3. Water them a little. Place the pots with seedlings in an open sunlit area. Note the growth of the
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seedlings after a week.

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Observation: Growth of seedlings in pot A remains slow and poor; growth of seedlings to form young
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plants in pot B is normal; and growth of seedlings in pot C is fast, forming fully grown plants.
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Conclusion: Use of fertilisers helps better growth of plants as compared to manure. This is because
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fertilisers have plant nutrients in large quantities and in a concentrated form that is easily absorbed by
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plants. Growth in plants without adding manure or fertiliser is slow.

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3. Aim: To show that plants require the right amount of water to grow well.
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Materials required: Three flowerpots marked A, B and C with identical plants (same size and age) and a
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watering can with water.
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What to do:
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1. Place all three pots in a sunlit area.
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2. Water pot A with normal amount of water every day, pot B with excess water every day and pot C
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with just a sprinkling of water once in two to three days. Note the growth of the plants after a week.
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Observation: Growth in pot A would be optimum and the plants in pot B and C would either stay
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stunted or wilted.
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Conclusion: Plants require optimum water. Excess water can cause water-logging and destroy the roots,
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while less water will hamper the growth of the plant.
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Worksheet 1
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1. Answer in one word.
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(a) Crops sown in June and harvested in October
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(b) Crops sown in November and harvested in April
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(c) The process of loosening of soil
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(d) The manual sowing of seeds
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(e) The watering of fields by artificial means to help plants grow
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(f) The cutting and gathering of crops after they mature

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(g) The rearing of honeybees on a large scale As

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(h) Animals from whom milk is obtained

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2. Match the following.

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Column I Column II
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(a) Winnowing i. Mustard

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(b) Threshing ii. The process of removing seeds from the chaff
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(c) Parthenium iii. The process of separating the grain from the crop
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(d) Kharif crop iv. DDT

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(e) Weedicide v. Chauli

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(f) Pesticide vi. Gajar ghass

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(g) Amaranthus vii. 2, 4-D

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(h) Rabi crop viii. Groundnut

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3. Answer the following questions.

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(a) What is a crop?

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(b) Define agricultural practices and name the steps involved.

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(c) What are the benefits of ploughing?

(d) What are natural fertilisers? Give one example.
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(e) Give three examples of human-made fertilisers.

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(f) Explain dhekli system of irrigation.

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(g) What are weeds? Give two examples.

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(Skills: Technology literacy, Information literacy, Thought provoking, Multiple intelligence)

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Plan a trip to a field near your city. Discuss the different agricultural processes and implements used there with the field owner. Make a
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PowerPoint presentation on the information collected.

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1. Choose the correct answer.
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(a) Complete the given analogy.
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Ploughing : Cultivator :: Sowing : ?
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i. Hoe ii. Seed drill iii. Plough iv. Leveller

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(b) Which of the following is the most efficient method of irrigation with the least wastage of water?
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i. Dhekli ii. Drip iii. Rahat iv. Moat
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(c) A farmer grows plant X in his field. After a few days, he finds another plant Y growing in the field by itself. Plant Y ..........................
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ii. is a weed iii. should also be watered iv. should be cut while harvesting
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(d) Which of these is not a human-made fertiliser?

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i. Potash ii. NPK iii. Manure iv. Urea
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(e) Which of these is not used in the traditional irrigation system?

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i. Rahat ii. Moat iii. Chain pump iv. Sprinkler

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(f) The rearing of fish on a large scale is known as ..........................

i. apiculture ii. pisciculture iii. sericulture iv. fish culture
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(g) Manure supplies ...........................

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i. nutrients in small quantity ii. humus in small quantity iii. a particular nutrient iv. nitrogen
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(h) Identify X in the given order of agricultural practices.

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Preparation of soil Selection and sowing of seeds X Irrigation

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i. Storage ii. Harvesting iii. Improving soil fertility iv. Crop protection
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(a) Chain pump i. Crop protection

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(b) Sprinkler ii. Crop storage

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(c) Sickle iii. Increases soil fertility

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(d) Hoe iv. Harvesting

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(e) Seed drill v. Traditional irrigation

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(f) Weedicides vi. Modern irrigation

(g) Silos vii. Tilling
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(h) Crop rotation viii. Sowing

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(a) Why is manure added to soil?

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(b) How does a drip irrigation system work?

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(c) What is a chemical weedicide? Give an example.

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(d) How is soil prepared for crop production? What agricultural implements are used for this process?
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(e) Give five differences between natural and human-made fertilisers.

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(f) What is a seed drill? Write the advantages of using a seed drill.
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(g) Describe traditional methods of irrigation.

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4. Subject Enrichment
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(Skills: Critical thinking, Self-awareness)

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What will happen if we use chemical fertilisers continuously? Can chemical fertilisers cause any disease/s? If yes, name the disease/s.
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Unit 1 | Food
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MICROORGANISMS
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21st Century Skills
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Unit 1 | Food
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• Observing
2 MICROORGANISMS
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• Analysing
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• Exploring
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Life Skills
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CHAPTER PREVIEW As
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• Microorganisms and their

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types • Communication
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• Useful microorganisms
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• Harmful microorganisms
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• Food preservation Warm-up 7E Engage, Explore

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Ask students if they have seen

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rotten fruits, bread, cheese or any

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Wha other food item. Ask them how
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you will learn

rotten food items look like.
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• Differentiate between types

of microorganisms Lead the discussion to the concept
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• Identify some useful and of microorganisms. Stress that

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harmful microorganisms
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• List various methods of

some microorganisms are harmful
to us but some are useful to us.
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preserving food
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As
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Why
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it is important to learn Activity Corner

21st
WARM-UP 7E Explain, Elaborate, Extend
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Century Thought provoking

The world around us is filled with Skills
organisms that we cannot see What is common to these images of rotting fruit
with our naked eyes—the world of and cheese? Skills instilled: Observing,
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microorganisms.
The action of microorganisms! Analysing, Critical thinking
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Therefore, it is important for us to

know about how these invisible Microorganisms are living organisms that we cannot Name some processes like boiling,
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organisms are beneficial as well as even see!

roasting, cutting, curdling of milk,
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harmful to us. So, how do we know that they exist and are around us?
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baking of cake, making of cheese

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and vaccination. Then, ask students

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to guess if the processes require the
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action of microorganisms.
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Make a table on the board with the following heads and let students fill it.
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Process Involves microorganisms / Does not involve microorganisms

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21st Century Skills
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Rotting of fruits and formation of cheese are some examples of the action of extremely small
• Analysing
organisms that need special instruments, called microscopes, to be observed.
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• Observing
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ANM
• Technology literacy What are microorganisms?
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A microorganism or microbe is an organism that is too small to be
Life Skills seen with naked eyes. These can be seen with a microscope (Fig. 2.1).
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rs A microscope is an instrument that enlarges images of small objects to
• Critical thinking make them appear large. This is done by using lenses. The microscope
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• Problem-solving you may have seen in your school laboratory is known as the compound
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microscope and it can enlarge the image of an object by 10 to 1000 times
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depending on the lens being used!

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Do You Know? 7E Engage, Elicit Fig. 2.1 Compound
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microscope
Where are microorganisms found?
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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Microorganisms have been around for at least 3 billion years 7E Extend
Do You Know?
Analysing
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and are said to outnumber all visible life forms on planet Earth! For every cell in the
They are found almost everywhere. Some live individually human body, there
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Ask students if our body contains As and some live in groups or colonies. They are found in the are presumed to be
microorganisms. Read out the fact
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approximately 1.3
hottest deserts, coldest polar regions, salty sea water, freshwater
given and let students understand the microbial cells. This means
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streams, hot water springs, volcanic eruptions and even inside we are made of more
quantum of microorganisms in and
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our bodies. microbes than cells!

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around us.
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What are the types of microorganisms?

Microorganisms though large in number, can be placed under a few major types. These are:
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Concept Building 1. Bacteria (singular—bacterium) 2. Protozoa (singular—protozoan)

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7E Explain, Elaborate 3. Algae (singular—alga) 4. Fungi (singular—fungus)

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There is another type of microorganism called viruses (singular—virus) that we will also
Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing learn about.
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What are microorganisms? Bacteria: They are very small, single-celled organisms. They are one of the smallest and most
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primitive organisms on the Earth. They do not have chlorophyll so cannot produce their own
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Ask students what the word ‘micro’

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food. They are generally parasitic, which means that they use other organisms for food and to
means. Then discuss the meaning of live in. They are one of the most abundant organisms, as they are found almost everywhere—in
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the term ‘microorganisms’. soil, in air, on and inside other living organisms, and even on dead plants and animals.
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Microorganisms or microbes are Based on their shape, bacteria are of three main
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types: coccus (spherical shaped), bacillus (rod

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organisms that are too small to be

shaped), and spirilla (spiral shaped), as shown
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seen with the naked eye. These can in Fig. 2.2. Examples of bacteria are E coli,
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be seen with a microscope. Show a Lactobacillus and Rhizobium. Spherical Rod Spiral
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microscope and let students observe a

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Fig. 2.2 Basic shapes of bacteria

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leaf or strand of hair under it. Read out All images of bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungi are representations. These may look different when viewed under microscope.
the information given in the textbook
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about microorganisms. Discuss the 17
types of microorganisms. Explain

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each type in detail in terms of their

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structure and shape, what they contain,

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where they are found, whether they are

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harmful or useful, and so on.

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Bacteria
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1. Very small, single-celled and primitive. 5. Of three types on the basis on shape:
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2. Without chlorophyll, so cannot produce their own food a. coccus (spherical-shaped).

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3. Generally parasitic b. bacillus (rod-shaped)

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4. Found in soil, in air, on and inside other living c. spirilla (spiral-shaped)

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organisms, on dead plants and animals

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Protozoa: They are a group of animal-like, single- Amoeba
Paramoecium • Analysing
celled microorganisms. Like most animals, they
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Euglena
can move from place to place with the help of • Observing
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locomotory organs such as pseudopodia, cilia or • Exploring
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flagella. They are found in fresh-water bodies like
ponds, lakes, reservoirs, salt waterbodies like sea,
Life Skills
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and soil. Examples of protozoa are Amoeba, Euglena
and Paramoecium, shown in Fig. 2.3.
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Algae: They are a group of plant-like organisms.
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Like most plants, they contain the green pigment, • Self-awareness
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Fig. 2.3 Protozoa
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chlorophyll and can produce food by photosynthesis.

They may be single-celled or multi-celled organisms. Algae live mostly in water. They are also found
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Language Check 7E Engage, Elicit
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growing in damp places, in snow and also in hot springs. Examples of algae are Chlamydomonas,
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filamentous algae and Spirogyra, shown in Fig. 2.4. Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
thinking
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Integrated
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English
As Pedagogy Ask students to use a dictionary
and find the meaning of the word
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Language Check
‘locomotion’. Locomotion means
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Find out what the
movement or the ability to move from
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word ‘locomotion’
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means in the English one place to another.

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language.
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Chlamydomonas Filamentous algae Spirogyra
Fig. 2.4 Algae

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Fungi: Fungi are plant-like organisms that do not contain the green pigment chlorophyll.
Unlike plants, they do not produce their own food. Instead, they either grow on dead organic
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matter as saprophytes or on living organisms as parasites. They may be small and single-celled,
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or large and multi-celled. They grow best in moist, warm and dark places. Examples of fungi
are bread mould, Penicillium, yeast and Agaricus (mushroom), as shown in Fig. 2.5.
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Concept Building
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Fig. 2.5 Fungi

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Explain the characteristics of protozoa,

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algae and fungi through a table like the
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given below.
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Protozoa Algae Fungi

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1. Single-celled microorganisms 1. Plant-like organisms. 1. Plant-like organisms but without

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chlorophyll.
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2. Can move with the help of 2. Contain chlorophyll and can

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locomotory organs produce food by photosynthesis 2. Do not produce their own food.
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3. They are found in freshwater 3. May be single-celled or multi-celled 3. Grow on dead organic matter as
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bodies like ponds, lakes, saprophytes or on living organisms

4. Algae live mostly in water. They are
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saltwater bodies like sea, as parasites.

also found growing in damp places,
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and soil.
in snow and also in hot springs. 4. May be single-celled, large or multi-celled;
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4. Examples: Amoeba, Euglena grow best in moist, warm and dark places.
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5. Examples: Chlamydomonas,
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and Paramecium.
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filamentous algae and Spirogyra. 5. Examples: bread mould, Penicillium,

yeast and Agaricus (mushroom).
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Take students to the biology lab and show them permanent slides of microorganisms so they can relate their structures
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with the given pictures in the book.

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21st Century Skills
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• Analysing Viruses
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Viruses are also microscopic organisms. They are too small to be seen by a compound
• Observing
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microscope. To see viruses, we need an electron microscope, which magnifies image of an
• Exploring object to more than 1,00,000 times.
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Viruses can neither be called living things nor non-living things. They behave like non-living things
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Life Skills most of the time. However, when they find suitable living cells, they are capable of undergoing
reproduction like living things. All viruses are parasitic. Viruses are found as parasites in both plants
•
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Critical thinking and animals.
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• Self-awareness All known viruses cause diseases and are
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harmful to humans, animals and plants.
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• Communication
Disease-causing microorganisms are called
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pathogens. Hence, all viruses are pathogens.
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Section Review 1
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7E Evaluate Examples of viruses are the common cold virus a. Ebola virus b. SARS-CoV-2
causing the common cold, Influenza virus causing
Fig. 2.6 Viruses
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical influenza (Flu), Human Immunodeficiency Virus

thinking, Problem solving
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(HIV) causing Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)
As causing mottled browning of tobacco leaves, Ebola virus (Fig. 2.6a) causing Ebola disease and the
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This section helps in evaluating if recent and deadly Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Corona Virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) (Fig. 2.6b)
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students have understood the concepts causing corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19).
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exercise on their own in class. Then, Section Review 1 7E Evaluate
discuss the answers so that students

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To recall four major categories of microorganisms.

can verify their responses. If students 1. Complete the given table.
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Bacteria Protozoa Algae Fungi

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Single-celled Single-celled or or
celled celled
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An example is An example is An example is An example is

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To establish that viruses reproduce only in the host body.

2. The Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) infects the tobacco plant and causes a viral disease in which
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Concept Building the leaves become mottled and brown. How do tobacco plant cells help the virus?
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(a) Allow the virus to breathe (b) Help the virus to reproduce
(c) Keep the virus safe from other viruses (d) Help the virus from heat and cold
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As

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thinking How are microorganisms useful?

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Viruses Many bacteria, protozoa, algae and fungi are useful in the food industry, in medicine,
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in cleaning the environment and in agricultural processes.

Discuss what a virus is—if we can see a
virus with the naked eye and if a virus
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19
is living or non-living. Read out the
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characteristics of a virus from the book.

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1. Viruses can be seen through an electron microscope.

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2. Viruses are neither living nor non-living.

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3. All viruses are parasitic. They are found in both plants and animals.
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4. All viruses are pathogens. They are harmful to humans, animals and plants.
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5. Examples of diseases spread through viruses: flu, HIV, AIDS, TMV, Ebola virus causing Ebola disease and the recent and
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deadly Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Corona Virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), causing corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19).
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How are microorganisms useful?

As
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Discuss the importance of certain bacteria, protozoa, algae and fungi in the food industry, in medicine, in cleaning the
&
environment and in agricultural processes.

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How do microorganisms help in the • Analysing
food industry? Real-world Connect! 7E Extend
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• Observing
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Microorganisms are used in making various food The bacterium Escherichia coli
products such as curd, cheese, bread, vinegar and (E.coli) found in human intestine • Exploring
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synthesises vitamin B12.
alcohol.
Lactobacillus acidophilus (a
Making curd and cheese: A bacterium, called
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bacterium) in the human intestine
helps in the digestion of food.
Life Skills
Lactobacillus, helps in converting milk to curd. In
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our homes, curd is made by adding a little bit of • Critical thinking
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already prepared curd to lukewarm milk. When
Look It Up! 7E Elicit • Self-awareness
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this mixture is left in a warm place for a few
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hours, we see that the liquid milk is converted Search online for answers and discuss • Problem-solving
in class.
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into the semi-solid curd. In factories, large-scale
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curd is prepared by directly adding Lactobacillus How are Chlorella and Spirulina
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Real-world Connect!
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beneficial to humans?
bacteria to milk. The production of cottage cheese
(paneer) and processed cheese also involves the 7E Engage, Elicit
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use of bacteria like Lactobacillus and Streptococcus.

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As Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical

Making bread: A fungus, called yeast, helps in making
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soft and spongy bread (Fig. 2.7). Yeast is added to a

thinking
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mixture of flour, salt, sugar, and water to form a dough. Tell the students that there are some
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When kept covered in a warm place for a few hours, the

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bacteria which are useful to human

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yeast in the dough converts sugar to alcohol and carbon

dioxide. As more and more carbon dioxide is produced,
Fig. 2.7 Bread beings. Then give them examples like
bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli)
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the bubbles of carbon dioxide gas fill the dough and increase its volume. When this risen
dough is baked, the high temperature destroys the yeast and the resulting bread is light, soft found in human intestine which
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and spongy. The process by which sugar present in food is converted into alcohol and carbon synthesises vitamin B12. Lactobacillus
dioxide with the help of microorganisms is called fermentation. acidophilus (a bacterium) in the human
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intestine helps in the digestion of food.

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Some examples of fermentation that we see in our homes are the forming of curd, souring
of idli and dosa batter and in the preparation of dhokla and bhatura. In a large-scale food
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industry, examples of fermentation are seen in making commercial cheese, production of 7E Explain, Elaborate
Look It Up!
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alcoholic beverages like beer and wine (involves fermentation of sugar present in barley and
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grapes), and creation of vinegar from acetic acid (by the action of the Acetobacter bacteria). Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
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How do microorganisms help in medicine? thinking

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Look It Up!
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7E Elicit
Some bacteria and fungi are used to produce antibiotics Ask students to find out about
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and vaccines. Search online for answers and Chlorella and Spirulina. Tell them that
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discuss in class.
Chlorella and Spirulina are forms of
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Making antibiotics: Medications that destroy or slow down the What is Louis Pasteur’s
algae that are highly nutritious and
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growth of bacteria are called antibiotics. They are also known contribution, if any, to our
safe to eat for most people. They’re
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as antibacterials, because antibiotics are mostly used to treat understanding of fermentation?

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diseases caused by bacteria. However, some antibiotics are used associated with many health benefits,
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to treat certain fungal infections. Antibiotics cannot treat viral infections, such as cold, flu and including lowered risk factors for heart
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most coughs. disease and improved blood sugar

20
management.
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Look It Up! 7E Explain, Elaborate

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking

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On the basis of their search, tell students that in 1857 Louis Pasteur presented evidence that all fermentation is caused by
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microorganisms. Also, explain to them that specific microorganisms cause specific kinds of fermentation.
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Concept Building 7E Engage, Explore, Explain

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking, Problem-solving

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&
How do microorganisms help in the food industry?

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Discuss that microorganisms are used in making various food products such as curd and cheese. Ask students if they have
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seen curd being set at home. Show videos on how the bacterium Lactobacillus helps in converting milk to curd and how
yeast helps in making bread.
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• Analysing Penicillin (obtained from the fungus Penicillium), streptomycin, and tetracycline (both
obtained from Streptomyces bacteria) are some examples of common antibiotics. These days,
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• Observing several antibiotics are also made synthetically in factories. Penicillin was the first antibiotic
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• Exploring to be discovered. It was discovered by Sir Alexander Fleming in the year 1928 from a green
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mould, Penicillium notatum.
Antibiotics are used to control diseases in humans, animals and plants.
Life Skills
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Making vaccines: A medication that provides protection (immunity) against a specific
• rs
Critical thinking disease is called a vaccine. Getting a vaccine either orally (by swallowing) or by injection
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• Self-awareness is called vaccination. A vaccine is made of either a dead or a weakened disease-causing
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microbe. When a vaccine is introduced in the body of a healthy person, the body produces
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• Problem-solving
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substances called antibodies that fight against these microbes. These antibodies continue
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to remain in the body and protect us from future infections by the same microbe.
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The body is then said to have developed immunity against the disease. Vaccination
Real-world Connect!
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is, therefore, also known as immunisation. In humans, vaccination has helped develop
7E Engage, Elicit
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immunity against diseases such as polio, chickenpox, measles, smallpox and COVID-19.
id
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical As How do microorganisms help in cleaning the environment?
thinking
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We have learnt how to make compost in an

earlier chapter. Compost and manure are in fact Real-world Connect! 7E Extend
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Tell students about smallpox, a deadly formed by the action of microorganisms. Bacteria
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The smallpox vaccine was first discovered

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infectious disease that caused millions and fungi act on the bodies of dead plants and by Edward Jenner in 1798. In 1980, the
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of deaths before it was eradicated. animals, and convert them into simple substances World Health Assembly declared smallpox
Discuss how its vaccine was developed by the process of decomposition. These eradicated (eliminated), and no cases of
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naturally occurring smallpox have happened

by Edward Jenner. Jenner observed substances are then ready to be used by other
since. Samples of smallpox virus have,
plants and animals. Therefore, microorganisms
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that milkmaids who had previously however, been kept for research purposes.
help clean up the environment by decomposing
caught cowpox did not catch smallpox.
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and degrading substances into useful substances. They also provide nutrients to the soil. The
He showed that a similar inoculation removal of dead plants and animals by the action of microbes help keep our planet clean.
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could be used to prevent smallpox in

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How do microorganisms help in agriculture?
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other people.
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As microorganisms decompose organic matter, they form humus, which increases soil fertility.
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Apart from this, in crop rotation, we learnt that if leguminous plants like pea, soya bean, or
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green beans are sown after wheat or paddy, the nitrogen lost can be replaced naturally. This is
because leguminous plants have special kind of bacteria in their roots that help in restoring the
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nitrogen content of the soil.

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As
Nitrogen is found in the air around us. However, this nitrogen cannot be used by living things.
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So, it has to be ‘fixed’, that is combined with other elements before it can be used. This is done
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by a process called nitrogen fixation. The process by which free atmospheric nitrogen is converted
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into nitrogen compounds is called nitrogen fixation. In nature, bacteria such as Rhizobium and
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21
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How do microorganisms help in medicine? (pages 20–21)

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Explain that one major use of microorganisms is in the development of antibiotics and vaccines. Use the information given
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in the book to explain the difference between antibiotics and vaccines. Ask students to find out from their parents the
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names of some antibiotics prescribed to them in the past and the names of vaccines they have been given.
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As
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How do microorganisms help in cleaning the environment?

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Tell students how microorganisms help in cleaning the environment by explaining the following terms:
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1. Compost 2. Decomposing 3. Manure 4. Degrading

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IVID
21st Century Skills
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blue-green algae such as Nostoc have the
• Analysing
ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. As
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these microbes are living organisms, this • Observing
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process is known as biological nitrogen • Exploring
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fixation.
During this process, nitrogen is converted
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into a form that can be used by the plants. Life Skills
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When these plants are eaten by animals,
this converted nitrogen passes on to
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the animals. When plants and animals • Self-awareness
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Denitrification
die, other bacteria living in the soil
bacteria
• Problem-solving
break down the dead bodies and release Nitrogen-fixing
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bacteria
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the nitrogen back into the air, thus,
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Section Review 2
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completing the cycle. This cycling 7E Evaluate
of nitrogen, through the atmosphere, Nitrifying
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soil and living organisms is called

bacteria Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
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nitrogen cycle (Fig. 2.8). Fig. 2.8 Nitrogen cycle

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Microbes help in nitrogen fixation which in turn enriches the soil with nitrogen and increases This section helps in evaluating if
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its fertility. Also, blue-green algae such as Nostoc store in them nitrogen compounds and are students have understood the concepts
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thus sometimes used as bio-fertilisers in agriculture. taught so far. Let students complete the
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es

Section Review 2 7E Evaluate discuss the answers so that students
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To explain the role of antibiotics and vaccinations in order to demonstrate the medicinal uses can verify their responses. If students
of microorganisms. have doubts, revisit the respective
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1. Sania has severe cold the past 3 days. Her mother gave her antibiotics but Sania’s cold has not section to clarify concepts.
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gotten better. What do you think is the likely reason?

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(a) Antibiotics are used to treat viral infections. (b) Antibiotics are vaccines.
(c) Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections. (d) Antibiotics take time to react.
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2. How does vaccination protect us from diseases?

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(a) By killing the disease-causing microbes directly

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(b) By producing suitable antibodies to increase immunity

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(c) By producing suitable antibodies to decrease immunity

(d) By producing more disease-causing microbes
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To explain how microorganisms help in agricultural processes.

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3. How do Rhizobium and blue green increase soil fertility?

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(a) They produce nitrogen gas that is released into the surrounding.
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(b) They decompose remains of plants and animals to produce nitrogen compounds.
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(c) They convert nitrogen gas present in the air into antibiotics.
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(d) They fix atmospheric nitrogen to make nitrogen compounds in the soil.
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How do microorganisms help in agriculture? (pages 21–22)

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Discuss how microorganisms help in agriculture. Explain how humus is formed. Draw a diagram showing nitrogen fixation
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on the board and explain the steps involved. Emphasise the role of microorganisms in decomposition and nitrogen fixation.
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Show a video on nitrogen fixation.

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21st Century Skills
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• Analysing How are microorganisms harmful?
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• Observing Some microorganisms are harmful to us. Microorganisms cause harm in two ways.
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• Exploring 1. Some microorganisms cause diseases in humans, animals and plants.
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2. Some microorganisms cause spoilage of food.
What are disease-causing microorganisms?
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Life Skills
We have learnt that disease-causing microorganisms are called pathogens.
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Critical thinking
Disease-causing microorganisms in humans: Pathogens enter our body through air, water
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• Self-awareness and food. Some enter through direct contact with an infected person, while some enter with
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• Problem-solving the help of carriers such as mosquitoes and houseflies. When pathogens enter our bodies, we
get infected and get a disease. Examples of diseases caused by microorganisms are:
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• Bacteria cause disease such as cholera, typhoid and whooping cough.
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Real-world Connect!
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• Viruses cause disease such as common cold, polio, measles, dengue, AIDS and COVID-19.
7E Engage, Elicit
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• Fungi cause disease such as ringworm and athlete’s foot.

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical As • Protozoa cause disease such as amoebic

dysentery and malaria.
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thinking Real-world Connect! 7E Extend

It is important to remember that:
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Explain that non-living things can Disease can also be spread through
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• A pathogen is a microorganism that causes

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non-living things.
also spread diseases. Give examples disease.
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of tetanus and athlete’s foot. Ask Tetanus can be spread by contact with
• An infection is the invasion and multiplication rusted objects or from soil and dirt.
students to find out if they have been
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of pathogens in the body. Athlete’s foot can be spread through

vaccinated against tetanus. Emphasise • Disease is when the infection causes damage to contaminated towels.
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the importance of maintaining the individual’s body systems.

cleanliness and hygiene in order to
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Microbial diseases that can spread from an infected person to a healthy person through air, water,
avoid catching certain infections. food or physical contact are called communicable diseases. Examples of communicable diseases
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are common cold, chickenpox, cholera and tuberculosis.

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Language Check Through air: When a person suffering from common cold sneezes, pathogens are released
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into the air. These pathogens may enter the body of a healthy person while breathing this air
7E Engage, Elicit and he/she may also get common cold. Diseases that are spread through air are called air-
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borne diseases. Examples of air-borne diseases are common cold, influenza, chickenpox,
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mumps and tuberculosis.

thinking Integrated
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English
Through water and food: When a person
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Language Check Pedagogy

Explain that contamination means drinks unclean water (contaminated water) or
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Find out what the word ‘contamination’

making something dirty, impure or eats food lying in the open (contaminated food), means in the English language.
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poisonous. Have students describe a pathogens enter the body and cause diseases.
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few ways in which contamination of Typhoid and cholera are water-borne diseases, while Salmonellosis and Botulism are food-
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food occurs in our daily life. borne diseases (commonly known as food poisoning).
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23
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking, Problem solving

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How are microorganisms harmful?

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Discuss how microorganisms are harmful for human beings as well as plants. Name some diseases spread by different
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microorganisms. Explain the terms pathogen and communicable diseases. Discuss how diseases spread—through air,
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water and food. List the names of diseases on the board.

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21st Century Skills
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Through direct contact: When a healthy person comes in direct contact with an infected
• Analysing
person, the pathogens enter the body of the healthy person and cause disease. Conjunctivitis
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(pink-eye) is a common example of such direct contact diseases. AIDS is spread through direct • Observing
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contact with contaminated needles. • Exploring
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Through carriers: Pathogens also spread from an infected person to a healthy one through
insects such as mosquito and housefly. These insects that transmit pathogens from an infected
Life Skills
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person to a healthy one, are known as carriers of diseases (Fig. 2.9).
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When houseflies sit on garbage or dirt, pathogens stick to their bodies. When these flies sit on • Critical thinking
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uncovered food, they may transfer the pathogens to the food. Eating such contaminated food • Self-awareness
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makes a healthy person ill. So, it is advisable to always keep food covered and eat fresh food.
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• Problem-solving
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When a female Anopheles mosquito bites a person suffering

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from malaria, the pathogen, a protozoan called Plasmodium
Do You Know? 7E Engage, Elicit
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enters its body along with the blood. When the same
mosquito bites a healthy person, the pathogen may enter his/
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her body and that person may also get infected with malaria.
thinking
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Similarly, the female Aedes mosquito is a carrier for dengue

as it carries the dengue virus from an infected person to a
As
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healthy one.
Fig. 2.9 Mosquitoes are carriers of
diseases such as malaria and dengue
Robert Köch did this by
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experimentation with anthrax. Using a
Disease-causing microorganisms in animals and plants: Microorganisms cause diseases
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microscope, Koch examined the blood

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in animals. For example, foot and mouth disease in animals is caused by a virus. Another
of cows that had died of anthrax. He
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example is anthrax, which is a deadly disease of cattle caused by bacteria.

observed rod-shaped bacteria and
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Microorganisms also cause diseases in plants like wheat, rice, potato, sugarcane, orange, suspected they caused anthrax.
apple and cotton. The Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) affects the leaves of the tobacco plant
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causing a great deal of loss in crop yield and quality. Fungal

infections cause late blight in potato plants. Smuts and Do You Know? 7E Extend Look It Up! 7E Explain, Elaborate
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rust of cereal crops (Fig. 2.10a) are also caused by fungal Robert Köch in 1876
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discovered the Bacillus Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical

infections. Citrus canker (Fig. 2.10b) caused by bacteria
anthracis bacterium that
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thinking
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affects citrus plants like oranges. Yellow vein mosaic

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causes the anthrax disease.

disease of Lady’s finger (okra) is caused by a virus.
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Ask students to search the internet

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to find out about the ‘Irish potato

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famine’. that occurred in Ireland in
Search online for answers and
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discuss in class. 1845–49 when the potato crop failed

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in successive years. The crop failures

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What was the Irish potato

were caused by late blight, a disease that
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famine?
destroys both the leaves and the edible
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a. Rust in wheat b. Citrus canker

roots or tubers of the potato plant.
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Fig. 2.10 Diseases caused by microbes in plants

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Explain that the diseases spread through direct contact and carriers. Give examples for both.
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As
Disease-causing microorganisms in animals and plants

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Discuss the microorganisms responsible for some diseases in animals and plants and the parts affected by those diseases.
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21st Century Skills
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• Analysing How do microorganisms cause food spoilage?
Bacteria and fungi can grow on food and spoil them.
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• Observing
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Microorganisms growing on food sometimes produce
• Exploring toxic substances leading to food spoilage. Rotting of
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fruit and vegetables, and growth of mould on bread
(Fig. 2.11) are examples of food spoilage. Spoilt food
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Life Skills shows change in appearance, colour and odour.
rs Consuming such contaminated food may cause Fig. 2.11 Spoilage of food caused
• Critical thinking food poisoning. by microbes
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• Self-awareness
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• Problem-solving Section Review 3 7E Evaluate

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To define pathogens as a class of harmful microorganisms.
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1. Which of the following characteristics likely defines a pathogen?
(a) They can spoil food and plastic. (b) They make soil fertile.
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical (c) They can cause disease. (d) They break down organic matter.
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thinking, Problem-solving As 2. Which of the following statements is true with regard to pathogens?
(a) All known bacteria are pathogens. (b) All known fungi are pathogens.
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This section helps in evaluating if (c) All known protozoa are pathogens. (d) All known viruses are pathogens.
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students have understood the concepts To list disease-causing microorganisms in animals and plants.
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3. Complete the given table.

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exercise on their own in class. Then, Disease Plant or animal Causative microorganism
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Foot and mouth disease Animal

can verify their responses. If students Late blight Fungus
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Citrus canker
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Smut Plant
Anthrax Bacterium
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IVID
What are the methods of preserving food?

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We learnt that consuming contaminated food may lead to food poisoning. Thus, to remain
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healthy, it is important to prevent food spoilage. We can prevent spoilage of food either by
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killing the microorganisms or by slowing their growth. The process of treating food to stop
or slow down its spoilage is called food preservation.
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As
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We know that microorganisms grow well in warm, moist environments. So, we employ suitable
measures to inhibit their growth. Some food preservation methods are the use of chemical and
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natural preservatives, heat and cold treatments, dehydration and suitable packaging.
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How do microorganisms cause food spoilage?

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Bring some pictures of mould on bread and rotten fruits in the class to explain that food gets spoiled by bacteria and fungi. Bring
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a fresh and a rotten apple to the class and show it to students and ask them to differentiate between them on the basis of colour,
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appearance and odour. Also, ask students to reason why we are advised not to eat stale food or food kept uncovered.
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As
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What are the methods of preserving food?

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Ask students how raw and cooked food items are stored in their house. Explain why we need to preserve food. Talk about
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methods of preservation: chemical and natural preservatives, heat and cold treatments, dehydration and suitable packaging.
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21st Century Skills
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Using chemical preservatives: Substances that help preserve food are known as preservatives. • Analysing
Many chemicals help control microbial growth and are used as preservatives. Sodium benzoate
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and potassium metabisulphite are examples of chemical preservatives which are used as • Observing
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preservatives in squashes, sherbets, and ketchups. • Exploring
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Using natural preservatives: Natural preservatives include salt, sugar, oil and vinegar. They
create an environment that prevents microbial growth, and are, therefore, used for preserving
Life Skills
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meat, fish, fruits and vegetables. We use common salt to preserve meat and fish in the form of
rs
salted meat and salted fish. Sugar is used as a preservative in jams and jellies. Oil and vinegar • Critical thinking
are used in preserving pickles and chutneys.
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• Self-awareness
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Heat and cold treatments: Microorganisms can be killed or inhibited by high temperatures
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• Problem-solving
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as well as low temperatures.

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• High temperatures kill most microorganisms. Milk is boiled to kill microorganisms and
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keep milk from getting spoilt soon.
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• Low temperature inhibits the growth of microorganisms. Thus, when food like eggs,
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cheese, cooked food, fruits and vegetables are kept in a refrigerator, they remain fresh for
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a longer period.
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• Very cold temperatures also kill microorganisms. We preserve some food by placing
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them at temperatures below 0°C. Food kept in deep freezers become frozen and can be
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kept from being spoilt for many months. Meat and fish are generally preserved using
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deep freezers.
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Pasteurisation is a mix of hot and cold treatments. The method of pasteurisation is used
for the preservation of milk in big dairy farms. It involves the process of heating, followed
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by quick cooling. Heating the milk kills microorganisms and when it is cooled very quickly
it prevents any remaining bacteria from growing further. The method of pasteurisation was
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developed by a scientist named Louis Pasteur.

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Dehydration: Since microorganisms grow in moist conditions, removing water content from
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food helps prevent spoilage. Removal of water from food material is called dehydration. Sun-
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drying is the most common method of dehydration at our homes. In factories, dehydration
en
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is done by using special dehydrators. Many vegetables and fruits can be preserved by
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dehydration. Sun-dried tomatoes, dried herbs and dehydrated fruits such as raisins and figs are
some examples of dehydration.
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Packaging: Food can also be preserved by packing

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them in air-tight containers or packages. This prevents

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the microbes from reaching the food, thus, preventing

Concept Building
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spoilage. Cooked meat, fish, fruits and vegetables are

canned in oil or salt water (brine). Food like cereals, nuts 7E Engage, Explore, Explain
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and grains are vacuum-packed to help preserve them.

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However, it is important that canned food should be

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used up before its date of expiry, as shown in Fig. 2.12. Fig. 2.12 Packaged food with date of expiry thinking, Problem-solving
List the following table in the board
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26
for better understanding of various
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methods of food preservation.

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Type of preservative Preservatives Food

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Chemical preservatives Sodium benzoate and potassium metabisulphite Squashes, Sherbets, Ketchups
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Natural preservatives 1. Common salt 1. Meat and salted fish.

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2. Sugar 2. Jam and jellies

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3. Oil and vinegar 3. Pickles and chutneys

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Heat and cold treatment 1. High temperatures 1. Milk

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2. Low temperature 2. Eggs, cheese, cooked food,

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3. Very cold temperatures fruits and vegetables

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3. Meat and fish

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Dehydration Removal of water from food material is called Sun-dried tomatoes, dried herbs and
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dehydration dehydrated fruits raisins and figs.

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Packaging Food can also be preserved by packing them in Cereals, nuts and grains
air-tight containers or packages
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21st Century Skills
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• Analysing Section Review 4 7E Evaluate
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To list various methods of preserving food in order to demonstrate the restriction of growth
• Observing
es
of microorganisms.
• Exploring 1. Which option shows the name and function of preservatives used in jam and squashes?
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(a) Salt; it stops the activity of microorganisms
(b) Sodium benzoate; it prevents the action of microorganisms
Life Skills
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(c) Spices; they kill microorganisms
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Critical thinking (d) Oil; it makes the environment unsuitable for the survival of microorganisms
2. In the seafood market, fish were kept in trays of ice mixed with salt. What is the likely use of
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• Self-awareness keeping the fish in ice and salt?
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• Problem-solving (a) Ice and salt increase the moisture content of the fish, allowing it to survive longer.
ni
(b) Ice and salt increase the salt content of the fish, making them tasty.
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(c) Ice and salt stop the growth of bacteria by reducing the temperature as well as the
Section Review 4 7E Evaluate moisture content.
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(d) Ice and salt increase the weight of the fish.
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SVID
thinking, Problem-solving Keywords
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As Microbe: An organism that is too small to be Preservatives: Substances that help preserve
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seen without a microscope food

students have understood the concepts
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Antibiotic: The medicine used to kill or slow Pasteurisation: A method of preservation
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down the growth of bacteria that involves repetitive cycles of heating of

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exercise on their own in class. Then, substance followed by sudden cooling

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Vaccine: Medication that provides protection

discuss the answers so that students (immunity) against a specific disease
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Scientific
section to clarify concepts. Experiential Learning Proficiency Procedural fluency
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Goal: To prepare curd from milk.

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Materials required: A glass of lukewarm milk, a teaspoon of curd

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What to do:
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Step 1: Take some lukewarm milk in a glass and add a spoonful of curd into it.
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Experiential Learning
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Step 2: Stir well and leave it for 6–8 hours undisturbed.

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7E Explore, Engage, Evaluate The milk in the glass gets converted to curd.
Conclude and apply:
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Decision- 1. Observe and classify the state of the curd as compared to milk (solid or liquid). What does
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making, Discovery-based learning it smell like? What does it taste like?

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2. Infer the role of the spoonful of curd that was added to the milk.
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This section will give students a better 3. Identify the optimal conditions required for curd formation.
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understanding of how microorganisms 4. Think and explain why the milk used was lukewarm and not boiling hot or freezing cold.
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help in the preparation of certain

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Communicating:
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foods. Ask students to follow the steps Compare your results with those of your classmates and discuss differences observed, if any.
given and prepare curd from milk.
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27
Ask students to note down the
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following while performing this activity.

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Observation
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State change
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Smell change
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Taste change
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Role of curd added in the milk

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Optimal conditions required for the process

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Puzzle Over (page 29) 7E Explore, Engage

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Ask students to read the question carefully and recollect how microorganisms help us. Then ask them to identify the
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correct option.
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21st Century Skills
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Answer the following questions.
• Analysing
(a) Observe the bread slices. Do they look fresh or spoilt?
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• Observing
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(b) Infer the role of keeping them uncovered.
(c) Think what brought about spoilage in the bread slices. Was it something in the air?
• Exploring
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(d) Infer what could happen if the bread slices were placed in the refrigerator or kept out in the Sun.
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21st
Century Global awareness
Life Skills
2. Research/Activity Skills
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The outbreak of SARS-CoV-2, which causes COVID-19 diseases has distressed the whole world
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and took the lives of thousands of people. Conduct an Internet research on earlier outbreaks of • Self-awareness
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large-scale diseases caused by microorganisms.
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21st
• Problem-solving
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Century Multiple intelligence
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3. Discuss and Answer Skills
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Project Work (pages 29–30)
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Sania takes two pots to make manure in. She puts plant waste and soil in one pot and empty plastic
bottles, polythene bags and soil in the other pot. She places both the pots in an open area for three
7E Engage, Extend
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weeks. She observes that the pot with plant waste got converted into manure, while in the pot with
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plastic material, no manure was formed and the plastic material stayed as it is. What can be a likely
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reason for the production of manure in the pot? As Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
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Life thinking
4. Connect to Life Skills Self-awareness
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Discuss with your parent(s) or elders at home and tabulate all the vaccinations you have taken and
Students can conduct this activity
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collectively in class. Let them discuss the

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the age at which it was taken. Now add a column to the table and then carry out a research and
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write the names of diseases you have been vaccinated (immunised) against. changes they observe in the bread slices
and discuss the reasons for the same.
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Life
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I can:
Research/Activity 7E Elaborate
differentiate between four major types of microorganism and give at least two examples of each.
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explain why viruses are called pathogens with at least three examples of diseases caused by viruses. Skills instilled: Information literacy,
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appreciate the importance of knowing how microorganisms are useful and harmful to us.
Health literacy, Analysing
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explain how to keep safe from harmful microorganisms.
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list a few ways of preserving food.

Discuss the devastating impact of
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COVID-19 caused by SARS CoV-2.

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Ask students to use the internet to

ed L a
vis find out information about outbreaks
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of other diseases in the past. Let them

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Activities in Teacher’s Book

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discuss their findings in the class.

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1. To show that microorganisms are present in soil 3. To demonstrate fermentation of sugar by yeast.
Discuss and Answer
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and water.
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2. To show the effect of yeast on bread dough.

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Skills instilled: Analysing,
Environmental literacy
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Ask students to recall the concept of

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compost. Then ask them to read the

Connect to Life 7E Elicit, Extend, Elaborate
given question. Discuss the possible
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Skills instilled: Self-awareness, Health literacy answers and explain why manure is not
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formed from plastic material.

Ask students to study their own vaccination chart and make a list of the
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vaccines they have been given to protect them from various diseases. Discuss
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why vaccines are important for our health.

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Teacher’s Support
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supports teachers to identify teaching model.
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SUPERVISED LAB WORK
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1. Aim: To show that microorganisms are present in soil and water.
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Materials required: Moist soil, some pond water, clean water, beaker, stirrer, dropper, microscope and
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clean slides.
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What to do:
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1. Collect some moist soil from the ground or a flower pot. Place it in a beaker and add water to it. Stir
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the contents and allow it to settle for a while.
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2. After the soil particles have settled down, using a dropper, put a drop of water from the beaker on a
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clean glass slide and observe the glass slide under the microscope.
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Observation: Tiny organisms can be seen moving about.
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Conclusion: Both soil and water contain microorganisms.

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Note: Students may be encouraged to view the microorganisms and note the different kinds of microbes
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seen in soil as well as water. They could also be encouraged to find out the names of the microbes seen.
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2. Aim: To show the effect of yeast on bread dough.

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Materials required: ½ cup of white flour (maida), 1 teaspoon of sugar, a pinch of salt, 1 teaspoon of
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dried yeast, a large glass bowl and warm water (enough to make a dough).
What to do:
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rs
1. In a glass bowl, add 1 teaspoon of sugar. Add some warm water and mix it.
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2. Add 1 teaspoon of yeast and mix well. Leave for 10 minutes till the liquid becomes a little frothy.
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3. Add the remaining white flour and a pinch of salt to the bowl and mix well. Add enough water to
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make a smooth dough.

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4. Cover the dough and keep it aside in a warm place for an hour or two.
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Observation: The dough almost doubles in size.

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Conclusion: When the dough is kept covered in a warm place for a few hours, the yeast in the dough
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converts sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide. As more and more carbon dioxide is produced, the
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bubbles of carbon dioxide gas fill the dough and increase its volume.
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3. Aim: To demonstrate fermentation of sugar by yeast.

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Materials required: 2 tablespoons of sugar, 1 cup of warm water, a thin-walled balloon, a 1-litre empty
plastic bottle, a mixing bowl and about 1 tablespoon of dried yeast.
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What to do:
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1. Stretch the balloon by blowing it up and deflating it a few times. Keep it aside.
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2. Place sugar in a mixing bowl. Add the cup of warm water and mix thoroughly. Now add the yeast
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and mix thoroughly.

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3. Pour the mixture into the plastic bottle. Attach the balloon to the mouth of the bottle and leave it
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undisturbed for a while.

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Observation: The balloon slowly inflates. The liquid inside the gas has the smell of alcohol.
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Conclusion: Fermentation of sugar by yeast produces alcohol and carbon dioxide. As carbon dioxide
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rises up, it fills up the balloon and we observe an increase in the size of the balloon. If we pass the gas
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(d) ………….. and ………….. can grow on food and spoil them. (Bacteria, fungi/Protozoa, viruses)
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(a) Bacteria i. Food preservation

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(b) Tobacco Mosaic Virus ii. Dengue

(c) Malaria iii. Water-borne diseases
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(d) Stop spoiling iv. Food spoilage

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(e) Aedes mosquito v. Air-borne diseases

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(h) Converting atmospheric nitrogen viii. Female Anopheles

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(b) How are microorganisms harmful?

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(d) Write any two ways to preserve food.

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(f) Who discovered the method of pasteurisation?

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(h) What does this picture show?

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(f) Lactobacillus bacteria helps in converting milk to curd.

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(g) Yeast helps in making soft and spongy bread.

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(a) Fungi i. Enlarges images of small objects

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(b) Bacteria ii. Spirogyra

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(e) Algae v. Agaricus

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(f) Virus vi. Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome

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(a) What are bacteria?

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(b) What is a microscope?

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(c) Where are microorganisms found?

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(e) Give two examples of bacteria.

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(f) Write a few characteristics of protozoa.

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(Skills instilled: Thinking, Self-awareness)

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Unit 2 | Materials
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SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND
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PLASTICS
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Unit 2 | Materials
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• Observing
3 SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND
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• Analysing
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PLASTICS
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• Exploring
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CHAPTER PREVIEW As
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• Synthetic fibres and their types

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• Plastics and their types • Communication
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• Properties and uses of plastics

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• Plastics and the environment

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t Ask students what types of clothes

Wha
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you will learn they wear. Are their winter and

summer dress material the same or
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• Differentiate between natural

different? Ask them to identify the
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and synthetic fibres
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• Understand the types of clothes they wear.

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plastics, properties, and uses

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• Understand how plastics are a Bring samples of clothes to class

threat to the environment
and ask students to read their
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labels. The labels tell what material

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the piece of clothing is made of.

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Tell students that they would be

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Why learning about some materials

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it is important to learn things are made of.

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We use human-made fibres and 21st

plastics in almost everything, WARM-UP Century Thought provoking
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from the clothes we wear to the Skills

water we drink out of. Therefore, it If you looked in your clothes cupboard right now, you’d
probably be able to pinpoint exactly which clothes are your
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is useful for us to know about the

characteristics of these materials favourites. That warm sweater you turn to when it’s a
as well as understand how, winter day, or your favourite scarf or the pair of jeans that
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although convenient and cheap, fits just right!

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some of them are today a threat to Have you ever thought about what your clothes are made
the environment.
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Ask students to look in their cupboard and take out any 10 pieces of clothing they have. Ask them to make and fill in a table
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with the following heads.

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Clothing item Type (woollen/cotton/silk/synthetic/jute)

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The clothes we wear such as sweaters, scarves and jeans are made of fabric. The fabric in turn
• Analysing
is made of fibres. Thin thread-like strands that are used to make fabric are called fibres. Natural
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• Observing fabrics such as cotton, silk and wool are made of animal- or plant-based fibres, while synthetic
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• Technology literacy fabrics such as polyester, rayon and acrylic are made of artificial fibres or human-made fibres.
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Over the years, synthetic fibres have increasingly grown in popularity. The demand for polyester fibres
has increased tremendously, making polyester the most used textile—overtaking cotton.
Life Skills
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Critical thinking What are synthetic fibres? Do You Know? 7E Extend
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• Problem-solving Fibres that are human-made are called synthetic fibres. Most The word polymer comes
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from two Greek words—
synthetic fibres are obtained from petroleum products or
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poly meaning many and

petrochemicals. A synthetic fibre is a chain of small units joined mer meaning parts or units.
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together. Each small unit or monomer is a chemical substance. So, a polymer is made
Many monomers combine to form a large single unit called of many repeating units
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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, a polymer. or parts.
Analysing
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We use synthetic fibres to make socks, umbrellas, bristles

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Tell students that some words can be As of brushes and ropes. Since synthetic fibres are artificially created, they can be created with
broken into two or more units. It is special properties which we can use for specific purposes. The properties of synthetic fibres
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easier to remember the meaning of depend upon the chemicals used to create these fibres. ANM
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a word if we can break it into units

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Let us look at some types of fibres and their properties to understand the specific purpose
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and understand what the units mean. for which they have been created.
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Relate this information with the What are the types of synthetic fibres?
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formation of word polymer. Depending upon the type of chemicals used for manufacturing, the types of synthetic fibres are:
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1. Rayon 2. Nylon 3. Polyester 4. Acrylic

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Rayon: It is one of the first human-made or synthetic fibres. It is not 100 per cent artificial because
it is extracted from naturally occurring cellulose from wood pulp. It is not, however, a natural
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fabric, because cellulose requires extensive processing to become rayon. It is therefore, called a
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semi-synthetic fabric. Rayon has a silk-like appearance; hence, it is also called artificial silk.
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Properties: It can be easily dyed in a variety of colours and can also be woven into fabric.
It is highly absorbent and doesn’t crease easily.
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Uses: Rayon fibres are used to

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create clothing such as sarees, shirts,

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blouses, dresses, scarves, suits, ties,

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are used for creating furnishings

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Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing including bedsheets, blankets and

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curtains (Fig. 3.1). Medical products Bedsheet

Curtain
What are synthetic fibres?
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such as surgical gowns and gloves are Fig. 3.1 Items made of rayon
also sometimes made of rayon.
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Explain the terms synthetic fibres, 35

petrochemical and polymer with the
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help of following table.

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Synthetic fibres Human-made fibres

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Petrochemicals Petroleum products

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Each small unit or monomer is a chemical substance. Many monomers combine to form a large
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Polymer
single unit called a polymer.
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Explain the four types of fibres: rayon, nylon, polyester and acrylic. Show students samples of these fibres and let them feel
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the fibres. Use the information given in the book to explain each fibre in terms of its properties and uses. You could draw a
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table on the board with the following heads to compare and contrast the characteristics of each type of fibre.
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Rayon Nylon Polyester Acrylic

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Properties
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Nylon: It is considered to be the first purely
• Analysing
artificial or human-made fibre. It is made entirely Real-world Connect! 7E Extend
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out of petroleum products. • Observing
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Women’s stockings were popularly
Properties: Nylon is one of the strongest synthetic called ‘nylons’. Nylon stockings made • Technology literacy
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their grand debut at the 1939 World’s
fibres and is said to be stronger than a steel wire Fair in New York. Their demand was so
of the same thickness! It is elastic and lightweight. high that women flocked to stores by
Life Skills
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Nylon does not wrinkle easily and is easy to dry the thousands. It is estimated that four
when washed. rs million pairs sold out in four days!
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Uses: It is one of the most common fabrics in the market. It can be easily dyed, so textiles can • Problem-solving
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be made in a variety of colours. Nylon fabric is used in a variety of items such as school bags,
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backpacks, shoes, umbrellas, camera cases, swimsuits, socks, gloves and hats. Nylon is also
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used to make harness straps, parachute canopies, sleeping bags, ropes, fishing poles, fishing Look It Up! 7E Explain, Elaborate
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lines tents and tennis racket strings (Fig. 3.2).
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Look It Up! thinking
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7E Elicit
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Search online for answers and Viscose is a semi-synthetic material

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As discuss in class.
used in clothes, window drapes and
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What is Viscose?
other bedding materials. It is derived
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How did Nylon get its name?
from wood pulp, which is treated and
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Tent Racket strings

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spun into yarns to make fabric.

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Fig. 3.2 Items made of nylon
Polyester: It is a synthetic fibre made Nylon’s name came from the conflation
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of many repeating units of a chemical of New York (NY) and London (Lon)
compound, called ester. Hence, the name made Nylon.
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polyester (poly and ester, meaning many

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esters). It is today the most widely used

synthetic fibre in the world. Polyester is
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Sail of sailboat Jacket

often mixed with other fibres to make
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different kinds of fabric. Polycot is a Fig. 3.3 Items made of polyester

mixture of polyester and cotton. Polywool is a mixture of polyester and wool.
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Properties: Polysters are strong, elastic and lightweight. Fabrics made of polyester are long-
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lasting, stain-resistant, do not wrinkle easily and can be washed and dried easily.
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Uses: Polyester fabrics are used to make suits, jackets, socks (Fig. 3.3), sarees and pretty much
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anything that you can wear for casual, business or formal occasions. A type of polyester called
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microfibre, due to its softness and absorbency, is used to make bath towels, face towels and kitchen
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towels. Polyester is also used to make blankets, rugs, upholstery and curtains. Due to their stain-
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resistance property, polyester fabrics are also used as cushioning for chairs, sofas and pillows. Sails of
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sailboats (Fig. 3.3), tarpaulins, bottles and kitchen jars are also made of different forms of polyester.
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Acrylic: It is a synthetic fibre that resembles wool and is often used as a cheap substitute for
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wool. Acrylic fabric is lightweight, warm and soft to the touch. It is thus used in place of wool
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Real-world Connect!
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Skills instilled: Global awareness, Information literacy

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Tell students to read this interesting fact about women’s stockings. Ask them about new trends in clothing.
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Here, amaze the students by telling them women’s stockings were popularly called ‘nylons’. Nylon stockings made their grand
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debut at the 1939 World’s Fair in New York. Their demand was so high that women flocked to stores by the thousands. It is
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estimated that four million pairs sold out in four days!

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or blended with sheep wool. Acrylic fabric is hydrophobic, meaning it repels water. When
• Analysing
worn, acrylic fabric generally creates static electricity and clings.
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• Observing
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Properties: It is lightweight, soft and retains heat. It is wrinkle resistant, shrink resistant
• Exploring and water resistant.
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Uses: Acrylic fibre is commonly used in clothing such as sweatshirts, sweaters (Fig. 3.4),
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gloves, boot liners and athletic-wear. It is also used as outdoor upholstery fabric. Acrylic
Life Skills fabric is also used in hair extensions, wigs, rugs (Fig. 3.4), carpets and hair brushes.
•
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Critical thinking
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• Self-awareness
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• Communication Search online for answers and

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discuss in class.
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What is Spandex? (Fun fact: Spandex
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Look It Up! 7E Explain, Elaborate is an anagram of the word expands.)
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Sweater Rug
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thinking As Fig. 3.4 Items made of acrylic

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What are the advantages and disadvantages of synthetic fibres over natural fibres?
Spandex is a synthetic fabric which is
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Synthetic fibres have advantages as well as disadvantages as compared to natural fibres
highly elastic.
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such as cotton, silk and wool. Some of the advantages of synthetic fibres are that they are
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The generic name ‘spandex’, which is comparatively less expensive, more durable, stronger, require less maintenance and are
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an anagram of the word ‘expands’, is the more easily available. They have good elasticity and do not wrinkle easily.
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preferred name in North America. However, they have a few disadvantages too. Most of them are not heat resistant, making
them dangerous to wear near fire. They melt on heating and catch fire readily. They do not
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allow air circulation, making them sticky, sweaty and uncomfortable to wear during hot
Section Review 1 7E Evaluate and humid climates. They are non-biodegradable products.
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical Section Review 1 7E Evaluate

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To distinguish between synthetic and natural fibres based on their properties.

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Complete the given table.

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students have understood the concepts Synthetic fibres Natural fibres

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taught so far. Let students complete the Less expensive

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exercise on their own in class. Then, Not readily available

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Lightweight and soft Heavy and not so soft

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More absorbent
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Does not melt on heating

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Feels hot and uncomfortable in summer Feels cool and comfortable in summer
Easy to maintain
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What are the advantages and disadvantages of synthetic fibres over natural fibres?
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Show students samples of natural and synthetic fabrics. Let them feel the fabrics. Discuss and list the advantages and
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disadvantages of synthetic fibres over natural fibres in a table with the following heads.
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Advantages of synthetic fibres over natural fibres Disadvantages of synthetic fibres over natural fibres
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What are plastics and their types? • Analysing
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The wide range of synthetic materials that have the capability of • Observing
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being moulded or shaped, usually by the application of heat and Fig. 3.5 Linear arrangement
pressure, are called plastics. Plastics can not only be moulded or of monomers • Exploring
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shaped in any form, but also be coloured, melted, rolled into
sheets or drawn into wires. This property of plasticity allows
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plastics to be made into a great variety of products. Petroleum
Life Skills
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products are used to make plastics. Plastics are polymers. However, • Critical thinking
all plastics do not have the same type of arrangement of monomers.
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Some have linear arrangement of monomers (Fig. 3.5) and others Fig. 3.6 Cross-linked arrangement • Self-awareness
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of monomers
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have cross-linked arrangement of monomers (Fig. 3.6). IVID • Problem-solving

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What are the types of plastics?
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Language Check 7E Engage, Elicit
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Depending on their reaction to heat, plastics can be of two types.
1. Thermoplastics 2. Thermosetting plastics or thermosets
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Thermoplastics: Plastics that can be heated to mould and thinking
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Integrated
remould repeatedly are known as thermoplastics. Thus, a As
Language Check Pedagogy
English
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foamed-polystyrene (Styrofoam or Thermocol) cup can Find out the origin of Tell the students to use the internet or
the word ‘plastic’.
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be heated and reshaped into a new form—for instance, a dictionary and find the origin of the
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a dish or a bowl. Thermoplastics generally have a linear word “plastic”.

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arrangement of its monomers. Examples of thermoplastics are:

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• Polyethylene or polythene is a polymer of ethylene. Tough and

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resistant to chemicals and temperature changes, polyethylene

can be used in a number of products. It is used in packaging
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such as plastic bags (Fig. 3.7), films and bottles. Polyethylene

terephthalate (PET) is used to make a large number of commonly Concept Building
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used items such as water bottles and storage jars in kitchens.

7E Engage, Explore, Explain
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Fig. 3.7 Plastic bags made of

• Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) is polythene
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and resistant to many chemicals. It is used in making drain pipes

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(Fig. 3.8) and roofing sheets. PVC is also used in hoses, tubing
electrical insulation, and upholstery.
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What are plastics and their types?

• Polystyrene (Styrofoam) is often used to make
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Fig. 3.8 Drain pipes made

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of PVC
disposable cutlery as well as CD and DVD cases. Ask students to name a few things
It is also used to create packing material as well as
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made of plastic that they use every day.

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to make disposable drinking cups (Fig. 3.9) and

Explain what we mean by plastics.
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food containers.
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Fig. 3.9 A cup made

• Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) is a What are the types of plastics?
of polystyrene
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transparent, lightweight thermoplastic used in sheet

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(pages 38–39)
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Fig. 3.10 Coloured sheets

form (Fig. 3.10) as an alternative to glass. It is used to make shatterproof
made of Polymethyl glass in automobiles as well as in lens making and cosmetic nails. It is
Use the information given in the book
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methacrylate often coloured and used to make kitchen cabinet doors.

38 to explain what thermoplastics and
thermosetting plastics or thermosets
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mean. Name and list the examples and uses of thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics. You could bring things made of
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these materials to class. Ask students to identify some commonly used things as thermoplastics or thermosetting plastics.
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Thermoplastics Uses
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Polyethylene Packaging such as plastic bags

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Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) Water bottles and storage jars in kitchens

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Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Drain pipes, roofing sheets, hoses, tubing electrical insulation, and upholstery.
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Polystyrene (Styrofoam) CD and DVD cases, disposable drinking cups and food containers.
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Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) Shatterproof glass in automobiles, lens making, cosmetic nails, kitchen cabinet doors
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Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) Coating on non-stick cookware and as a lubricant, reducing wear between sliding parts
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• Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) is a slippery, inert material having
• Analysing
high melting point. It is commonly used as a coating on non-stick
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• Observing cookware (Fig. 3.11) and as a lubricant, reducing wear between
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• Exploring sliding parts.
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Thermosetting plastics or thermosets: Plastics that once heated and Fig. 3.11 Teflon coating
on cooking utensil
moulded cannot be remoulded are known as thermosetting plastics or
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Life Skills thermosets. They have high melting points, but once they are exposed to a certain temperature
rs and moulded to a solid state, their components and physical properties become set. They can’t be
• Critical thinking melted back down or restored to their original properties. Thermosets usually have a cross-linked
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• Self-awareness arrangement of their monomers. Examples of thermosetting plastics are:
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• Problem-solving • Bakelite was the first thermoset plastic that was synthesised from
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synthetic components. It is extensively used in the electrical industries
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for making switches (Fig. 3.12), boards, sockets and wire insulation
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Look It Up!
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7E Explain, Elaborate because of its electrical insulation properties. It is also used to make
handles of cooking utensils due to its thermal
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical insulation properties. Fig. 3.12 Electrical switches
made of bakelite
thinking
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As • Melamine is resistant to fire and

so is used as additives in the Look It Up!
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7E Elicit
Kevlar is a synthetic fibre of high manufacturing of papers, paints,
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tensile strength used especially as a Search online for answers
plastics and flame-resistant textiles. and discuss in class.
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Fig. 3.13 Kitchenware

reinforcing agent in the manufacture
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made of melamine Melamine is also used to manufacture

What is Kevlar?
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of tyres and other rubber products. particleboards, laminates, kitchenware

(Fig. 3.13), and floor tiles. What is Fiberglass?
Pr
Fiberglass is a material made from

small threads of plastic or glass, used for Section Review 2 7E Evaluate
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making small boats, parts of cars, etc. To differentiate between thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics.
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Complete the given table.

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Thermoplastics Thermosetting plastics

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Plastics that can be heated to Plastics that once heated and moulded
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical repeatedly are known as thermoplastics. cannot be are known as
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thermosetting plastics or thermosets.

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These generally have a These generally have a
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This section helps in evaluating if arrangement of their monomers. arrangement of their monomers.
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Example of thermoplastic is . Example of thermoset is .

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As

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discuss the answers so that students can What are the properties and uses of plastics?
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verify their responses. If students have Plastics have become an integral and indispensable part of our everyday world. We even
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doubts, revisit the respective section to wear plastics in our clothes in the form of polyester and nylons. Our water and sewer
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clarify concepts. delivery systems are made from plastics such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
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Name and list the examples and uses of thermosetting plastics.

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Thermosetting plastics Uses

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Bakelite Electrical industries for making switches, boards, sockets, wire insulation and handles of
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cooking utensils due to its thermal insulation properties

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Melamine Manufacturing of papers, paints, plastics, flame-resistant textiles, particleboards, laminates,

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kitchenware and floor tiles.

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Plastics are used to make appliances, auto interior panels, bottles, cutlery, disposable cups,
• Analysing
electrical connectors, eyeglasses, food packaging, packaging of medicine tablets, jars, microwavable
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packaging, window frames and windshields. The uses of plastics are seemingly endless! • Observing
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Plastics have a number of properties that make them the material of choice. However, some • Exploring
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common properties are:
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1. Lightweight and strong: Plastics are lightweight and strong. So, they are used to
manufacture automobile parts, building materials and travel bags.
Life Skills
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2. Inexpensive and mass produced: Plastics are inexpensive to manufacture and easily mass • Critical thinking
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produced. So, they are used to manufacture water bottles, lunchboxes and storage containers.
• Self-awareness
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3. Water resistant: Plastics do not easily react with water. So, they do not corrode or wear
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away with time. This property is used to store a large number of materials in plastic • Problem-solving
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containers, jars and bottles, including chemicals such as ammonium nitrate that are highly
soluble in water.
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4. Shock resistant: Shock or impact resistance is one of the key strengths of plastics. So, they Section Review 2 7E Evaluate
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are used in manufacturing safety helmets and sports gear.

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5. Thermal and electrical insulation: Plastics are poor conductors of heat and electricity. So,
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they are good insulators. Thus, they are used to manufacture handles of cooking utensils
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and microwavable utensils. They are also used to manufacture electrical plugs, INT This section helps in evaluating if
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electric switches and covering of electric cables. students have understood the concepts
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Section Review 3 taught so far. Let students complete the

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7E Evaluate
To examine the properties of plastic to explain its suitability in a variety of applications.
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Write Yes or No against the properties of plastics that you think is best suited in the use of these
everyday items. can verify their responses. If students
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Strong Inexpensive Water Shock Lightweight Thermal Electrical have doubts, revisit the respective
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resistant resistant insulation insulation

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Concept Building
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What are the properties and uses

What are the effects of plastics on the environment?
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of plastics? (pages 39–40)

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While plastic has many valuable uses, it is estimated that half of all plastics produced are
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Stress on the role of plastics in our life.

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single-use plastics that are designed to be used only once—and then thrown away such as
water bottles, drinking straws, shampoo and soap dispensers, food packets, single-use face Explain that we use plastics because
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40 of their properties. Discuss these

properties and list them in a table on
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the board.
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Property Uses
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Lightweight and strong

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Inexpensive and mass produced

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Water resistant
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Shock resistant
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Thermal and electrical insulation

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What are the effects of plastics on the environment? (pages 40–41)

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Discuss how plastics are harmful to our environment. Ask students to make a list of the harmful effects of plastic waste.
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21st Century Skills
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masks, disposable cups and packaging material. However, this has severe environmental
• Analysing
consequences because plastic wastes are non-biodegradable.
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• Observing
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Materials which are not easily decomposed by natural Test It Yourself! 7E Explore
• Exploring processes such as the action of microorganisms are said to be Devise an experiment
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non-biodegradable. Most plastics do not biodegrade, but instead to show that plastics are
non-biodegradable.
slowly break down into small fragments known as microplastics.
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Such materials accumulate in the environment, do not degrade
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Critical thinking for hundreds of years and are, therefore, not environment friendly. The same properties that
make plastics so useful — their durability and resistance to degradation — also make them nearly
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• Self-awareness impossible for nature to completely break down.
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What are the effects of plastic waste? Real-world Connect! 7E Extend

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1. Plastic waste such as used water bottles, bottle
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Living without plastics is possible.
Real-world Connect! caps, food wrappers and polythene grocery
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At least it is in Aberporth, a small tourist
7E Engage, Elicit bags accumulate on land causing land pollution village on the west coast of Wales. Its
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as shown in Fig. 3.14.
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1,100 inhabitants have reduced their

plastics consumption to make their village
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2. Plastic waste thrown in water bodies can cause

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As water pollution in ponds, rivers and oceans.
the world’s first plastic-free community,
thanks to Plastic-free Aberporth, an
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3. Animals such as stray cows end up eating initiative led by local resident and
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This fact will make students filmmaker Gail Tudor.
plastic waste along with left-over food that is
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understand that it is possible to reduce

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thrown on roadsides. Plastic chokes many of

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them leading to their death.

they can contribute to a plastic-free
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4. When plastic waste is burned, it releases toxic fumes

environment. that are harmful not only to humans but also to
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animals and plants.

Test It Yourself! 5. Plastic wastes clog drains and sewers providing
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7E Extend, Engage, Explore breeding grounds for mosquitoes and can increase
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the transmission of diseases such as malaria

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and dengue.
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Fig. 3.14 Plastic waste

thinking
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We need to not only slow the flow of plastic at its source,

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but also need to improve the way we manage our plastic waste.
Select 5 students in class. Tell them
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to do an activity. Tell them to collect What can we do to reduce the effects of plastic waste?
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some plastic polybags. Bring all The most effective method to protect the environment from the
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students to the garden and dig a hazards of plastic waste is by following the 3Rs—Reduce, Reuse,
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whole and buried all polybags there. and Recycle.

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Decide to check it after 10 days. After • Reduce the use of plastics as far as possible. It means only
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Pete Hdpe
completion of the period, go to the using plastics where it is absolutely necessary and not using
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Fig. 3.15 Recycling symbol

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garden with all students. Dig at the plastics when there are other alternatives available. with numbers
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same place. They will find polybags in

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the same condition. That show plastics 41

are non-biodegradable.
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Concept Building (pages 41–42) 7E Engage, Explore, Explain

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking, Environmental literacy

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Ask students how we can save our environment from the overuse of plastics. Discuss the following points.
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Reduce Reuse Recycle

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• Absolutely necessary use • Before throwing think and • Plastic waste can be recycled
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• Find other alternatives consider how they can • Segregate plastic that can be segregated
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be reused
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• Reuse plastics material as far as possible.
Before throwing away plastic items, it
• Analysing
Search online for answers and discuss in class.
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is important to consider how they can • Observing
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On most plastics, there’s a number from 1 to 7
be reused. inside the triangle symbol (Fig. 3.15) that • Exploring
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represents the recycling process.
• Recycle plastic so that the plastic
waste can be reprocessed to create new What do the numbers 1–7 mean?
Life Skills
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products. Segregate plastics that can be Based on the numbers, which are the plastics
recycled. Plastics marked 1 and 2 can be to avoid and which are the plastics to use?
easily recycled.
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What we can do: While governments across the world are creating laws and policies to reduce • Self-awareness
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plastic pollution, there are practical things that we can do to protect the environment.
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1. Use bags made of cotton or jute or recycled paper when you go shopping.
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2. Use a steel lunch box instead of a plastic box. Section Review 4 7E Evaluate
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3. When travelling, carry a few bottles of water instead of buying bottled water.
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4. Use glass or ceramic plates and glasses instead of plastic plates and glasses.
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5. Reuse a plastic container to store things instead of throwing it away.
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6. Use metal clothespins to hang clothes rather than plastic ones. This section helps in evaluating if
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7. Use glass straws instead of plastic straws or do not use straws at all. students have understood the concepts
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s

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Section Review 4 7E Explore discuss the answers so that students

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To differentiate between plastics based on their ability to decompose in order to explain why can verify their responses. If students
plastics are a threat to the environment. have doubts, revisit the respective
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Shopkeepers are advised by the government to promote the use of reusable paper and cloth bags section to clarify concepts.
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instead of plastic carry bags. What is a likely reason for this?

(a) Plastics are environment-friendly. (b) Plastics are biodegradable.
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(c) Plastics cause land and water pollution. (d) Plastics are dirty. Look It Up! 7E Explain, Elaborate
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Keywords thinking
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Fibres: Thin thread-like strands that are used to Thermoplastics: Plastics that can be heated to Ask students if they have seen some
make fabric mould and remould repeatedly
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Synthetic fibres: Human-made fibres Thermosetting plastics: Plastics that once

numbers written on a triangle on a
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plastic object. Tell them that these

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Monomer: A single unit of simple chemical heated and moulded cannot be remoulded
SVID
numbers are special codes called resin
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substance Microplastics: Very tiny fragments of plastics

Polymer: A chain of many monomers that codes. These codes help the experts
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combine to form a large single unit

to identify the type of plastic used to
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make the particular object.

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42
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What we can do
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Tell students about the steps taken by governments across countries to protect our environment from the harmful effect
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of plastic. Ask students to prepare a list of steps taken by the Indian government. Also, ask them to suggest how we can
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contribute towards reducing the use of plastics.

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Experiential Learning (page 43) 7E Explore, Engage, Evaluate

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Decision making, Discovery-based learning

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This exercise will help students reinforce their learning about the kind of fibres used in our clothes. Ask them to do this
activity at home and compare and discuss their answers in class.
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(c) Give reasons why plastic waste are today a threat to the environment.
• Analysing
(d) Form a hypothesis on the state of the planet in a few decades if plastic waste continues
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• Observing to accumulate.
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• Exploring C. PUZZLE OVER
21st
Century Critical thinking PROBLEM-SOLVING 1 1 -
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Skills
1. Raju wears a shirt that does not get wrinkled easily, remains crisp and is easy to wash while Ashok
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Life Skills wears a shirt that gets wrinkled very soon. Which fibre do you think is used to make Raju’s shirt?
rs (a) Cotton (b) Polyester (c) Wool (d) Silk

ANALYSIS & CREATING
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D. SKILL CRAFT 1 2-3 3
• Self-awareness 21st
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• Problem-solving Skills
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Find out what was traditionally used to package some ‘everyday use’ materials such as toothpaste,
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soap, shampoo and body scrubbers, and what is the current typical packaging material for them.
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Puzzle Over
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7E Engage For example, milk was used to be packaged in glass bottles and now it is packaged in plastic
packets. Also, find out when and how plastics have replaced traditional packaging material.
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical 2. Research/Activity

21st
Century Environmental literacy
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As Plastic waste is resulting in one of our planet’s greatest environmental challenges. Our oceans are
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Ask students to read the question and being used as a dumping ground, choking marine life and transforming some marine areas into a
plastic soup. Read about ‘The Great Pacific Garbage Patch’.
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recall the characteristics of types of
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21st
fibres. Then ask them to identify the
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3. Discuss and Answer Century Environmental literacy

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correct option. On the basis of their Conduct and create a presentation on ‘The Age of Plastic—why we need to change’. Have a class
answers, tell them Polyester fibre is used discussion on the materials that can be used as safe alternatives over plastic products.
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to make Raju’s shirt because fabrics

made of polyester are long-lasting, stain- Life
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resistant, do not wrinkle easily and can I can:
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be washed and dried easily. differentiate between natural fibres and synthetic fibres.
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list the four types of synthetic fibres and give at least one property and use of each.
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define plastics and give two to three uses and properties of plastics.
Project Work 7E Extend differentiate between thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics with at least one example of each.
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list a few ways by which plastic waste is harmful to the environment.

Skills instilled: Global awareness
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Ask students to take the help of their vis
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grandparents, parents and the internet

or k

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to collect information about various

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packaging materials used in their Refer to the Teacher’s book for additional activities to reinforce concepts.
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time. Tell them to make another list 1. To check the strength of different fibres. 3. To compare the water-absorbing capacity of different
fabrics. To then compare how quickly these wet
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2. To test the effect of flame on different fibres.

of packaging materials used for the
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fabrics dry.
same products at the present time.
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better for the environment. Discuss 45

the same in the class.
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Research/Activity 7E Elaborate Discuss and Answer

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Skills instilled: Information literacy, 7E Elicit, Extend, Elaborate

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Environmental literacy Skills instilled: Environmental

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Ask students to search the internet literacy, Communication

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and collect data on the effect of Organise a discussion forum in

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dumping garbage in oceans on which students can talk about the

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marine life. extent of use and harmful effects

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of plastics.
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Teacher’s Support
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1. Aim: To check the strength of different fibres.
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Materials required: Weight box with different weights (1–100 g), iron stand with a hook (clamp or pan),
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threads of nylon, wool, cotton and silk (of the same length and almost equal thickness)
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What to do:
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1. Tie one end of the nylon thread to a hook or pan and the other end to the clamp.
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2. Place a small weight on the hook/pan.
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3. Keep on increasing the weight till the thread breaks.

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4. Note the total weight required to break the thread.
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5. Repeat with the woollen, cotton, and silk threads.
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Observation: More weight is required to break the nylon thread as compared to the others.
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Conclusion: The strongest thread is nylon.
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Note: If done correctly, keeping all parameters the same, then nylon, silk, cotton and wool should be the
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order showing the strength of fibres.

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2. Aim: To test the effect of flame on different fibres.

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Materials required: One or two pieces of thread about 6 inches long made of cotton, wool, silk, rayon,
nylon or acrylic.
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What to do:
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1. Hold the fibre with tongs and bring it close to a lighted candle. Hold the flame directly under the
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corner of the fabric. Observe the reaction of the fabric. Repeat with each fabric.
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2. Observe and record your observations based on the following:

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(a) Does it burn vigorously producing a large flame or burn poorly without flame? Does it melt?
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(b) Did the burning produce any ash?

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(c) What kind of smell did the burning produce?

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Compare your findings with the following.

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Cotton burns with a flame and leaves a yellow afterglow when put out. It has the odour of burning
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paper. Silk and wool have an odour of burning hair. A synthetic fabric burns with a chemical-like smell
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and leaves a plastic bead.

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3. Aim: To compare the water-absorbing capacity of different fabrics and how quickly these wet fabrics dry.
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Materials required: Two cloth pieces of equal size about one square feet (one made of cotton and the
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other of nylon) and two beakers/mugs containing equal amounts of water (250 mL)
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What to do:
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1. Mark the beakers/mugs as A and B. Place the cotton cloth in A and the nylon cloth in B.
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2. Let them soak for about 5 minutes.

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3. After 5 minutes, take out the cloth pieces without squeezing them and observe the water remaining
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in the beakers/mugs.
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4. You can also measure the remaining amount of water to get an accurate reading.
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5. Spread out both pieces of wet cloth in the Sun.

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6. Note the time taken for each of them to dry.

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Observation: More water is left in the beaker/mug in which the nylon cloth is soaked.
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Conclusion: Nylon absorbs less water as compared to cotton and it dries faster than cotton. We can
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therefore generalise that natural fibres absorb more water than synthetic fibres, as well as natural fibres
take longer to dry than synthetic fibres.
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Worksheet 1
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(a) Plastics that can be heated to mould and remould repeatedly are known as …………... (thermoplastics/thermosets)
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(b) Plastics that once heated and moulded cannot be remoulded are known as …………... plastics or thermosets.
(thermoplastics/thermosets)
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(c) …………... was the first thermoset plastic that was synthesised from synthetic components. (Bakelite/Melamine)
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(d) We even wear plastics in our clothes in the form of …………... and …………... . (rayon, bakelite/polyester, nylon)
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(e) Plastics are …………... and strong. (heavyweight/lightweight)

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(f) Plastics are …………... conductors of heat and electricity. (poor/rich)
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(g) Most plastics do not biodegrade, but instead slowly break down into small fragments known as …………... .
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(microplastics/macroplastics)
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(h) Use a …………... lunch box instead of a …………... lunch box. (steel, plastic/plastic, steel)
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(a) Human-made fibre i. Rayon

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(b) PVC ii. Substitute for wool

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(c) First human-made fibre iii. Silk and cotton

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(d) Nylon iv. Polyvinyl chloride

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(f) Acrylic vi. Polyester and wool

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(g) Natural fibre vii. Polyester and cotton

(h) Polywool viii. Elastic and lightweight
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(a) What are synthetic fibres?

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(b) From where do we get synthetic fibres?

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(c) Write any one use of rayon.

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(d) Write any two uses of polyester.

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(e) What is the first human-made synthetic fibre?

(f) Which fibre is used as a substitute for wool?
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(g) How many types of plastic are there? Write any two examples of thermoplastics.
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4. Project Work
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(Skills instilled: Self-awareness, Global awareness)

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Go to a cloth store in the local market. Find out what types of fabrics are sold the most and why. Present your findings in the form of
PowerPoint presentation.
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Worksheet 2
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(a) Nylon is a weak synthetic fibre.
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(b) Polyesters are strong, elastic and lightweight.

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(c) Acrylic fabric is not hydrophobic.
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(d) Petroleum products are not used to make plastics.
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(e) Plastics that can be heated to mould and remould repeatedly are known as thermoplastics.
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(f) PVC is used in making drain pipes and roofing sheets.

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(g) Polyethylene terephthalate is the full form of PET.

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(h) Plastics are inexpensive to manufacture and can be easily mass-produced.

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2. Write two examples of each of the following.

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(a) Synthetic fibres ..................................., ...................................

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(b) Uses of rayon ..................................., ...................................

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(c) Uses of acrylic ..................................., ...................................

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(d) Uses of nylon ..................................., ...................................

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(e) Plastics ..................................., ...................................

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(f) Uses of polystyrene ..................................., ...................................

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(g) Uses of Bakelite ..................................., ...................................

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(h) Uses of melamine ..................................., ...................................

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(a) Which fibre is called artificial silk?

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(b) Write any two disadvantages of synthetic fibres.

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(c) Write two properties of plastics.

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(d) Define Bakelite.

(e) Define microplastics.
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(f) What are non-biodegradable materials?

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(g) What do you understand by 3Rs?

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(Skills instilled: Self-awareness, Environmental literacy)

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Ivansh studies in 8th class. He is worried about the harmful effects of plastic waste on the Earth. What steps should he take to improve
the management of plastic waste?
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Unit 2 | Materials
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METALS AND NON-METALS
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21st Century Skills
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Unit 2 | Materials
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• Observing
4 METALS AND NON-METALS
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• Analysing
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• Exploring
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• Critical thinking • Physical properties of metals

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and non-metals
• Communication
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• Chemical properties of metals

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and non-metals
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• Uses of metals and non-metals

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Ask students to name objects from Wha
you will learn
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their surroundings that are made of

metals. Ask them to guess the name
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• Categorise elements into

metals and non-metals based
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of the metal each object is made of.
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on their physical properties

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Next, divert their attention to air • Elaborate the concepts of

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chemical reactions of metals

and ask them to think and name and non-metals
different metals and non-metals
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• Differentiate between metals

present in it. After this, relate and non-metals based on their
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properties
non-metals to the gases we breathe
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• Predict the utility of a material

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in and out. Using this, explain them based on its properties

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that some things are only made

up of either metals or non-metals
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while there are some things have

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Why
both the constituents.
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21st
Metals are an integral part of our life— WARM-UP Century Thought provoking
from the vessels we eat from to the Skills
cars we ride on. What material do you think the body of this car is made
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of—metal or non-metal? Why do you think so?

Learning by Doing Non-metals are all around us, and
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are an essential part of our body. It takes a combination of metals and non-metals to
7E Explain, Elaborate, Extend It is, therefore, important to learn create a car as shown in the picture. It is necessary to
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about the properties of metals and understand the properties of these elements and how they
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non-metals. will combine with each other.

Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing,
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Critical thinking
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Ask students to name 6 objects that
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are made metals and 6 objects that

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are made of non-metals. Then ask them to make a table with the following heads and fill it.
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Name of the object Metal/Non-metal Does it produce sound Is it lustrous? Other use of metal/
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when you strike it? non-metal identified

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(Y/N)
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21st Century Skills
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We observe and use various substances such as utensils, ornaments, pencils and balloons in
everyday life. These substances are made of atoms, the smallest part into which an element can
• Observing
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be divided. A substance that is made up of only one type of atom or matter is called an element. • Analysing
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For example, the graphite in your pencil is an element. In graphite, all atoms are carbon atoms. • Exploring
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Elements can be categorised as metals and non-metals. Aluminium, copper, iron, silver, gold,
zinc, platinum, mercury, tin, manganese, magnesium and sodium are examples of metals.
Life Skills
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Oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, helium, iodine, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, sulphur and
phosphorus are examples of non-metals.
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What are the physical properties of metals and non-metals? • Problem-solving
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Any characteristic of a material that you can observe without changing the identity of the
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substances that make up the material is a physical property. Let us look at a few physical Do You Know? 7E Engage, Elicit
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properties of metals and non-metals.
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Do You Know? 7E Extend
Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Analysing
Physical state There are some elements
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Almost all metals are solids at room temperature. Mercury, that exhibit some properties Tell students that some elements such
of metals as well as non-
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however, is a liquid metal at room temperature. Almost all non- metals. Such elements are
as boron, silicon and gallium exhibit
metals are solids or gases at room temperature. both the properties of metals and
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known as metalloids. Some

examples of metalloids are non-metals. Thus, they are categorised
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Hardness boron, silicon and gallium.
as separate section of elements called
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Almost all metals are hard. Due to their hardness, metals are
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as metalloids. Encourage students to

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generally used in making tools, bridges, vehicles and buildings. However, some metals such as
sodium and potassium are so soft that they can be easily cut with a knife. find the application of metalloids in
Pr
Most non-metals are soft. They break into small pieces when pressure is applied on them.
day-to-day life.
However, diamond (made up of the non-metal, carbon) is the hardest known substance.
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Lustre Teaching Idea 7E Engage, Explore

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Almost all metals are lustrous or shiny in appearance. Due to this property,
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metals such as platinum, gold (Fig. 4.1) and silver are used in making jewellery.
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Critical thinking
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Most non-metals are non-lustrous or dull in appearance. However, iodine is a

Ask students to name the building
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lustrous non-metal.
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Sonority Fig. 4.1 A gold chain blocks of a wall. Then relate this
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smallest part to the smallest part of

Most metals produce a ringing sound when struck with a hard object.
every material, i.e., atom. Explain
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The property by which metals produce a ringing sound when struck is called
the concept in detail using the given
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sonority. Metals that produce sound are said to be sonorous. Due to this
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property, metals are used in making bells (Fig. 4.2) and wind chimes. flow chart.
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Most non-metals are non-sonorous. They either produce no sound or a Atom (smallest unit)
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dull sound when struck. Fig. 4.2 Bicycle bell

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Element
(Made up of same atoms)
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Metals Non-metals
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Concept Building 7E Explain, Elaborate

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Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing (Give examples of both metals and

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non-metals.)
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Physical Properties of Metals and Non-metals (pages 47–48)

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Make a table to compare and contrast the physical properties of metals and
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non-metals.
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After this, play the game of elements with students. Bring 5 sets of 20 cue
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cards each having a picture of an element. Split the class in groups of 5

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students and give 1 set to each group. Let students classify these cue cards as
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metals and non-metals.

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• Analysing Tensililty
Most metals have high tensility or tensile strength. The property
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• Observing
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by which metals can stretch to hold large and heavy objects without
• Exploring breaking is called tensility. Due to this property, metals are used in
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building suspension bridges (Fig. 4.3).
Most non-metals have low tensility.
Life Skills
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Fig. 4.3 A suspension bridge
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Almost all metals are ductile. The property by which metals can be
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• Self-awareness drawn into wires is called ductility. Due to this property, metals are
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• Communication used in making gold and silver chains, tungsten filaments inside bulbs
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(Fig. 4.4) and electrical wires made of aluminium and copper.

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Language Check Fig. 4.4 Tungsten filament Most non-metals are non-ductile. They are brittle in nature and
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7E Engage, Elicit
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inside a bulb cannot be drawn into thin wires.
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Malleability
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Ask students to use a dictionary As Almost all metals are malleable. The property by which metals can
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and find the meaning of tensile and be beaten into thin sheets is called malleability. Due to this property,
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ductile. Tell them that tensile is the metals are used in making intricate gold and silver jewellery and
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resistance of an object to break when decorative articles, and in making thin sheets (Fig. 4.5) of silver,
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stress or pressure is applied on it while aluminium and tin for various uses.
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an object is said to be ductile if it can Most non-metals are non-malleable.

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Fig. 4.5 A thin metallic ruler

be drawn into thin wires. Ask them to Conductivity
think whether these words can be used
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Almost all metals are good conductors of heat and

interchangeably or not. electricity. The property by which metals allow heat and
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electricity to pass through them easily is called conductivity.

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Due to this property, aluminium and copper are widely

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used in making cooking utensils (Fig. 4.6) as well as
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electrical wires.
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Most non-metals are bad conductors of heat and electricity.

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Fig. 4.6 Cooking utensils made of metals
Test It Yourself! Funway learning

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Two small boxes are placed on a table. One is

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Integrated
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English
made of metal and the other is made of non- Language Check Pedagogy
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metal. You are given a small hammer. Devise

a simple experiment to identify the box Find out what the words ‘tensile’
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made of metal, without touching the boxes and ‘ductile’ mean in the English
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with your hands. Which property of metals language. How are the meanings
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did you use? similar and how are they different?

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Test It Yourself! 7E Elicit, Explore, Explain, Evaluate

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This activity helps students reinforce their understanding of properties of metals. Take students to the laboratory and split
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them in 4 groups. Give the required materials to each group and ask them to arrange the set-up as shown in the figure.
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Then, give each group one material to test and ask them to record their observations in the book itself.
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Then ask one student from each group to read out their observations. Ask why the bulb glows only with aluminium foil
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and iron nail.

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Last, ask students to name any 5 other objects that can conduct electricity.
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Section Review 1 7E Evaluate INT
• Analysing
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To categorise elements into metals and non-metals based on their physical properties. • Observing
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1. Which substance can be drawn into thin wires.
• Exploring
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(a) Cardboard (b) Aluminium
(c) Paper (d) Sodium
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2. Look at objects in the given picture. Tick the object that when hit Life Skills
with a hammer would produce a loud sound.
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3. Complete the given table. • Critical thinking
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Metals Non-metals • Self-awareness
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They are hard and lustrous. They are and dull.

• Communication
They are malleable and . They are non and non-ductile.
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They are conductors of heat They are conductors of heat
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and electricity. and electricity. Section Review 1 7E Evaluate
One example is: . One example is: .
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As thinking, Problem-solving
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What are the chemical properties of metals and non-metals?
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Any characteristic of a material related to the change of one kind of matter into another kind students have understood the concepts
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of matter is a chemical property. Let us look at chemical properties of metal and non- taught so far. Let students complete the
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metals such as their reactions with oxygen, water, acids and bases.
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How do metals and non-metals react with oxygen? discuss the answers so that students
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Reaction of metals with oxygen: Metals react with oxygen in the air to form metal oxides or have doubts, revisit the respective
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basic oxides. These oxides are generally basic in nature, that is, a solution of these oxides turns section to clarify concepts.
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red litmus paper to blue.

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Metal + Oxygen Metal oxide

Real-world Connect!
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Magnesium on heating, burns in air (oxygen) with a
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7E Extend
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dazzling white light to form magnesium oxide. Real-world Connect! 7E Engage, Explore
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2Mg + O2 2MgO The property of magnesium,

Tell students that reaction between
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(Magnesium) (Oxygen) (Magnesium oxide) to burn brightly in air, is used

in creating flares, usually magnesium and oxygen is so
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When magnesium oxide is mixed with water, it forms

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to attract attention in an spontaneous and produces a bright

magnesium hydroxide solution. This solution is a base as emergency.
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glow that it is used in attract attention

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it turns red litmus paper to blue.

in an emergency. Encourage students
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MgO + H2O Mg(OH)2 to find where they are used.

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(Magnesium oxide) (Water) (Magnesium hydroxide)

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Some metals react with oxygen even at room temperature. Sodium and potassium react readily
Concept Building
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with oxygen and catch fire while reacting. Therefore, they are kept immersed in kerosene.
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Chemical Properties of Metals and Non-metals

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Explain this section in detail using the following flowchart. Ask students to guess the name and formula of the oxide formed.
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forms
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Reaction of metals with oxygen Metallic oxide (Basic in nature)

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General reaction
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Metal + Oxygen Metallic oxides

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Examples
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Lithium Calcium Sodium Copper

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Now, show them a video on oxidation of sodium/calcium/potassium to explain that these reactions are very spontaneous
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and thus could be dangerous.

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Sodium reacts vigorously with oxygen present in air to form sodium oxide.
• Analysing
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2Na + O2 2NaO
• Observing
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(Sodium) (Oxygen) (Sodium oxide)
• Exploring
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On the other hand, metals such as iron and copper react with oxygen at very high temperatures
and do not burn while reacting. When any substance reacts with oxygen, the reaction is known
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Life Skills as oxidation reaction. Combustion is an example of an oxidation reaction.
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Critical thinking Reaction of non-metals with oxygen: Non-metals react with oxygen to form non-metal
oxides or acidic oxides. These oxides are generally acidic in nature, that is, a solution of these
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• Self-awareness oxides will turn blue litmus paper to red.
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• Communication Non-metal + Oxygen Non-metal oxide

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Sulphur, on heating, burns in air (oxygen) to form sulphur dioxide.
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Concept Building
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S + O2 SO2
(Sulphur) (Oxygen) (Sulphur dioxide)
7E Explain, Elaborate
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When sulphur dioxide reacts with water, it forms sulphurous acid solution.
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical As This solution is an acid as it turns blue litmus paper to red.
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thinking, Problem-solving SO2 + H2O H2SO3

(Sulphur dioxide) (Water) (Sulphurous acid)
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Explain this section in detail with the
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Some non-metals such as phosphorous are very reactive even at room temperature. It catches
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help of the following flowchart and

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fire if exposed to air. Therefore, it is generally stored in water.

ask students to guess the name and
formula of the oxides formed. Potassium reacts vigorously with oxygen to form phosphorous pentoxide.
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4P + 5O2 2P2O5
Reaction of Non-metallic
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forms (Potassium) (Oxygen) (Phosphorous pentoxide)

non-metals oxide (Acidic
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with oxygen in nature) How do metals and non-metals react with water?
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General Reaction Reaction of metals with water: Metals react with water to form metal hydroxide and hydrogen.
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Metal + Water Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen

Non-metal + Oxygen Non-metallic
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Sodium reacts vigorously with water at room temperature to form sodium hydroxide with
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oxides
release of hydrogen gas.
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Examples
2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2
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(Sodium) (Water) (Sodium hydroxide) (Hydrogen)

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Carbon Sulphur Nitrogen

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Not all metals show the same kind of reactivity with water. Metals such as sodium, potassium
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and calcium react very vigorously with water even at room temperature. Metals like
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magnesium react with hot water or steam, while metals such as gold and silver are mostly
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non-reactive with water. However, metals such as iron and copper when exposed to moist air
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(air and water) for a long time leads to the destruction of the metal.
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How do metals and non-metals react with water?

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Explain this section in detail with the help of the following flowchart. Write the chemical equation for the reaction.
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reacts with water to form

Metals Metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas
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Some metals react with cold water such as sodium

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Some metals react with hot water such as magnesium

Elements
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Some metals react with steam such as zinc

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Some metals do not react with water or steam such as copper, silver, platinum and gold.
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Non-metals No reaction with water

No product
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Rusting of iron: The exposure of iron to oxygen in the
• Analysing
presence of moisture leads to the formation of a brown, flaky
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substance called rust. This reaction is not instantaneous, but • Observing
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generally proceeds over a considerably large time frame. • Exploring
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When an iron nail is exposed to moist air for a long time, it
turns reddish-brown in colour (Fig. 4.7). This is rust. The Fig. 4.7 Rusted iron bolt
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chemical composition of rust is hydrated iron (III) oxide Life Skills
(Fe2O3.xH2O).
4Fe
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+ xH2O + 3O2 2Fe2O3.xH2O • Critical thinking
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(Iron) (Moist air) (Rust) • Self-awareness
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Corrosion: The process of gradual wearing away of a metal due • Communication

to chemical reaction by its surroundings such that the metal is
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converted into an oxide, salt or some other compound is called
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Concept Building
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corrosion. Corrosion leads to the destruction of the metal
surface by the action of air and moisture. 7E Elicit, Explore, Explain
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Corrosion of copper: Copper reacts with oxygen, carbon

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dioxide and moisture, and develops a green-coloured coating Fig. 4.8 Corrosion of copper coins Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing
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of copper hydroxide and copper carbonate. This is the reason

Rusting of Iron and Corrosion
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why copper vessels acquire a full green coating (Fig. 4.8) with the passage of time.
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2Cu + H2O + CO2 + O2 Cu(OH)2 + CuCO3

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Explain what is meant by corrosion.

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(Copper) (Moist air) (Copper hydroxide) (Copper carbonate)

State that corrosion of iron is
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Corrosion of silver: Silver items lose their lustre with time. This is called tarnishing. This popularly known as rust and write
happens because silver reacts with hydrogen sulphide gas present in the atmosphere and forms the chemical equation involved. Now,
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a black-coloured substance called silver sulphide, which dulls silver.

randomly choose 3 students and ask
4Ag + 2H2S + O2 2Ag2S + 2H2O each of them to write one complete
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(Silver) (Hydrogen sulphide) (Oxygen) (Silver sulphide) (Water) chemical equation of:
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Reaction of non-metals with water: Non-metals are mostly non-reactive with water.
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Corrosion of copper:
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How do metals and non-metals react with acids?

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Corrosion of silver:
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Reaction of metals with acids: Metals react with acids to form metal salt and hydrogen gas.
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This hydrogen gas burns with a ‘pop’ sound when a lighted matchstick is brought near the
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mouth of the experimental apparatus containing the metal and dilute acid.
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Metal + Acid Metal salt + Hydrogen

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Sodium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to form sodium chloride with the release of
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hydrogen gas.
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2Na + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2

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(Sodium) (Hydrochloric acid) (Sodium chloride) (Hydrogen)

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Concept Building (pages 51–52) 7E Explain, Elaborate

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How do metals and non-metals react with acids?

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Explain this section with the help of the following flowchart. Write all the equations involved.
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Ask students to write the chemical equations Metals Salt + Hydrogen gas
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for the following reactions.

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Sodium and potassium reacts vigorously

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1. Reaction of copper with conc. HNO3 Magnesium reacts with dilute HCl
Reaction
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2. Reaction of calcium with dil. HCl of elements

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Metals react with HCl, H2SO4 and HNO3 and forms

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with acids corresponding chloride, sulphate and nitrate salts.

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3. Reaction of Magnesium with conc. HCl

Copper and silver reacts only with concentrated acids.
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4. Reaction of Zinc with sulphuric acid

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Magnesium reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to form magnesium sulphate and release of
• Analysing
hydrogen gas.
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• Observing
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Mg + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2
• Exploring (Magnesium) (Sulphuric acid) (Magnesium sulphate) (Hydrogen)
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Zinc reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to form zinc sulphate and release of hydrogen gas.
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Life Skills Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
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Metals such as sodium and magnesium react
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• Self-awareness vigorously with acids, while metals such as Real-world Connect! 7E Extend
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• Problem-solving copper may react slowly. Some metals like gold Pickles containing vinegar (a dilute acid)
and silver do not generally react with acids.
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are not stored in vessels made of iron or
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aluminium as the acid will react with the
Reaction of non-metals with acids: Non-metals
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Concept Building metal to form toxic substances.
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generally do not react with acids.
7E Explore, Elaborate
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How do metals and non-metals react with bases?

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking As Reaction of metals with bases: Most metals do not react with bases. However, some metals
such as aluminium and zinc react with strong bases such as sodium hydroxide to form a salt
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How do metals and non-metals react and release hydrogen gas.

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Metal + Base Metal salt + Hydrogen
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with bases?
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Aluminium reacts with sodium hydroxide (dissolved in water) to form sodium aluminate
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and hydrogen.
Begin with metals and explain that
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not all metals react with bases. The 2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O 2NaAlO2 + 3H2
products of this reaction are salt and (Aluminium) (Sodium hydroxide) (Water) (Sodium aluminate) (Hydrogen)
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hydrogen gas. Aluminium and zinc Zinc reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium zincate and hydrogen.
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are examples of metals which react Zn + 2NaOH Na2ZnO2 + H2

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with sodium hydroxide to form the (Zinc) (Sodium hydroxide) (Sodium zincate) (Hydrogen)
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corresponding salt and hydrogen gas.
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Reaction of non-metals with bases: Non-metals react with bases to form complex
Then, ask students to write the reactions. You will study about them in higher classes.
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chemical equation for the reaction What are displacement reactions?

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between sodium hydroxide and zinc When one element replaces or displaces another element in a compound, the reaction is said to be
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and write the chemical names of the

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a replacement reaction or a displacement reaction1.

products so formed.
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To understand displacement reactions in metals, we first need to know the activity series of metals.
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We have seen in the reactions of metals with oxygen, water, acids and bases that some metals are
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more reactive than others. According to their chemical reactivity, metals are arranged in a series
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known as the activity series of metals. It is a list of metals arranged in the decreasing order of
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reactivity as shown in Fig. 4.9. It is also called the reactivity series of metals.
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In this chapter, we will discuss displacement reactions of metals, while the displacement reactions of non-metals will be discussed in higher classes.
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What are displacement reactions?

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Begin this section by showing students a video on welding of railway tracks.

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Explain that in this reaction, aluminium reacts with iron compound and forms pure iron, an aluminium product and is
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accompanied by a lot of heat. Write the reaction involved.

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Next, explain the concept of displacement reactions in detail, giving examples and their corresponding chemical equations.
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The most active metals are at the top of the list. K Potassium
Na Sodium • Analysing
The least active metals are at the bottom.
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Ca Calcium Most
reactive • Observing
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Mg Magnesium
Notice that potassium and sodium are at the top These metals are
of the list. So, they are very reactive. Copper, more reactive than
Al Aluminium • Exploring
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C Carbon
hydrogen.
silver and gold are the least active metals on the Zn Zinc
list. For reference, hydrogen and carbon, two Fe Iron
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non-metals, are also placed in the activity series.
Sn Tin Life Skills
Pb Lead
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You will learn about them in higher classes.
These metals are
H
Cu
Hydrogen
Copper
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In a displacement reaction, a metal can replace less reactive than Ag Silver Least
• Self-awareness
hydrogen. reactive
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any other metal below it on the list, but not the Au Gold
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one above it.

Pt Platinum • Problem-solving
C and H are non-metals but added for comparison
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Thus, a displacement reaction is one in which a Fig. 4.9 Activity series of metals
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more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal. If you know the activity series of metals, Concept Building
you can predict which metal will replace another metal in displacement reactions.
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When a more reactive metal reacts with the salt solution of a less reactive metal, then
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displacement reaction takes place. As Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical

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For example, when zinc metal (silvery white) is placed in a copper sulphate (blue) solution, we
thinking
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find that after a while, the blue solution turns colourless and the zinc metal turns reddish brown. Elaborate that the reactivity series
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Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu helps us know whether an element

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(Zinc) (Copper sulphate) (Zinc sulphate) (Copper) will replace another element from its
compound. To make students learn
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Zinc being more reactive that copper, displaces it in the copper sulphate solution. The
colourless solution indicates the formation of zinc sulphate and the reddish-brown colour on this series in a fun way, ask them to
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the zinc metal is the deposition of copper. form groups of 15. Each student must
make a cue card containing the name
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Similarly, when iron metal (silvery white) is placed in a copper sulphate (blue) solution, we
of the element, its symbol and the
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find that after a while, the blue solution turns green and the iron metal turns reddish-brown.
words to remember it.
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Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu
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(Iron) (Copper sulphate) (Iron sulphate) (Copper) Please Potassium (K) Most
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Iron being more reactive that copper, displaces it in the copper sulphate solution. The greenish Stop Sodium (Na) reactive
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solution indicates the formation of iron sulphate and the reddish-brown colour on the iron
Calling Calcium (Ca)
metal is the deposition of copper.
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Me Magnesium (Mg)
However, when a less reactive metal reacts with the salt solution of a more reactive metal,
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then displacement reaction does not take place. A Aluminium (K)

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For example, when we place an iron nail in zinc sulphate solution, then no displacement Careless (Carbon) (C)
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reaction takes place. Zebra Zinc (Zn)

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Fe + ZnSO4 No displacement reaction Instead Iron (Fe)

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(Iron) (Zinc sulphate) Try Tin (Sb)

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53 Learning Lead (Pb)

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How (Hydrogen) (H)

Copper Copper (Cu)
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Concept Building 7E Explain, Elaborate Saves Silver (Ag)

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Using the reactivity series, tell students that Zn and Fe can replace Cu from its Gold Gold (Au) Least
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salt as both of them are more reactive than Cu. But Fe cannot replace Zn from Platinum Platinum (Pt) reactive
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its salt as Zn lies above Fe in the reactivity series and hence is more reactive.
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Write the chemical equations involved on the board and encourage them to
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write the chemical equations for the following reactions:

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1. Reaction of potassium and iron sulphate

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2. Reaction of aluminium and magnesium sulphate

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3. Reaction of copper and silver nitrate

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4. Reaction of zinc and lead carbonate

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• Observing To apply the concept of reactivity of a metal to predict if a given metal will displace another
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metal in a displacement reaction.
• Exploring
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1. Three beakers are taken and into each, some copper sulphate solution is poured. The following
metals were placed in each of the beakers.
Life Skills (a) Beaker 1 – Silver (b) Beaker 2 – Iron (c) Beaker 3 – Gold
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In which beaker would a displacement reaction take place?
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Critical thinking 2. Which of the following can replace zinc from a zinc sulphate solution?
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• Self-awareness (a) Platinum (b) Silver (c) Copper (d) Gold
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• Problem-solving
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What are the uses of metals and non-metals?
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Section Review 2
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7E Evaluate
Metals and non-metals are useful to us in many ways. Let us take a look at some uses.
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What are the uses of metals?

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As Metals are useful to us in several ways; from the mode of transport we use, to packaging
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This section helps in evaluating if material, to jewellery, etc. We use metals based on their properties.
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students have understood the concepts • Shiny metals such as silver and gold are often used for decorative objects, jewellery and coins.
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• Strong metals such as iron are used to build bridges, ships, buildings and heavy machinery.
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• Good conductors of heat and electricity such as copper are used for electrical wiring.
discuss the answers so that students • Metals such as tungsten are used to make the filaments of light bulbs because it glows
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can verify their responses. If students white-hot without melting.

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• Lightweight metals such as aluminium are used in making parts of vehicles such as
section to clarify concepts. aircrafts, cars, trains and bicycles. As it is highly malleable, aluminium is also used in
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making containers and foils in the packaging industry.

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• Liquid metals such as mercury are used in thermometers and barometers.

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What are the uses of non-metals?

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Living things such as plants and animals, including human beings, are mostly made up of
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compounds of non-metals such as carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, etc.

7E Explain, Explore
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• Oxygen is essential to human life. We breathe in oxygen. It is also used for medical
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purposes. It is an important element in combustion.

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thinking • Sulphur is valued for its medical properties as it is an important ingredient of many
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chemical solutions. Sulphuric acid is used in large quantities in the automotive industry in
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What are the uses of metals and lead-acid batteries.

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non-metals? • Phosphorous is used in the fireworks industry.

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Explain that because of their

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properties, metals and non-metals

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are widely used in different industries 54

such as manufacturing, machineries,
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satellites, aeroplanes and gadgets. Ask

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students to make a list of at least 10 metals and non-metals. Research for each and complete the table with the following heads.
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Object Metal/Non-metals Property used Other uses

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Wires Copper Ductility Making utensils

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• Chlorine is a powerful disinfectant. It is used to purify water for drinking as well as for
disinfecting water in swimming pools.
• Analysing
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• Nitrogen is used to manufacture fertilisers and to preserve the freshness of packaged food. • Observing
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• Hydrogen is used in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid as well as hydrogenated fats used • Exploring
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in cooking.
• Carbon has a wide range of uses. It combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide which is
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an essential component of plant life. Carbon combines with hydrogen to form hydrocarbons Life Skills
that are used in various industries. Forms of carbon such as coal are used as fuel.
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21st Look It Up! 7E Elicit • Self-awareness
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Green Check
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Century Environmental literacy
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Skills Search online for answers and discuss • Problem-solving

Despite the useful properties of metals, we
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in class.
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continue to replace many metals with plastics
Alloys are a group of material that are
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in our daily lives. Your lunch box, for instance!
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Conduct a research and create a presentation on
formed when metals are combined with a Green Check 7E Explore
metal or a non-metal. Steel and brass are
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‘Plastics may be more convenient, but metals
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are more environmental-friendly’.

examples of alloys. Skills instilled: Environmental literacy
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Why are alloys created? What is steel an

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alloy of? What elements are combined to Ask students to make a list of at
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form brass? least 10 metal objects for we have a

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plastic alternative. Then, ask them
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why they use the plastic alternative

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of objects often. To make this a topic

To predict the utility of a given material for a specific task to reinforce the physical and of discussion, divide the class in
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chemical properties of metals and non-metals.

groups of 5 and ask them to create a
Based on their properties, answer the given questions.
PowerPoint presentation and show it
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1. Why are electric wires made of copper?

in the class.
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2. Why are sitar strings made of metal?

3. Why is aluminium used to make kitchen foils?
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Keywords
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Malleability: The property by which substances Activity series: The arrangement of metals in
can be beaten into thin sheets the decreasing order of their activity This section helps in evaluating if
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Ductility: The property by which substances can Displacement reactions: The reactions in which students have understood the concepts
be drawn into thin wires a metal reacts with a salt solution and displaces a
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Sonority: The property by which substances can less reactive metal present in the salt solution
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produce a ringing sound when they are struck

with a hard object discuss the answers so that students
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Look It Up! 7E Explore

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Skills instilled: Technology literacy

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Take some objects made up of alloy in the class and show them to the students. Randomly call out students and ask them to
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touch the object and name a metal it comprises. After listening to their answers, tell them none of the objects is made up of
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a single metal. They contain a homogeneous mixture of metals and are given a separate name as alloys. Then, ask them to
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study more about alloys.

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Skills instilled: Analysis, Decision-making

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This section will help students identify and verify things around us as metals and non-metals. Explain the task and help
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students to set-up the given electric circuit. Let students complete it themselves and then discuss the responses.
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21st Century Skills
21st
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• Analysing C. PUZZLE OVER Century Critical thinking PROBLEM-SOLVING - 1 1
Skills
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• Observing 1. Metal X is placed in copper sulphate solution. After some time, the blue colour of the copper
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sulphate solution disappears. However, when metal X is placed in aluminium sulphate solution, no
• Exploring change is observed. Which of the following is metal X?
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(a) Potassium (b) Iron (c) Sodium (d) Gold
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Life Skills D. SKILL CRAFT ANALYSIS & CREATING 2 2-3 1
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Critical thinking 1. Project Work Scientific
Proficiency Adaptive reasoning
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• Self-awareness
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A cooking pot shown in the picture is entirely made of metal. Anna found
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• Problem-solving that when she had to take down the cooking pot from the gas stove, she
had to use a potholder. Why did Anna need a potholder? Design a pot such
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that it could be taken down without the use of the potholder. What are the
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Puzzle Over 7E Evaluate properties of metals and non-metals that helped you design the pot?
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2. Research/Activity Integrated
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Social Science
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing, Pedagogy
Adaptive reasoning
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As India has a great history of metalwork and deriving alloys, which was done as far back as
3000 BCE. Tools of iron and steel from ancient India were in great demand for many purposes.
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To help students to find the correct Explore the role of metals that can be found in the architecture of India’s forts and monuments.
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answers ask the students to look for Collect relevant pictures and make a presentation in class.
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21st
reactivity series table. Let students 3. Connect to Life
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Century Information literacy

Skills
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observe the series and answer the Many metals and non-metals are essential for our body. For example, iron (metal) makes
questions accordingly. haemoglobin and prevents us from anaemia, and oxygen (non-metal) is important for respiration.
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Prepare a list of such metals and their functions.

Life
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Project Work 7E Extend

I can:
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Skills instilled: Environment literacy differentiate between common metals and non-metals based on their physical properties.
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differentiate between common metals and non-metals based on their chemical properties.
Ask students to list the elements
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understand the everyday uses of metals and non-metals.

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present in the cooking pot and appreciate the uses of metals and non-metals in real-life contexts.
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potholder. Ask them to compare their

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properties and find the answers. vis
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Super
or k

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1. To show that metals are malleable, and non-metals 4. To show that hydrogen is produced when
are not. magnesium reacts with dilute sulphuric acid.
Analysing, Observing
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2. To show that metals are good conductors of 5. To demonstrate that iron is more reactive
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electricity and that non-metals (excluding graphite) than copper.

Ask students to research and make a
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are poor conductors.

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list of objects and collect their pictures. 3. To synthesise a non-metallic oxide and test its
solution using litmus paper.
Once they collect the pictures and
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ask them to create and present their
presentation to the class.
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Ask students to answer this question by making a poster. Encourage them to make the poster as elaborate as possible.
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Teacher’s Support
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SUPERVISED LAB WORK
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1. Aim: To show that metals are malleable and non-metals are not.
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Materials required: Small samples of easily available metals (e.g., aluminium wire, iron nail, copper wire,
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etc.) and non-metals (e.g., graphite and charcoal), a wooden board and a hammer
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What to do:
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Place the objects one by one on the wooden board and pound with the help of the hammer.
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Observation: Metal objects get flattened upon hammering while non-metals break.
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Conclusion: Metals are malleable whereas non-metals are not. Non-metals are brittle.
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2. Aim: To show that metals are good conductors of electricity and that non-metals (excluding graphite)
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are poor conductors.
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Materials needed: Samples of easily available metals (e.g., aluminium wire Battery Electric clips
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or sheet, iron nail, copper wire, etc.) and non-metals (e.g., graphite, charcoal,
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wood), a copper wire cut into four pieces, electric clips, a pencil cell, and
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a1.5-volt bulb
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What to do: Switch Wire

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1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the experimental set-up. Bulb
2. Connect the ends of the electric clips to the objects, one by one. Record
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the observations in each case. Experimental set-up

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Observation: The bulb glows when metals and graphite are connected to the electric clips, but not
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when non-metals are connected.
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Conclusion: Metals and graphite are good conductors of electricity whereas nonmetals are poor
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conductors.
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3. Aim: To synthesise a non-metallic oxide and test its solution using litmus paper.
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Materials required: Sulphur, a long-handled spoon or a deflagrating spoon, a burner, water, a gas jar
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with a lid and blue litmus paper

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What to do:
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1. Take a small amount of sulphur in the long-handled spoon/deflagrating spoon and heat it over the
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flame of a burner.
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2. When sulphur starts burning, lower the spoon into the gas jar.
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Cover the jar partly with the lid while the sulphur is still burning.
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3. The jar will be filled with sulphur dioxide gas. Remove the spoon Deflagrating
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and add about 30 mL water to the gas jar and shake it well. spoon
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4. Test this solution with blue litmus paper.

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Observation: Blue litmus paper turns red, indicating that the

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solution is acidic.
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Conclusion: Water dissolves the gas (sulphur dioxide) to form an acid (sulphurous acid), which turns
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blue litmus red. Sulphur, on heating, burns in air (oxygen) to form sulphur dioxide.
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S + O2 SO2
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(Sulphur) (Oxygen) (Sulphur dioxide)

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When sulphur dioxide reacts with water, it forms sulphurous acid solution. This solution is an acid as it
turns blue litmus paper to red.
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SO2 + H2O H2SO3

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(Sulphur dioxide) (Water) (Sulphurous acid)

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4. Aim: To show that hydrogen is produced when magnesium reacts with dilute sulphuric acid.
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Materials required: Magnesium ribbon, dilute sulphuric acid, test tube, dropper, and a matchstick
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What to do:
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1. Place a piece of magnesium ribbon in the test tube.
2. Using a dropper, carefully add a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid by sliding it along the sides of the
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test tube.
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3. Bring a burning matchstick near the mouth of the test tube.
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Observation: Bringing a burning matchstick near the mouth of the test tube the gas produced burns
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with a ‘pop’ sound.

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Conclusion: The popping sound is an indication that the gas produced is hydrogen.
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Magnesium reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to form magnesium sulphate and release of hydrogen gas.
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Mg + H2SO4
As MgSO4 + H2
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(Magnesium) (Sulphuric acid) (Magnesium sulphate) (Hydrogen)

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5. Aim: To demonstrate that iron is more reactive than copper.
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Materials required: Iron filings, copper turnings, copper sulphate solution, iron sulphate solution,
two test tubes and a dropper
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What to do:
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1. Mark the test tubes as A and B.

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2. Take some iron filings in test tube A and add some copper sulphate solution using a dropper.
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3. Take some copper turnings in test tube B and add some iron sulphate solution using a dropper.
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Observation: In test tube A, iron filings turn brown and the solution turns pale green. No reaction is
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observed in test tube B.

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Conclusion: In test tube A, iron filings turn brown due to the deposition of copper and the solution
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turns pale green due to the formation of iron sulphate solution. Since no reaction is shown in test tube B,
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it shows that iron is more reactive than copper as it displaces copper from the copper sulphate solution.
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Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu
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(Iron) (Copper sulphate) (Iron sulphate) (Copper)

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Worksheet 1
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1. Write the chemical equations for the following.
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(a) Formation of carbonic acid
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(b) Corrosion of silver
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(c) Formation of copper sulphate
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(d) Green colouration of copper sulphate solution containing iron nails
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(e) Reaction of zinc sulphate with silver
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(f) Reaction of iron with hydrochloric acid

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(g) Formation of sodium aluminate As

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(h) Rusting
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Element Uses
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(a) Aluminium i. Lights used for billboards

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(b) Sulphur ii. Making thin sheets to coat inside of pipes and cans of food stuff
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(c) Lead iii. Making cells and batteries

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(d) Tin iv. Making pipes and tools

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(e) Nitrogen v. Making parts of machinery

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(f) Iron vi. Used in agriculture to control fungus and pests

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(g) Neon vii. Food packaging

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(h) Zinc viii. Cable casing

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As

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(a) How does galvanising help in protecting iron from rusting?

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(b) Name any two metals and write their chemical equations showing their reactions with acids.
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(c) Write the chemical equation for the reaction of calcium with water. Name the gas that evolved and state how we can detect its presence.
(d) How can we examine the basic nature of metals? Explain in detail by taking magnesium as an example.
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(e) Write a short note on the reactivity series of metals.

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(f) Explain why copper vessels acquire a green coating on their surfaces with the passage of time.
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(g) States any five differences between metals and non-metals based on their physical properties.
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4. Project Work
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(Skills instilled: Technology literacy, Information literacy, Thought-provoking, Multiple intelligence)

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Plan a trip to any archaeological monument or museum in your city and observe the different elements present in the monument.
Make a PowerPoint presentation showing the images and the use of different elements.
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Worksheet 2
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1. Fill in the blanks. rs
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(a) Metals are hard and .......................... . (dull/lustrous)
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(b) Non-metals are ........................... and dull. (soft/hard)
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(c) Metals are ........................... conductors of heat and electricity. (good/poor)

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(d) ........................... is a liquid metal at room temperature. (Sodium/Mercury)
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(e) ........................... is the hardest known substance. (Iron/Diamond)
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(f) ........................... is a lustrous non-metal. (Bromine/Iodine)

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(g) The filament inside the bulb is made of ........................... (tungsten/aluminium)
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(h) Bells are made of metals because metals are ........................... . (lustrous/sonorous)
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(a) Gold is used in making parts of aircrafts.

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(b) Phosphorus is used in the fireworks industry.

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(c) Nitrogen is used as a disinfectant.

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(d) Mercury is used in barometers.

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(e) Displacement reaction takes place when a less reactive metal reacts with the salt solution of a more reactive metal.
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(f) Zinc can replace copper from copper sulphate.

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(g) Metals react with acids to release hydrogen gas.

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(h) The formula of rust is 2Fe2O3.xH2O.

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As
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(a) Write any two uses of metals.

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(b) Write any two uses of non-metals.

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(c) Write the chemical equation for the formation of rust.

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(d) What happens when a metal reacts with oxygen? Give two examples of reactions of metals with oxygen.
(e) Write short notes on:
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i. Ductility ii. Malleability

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(f) Write a short note on displacement reaction.

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(g) Copper can replace silver from its salt solution but it cannot replace iron from its salt solution. Why?
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(h) What happens when magnesium reacts with dilute sulphuric acid?
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(Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Self-awareness)

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Name the element present in thermometers. State why only this element is used in thermometers. Also, explain why non-metals cannot
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be used in thermometers.
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Unit 2 | Materials
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5
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COAL AND PETROLEUM
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21st Century Skills
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Unit 2 | Materials
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• Observing
5 COAL AND PETROLEUM
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• Analysing
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• Exploring
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Life Skills
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CHAPTER PREVIEW As
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• Natural resources and their types

• Formation, uses and products
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of coal • Communication
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• Formation, uses and products of

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petroleum and natural gas

• Conservation of fossil fuels Warm-up 7E Engage, Explore
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Wha
you will learn Ask students questions such as the
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• Differentiate between
following:
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inexhaustible resources and

• What is used to cook food at
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exhaustible resources
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• Understand the formation of coal, home?

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products formed and their uses

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• Understand the formation of • What do cars and motor bikes

need to run?
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petroleum, products formed and

their uses
• What do machines or
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• Understand about natural gas

and its uses
generators need to work?
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• Appreciate the need to conserve

fossil fuels
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Help students answer that fuel is

needed to do these things.
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Why
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it is important to learn 21st

WARM-UP Century Thought provoking
Skills
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We use natural resources for many of our daily

needs. Many of these resources take several What do you think of when you hear the word
million years to form, but we use them very fuel—something to cook with or to run the car
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fast in comparison. with, right?
Therefore, it is important for us to know about As shown in the picture, the delicious food being
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the nature of these natural resources and how cooked is using the most abundant fuel in the
world. Do you know what this fuel is? How is it
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to use them judiciously so that we can use

them for a long time. formed? How long does it take to form this fuel?
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Ask students to work in groups and find out the kinds of fuels used for cooking in urban and rural areas. Discuss the
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differences in these fuels.

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We need air to breathe, water to drink and wood to build our homes. We also need electricity
• Analysing
and power to run our homes and vehicles. We get many of these from nature.
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• Observing
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• Technology literacy What are natural resources?
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Anything that is found in nature and can be used by living things is a natural resource. Forests,
water, minerals, soil, animals, plants, fossil fuels and even air we breathe are natural resources.
Life Skills
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Resources that we create for our use are called human-made resources. You have studied about
rs synthetic fibres and plastics in an earlier chapter. They are examples of human-made resources.
We depend on natural resources to survive. Will we ever run out of natural resources?
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• Problem-solving
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That may, in fact, depend on the type of resource.
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What are the types of natural resources?

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Teaching Idea 7E Engage, Explore
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Depending on whether a natural resource will run out or not, there are two types of natural
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Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing, resources—inexhaustible or renewable natural resources and exhaustible or non-renewable
Critical thinking natural resources.
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Inexhaustible natural resources: Resources that can be replaced by natural processes are called
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Ask students what is meant by natural As inexhaustible or renewable natural resources. Air, wind and solar energy are some examples of
resources. Explain the concept in
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inexhaustible natural resources.

detail using the following flow chart.
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Air is a renewable resource that is present all around us. Plants
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Types of natural resources and animals use air to breathe. Plants give out carbon dioxide
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into the air, which is taken up by animals, who in turn breathe Search online for answers
out carbon dioxide that plants can use. Thus, the gases in air and discuss in class.
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are balanced in nature and can be used repeatedly. Wind is a Why do we face water
Inexhaustible Exhaustible shortages even if fresh
renewable resource. It can be used to run windmills that are
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water is considered to be
Give examples of inexhaustible or used to make electricity. The Sun gives off energy every day in
an inexhaustible natural
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renewable natural resources and the form of light and heat. It will continue to do so for millions resource?
of years. Plants use the Sun’s energy to make food. We and
exhaustible resources.
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other animals eat plants for food, thus indirectly using the Sun’s energy.
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Exhaustible natural resources: Resources that either

Look It Up! 7E Explain, Elaborate Real-world Connect! 7E Extend
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take a very long time to be replaced or cannot be replaced

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by natural processes are called exhaustible or non- Human activities are destroying the
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking renewable natural resources. Forests, wildlife and fossil world’s natural resources. Clearing
land for farming and building houses
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fuels are some examples of exhaustible natural resources.

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Our Earth covers 70% part with water wipes out forests and several animals
but the whole water is not safe for that live there. In addition, cars and
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Forests are non-renewable resources because new trees

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factories release toxic chemicals that

drinking. We get water which is fit for take time to grow back. We cut down trees to get wood.
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pollute air, water and soil.

drinking only from the rivers, which Wood is used to make houses and furniture as well
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is a source of freshwater. That’s why as used as a fuel. Wildlife is considered non-renewable

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resources today because of excessive hunting and destruction of its natural habitats. Wildlife
we face water shortage issues when
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provides balance in nature. Fossil fuels are non-renewable because they take millions of years to be
freshwater is considered to be an formed. Almost 90 per cent of energy to run machines comes from burning fossil fuels. Fossil fuels
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inexhaustible natural resource. 60

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Real-world Connect!
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7E Engage, Elicit Concept Building 7E Explain, Elaborate

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Human activities like clearing land

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What are natural resources?

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for farming and building houses

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wipe out animals and are responsible Ask students what we get from nature. Prompt them to say we get air, water,
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wood and power from nature.

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for destroying the world’s natural

resources. The environment is also Explain what human-made resources are. Give examples.
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polluted from the excess use of fuel,

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water and soil by humans, which What are the types of natural resources?
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contaminates water, air and soil.

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Discuss the two types of natural resources—inexhaustible or renewable

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natural resources and exhaustible or non-renewable natural resources.

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Explain that inexhaustible natural resources can be replaced by natural

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processes and exhaustible natural resources either take a very long time to be
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replaced or cannot be replaced by natural processes.

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include coal, petroleum (oil) and natural gas. These are called fossil fuels because they are formed
• Analysing
from the remains of plants, animals and other living things that lived long time ago. These remains
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over time slowly changed in form to become different kinds of fossil fuels. Coal is formed from • Observing
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plants. Petroleum and natural gas are formed mainly from microscopic organisms such as algae. • Exploring
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Life Skills
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To classify natural resources based on their ability to replenish or be replaced, in order to
distinguish between inexhaustible and exhaustible natural resources.
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1. This resource is an inexhaustible natural resource. • Critical thinking
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(a) Petroleum (b) Natural gas (c) Coal (d) Solar energy • Self-awareness
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2. This resource is an exhaustible natural resource.
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(a) Coal (b) Solar energy (c) Air (d) Wind ANM
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What is coal? How is coal formed?
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Much of the world’s energy comes from material formed thinking, Problem-solving
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hundreds of years ago! Coal is truly non-renewable or

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exhaustible because, in realistic terms, no coal is being As This section helps in evaluating if
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formed to restock the coal we are rapidly using up.

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Coal is a black or brown rock (Fig. 5.1) that is made up mostly
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of carbon and small amounts of sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and

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Fig. 5.1 Coal

hydrogen. Although available across the planet, the biggest discuss the answers so that students
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reserves of coal are in the USA, Russia, China, Australia Look It Up! 7E Elicit can verify their responses. If students
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and India. When coal is burned, the carbon present releases Search online for answers and discuss have doubts, revisit the respective
energy in the form of heat. Coal is classified by its carbon in class. section to clarify concepts.
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content—the greater the carbon content, the more heat Where do you find coal reserves in India?
it gives off when burnt. The lowest grade or rank of coal is
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Mark it on a map of India for

lignite, followed by sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal quick reference. Look It Up! 7E Explain, Elaborate
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and anthracite, which is 98 per cent carbon.

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Formation of coal: The coal used today began forming about 300 million years ago. At that Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking
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time, swamps with giant trees and plants were common on Earth. When these plants died, they
Tell them with the help of the internet
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got buried under the soil and in water, and formed a substance called peat. Stage one in coal
production is peat. Over time, layers of rock and other materials built up over the peat. When they find coal reserves in India such as
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peat was put under considerable vertical pressure, lignite was Odisha, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh
and mark it on a map.
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formed. The lignite continued receiving heavy vertical pressure

until it turned into sub-bituminous coal and then bituminous
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coal. The last stage of coal production is the anthracite stage

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when hard coal is formed. This slow process of conversion of

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dead vegetation into coal is called carbonisation.

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Coal is usually found in layers, under the ground. These layers

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are called coal beds or coal seams. To extract coal, it needs to be

dug out (Fig. 5.2) or mined by surface mining or deep mining. Fig. 5.2 Coal being extracted
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What is coal? How is coal formed?

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Ask students if they have seen coal. Show pictures of coal. Explain that coal is a black or brown rock, made up mostly of
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carbon and small amounts of sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen. Elaborate that coal produces more heat when burnt.
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Use the information given in the book to explain the formation of coal. Tell them about the different stages of coal formation:
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As
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1. Peat 4. Bituminous
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2. Lignite 5. Anthracite
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3. Sub-bituminous
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Discuss and explain each stage. Also, tell them coal is formed by the process of carbonisation which is a slow process of
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conversion of dead vegetation into coal. Relate the term coal beds to bed and explain it.
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• Analysing What are the uses of coal?
Coal is one of the major sources of fuel throughout the Look It Up!
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7E Elicit
• Observing
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world. This is because it is relatively cheap compared to Search online for answers
• Exploring other fossil fuels as well as more accessible. It is estimated and discuss in class.
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that around 37 per cent of the world’s electricity and 70 per What is the difference
cent of the world’s steel is produced using coal. It is also between charcoal and coal?
Life Skills
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the backbone of both steel and cement industries. Some
rs important uses of coal are listed below.
1. The most important use of coal is to generate electricity in thermal power plants.
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• Self-awareness
2. Coal is a key ingredient in the manufacturing of steel and cement.
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• Communication
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3. Coal is liquefied under pressure to make synthetic fuels like petrol or diesel.
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4. Coal is used in paper, textile and glass industries.
Section Review 2
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7E Evaluate 5. Coal is used to run steam engines of trains.
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Products obtained from coal: When heated in air, coal burns using oxygen and produces
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carbon dioxide gas and releases energy in the form of heat.

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As Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Heat energy

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This section helps in evaluating if However, when strongly heated to about 1000°C, in a closed tube, in the absence of air, it
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students have understood the concepts breaks down to different components. This process of heating coal in the absence of air is called
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taught so far. Let students complete the destructive distillation of coal. The main products obtained by this process are coke, coal
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tar and coal gas.

discuss the answers so that students Coke: It is a porous black solid and considered to be the purest form of coal as it contains
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can verify their responses. If students 98 per cent carbon. It is a good fuel and burns without smoke.
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Coal tar: It is a thick black liquid with an unpleasant smell. It is a complex liquid made of
section to clarify concepts. several hundred chemicals. It is extensively used as a starting material in the manufacturing
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of synthetic dyes, explosives, drugs, paints, perfumes and naphthalene balls. Coal tar is
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extensively used for surfacing roads.

Look It Up!
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Coal gas: It is a highly flammable gas. Its main component is methane. It is used as a source
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking of cooking fuel. It is also used as fuel in many industries, especially in those situated near coal
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processing units.
Tell the students coal is a natural
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occurring mineral while charcoal is a
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manufactured product created To list the useful by-products obtained after processing coal to explain that natural resources
can be used to obtain useful products other than fuel.
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from wood.
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1. This is a solid by-product obtained after processing coal.

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(a) Coal tar (b) Coal gas (c) Coke (d) Paraffin wax
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2. This liquid by-product obtained after processing coal is useful in manufacturing plastics,
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synthetic dyes, naphthalene balls, etc.

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Concept Building (a) Coal tar (b) Coal gas (c) Coke (d) Paraffin wax
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3. This gaseous by-product obtained after processing coal is an important source of fuel.
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(a) Coal tar (b) Coal gas (c) Coke (d) Paraffin wax
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thinking
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What are the uses of coal?

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Explain that coal is one of the major sources of fuel. Coal is a relatively cheap fossil fuel. Some important uses of coal are
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listed below.
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Generate electricity in Manufacturing of Make synthetic fuels Paper, textile and Run steam
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thermal power plants. steel and cement. like petrol or diesel. glass industries. engines of trains.
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Products obtained from coal

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Explain how coal produces heat energy: coal is heated in air, it burns using oxygen
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Products obtained from coal

and produces carbon dioxide gas and releases energy in the form of heat.
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Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Heat energy

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Coke Coal tar Coal gas

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Talk about the products obtained from coal:

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What is petroleum? How is petroleum formed? • Analysing
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Petroleum is a naturally occurring, dark coloured, thick liquid found beneath the Earth’s • Observing
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surface. The word petroleum comes from petra, meaning rocks and oleum, meaning oil as it is
mined from the rocks in the Earth’s crust. Petroleum, also called crude oil, is a complex mixture • Exploring
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of solid, liquid, and gaseous hydrocarbons (compounds made of hydrogen and carbon).
Oil well
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Formation of petroleum: Petroleum is a fossil fuel, Life Skills
meaning that it has been created by the decomposition
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of organic matter over millions of years. Petroleum • Critical thinking
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is formed from large quantities of dead organisms– • Self-awareness
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primarily zooplankton (aquatic microorganisms)
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and algae. Millions of years ago, these organisms

• Problem-solving
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lived in shallow seas. After dying and sinking to the
seafloor, they mixed with other sediments and were
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Do You Know?
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7E Engage, Elicit
buried. Under high pressure and temperature, the
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remains of these organisms gradually transformed into Impervious

Gas Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Analysing
rock Oil
petroleum which is found in underground pockets
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called reservoirs. Deep beneath the Earth, pressure is As Bring some petrol and water in class to
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extremely high. Where there is low pressure, petroleum Water do an activity. Select a student and tell
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slowly seeps out toward the surface. It continues this Fig. 5.3 Petroleum reservoir them to mix both in a bowl. After doing
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movement from high to low pressure until it encounters this what we see. We see that petroleum
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a layer of rock that is impermeable. The petroleum then collects Do You Know? 7E Extend
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Petroleum is lighter
floats on water. So, we can say that
in reservoirs, which can be several hundred meters below the
than water, so it floats petrol is lighter than water.
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surface of the Earth (Fig. 5.3). Today, petroleum is found in vast

over water.
underground reservoirs where ancient seas were once located.
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Extraction of petroleum: Petroleum reservoirs are found beneath land or ocean floor. It can
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be extracted by oil drilling. On land, oil is drilled with an apparatus called an oil rig or drilling
rig. Offshore, oil is drilled from an oil platform. Most modern wells use a drilling rig, which
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can operate 24 hours a day. When an oil well is drilled through rocks, natural gas present
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above the oil layer is the first to come out. When the drill hits oil, some of the oil rises from the
ground, moving from an area of high pressure to low pressure.
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Refining of petroleum: Petroleum after extraction has to be refined and separated, before
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it can be used. The process of separating the extracted petroleum or crude oil into useful
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substances is called refining. Refining of crude oil takes place in oil refineries. The crude oil is
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transported to refineries via pipelines, rail, trucks, ships and barges.

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What are the uses of petroleum?

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At the refinery, oil is heated in a furnace and is sent to a distillation tower or fractionating
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tower, where it is separated into components. The different components that are separated out
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during this process are known as fractions.

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What is petroleum? How is petroleum formed?

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Explain what petroleum is. Show pictures of petroleum. Talk about the characteristics of petroleum. Then explain the
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formation, extraction, refining and uses of petroleum.

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Show students videos on the extraction and refining of petroleum for a better understanding of the concept.
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21st Century Skills
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The separation of oil into different fractions is done by the process of fractional distillation,
• Analysing
in which fractions of petroleum having different boiling points cool and condense at different
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• Observing heights of the fractionating tower (Fig. 5.4).
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• Exploring Products obtained from petroleum: The various fractions that are separated during the
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refining of petroleum are useful to us in different ways. Due to many usefulness of petroleum,
it is also called Black Gold. The fractions or by-products of petroleum refining are given below.
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Life Skills
Petroleum gases: These gases
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Critical thinking are the lightest products formed.
Petroleum gas
<25 °C
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• Self-awareness They can be processed into
Gasoline
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Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG), <25-60 °C
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• Problem-solving which is used as a portable fuel for <60-180 °C Naphtha

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domestic and commercial cooking.
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<180-220 °C Paraffin
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Look It Up! 7E Explain, Elaborate
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Petrol: It is used as a common <220-250 °C
Diesel
fuel for most automobiles. <250-300 °C
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Fuel oil
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking <300-350 °C

Naphtha: It is used as a solvent in
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Lubricating oil
Ask students to take the help of the As paint and soap industries.
Crude
oil
<350 °C
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internet and find the places where Kerosene/Paraffin: It is used in Furnace Bitumen
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petroleum refineries are found in India aircrafts as aviation fuel and for
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such as Assam, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu Fig. 5.4 Fractional distillation of petroleum
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heating and lighting.

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and Rajasthan. Also, ask them to mark Diesel: It is used as fuel in heavy motor vehicles and generators.
these places on the map of India.
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Integrated Social Science

Lubricating oil: It is used for lubrication of moving parts Look It Up! Pedagogy
of machines in the form of grease and wax. Search online for answers and
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Fuel oil: It is used as fuel in large ships as marine diesel. discuss in class.
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Where in India are petroleum

Bitumen: It is used for surfacing roads and as refineries located? On a map of
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waterproofing material. India, mark the locations.

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What is natural gas?

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Natural gas is a fossil fuel that forms deep beneath the Earth’s surface from the remains of
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dead animals and plants, similar to the formation of coal and petroleum. It contains many
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different compounds. The largest component of natural gas is methane. It occurs in the tiny
spaces within sedimentary rocks such as shale and sandstone. It is trapped underground by
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impervious rocks, and stays there until it is extracted. It can also be found above crude oil
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reservoirs as it is less denser that oil, and is generally extracted alongside crude oil.
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Once extracted, natural gas is sent through small pipelines to processing plants, which produce
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what is known as ‘pipeline quality’ natural gas, before it can be transported. This gas is then
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transported through pipelines to distribution centres or is stored.

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Products obtained from petroleum

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Show students a video on the fractional distillation of petroleum. Tell them about the different products obtained from
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petroleum and their uses.

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What is natural gas? (pages 64–65)

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Explain natural gas and its types.

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Natural gas
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LNG CNG PNG

(Liquefied Natural Gas) (Compressed Natural Gas) (Piped Natural Gas)
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Chemicals with distinct smells called odorants are added to natural gas so that leaks in natural
• Analysing
gas pipelines can be detected. In some cases, gas is further liquefied for shipping in large tankers
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across oceans in the form of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG). Natural gas is mostly used as a • Observing
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domestic or industrial fuel. Nowadays many homes across India get cooking gas in the form • Exploring
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of Piped Natural Gas (PNG). Natural gas can also be compressed and used to fuel vehicles in
the form of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG). It is a cleaner fuel as it does not cause much air
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pollution and is thus a good alternative to petrol and diesel for running vehicles. In India, many Life Skills
CNG-filling stations have come up to encourage people to use CNG and reduce air pollution.
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What are petrochemicals? • Self-awareness
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During the refining process of petroleum and natural gas, chemicals known as petrochemicals • Problem-solving
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are derived. A process called cracking is used to turn hydrocarbons into petrochemicals such
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as ethylene and propylene, which can then be further refined into a multitude of derivatives.
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Section Review 3
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7E Evaluate
These petrochemicals and their derivatives are then used to produce thousands of products
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that we use every day.
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Petrochemical products are everywhere and are an integral part of our lives. They include
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plastics, fertilisers, packaging, clothing, digital devices, medical equipment, adhesives, paints,
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detergents, tyres and many other products. They are also found in many parts of the modern This section helps in evaluating if
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energy system, including solar panels, wind turbine blades, batteries, thermal insulation for students have understood the concepts
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buildings and electric vehicle parts. Due to their wide range of practical uses across industries,
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petrochemicals are one of the largest drivers of global oil demand. exercise on their own in class. Then,
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Section Review 3 7E Evaluate can verify their responses. If students

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To infer why gas, oil and water are found in a particular sequence in locations where
petroleum is found. section to clarify concepts.
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1. When oil is extracted through the rock layers, natural gas is found to be present above the oil
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layer. Why is this so?

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(a) Oil and gas have the same mass. (b) Oil and gas have different densities.
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(c) Oil and gas have the same densities. (d) Oil and gas have impurities.
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To classify different constituents of petroleum.

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2. Which of these by-products of refining of petroleum are used as sources of fuel?

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(a) LPG, Bitumen, Diesel (b) LPG, Kerosene, Lubricating oil

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(c) LPG, Petrol, Diesel (d) LPG, Petrol, Bitumen

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To explain the advantages of using natural gas as fuel.

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3. Geeta found it difficult to breathe whenever she used to visit her aunt in the city. She visited
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them recently and found that the air was cleaner than before. What could be a possible reason?
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(a) Buses and cars now use kerosene as fuel (b) Buses and cars now use CNG as fuel
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(c) Buses and cars now use LPG as fuel (d) Buses and cars now use PNG as fuel
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What are petrochemicals?

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Explain that petrochemicals are derived during refining process of petroleum and natural gas. Discuss the uses of
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petrochemicals. Show pictures of different products made from petrochemicals.

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Ask students to search the internet and make a list of some petrochemical products we use in daily life.
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• Analysing Why should we conserve fossil fuels? Do You Know? 7E Extend
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• Observing We have learnt that fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and Excessive use of fossil fuels
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natural gas are exhaustible natural resources and are not releases excessive carbon
• Exploring renewable. They will get completely used up in time and we will
dioxide into the atmosphere
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which eventually leads to
not get more until natural processes regenerate them, in a few climate change.
million years. So, we need to find ways to limit their usage.
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Life Skills
Burning petroleum, coal and natural gas fills the air with
• rs
Critical thinking harmful pollutants (Fig. 5.5), including nitrogen oxides, sulphur
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dioxide, carbon dioxide and many hydrocarbons. Besides
• Self-awareness
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creating smog and respiratory diseases, these pollutants—
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• Problem-solving particularly carbon dioxide—collect in the atmosphere and

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prevent the Earth’s heat from escaping into space.
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Ways in which we can conserve fossil fuels are:
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• Reduce, reuse and recycle plastics as they are made of
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical petrochemicals.

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thinking, Problem-solving As • Switching to energy-saving appliances by using home

appliances with the Energy Star label, which is placed on
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Fig. 5.5 Smoke from factories

This section helps in evaluating if products that meet high-efficiency standards.
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students have understood the concepts • Turn off the lights when you leave a room for more than 15 minutes. The power saved
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taught so far. Let students complete the reduces the demand of electricity, which in turn requires less output from power plants that
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burn fossil fuels.

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• Use public transportation as it reduces the number of cars on the road and therefore the
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reduction in release of harmful pollutants. You could also carpool, ride a bicycle or walk.
can verify their responses. If students • Use LED light bulbs, which are highly efficient and thus decrease energy consumption.
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Since petrol and diesel are the two main fuels used for driving vehicles, it is important to
section to clarify concepts. use them judiciously to conserve petroleum as well as to reduce pollution. In India, the
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Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA) was set up to promote conservation

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of fuels through energy efficiency and awareness programs. The PCRA recommendations to
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conserve fuel are:
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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Analysing • Turn off the engine at traffic red lights as idling leads to waste of fuel as well as pollution.
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• Drive the vehicle in the correct gear and at a moderate speed for fuel efficiency. INT
Ask students if they have heard of
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• Keep the engine in good condition by regularly servicing the vehicles.

global warming and climate change.
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Section Review 4
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7E Evaluate
Explain that excessive use of fossil fuels
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is the main cause of climate change. To list out the ways to conserve fossil fuels.
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Saina drives her petrol car to work in Delhi. She woke up to severe air pollution in the first
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week of November. What can she do to help?

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(a) Turn off her car engine at traffic red lights. (b) Keep her engine running at the traffic red light.
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(c) Drive very fast to reduce travel time. (d) Drive very slowly all the time.
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What fossil fuel do you think Saina’s car is using?

Is this fossil fuel exhaustible or inexhaustible?
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66 Why do you think so?

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Why should we conserve fossil fuels?

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Discuss the need to conserve fossil fuels. Explain that since fossil fuels are non-renewable resources, they need to be
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conserved for future generations. Guide students to suggest ways to conserve fossil fuels.
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Talk about PCRA and its recommendations for conserving fuel.

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21st Century Skills
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5. Observe and answer. Oil well
• Analysing
Why is the layer of oil formed between natural gas and water?
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• Observing
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(a) Reservoir rocks allow only water to pass through it.
(b) Gas and oil are lighter than water and these three substances do • Exploring
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not mix.
Impervious
(c) Water is lighter than gas and oil. rock
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(d) Gas is heavier than oil and water.
Oil Water Life Skills
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REASONING 1 1-2 2
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B. SUBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
• Self-awareness
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1. Answer the following in brief.
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(a) List three examples each of exhaustible and inexhaustible natural resources. • Problem solving
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(b) Infer that coal is an exhaustible natural resource.
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(c) Write the correct sequence in the stages in coal formation.
Experiential Learning (page 67)
(d) List the by-products of petroleum refining giving one use of each.
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7E Explore, Engage, Evaluate

(e) List any two uses of natural gas.
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2. Answer the following in detail. As Skills instilled: Analysing,

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(a) Clarify why coal, petroleum and natural gas are called fossil fuels with reference to how they Decision-making, Discovery-based
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are formed. learning
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(b) Evaluate the impact of not conserving exhaustible resources.

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This exercise will make students

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(c) Compare and contrast destructive distillation of coal and fractional distillation of petroleum.
(d) Give one reason why natural gas is considered to be a green fuel. conscious about their energy
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(e) Suggest any three ways in which you can help reduce energy consumption at your home.
consumption patterns and also about
21st
the need to reduce the use of energy.
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C. PUZZLE OVER Century Analysis PROBLEM-SOLVING - 1 1 Explain the task and let students do the
Skills
activity in groups.
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1. Identify the correct by-products of the given fossil fuels.

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(a) It is a porous black solid considered to be the purest form of coal. (coke, petrol)
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(b) It is used for surfacing roads. (bituminous coal, bitumen)
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(c) It is used in aircrafts as aviation fuel. (lubricating oil, kerosene)

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(d) It is used as fuel in heavy motor vehicles and generators. (naphtha, diesel)
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(e) It is used for lubrication of moving parts of machines. (lubricating oil, fuel oil)
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D. SKILL CRAFT ANALYSIS & CREATING 1 2-3 4

21st
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1. Project Work
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Century Creativity
Skills
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Design a working prototype of a water-powered turbine which rotates when placed on a flowing
stream of water. Write a brief report on your design, how it is designed to work as well as how it
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will help reduce the use of fossil fuels.

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Puzzle Over 7E Explain, Engage

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This section will help students differentiate between by-products of fossil fuels. Ask students to recall the names and uses
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of petroleum products and fill in the blanks. Read the questions loudly and explain it to the students. Let them answer the
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given puzzles. Help them to answer which are as follows:

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(a) Coke (b) Bitumen (c) Kerosene (d) Diesel (e) Lubricating oil
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Skills instilled: Creativity, Productivity and Accountability, Collaboration

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Ask students to work in groups. Let them search the internet for ideas on making a working model of a water turbine. Help
them arrange for things needed to make the model. Also, guide them when they are actually making the model.
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21st
• Analysing 2. Research/Activity Century Analysis, Observation
Skills
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• Observing Collect a 6-month Air Quality Index (AQI) data of your city. Travel to different parts of your city
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• Exploring on a weekend, take relevant pictures and create a presentation on the causes of air pollution in
your city. List what you think you can do to reduce air pollution.
Pr
21st
Life Skills 3. Discuss and Answer Century Collaboration
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Skills
Renewable energy looks like the answer to future energy supplies. Students can work in small
rs groups to brainstorm ideas for both the positive and the negative sides of renewable energy.
• Self-awareness
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• Problem-solving 4. Connect to Life Life
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Skills Self-awareness
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Read about the Government of India’s initiatives regarding Electrical Vehicles (EV) in India.
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What do you think will be its short-term and long-term effects?
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing, Self¯check
Life
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Environmental literacy I can:

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This exercise will make students As differentiate between exhaustible and inexhaustible natural resources.
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aware about the issue of pollution list the three types of fossil fuels and describe briefly the formation of fossil fuels.
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and how we can improve the quality list at least five by-products of petroleum with one use of each.
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of air around us. Ask students to take list two ways by which fossil fuels are harmful to the environment.
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the help of the internet to collect the appreciate the importance of knowing about the formation of fossil fuels as well as the need to
conserve them.
required information.
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Discuss and Answer

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Thought-

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provoking, Critical thinking

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Students can first search for the

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required information and then put

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forth arguments in favour of and

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against renewable energy. You can also ed L a

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arrange a debate on the topic.

bW
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Super
or k

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1. To show the need for conservation using the cookie 2. To demonstrate how crude oil migrates upwards
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eating experiment. through water, from the reservoir.

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Skills instilled: Creativity, Productivity and Accountability

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Tell students about different government policies made to control air

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pollution. Discuss how these policies will bring a positive change in the long
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term. Talk about modern technologies like electric vehicles to help reduce air
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pollution. Show pictures of electric vehicles.

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Teacher’s Support
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SUPERVISED LAB WORK
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1. Aim: To show the need for conservation using the cookie-eating experiment.
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Materials required: Chocolate chip cookies – relatively hard cookies work best (2 per student),
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toothpicks (2 per student plus extras) and paper plates (1 per student)
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What to do:
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1. Hand out the cookies, toothpicks and a paper plate to each person.
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2. Have students take one cookie and put it on the plate. Set the timer to one minute. Each student
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gets one minute to try to ‘mine’ out as many chocolate chips as one can using only their fingers.
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When the timer goes off, the students are to stop.
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Observation: Now have the students look at the cookie they ‘excavated’. Ask them if they would still
want to eat the cookie without all the chocolate chips they mined out. Would they rather just eat the
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chocolate chips?
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3. Now have the students place the second cookie on the plate and get their toothpicks ready. Set
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a timer for three minutes. This time the students are to only use the two toothpicks to ‘mine’ the
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chocolate chips out of the cookie. In this round quality is the goal.
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4. Students are to be careful and try to keep the chocolate chips and cookies intact. The focus is not on
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how many they can ‘mine’ out. The focus is on getting them out whole. Again, when the timer goes
off the students are to stop.
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Observation: Have the students look at this cookie. Ask students if they notice any difference in this
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cookie as compared to the previous cookie.

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Conclusion: The cookie represents the Earth and the chocolate chips represent fossil fuels such as coal
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and petroleum. The first cookie activity shows how unplanned excavation and use of fossil fuels can lead
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to the destruction of the environment. The second cookie activity shows that careful excavation and use
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of fossil fuels do not destroy the environment and help in conserving the environment,
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2. Aim: To demonstrate how crude oil migrates upwards through water, from the reservoir.
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Materials required: A sugar cube, some cooking oil, a small saucer or plate, a glass tumbler with water,
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What to do:
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1. Place the sugar cube in the saucer or plate.

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2. Take some cooking oil (sunflower oil, olive oil, etc.) and pour a little onto the sugar cube. Wait for the
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oil to seep into the sugar.

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3. Then pick the cube using the tongs and gently drop it into a transparent glass half-filled with water.
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Observation: The sugar cube sinks to the bottom of the glass. After a short while, drops of the oil can be
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seen forming on the surface of the sugar cube, before floating to the surface of the water.
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Conclusion: After it has been formed, oil leaves the rock in which it was formed (called the ‘source
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rock’) and heads towards the surface through the water that circulates inside the rocks. The sugar lump
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represents the ‘source rock’ and the cooking oil represents the crude oil. Oil is lighter than water, so when
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the oil comes into contact with water, it is ‘carried’ upwards due to the difference in density, exactly the
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same way as the cooking oil is ‘extracted’ from the lump of sugar.
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(a) The .......................... gives off energy every day in the form of light and heat. (Sun/wind)
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(b) .......................... is one of the major non-renewable fuels used throughout the world. (The Sun/Coal)
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(c) Petroleum is also called ........................... (crude oil/oil rig)
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(d) Components separated from the oil in a refinery are called .......................... . (fractions/sections)
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(e) Naphtha is a by-product of .......................... . (coal/petroleum)
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(g) The main component of coal gas is .......................... . (methane/ethyl)
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(h) .......................... is the main fuel used for driving vehicles. (Petrol/Coal)
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(a) Wildlife i. Coke

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(b) Solar energy ii. Oil rig

(c) Product of coal iii. Compressed Natural Gas
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(d) Place where oil is drilled iv. Inexhaustible natural resources

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(e) LPG v. Non-renewable

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(f) CNG vi. Component of natural gas
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(g) Methane vii. Thick black liquid

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(h) Coal tar viii. Liquified Petroleum Gas

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(a) Why does petroleum float on water?

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(b) Define coal beds.

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(c) What is destructive distillation?

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(d) Write any two ways of conservation of fossil fuels.

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(e) What is fractional distillation?

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(f) What is the use of diesel?

(g) Write a function of lubricating oil.
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(h) What does this picture show?

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(Skills instilled: Global awareness, Technology literacy)

Explore the internet and make a list of different products obtained from petroleum. Then make a PowerPoint presentation on uses of
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different petroleum products and present it in class.

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(a) Living things are natural resources.
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(b) Resources that we create for our use are called human-made resources.
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(c) Air, which is present all around us, is not a renewable resource.
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(d) Oil is drilled with an apparatus called an oil platform.
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(e) Coal, petroleum and natural gas are exhaustible natural resources.
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(f) The largest component of natural gas is methane.

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(g) Bitumen is used for surfacing roads and as a waterproofing material.

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(h) Petrol is not used as a common fuel for most automobiles.

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(a) Fuel oil i. 98 per cent carbon

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(b) Diesel ii. Black gold

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(c) Naphtha iii. Forest
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(d) Coke iv. Renewable

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(e) Non-renewable v. Marine diesel

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(f) Air vi. Petroleum Conservation Research Association

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(g) Petroleum vii. Soap industries

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(h) PCRA viii. Motor vehicles

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(a) What are natural resources?

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(b) What are inexhaustible natural resources?

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(c) What is coal?

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(d) Write the chemical reaction of carbon and oxygen.

(e) Write any two uses of coal.
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Oil well
(f) Write any two products of coal.
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(g) Define fractions.

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Impervious rock
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Gas
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(Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Self-awareness, Environmental literacy)

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Ronit is in Class 8. He is worried about depleting fossil fuels and wants to do his bit about saving fossil fuels. What can he do?
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Unit 2 | Materials
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6
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COMBUSTION AND FLAME
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21st Century Skills
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Unit 2 | Materials
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• Analysing
6 COMBUSTION AND FLAME
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Life Skills
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As CHAPTER PREVIEW
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• Critical thinking • Combustion and its types

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• Understanding • Process of combustion and
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ignition temperature
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• Flame, types of fuels, fuel

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efficiency and harmful effects

Warm-up 7E Engage, Explore of burning fuel
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Skills instilled: Critical thinking,

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Analysing Wha
you will learn
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Explain the importance of heat • Understand combustion and

energy. Ask what kind of energy is
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its types
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needed to cook food. Talk about • Understand the process of
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combustion and conditions

cow dung and LPG as fuels used for required for combustion
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cooking food. • Define ignition temperature

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and calorific value

Ask if the same conditions are • Learn about the parts of a
required in the burning of cow
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dung cakes and LPG. • Understand the types of fuels
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and the harmful effects of

burning fuels
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Why
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The study of combustion helps us 21st

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design and monitor better and more WARM-UP Century Thought provoking
Skills
efficient machines and engines.
How are LPG gas cylinders and cow dung cakes alike?
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It also helps us understand the Do they have anything in common?

conditions required for burning fuel
They are both used as fuel to cook things.
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as well as the importance of avoiding

those fuels that irreversibly damage Do you know why they burn? Are there some conditions
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our environment. required for fuels to burn?

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Ask students to make groups of 5 and list some things around them. Then, ask them if the things can be burnt or not.
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Name of things Can be burnt or not?

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We use energy in our everyday activities such as cooking, running vehicles, operating
• Analysing
machines in factories and power plants or pumping water at our homes. Fuels are a source
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of energy that give heat energy when burned. Whenever we burn anything, combustion • Environmental literacy
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takes place.
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Life Skills
What is combustion? IVID
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Combustion is simply the process of burning something. Combustion gives off heat
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and light. The chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give off heat • Problem-solving
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and light is known as combustion. In a combustion reaction, a fuel is heated and reacted
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with oxygen to give out heat, water and carbon dioxide.
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Activity
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7E Engage, Elaborate
Fuel + Oxygen Heat + Water + Carbon dioxide
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In order to have a combustion reaction, the combination of three things is required— oxygen, Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing,
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a substance that can undergo combustion and something that acts as fuel. Critical thinking
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What are combustible and non-combustible substances? Explain what is meant by combustible
and non-combustible substances.
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Depending on whether a substance can undergo combustion or not, there are two main types
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of substances—Combustible substances and Non-combustible substances. Name some substances such as diesel,
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Combustible substances: Substances which burn in the presence of water, stone, sand, LPG and kerosene
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and ask students to categorise each as
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air or oxygen are called combustible substances. Paper, fabric, petrol,

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coal, wood (Fig. 6.1), diesel, cow dung cakes, LPG and kerosene oil combustible or non-combustible in a
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are examples of combustible substances. table with the following heads.

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Non-combustible substances: Substances

Fig. 6.1 Combustible that do not burn in oxygen or air are called
Combustible Non-combustible
substance substance
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substance
non-combustible substances. Water (Fig. 6.2),
sand and stone are examples of non-combustible substances. LPG Sand
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What are the types of combustion?

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There are several types of combustion. However, there are three
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Fig. 6.2 Non-combustible

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main types of combustion. substance

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Rapid combustion: In a combustion reaction, when external heat

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is applied, and a substance burns in a short span of time releasing

heat and light, it is called rapid combustion. Examples of rapid
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combustion are burning of a matchstick when lighted (Fig. 6.3) and

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burning of cooking gas (LPG and PNG) in a gas hob.

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Fig. 6.3 Rapid combustion

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Explosive combustion or Explosion: In a combustion reaction,

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when external heat is applied, and a substance burns in a very short span of time releasing heat,
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light and sound with the liberation of gaseous compounds, it is called explosive combustion or
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explosion. Bursting of fireworks and burning of rocket fuel (Fig. 6.4) are examples of explosion.
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What is combustion?
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First, explain the meaning of combustion and why combustion is useful. Then explain the mechanism of combustion using
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the following equation.

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Show videos/pictures of the burning of rocket fuel and the bursting of crackers.
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Discuss different types of combustion such as rapid combustion, explosive combustion and spontaneous combustion.
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Spontaneous combustion: In a combustion reaction,
• Analysing
when a substance burns to release heat and light without
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• Observing the application of an external source of heat, it is called
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• Exploring spontaneous combustion. White phosphorous burning
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at room temperature (30 to 35°C, depending on air
conditions) is an example of spontaneous combustion.
Life Skills
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Forest fires due to the heat of the Sun or lightning
strikes are also examples of spontaneous combustion.
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Critical thinking
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• Environmental literacy Real-world Connect! 7E Explain
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• Communication
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Cellular respiration is a kind of combustion—a slow

combustion of food. During respiration, digested food
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components are broken down by the reaction with oxygen
to produce heat energy, water and carbon dioxide. Fig. 6.4 Explosive
Real-world Connect!
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combustion
7E Engage, Elicit
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Section Review 1
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7E Evaluate
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical As To recognise when combustion is taking place and to identify combustible substances and
non-combustible substances.
thinking
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1. Combustion takes place in many everyday activities. Which of the following does not rely on
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Ask students to search the internet and combustion to work?
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(a) A computer (b) Fireworks (c) A gas stove (d) A car

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find out how the process of cellular

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2. Mita’s little sister accidently set fire to a piece of paper. Mita quickly poured a glass of water over
respiration occurs in the human body. it and the paper stopped burning.
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What can water and paper be categorised as? Tick the correct option.
Section Review 1 7E Evaluate (a) Paper and water are both non-combustible.
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(b) Paper is combustible, but water is non-combustible.

Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical (c) Paper is non-combustible, but water is combustible.
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thinking, Problem-solving (d) Paper and water are both combustible.

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students have understood the concepts What is the process of combustion?

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taught so far. Let students complete the Most forms of combustion happen when oxygen combines with a combustible substance.
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When combustible substances such as wood or paper burn, in addition to a lot of heart energy,
discuss the answers so that students can the combustion reaction mostly leaves behind carbon dioxide and water. In most cases, heat is
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verify their responses. If students have necessary to start the combustion reaction. Once started, the combustion reaction produces its
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own heat as long as conditions necessary for combustion are available.

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doubts, revisit the respective section to

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clarify concepts. Test It Yourself! 7E Explore

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Light a small candle. Now, carefully place a tall glass container over the candle such that the
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candle flame doesn’t touch the glass. The candle will go out as soon as the oxygen in the container
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Test It Yourself! is used up. If you then rub your finger on the inside of the container, you will feel water droplets
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7E Engage, Explore that were left behind from the combustion reaction.
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thinking
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Take students to the laboratory and

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conduct this experiment. Ask students

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what they observed and what they infer Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking
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from the experiment.

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What is the process of combustion?

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Ask students to recall what happens when the burner of a gas stove is turned
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on, how a candle is lit and what happens when the ignition of the car is
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turned on. Explain that combustion happens when oxygen combines with
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combustible substances. Ask students to give more examples of combustion.

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Explain the importance of heat to start a combustion reaction.

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What are the conditions necessary for combustion?
• Analysing
The conditions required for a combustion reaction are the following:
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• Observing
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1. There must be fuel to burn, that is, presence of combustible substance
• Exploring
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2. There must be air to supply oxygen, that is, presence of a supporter of combustion
3. There must be heat or ignition to start the combustion process, that is, attainment of
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ignition temperature Life Skills
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Presence of combustible substance: If we take substances such as water, sand or stones • Critical thinking
and heat them in the presence of air or oxygen, they will not burn. This is because they are
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non-combustible substances. So, the presence of a combustible substance is a necessary • Communication
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condition for combustion to take place. • Self-awareness

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• Teamwork
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Presence of a supporter of combustion: If we take a combustible substance such as paper or
fabric and heat them in the presence of air or oxygen, it will burn. However, if we immediately
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cover them and block the supply of oxygen, they will stop burning. So, the presence of a
Look It Up! 7E Explore, Elicit
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supporter of combustion such as oxygen is a necessary condition for combustion to take place.
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Attainment of ignition temperature: Heat is necessary for combustion. A combustible Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
substance starts to burn only after it has attained a certain minimum temperature. The
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thinking
temperature at which a particular substance burns in the presence of air is called its ignition
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temperature. A combustible substance will not burn as long as its temperature is lower than This section helps the students to
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its ignition temperature. Substances that have very low ignition temperature and, therefore, can explore new concepts. Ask the students
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catch fire easily are known as inflammable substances. Petrol, kerosene and LPG (Liquified to search why matches are called safety
Petroleum Gas) are examples of inflammable substances. Special care needs to be taken while matches and how it is made.
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storing or transporting inflammable substances.

Now, explain to students that matches
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All combustible substances do not have the same ignition temperature. Different substances
have different ignition temperatures. So, different substances catch fire and burn at different
are called safety matches because in
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temperatures. Some substances have low ignition temperatures, that is, they will catch fire quickly, them reactive ingredients are separated
from each other. The head of safety
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whereas other substances have comparatively high ignition temperatures, that is, they will catch fire
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slower in comparison. For instance, a combustible substance such as kerosene has a lower ignition matches is made of an oxidising agent
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temperature than that of a wood. This means kerosene will catch fire faster than wood. such as potassium chlorate, mixed with
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How does a matchstick catch fire? sulphur, fillers and glass powder. The
side of the box contains red phosphorus,
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A matchstick is a common ignition device. The head of a matchstick

is made of chemicals including antimony trisulphide and Look It Up! 7E Elicit binder and powdered glass.
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potassium chlorate, while the sides of the match box have a strip Search online for Now, explain to them that matches
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of chemicals including red phosphorous. The ignition temperature answers and discuss
are made of small wooden sticks or
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of a matchstick is higher than the room temperature, and so it does in class.

not catch fire and burn on its own. However, when one strikes stiff paper. One end is coated with a
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Why are household

a matchstick against the side of the matchbox, friction creates matches called ‘safety material that can be ignited by friction
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sufficient heat to convert the red phosphorous on the matchbox matches’? How are generated by striking the match
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matches made?
to white phosphorous. This ignites the white phosphorous that against a suitable surface. Wooden
matches are packaged in matchboxes,
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and paper matches are partially cut
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into rows and stapled in the side of the

matchbox.
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Concept Building 7E Elicit, Explore, Engage

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Ask students to form a group of 5

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking, Problem-solving and write their observations in a
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project file and explain the process of

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manufacturing in nutshell.
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Explain the concept of combustion and the conditions required for

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combustion. Discuss the presence of the following three scenarios and give
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examples of each:
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• Presence of a combustible substance

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• Presence of a supporter of combustion

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• Attainment of ignition temperature

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How does a matchstick catch fire?

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Ask students to think of ways to light a matchstick. List their answers on the
board. Then explain how a matchstick catches fire. Also, demonstrate the
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lighting of a matchstick.
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reacts with potassium chlorate on the matchstick which in turn ignites antimony trisulphide. Thus,
• Observation
combustion occurs and the matchstick catches fire.
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How are fires extinguished?
• Self-awareness The most common form of combustion is fire. Fire
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originates from sources of heat such as burning Oxygen Heat
matchsticks, embers from cigarettes or campfires,
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Life Skill
etc. If fires become uncontrollable and are not timely
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Critical thinking extinguished, they can be very destructive. A simple
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model for understanding the necessary ingredients
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for most fires is the fire triangle. The fire triangle,
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Activity 7E Engage, Explore or combustion triangle, shows the three components Fuel
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needed to start and keep a fire going, that is, heat, fuel
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical and oxygen (Fig. 6.5). If just one of these components Fig. 6.5 Fire triangle
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thinking, Problem-solving is removed, the fire will be extinguished. Thus, the basic method for extinguishing a fire is to
suffocate it by removing one of the three elements of fire.
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Discuss the importance of fire

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extinguishers in buildings such as As By cooling it with a liquid such as water which

schools, offices, hospitals, railway reduces the heat or ignition temperature: Water
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is mostly used to extinguish fires (Fig. 6.6) as it is

stations, and airports.
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non-combustible and takes away the heat of the
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Ask students about the places where fire by cooling the burning material. It is suited
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fire extinguishers have been installed to extinguish fires on wood, cloth, paper, some
in school. kinds of plastics and coal. However, water should
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not be used on burning fat, oil or on electric

Explain the working of a fire appliances. If water is used on burning fat or oil,
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Fig. 6.6 Firefighters using water to extinguish fire

extinguisher with the help of a video. since oil is lighter than water, it will float above
water and continue burning. If water is used on burning electric appliances, since water is a
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conductor of electricity, the person spraying or throwing water can get an electric shock.
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By ensuring that it cannot have access to oxygen: Electric fires

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are generally extinguished using fire extinguishers (Fig. 6.7). Fire

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extinguishers commonly contain carbon dioxide and are called

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carbon dioxide fire extinguishers. Carbon dioxide does not support

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combustion. In this kind of extinguisher, carbon dioxide is stored as

liquid in a cylinder under high pressure. When the pressure is released
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by pressing the handle of the extinguisher, on being released suddenly,

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liquid carbon dioxide expands in the atmosphere and turns into gas.
Fig. 6.7 A fire extinguisher
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The carbon dioxide gas is heavier than the oxygen in air, so it VID
effectively pushes oxygen out, displacing oxygen which is surrounding the combustible
&
substance. The fire is extinguished because the oxygen needed to feed the flames is
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replaced by the carbon dioxide gas. However, this kind of extinguisher should not be used
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in confined spaces as it could lead to suffocation due to a sudden lack of oxygen in the air.
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How are fires extinguished?

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Discuss how fires can be devastating unless controlled in time. Use the information given in the book to explain the three
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mechanisms by which fire can be controlled. Show videos for each mechanism. Talk about forest fires and their impact on
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the environment.
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By removing the fuel source: Forest fires
• Analysing
(Fig. 6.8) are generally controlled by removing
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the source of fuel, that is, the trees. A long • Observing
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10 to 12 feet wide trench called a firebreak or • Exploring
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fireline is made by digging the ground near
trees. This is constructed such that the fire
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cannot ‘cross’ it. So, the fire will burn up till Life Skills
the fireline and then will go out as there are
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no more trees to burn, that is, no more fuel. • Critical thinking
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Sometimes, areas around trees are deliberately • Problem-solving
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burnt to create a clearing so that the fire
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cannot move to nearby trees.

Fig. 6.8 A forest fire • Cognitive skills
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Life
Real-world Connect! Skills Self-awareness
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Section Review 2
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7E Evaluate
Extinguishing a fire is called fire-fighting. All buildings are supposed to follow firefighting
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guidelines. Check the firefighting guidelines for your school as well as around your home. Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
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Section Review 2
As 7E Evaluate
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To explain the process of combustion in order to describe the role of fuel and oxygen in the
process as necessary conditions for combustion to take place.
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1. A student lights a candle and keeps a glass over it. He notices that the candle goes off after
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some time. Why does this happen? exercise on their own in class. Then,
(a) Candle wax is finished (b) Oxygen in the glass used up completely discuss the answers so that students
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(c) Formation of heat in the glass (d) Carbon dioxide in the glass used up completely can verify their responses. If students
To list the conditions necessary for producing fire to discover how combustible materials can have doubts, revisit the respective
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be prevented from catching fire.

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2. Tick the step that can be taken to extinguish an electric fire.

(a) Use water to put off the fire (b) Use an oxygen extinguisher
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(c) Put wood over the burning substance (d) Use a carbon-dioxide extinguisher Real-world Connect! 7E Explore
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What is a flame? Look It Up! 7E Elicit Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical

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How do we know that something is on fire? When we see Search online for answers thinking, Problem-solving
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flames, we know that a substance is on fire. A flame is, Show students the firefighting
In a charcoal grill, if we
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therefore, the visible part of a fire where combustion or burning guidelines followed in school. Explain
fan above the coal, the fire
takes place. However, not all substances burn with a flame.
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becomes stronger, but if we the evacuation plan in case of a fire. Talk

As
When a combustible substance forms vapours of gases during fan a candle, the fire goes
about the importance of fire drills.
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combustion, it will burn with a flame. When a combustible out. Why?

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substance does not form vapours during combustion, it will

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burn without a flame. Candle wax vapourises to form gases and

Concept Building
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so a flame is formed. Coal does not vapourise to form gases and

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so a flame is not formed—it glows when it burns. 7E Engage, Explore, Explain

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Look It Up! 7E Extend What is a flame?

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Skills instilled: Critical thinking Show students a lit candle. Ask them
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to observe its flame. Explain what a

Ask students if they have seen food being cooked on a charcoal grill. You can flame means and if all substances that
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show a picture or video of the same. Now ask them to search for the answer burn produce a flame. Give reasons
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to the question given in this section. Ask students to find out the concept why all burning substances do not
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through the internet.

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produce a flame.
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Now, explain to them that the fires depend upon three basic things - heat,
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Explain what is meant by luminous

oxygen and fuel. When we fan a flame we do two things that work against each
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and non-luminous flames.

other: we add oxygen by blowing fresh air over the fire, and we remove heat
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Discuss the different zones of the

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by blowing the warm air away. When we fan the coals, the extra oxygen has
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a greater effect than the removal of heat does. Probably because the coals have a flame of a burning candle and explain
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lot of heat in them as well as a lot of surface area that can use the extra oxygen. the process of combustion in a candle.
Ask students to draw a labelled
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On the other hand, the candle flame holds a relatively small amount of heat,
which is easily removed by simply blowing on (fanning) the flame. diagram of a candle flame for better
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Combustion in a wax candle: When a candle wick is lit, the
• Analysing Wax evaporates
7E Elaborate
heat produced from the flame melts the wax. The wick soaks and then burns,
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• Observing up (absorbs) the molten wax (Fig. 6.12). The heat of the flame producing heat Heat from flame
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melts more wax
• Exploring vaporises the molten wax in the wick. This generates heat and Wick soaks up
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more wax gets melted. This process continues till the candle is melted wax Molten wax
extinguished or the entire wax has been consumed. Here, the
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Life Skills wax acts as a fuel.
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Critical thinking What is fuel? Fig. 6.12 Wax acting as a fuel
Not all combustible material can be used as fuels. A material to help a candle burn
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• Problem-solving that undergoes combustion to give out heat energy is known as a fuel. Depending on
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their physical state at room temperature, fuels can be of three main types.
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Concept Building 7E Explain Solid fuels: Fuels that exist in solid state at room temperature are called solid fuels.
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Wood, coal and cow dung cakes are examples of solid fuels. Solid fuels generally
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical produce a lot of smoke.
thinking
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Liquid fuels: Fuels that exist in liquid state at room temperature are called liquid fuels.
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Kerosene, petrol and diesel are examples of liquid fuels.

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What is fuel? As Gaseous fuels: Fuels that exist in gaseous state at room temperature are called gaseous fuels. LPG
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and natural gas are examples of gaseous fuels. These fuels are generally stored as liquids under
Ask students how vehicles such as
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high pressure. The liquid gets converted into gas when pressure is released. When it is ignited, it
cars, trains and planes run/fly. What
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gives out a large amount of heat.

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gives then energy to move at such Table 6.1 Calorific values of various fuels
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What is fuel efficiency?

a high speed? Now introduce the Fuels produce heat when they undergo combustion.
Fuel Calorific value (kJ/kg)
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concept of fuel. Show pictures of coal, However, the choice of fuel, whether for domestic or
Hydrogen 150000
LPG 55000
petrol and hydrogen fuel and ask the industrial use depends upon several factors. The most
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CNG 50000
differences between the three. Talk important factor is fuel efficiency. The amount of heat Methane 50000
about solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
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produced by a fuel determines whether the fuel is Diesel 45000

Define and give examples of each in a efficient to be used for that specific purpose or not.
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Petrol 45000
table with the following heads. Calorific value: The amount of heat energy produced Kerosene 45000
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on complete combustion of one kilogram of a fuel is Biogas 35000–40000

Solid fuel Liquid Gaseous
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known as its calorific value. It is expressed in a unit Coal 25000–33000

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fuel fuel known as kilojoule per kilogram (kJ/kg). The calorific Wood 17000–22000
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value of some common fuels is given in the Table 6.1. Cow dung cake 6000–8000
The higher the calorific value of a fuel, the more heat it produces when burned. Thus, the
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higher the calorific value of a fuel, the better and more efficient a fuel it is.
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Hydrogen should be considered the best fuel as it has the highest calorific value. However,
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it is highly inflammable and so is difficult to store and transport. It is mostly used as rocket
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fuel. LPG also has a high calorific value. It burns with a smokeless fire and it is comparatively
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easy to store and transport than hydrogen. Therefore, LPG is used as a domestic fuel. CNG,
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similarly, has a high calorific value and burns with less smoke. It is, therefore, being used as a
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green fuel in automobiles across India.

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78 It is nearly impossible for any fuel to be 100 per cent efficient because some energy is always lost.
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What is fuel efficiency?

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Show students a video on burning of fuel. Ask if they have heard the term efficiency of fuel. Explain the calorific value of
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fuel. Differentiate between various fuels in terms of their calorific value:

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• Hydrogen has the highest calorific value.

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• LPG also has a high calorific value; burns with a smokeless fire; and is comparatively easy to store and transport than
hydrogen.
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• CNG has a high calorific value; burns with less smoke; and is being used as a green fuel in automobiles across India.
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Section Review 3 7E Evaluate • Analysing
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To explain the different parts of a flame. • Observing
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Goldsmiths blow on the outermost zone of a flame to melt gold and silver. Why do you think they • Exploring
do this? Tick the correct option.
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(a) It is the coldest zone. (b) It is darkest zone.
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(c) It is the mildest zone. (d) It is the hottest zone.
Life Skills
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Keywords • Self-awareness
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Combustion: The process of burning of a Firebreak: A long, wide trench made to control • Problem-solving
combustible substance in the presence of forest fires by digging the ground near trees
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oxygen (air) to release energy
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Flame: The visible part of a fire where
Ignition temperature: The temperature at combustion or burning takes place
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which a particular substance burns Fuel: A material that undergoes combustion to
Inflammable substances: Substances that have give out heat energy
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very low ignition temperature and, therefore, can Calorific value: The amount of heat energy
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catch fire easily

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produced on complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel thinking
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This section helps in evaluating

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if students have understood the
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concepts taught so far. Let students

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Scientific
Experiential Learning Proficiency Procedural fluency
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complete the question on their own in

Goal: To understand how a fire extinguisher works. class. Then, discuss the answer so that
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students can verify their responses.

Materials required: A glass or plastic tumbler, baking soda, vinegar, a candle or long-handled
If students have doubts, revisit the
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matches
What to do: section to clarify the concept.
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Step 1: Pour a few spoonfuls of vinegar in the tumbler.

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Step 2: Carefully add a few spoonfuls of baking soda and

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move away. The liquid will bubble and rise.
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Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Step 3: Wait till the bubbles subside a little. Then, light
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a candle or a long-handled matchstick and bring over the tumbler.

Step 4: The flame of the candle or the long-handled matches goes off like magic!
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Conclude and apply:

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Assume that the reaction between vinegar and baking soda produces carbon dioxide gas.
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1. Infer the role, if any, of the carbon-dioxide gas in extinguishing the flame.
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2. Predict what could happen if oxygen gas was liberated in the reaction.
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Communicating:
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Compare your inference and prediction with those of your classmates and discuss the
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differences observed, if any.

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Experimental Learning 7E Engage, Explore, Explain

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Take students to the laboratory and help them perform the given experiment. Ask them to note their observations and say
what they infer from their observations. Also, ask them to find out more facts related to fire extinguishers.
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(a) Observe the placement of the wick/burning area in each case. Does it in any way indicate that
• Analysing the fuel used is inflammable?
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• Observing (b) Infer why in some cases the wick/burning area is inside and in some cases outside the fuel.
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• Exploring (c) Identify the object(s) that uses an inflammable fuel. Give reasons for this conclusion.
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B. SUBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS REASONING 1 1-2 2
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• Critical thinking (a) Differentiate between combustible and non-combustible substances, giving one example of each.
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• Self-awareness
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(c) Identify the type of combustion in (a) explosion of dynamite and (b) paper catching fire.
• Problem-solving
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(d) List the conditions required for combustion, giving one example each to explain why the
condition is important.
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Puzzle Over 7E Evaluate (e) Define ignition temperature.
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2. Answer the following in detail.
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(a) Compare and contrast the types of fuels, giving two examples of each.
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Adaptive reasoning
(b) Explain why ignition temperature is important to the process of combustion.
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Ask students to read the question and As (c) Calculate the calorific value of a fuel that completely burned 5.2 kg of fuel to produce heat of
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recall the calorific value of different 286000 kJ.

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fuels. Then ask them to identify the (d) List the characteristics of a good fuel.
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correct option.
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(e) Form a hypothesis on the impact of continuing to use fuels that produce harmful residues
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when burned.
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Project Work 7E Extend C. PUZZLE OVER Century Critical thinking PROBLEM-SOLVING 1 1 -

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1. Mita wanted to quickly boil some water. Her kitchen has an LPG stove, a kerosene stove and a
Skills instilled: Information literacy
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wood stove. Which one should she use? Tick the correct option.
Ask the students to write a story or
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(a) The calorific value of wood is higher than kerosene and LPG, so she should use the wood stove.
make a Power Point presentation on (b) The calorific value of kerosene is higher than wood and LPG, so she should use the kerosene stove.
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the given topic. Encourage them to (c) The calorific value of LPG is higher than wood and kerosene, so she should use the LPG stove.
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present their write-up creatively. (d) She should use cow dung cakes instead of these stoves as it has the highest calorific value.
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1. Project Work Life

Skills Communication
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Create a story with timeline or illustrated report on the ‘History of Fuels’ starting from the
Analysing, Observing discovery of fire to modern-day fuels and their uses.
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Ask students to search for the answer to
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2. Research/Activity Century Analysis

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the given question on the internet.
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On Earth, the flame of a candle is ‘tear-drop’ shaped. However, the shape of the candle flame is
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different in zero-gravity at space. Find out why this happens.

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Discuss and Answer (page 83)

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7E Elicit, Extend, Elaborate 82
Skills instilled: Innovation, Observing,

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Analysing
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Ask students to visit a petrol pump with an adult and ask the petrol pump staff about the answer. After their visit discuss
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their answers and explain to them the buckets filled with sand are for emergency purposes. They help extinguish the fire if
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any accident happens.

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Teacher’s Support
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SUPERVISED LAB WORK
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1. Aim: To test materials for their combustibility.
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Materials required: Some straws, coal, paper, iron nails, stone pieces, glass, wood, burner, and a shallow
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metal bucket.
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What to do:
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1. In the shallow metal bucket, place the material one by one and try to burn them.
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2. Before burning the material, ask students if they think it will burn or not. Have the students observe
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and record their observations.

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Observation: Materials such as straw, coal, paper and wood burn. Materials such as iron nails, glass and
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stone pieces do not burn.
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Conclusion: Straw, coal and wood are combustible materials, while iron nails, glass and stone are
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non-combustible material. As
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2. Aim: To show that air is necessary for combustion (or burning) to take place.
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Materials required: Candle, a shallow glass plate (optional), gas jar and a few matchsticks
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What to do:
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1. Light a candle using a burning matchstick and fix it on the table (or on a plate).
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Observation: The candle keeps on burning.

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2. Cover the candle by inverting a gas jar on it. Ask students what they think will happen?
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Observation: The candle extinguishes after some time.

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Conclusion: The uncovered candle keeps burning because it gets a continuous supply of fresh air from
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the surroundings. When the candle is covered it stops burning (or gets extinguished) because the supply
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of fresh air to the burning candle is cut off by the gas jar cover. Since no fresh air is available to the burning
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candle, it stops burning. This shows that air is necessary for combustion (or burning) to take place.
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3. Aim: To show that the outermost zone of the candle flame is the hottest part.
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Materials required: Long copper wire, tongs, candle and a few matchsticks.
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What to do:
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1. Take a long copper wire and hold its one end with a pair of tongs.
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2. Hold the copper wire right across the candle so that it passes through the non-luminous as well as
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luminous parts of the candle flame.

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3. Keep the copper wire in this position for about 30 seconds.

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Observation: The part of copper wire in the outermost zone of the flame becomes red hot. The part of
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the copper wire in the middle zone of the candle becomes covered with black soot.
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Conclusion: This shows that the outermost, non-luminous zone of a flame is the hottest part of the
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candle flame. The middle zone of the candle flame shows the deposition of unburnt carbon particles
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due to incomplete combustion.

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4. Aim: To prove that carbon dioxide is produced on burning candle wax.

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Aim: To prove that carbon dioxide is produced on burning candle wax

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Materials required: A candle, a matchbox, a glass jar, aluminium foil, and lime water solution
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What to do:
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1. Fix a candle into the glass jar.

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2. Light the candle using a matchstick.
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3. Cover the beaker with a piece of aluminium foil to cut down the air supply.
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4. When the candle goes out, slowly and carefully slide a portion of the aluminium foil and take out the
candle from the beaker, trying not to disturb the contents of the beaker.
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5. Pour the lime water solution down the side of the beaker and swirl it.
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Observation: Lime water turns milky.
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produce insoluble calcium carbonate that turns lime water milky

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5. Aim: To prove that water vapour is produced on burning candle wax.
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Materials required: A small candle, a tall glass container, and some matchsticks.
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What to do: As
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1. Light the candle.

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2. Now, carefully place a glass container over the candle such that the candle flame doesn’t touch the
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glass. The candle will go out as soon as the oxygen in the container is used up.
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3. Remove the glass container and rub your finger on the inside of the container.
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Observation: You will feel water droplets on the inside of the glass surface.
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Conclusion: Condensation inside the glass surface shows that water vapour is produced on burning
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candle wax.
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Worksheet 1
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(a) The chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give off heat and light. .............................
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(b) Substances that burn in the presence of air or oxygen. .............................
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(c) When external heat is applied, and a substance burns in a short span of time releasing heat and light. .............................
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(d) When a substance burns to release heat and light without the application of an external source of heat. .............................
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(e) The temperature at which a particular substance burns in the presence of air. .............................
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(f) The visible part of a fire where combustion or burning takes place. .............................
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(g) A material that undergoes combustion to give out heat energy. .............................
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(h) The amount of heat energy produced on complete combustion of one kilogram of fuel. .............................
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2. Match the fuel with its calorific value.

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Fuel Calorific value

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(a) Hydrogen i. 6000–8000 J

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(b) LPG ii. 25000–33000 J

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(c) CNG iii. 35000–40000 J

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(d) Coal iv. 17000–22000 J

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(e) Diesel v. 150000 J

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(f) Wood vi. 55000 J

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(g) Cow dung cake vii. 45000 J

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(h) Biogas viii. 50000 J

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(a) What is combustion? Explain by giving a reaction.

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(b) What are combustible and non-combustible substances? Give examples.

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(c) Define:
i. Rapid combustion
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ii. Explosive combustion

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(d) Why do substances such as water, stone and sand not burn?
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(e) What is the difference between explosive combustion and spontaneous combustion?
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(f) What is the process of combustion?

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(g) Sort the following as combustible and non-combustible substances

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Sand, coal, water, fuel

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Combustible substances Non-combustible substances

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4. Project Work
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(Skills instilled: Technology literacy, Information literacy, Thought provoking, Multiple intelligence)
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Work in groups of 5. Find out the possible causes of fire in different places. Make a PowerPoint presentation on measures to be taken in
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case of a fire.
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Worksheet 2
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1. Define the following.
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(a) Combustion
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(b) Combustible substances
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(c) Spontaneous combustion

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(d) inflammable substances
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(e) Ignition temperature
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(f) Flame
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(g) Fuel As
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(h) Calorific value

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Element Uses
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(a) Solid fuel i. Released when petrol, diesel and coal undergo complete
combustion
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(b) Liquid fuel ii. Colourless, odourless and tasteless gas

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(c) Carbon monoxide iii. Released by power generator and refineries

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(d) Soot iv. Coal

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(e) Carbon dioxide v. Released when carbon-based fuels such as wood and
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coal are burnt

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(f) Sulphur dioxide vi. Does not cause pollution

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(a) What are solid fuels? Give examples.

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(b) How does combustion occur in a candle?

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(c) What does the blue colour of the flame indicate?

(d) Define:
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i. Fuel
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ii. Calorific value

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(e) What are the characteristics of a good fuel?

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(f) Give any two ways by which fire can be controlled.

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(g) What are the different types of fuel?

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(h) How do sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide affect the atmosphere?
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Unit 3 | The World of the Living
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7
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CONSERVATION OF PLANTS
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AND ANIMALS
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21st Century Skills
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• Analysing
7 CONSERVATION OF PLANTS
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AND ANIMALS
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CHAPTER PREVIEW As
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• Deforestation, causes and • Critical thinking

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effects
• Decision making
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• Conservation of forests and

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• Extinct and endangered

species Warm-up 7E Engage, Explore
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Analysing
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Wha
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you will learn Ask students to look at the given

picture and describe it. Talk about
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• Understand deforestation and

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its causes the imbalance in nature that is
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• Understand the consequences caused due to excessive cutting of

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of deforestation
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• Define conservation, habitat,

trees and destruction of habitat.
Ask students to suggest possible
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endemic species and red

book data ways by which this destruction can
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• Learn about different methods

of conservation be stopped.
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• Understand about
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endangered species
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What You Will Learn

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7E Explain, Elaborate, Extend

Why
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it is important to learn WARM-UP Century Thought provoking
Skills
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We humans have disrupted several A wide variety of plants and animals exist on the Earth and Critical thinking
natural things on the planet Earth play an important role in maintaining the balance in nature.
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by many changes we have made. Excessive cutting of trees to make buildings has led to the Show a video on cutting of forest,
But what matters most is in destruction of homes of many plants and animals, which in destruction of habitat, car emitting
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understanding the extent to which turn has led to disruption in nature’s balance.
gases, Then explain about the
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we are changing it and what we can What is it that we can do to ensure that this destruction
do to balance out disruptive change. is minimised or stopped? destruction of environment caused
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due to humans.
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89 Then engage the students by asking

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• What is deforestation and its causes?

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• What are the consequences of deforestation?

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• What is conservation, habitat?

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• What are the different methods of conservation?

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• What are endangered species?

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Introduce and discuss these points then explain them why it is important to learn.
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Our Earth is the only known planet where life exists. However, our actions are changing our
• Analysing
planet and the environment adversely.
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Over the past years, changes in our surroundings due to our actions have accelerated in a way that’s
• Environmental literacy not only dangerous to the environment, the plants and animals, but also harmful to us. One of the
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biggest threats to animals and plants is the destruction of their habitats due to deforestation.
Life Skills
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What is deforestation?
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Critical thinking A forest is an area of land that is dominated by trees and undergrowth vegetation.
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• Problem-solving Around 80 per cent of land animals and plants live in forests.
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The large-scale destruction of forests due to natural or human-made causes is called

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Teaching Idea deforestation. It is considered to be a permanent damage as it takes a very long time for a
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forest to grow back.
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7E Engage, Elaborate Real-world Connect! 7E Extend
Natural deforestation: Natural causes such
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According to a report, it is estimated that
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Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing, as, droughts, floods, storms and forest fires
in 2019, the world lost 12 million hectares
Critical thinking due to lightning can cause loss to vast areas
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As of forest leading to deforestation. This is

of tropical rainforest. By the year 2030, we
might only have 10 per cent of our forests
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Explain how the environment has called natural deforestation as it is caused by left and if we don’t stop deforestation, they
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changed over the years. Explain the natural causes. could all be gone in 100 years!
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concept of deforestation and its causes

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Human-made deforestation: Most deforestation is caused by human activities and is called

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in detail using the flow chart given human-made deforestation. Humans cut forests mainly for the following reasons.
below.
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1. Increase in human population has led to massive

Cutting of trees cutting down of trees and clearing forest land to
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convert forests into agricultural land which is the

leading cause of deforestation across the world.
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leads to 2. Requirement of wood is another major reason why

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Deforestation trees are cut in large numbers. We use wood extensively.

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3. Increasing urbanisation has led to rampant deforestation as forests are cleared to make
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Natural causes Human causes

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way for the construction of roads, railway tracks, dams and bridges.
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4. Cattle overgrazing in forest land is also a cause of deforestation.

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Real-world Connect! What are the consequences of deforestation?

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7E Elaborate, Extent The major consequences of deforestation are mentioned below.

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Leading to desertification: The rapid loss of topsoil and loss of plant life on productive land
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is called desertification. Since roots of trees help in binding the soil particles, when trees are
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thinking
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destroyed, there is nothing to bind the soil and it becomes prone to being carried away by strong
wind and moving water. This leads to soil erosion.
Discuss these alarming statistics. Ask
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what would happen if this scenario is
allowed to continue.
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What is deforestation?
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Loss of this topsoil, which is rich in nutrients, reduces the fertility of soil. This soil becomes
• Analysing
infertile and dry and over time gets converted into a desert.
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• Observing
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Disturbing the balance of atmospheric gases: As trees take in carbon dioxide and give
out oxygen during photosynthesis, their destruction disturbs the balance of these gases in • Exploring
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the atmosphere.
Leading to greenhouse emissions: Forests help regulate Life Skills
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Earth’s temperature and weather patterns. When trees are
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burned down, the carbon in them returns to the atmosphere • Critical thinking
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in the form of carbon dioxide. Since carbon dioxide is • Environmental awareness
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a greenhouse gas, deforestation causes global warming.
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Causing floods: During rains, trees help absorb the

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rainwater that falls on the ground. When trees are
Green Check 7E Engage, Elicit
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destroyed, water is not absorbed in the ground and this Fig. 7.2 Flooded city
excess water could cause floods (Fig. 7.2).
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Causing droughts: The trees in forests allow rainwater to seep into the ground. This restocks
thinking
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the underground stores of water. Trees then draw this groundwater using their roots and
Stress that many objects we use daily
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release water vapour into the atmosphere through transpiration. This water vapour contributes
to the formation of rain clouds, which release the water come from plants. Ask students to look
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back onto the forest. When a large number of trees are Do You Know? 7E Extend around and name some products that
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Forests are home to an

destroyed, rainwater cannot seep into the ground, overall are obtained from plants.
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estimated 30 million types

transpiration rate is reduced, making the atmosphere drier, of plants and animals.
leading to reduced rainfall in the area. Over time, reduced
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rainfall leads to drought in nearby areas.

21st
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Green Check Century Environmental literacy

Loss of habitats: The natural environment of a Skills Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
plant or animal is called its habitat. When we clear What do paper, cinnamon, rubber
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and medicine have in common?

forests, we are destroying the habitats of these
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They all come from trees!

plants and animals resulting in their destruction. This section helps in evaluating if
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Leading to landslides: Lack of trees causes the soil particles to wash away rapidly during
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monsoon leading to landslides, especially in steep hills and mountainous areas.

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Loss of medicinal and useful plants: A large percentage of useful plants come from forests.
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Destroying forests lead to a loss of these plants. discuss the answers so that students
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To list causes of deforestation. section to clarify concepts.

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1. What do you think will be the effect of cutting trees on the environment?
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(a) No effect as the forest has many more trees

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Do You Know?
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(b) Trees will quickly grow to take the place of the cut trees
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(c) Decrease in the number of plants and animals 7E Engage, Explore, Extend
(d) Increase in the number of plants and animals
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Inform the students that approximate

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Concept Building 7E Engage, Explain, Elaborate 30 million types of plants and animals
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking are found in forests.

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Use this fact to help students

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What are the consequences of deforestation?

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appreciate the diversity in plant and

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List the consequences of deforestation in a table with the following heads. animal life in a forest.
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Consequences How it affects plant and animals life?

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• Analysing To describe how droughts are caused to elaborate the consequence of deforestation.
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• Observing 2. What do you think will be the long-term effect on the land if all the trees were cut down?
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(a) Decrease in the level of groundwater (b) Increase in oxygen level
• Exploring (c) Increase in annual rainfall (d) Decrease in temperature
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To describe the process of desertification to explain the consequence of deforestation.
3. Why do you think the lack of trees resulted in a dry land?
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Life Skills
(a) Trees help in soil erosion. (b) Trees help prevent soil erosion.
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Critical thinking (c) Trees help keep the soil dry. (d) Trees help keep the soil flooded.
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• Teamwork
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What is conservation of forests and wildlife?
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Earth has a very large number of living things. Biodiversity is a term used to describe the
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enormous variety of living things on the Earth. It can also be used more specifically to refer to all
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Real-world Connect!
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the living things in one region or ecosystem. An ecosystem is a geographic area that includes all
7E Engage, Elicit living organisms, as well their physical environment such as climate, soil and temperature. A forest
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is an example of an ecosystem. All the ecosystems of the world put together form the biosphere.
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical As This includes all the living things found on land, under the ground, in water and in air. A species
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thinking, Problem-solving refers to a group of organisms which share common features that differentiate them from others,
and which can interbreed with each other. Humans belong to the species Homo sapiens, where
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started and how local people saved Mangifera indica, where Mangifera is the genus. Real-world Connect! Value Empathy
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Education
trees by embracing them. It is important that we take steps to conserve The chipko movement was
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biodiversity, especially of the forest ecosystem. started in the Himalayas by local tribal
Conservation is the management of biodiversity, women when they used a unique way
Look It Up! 7E Explore, Elicit to protect trees from woodcutters—by
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that is, managing all living things that are a part of embracing them (chipko means to embrace).
Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical an ecosystem such that they all thrive. It involves
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thinking the use and preservation of resources without overexploiting or wasting them.
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Ask the students to search online and What are the steps taken in India to conserve forests?
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take relevant information. Inform that Forest conservation laws: The Government of India Search online for answers
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agroforestry is a land use management introduced the Forest Conservation Act which helps conserve
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system in which trees or shrubs are forests and protects forest land. It restricts the use of forest land What is agroforestry?
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for commercial purposes without a thorough regulation process.

grown around or among crops or
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pastureland. Afforestation and reforestation: The process of planting trees in a forest where the number
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of trees has been decreasing is called reforestation. When new trees are planted in an area where
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there were no trees before, by creating a new forest, it is called afforestation. These are two
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important ways in tackling the effects of deforestation.

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Protection from fire: In a forest, wildfire spreads quickly, destroying all vegetation. Creating
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a fireline, which consists of a strip of land from where the vegetation has either been cleared or
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burnt, can prevent the spread of fire.

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Concept Building 7E Elicit, Explore, Explain, Engage

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What is conservation of forests and wildlife?

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Introduce the concept of biodiversity. Explain the meaning of the terms ‘biosphere’, ‘ecosystem’ and ‘species’.
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What are the steps taken in India to conserve forests? (pages 92–93)
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Discuss the steps taken in India to conserve forests. Ask students if they have ever visited national parks or forest reserves.
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Talk about the importance of planting trees and creating green belts.
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People participation: People across the country are encouraged to plant saplings of trees at
homes, schools, offices and colleges and take part in various awareness campaigns. One such
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initiative is the Van Mahotsav or Forest Festival. It is an annual tree-planting festival celebrated • Critical thinking
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in the month of July in which thousands of saplings are planted all over the country. Van • Analysing
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Mahotsav week is celebrated from 1 July to 7 July to spread awareness of forest conservation.
What are the steps taken in India to conserve wildlife?
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Life Skills
Undomesticated animals and uncultivated plants that live in their natural habitats are
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collectively called wildlife. The Government of India created the Wildlife Protection Act • Critical thinking
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for the protection of wild animals including birds and plants and extends to the entire
• Problem-solving
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country. It prohibits the hunting of wild animals and destroying plants. It prohibits the
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damage, collection, possession and selling of plants from protected areas or a forest land.
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It helps curb ill-practices of poachers and traders who deal in selling animals and animal Activity 7E Extend
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products. It emphasises the protection of all threatened species in their natural habitats, by
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focussing on preservation of the entire ecosystem rather than a single species. It encourages Skills instilled: Critical thinking
the establishment of special projects for endangered species. It encourages the establishment of
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protected areas such as wildlife sanctuaries, national parks and biosphere reserves. Ask students to find out the names
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What are the types of protected areas in India? and natural reserves in their state. Ask
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All protected areas are designed to protect the flora and fauna of that area. All the plant life them to find out the names of wild
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occurring in an area is called the flora of the area. All the animal life occurring in an area is
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animals that live there.

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Wildlife sanctuaries: These are areas that are established for the protection of particular
Concept Building
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species, especially species of wild animals. Here, some human activities such as grazing
of animals and collecting firewood are allowed. Sanctuaries can be either owned by the 7E Engage, Explore, Explain
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government or in some cases privately owned. There are over 500 wildlife sanctuaries in India.
Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarjuna Sagar-Srisailam Wildlife Sanctuary and Asola Bhatti Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
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Wildlife Sanctuary are some wildlife sanctuaries of India. thinking, Problem-solving

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National parks: These are areas that are established to protect plant, animals and their natural What are the steps taken in India to
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habitats. Here, no human activity is allowed. They are owned by the government. There
are over 100 national parks in India. Jim Corbett National Park, Bandipur National Park,
conserve wildlife?
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Madhumalai National Park and Gir Forest National Park are some national parks of India. Explain how the Wildlife Protection
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Biosphere reserves: These are areas that are established to protect the entire biodiversity Act helps in protecting wildlife.
Discuss how the prohibition of the
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of the area, including the tribal people who live in that area. Here, human activities are
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allowed but restricted to the outer zone of the reserve. They are owned by the government. following discourages killing of wild
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These are very large areas that may have within them national parks and/or wildlife animals:
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sanctuaries. There are over 15 biosphere reserves in India. Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve,
• Hunting of wild animals
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Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve, Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve and Pachmarhi

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Biosphere Reserve are some biosphere reserves of India. • Destroying plants

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• Possessing or selling of plants

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• Selling of animals and animal
products
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Inform about its benefits by giving

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examples.
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What are the types of protected areas

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in India?
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Give students a brief idea about

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wildlife sanctuaries, national parks

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and biosphere reserves. If possible,

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take students on a trip to any of these

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places that is closest to the school.

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1. .............................................................
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2. .............................................................
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• Analysing
To explain the term reforestation to describe ways to reduce deforestation.
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• Observing
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1. Raman read that trees should be planted in areas affected by deforestation. What do you think
• Exploring can be achieved from planting trees in the forest? Tick the correct option.
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(a) increases soil erosion (b) decreases rainfall in the area
(c) increases global warming (d) increases the forest area
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Life Skills To list different mechanisms through which governments protect and conserve forests
and wildlife.
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Critical thinking 2. Complete the given table.
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• Problem-solving National park Wildlife sanctuary Biosphere reserve
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• Cognitive skills Protection of plants, animals Protection of particular Protection of entire

and their natural habitats species, especially animals biodiversity including tribal
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people
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Government-owned Either government-owned or owned
privately owned
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical Human activities Human activities Human activities allowed in
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outer zone
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Over in India Over in India Over 15 reserves in India

Example: Example: Example:
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exercise on their own in class. Then, What are extinct and endangered species?
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There was a time when a great number of animals lived on the Earth, few of which are no
can verify their responses. If students longer seen anymore and few of which are in the danger of disappearing soon.
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Extinct species: Species of living things that are no longer seen anywhere on the Earth are called
section to clarify concepts. extinct species. Species become extinct due to various reasons such as sudden change in their
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environment including climate change and deforestation, introduction of species from another
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habitat, hunting, etc. Examples of extinct animals are the dodo, the passenger pigeon, the great
Activity 7E Extend
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auk, the Tasmanian tiger and the dinosaurs. Examples of extinct plants are the Saint Helena
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Skills instilled: Critical thinking olive and the Lepidodendron.

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Endangered species: Species that are at risk of becoming extinct are called endangered
Ask the students to list names of some
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species. Their numbers are greatly reduced across the world, and they are found in
extinct, endangered and endemic small number today. The destruction of their natural habitat is one of the major threats
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species in different parts of the world to these animals and plants. Large-scale deforestation, hunting and poaching as well
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using the internet.

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as trading animals are some of

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the main threats from humans.

Extinct Endangered Endemic Examples of endangered species are
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the tiger, the giant panda, the blue

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whale, the sea otter and the snow

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leopard (Fig. 7.3). Fig. 7.3 Endangered species: Blue whale, Snow leopard
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What are extinct and endangered species?

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Explain the meaning of the words extinct, endangered and endemic. Talk about extinct and endangered species and give
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examples for each. Discuss the concept of endemic species. Ask students to find out what plant and animal species are
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endemic to their state.

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What is IUCN? (page 95)

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Talk about the IUCN and its role in conserving nature. Discuss when it was established and what its objectives are. Explain
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the nine categories into which species are high risk have been divided. Discuss how the IUCN Red List and Red Data Book
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help different countries undertake projects for the conservation of species. Talk about some conservation projects started
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by the Government of India. Ask students to make groups of 5 and research on any one of these projects.
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What is Project Tiger?
• Analysing
Human-made conditions, poaching and
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• Observing
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encroaching on wild land led to a drastic
decline in tiger populations. Based on the • Exploring
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result of surveys, the total tiger population
in 2006 was estimated at 1,411 individuals.
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Project Tiger was initiated in 1973 to help Life Skills
repopulate Royal Bengal Tigers in the Indian
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subcontinent. Owing to the efforts of Project • Critical thinking
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Tiger, the number of tigers increased to close to • Problem-solving
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3000 individuals by 2018. India, at present, has Fig. 7.5 Tiger
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• Cognitive skills
around 75 per cent of tiger population amongst the 13 tiger range countries in the world. It has
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been one of the wildly successful projects involving the conducting and surveying of the count of
tigers, their hunting characteristics and their habitat under the Tiger Task Force. The government
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Concept Building
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also set up a Tiger Protection Force to combat poachers and funded relocation of villagers to
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minimise human–tiger conflicts. Elimination of all forms of human exploitation and biotic
disturbance from the core area and rationalisation of activities in the buffer zone, and carrying out
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research about wildlife are some of the work being done under the Project Tiger initiative.
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thinking, Teamwork, Communication

While humans are making efforts to protect wildlife, in nature, many animals and birds protect
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themselves and their offspring by migrating to large distances.
What is Project Tiger?
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What is migration?
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The movement of animals in large numbers from one place to another to overcome unfavourable
Discuss why the tiger population has
decreased over the years and why
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conditions, for food, or to breed, is called migration. Migration is a natural phenomenon observed
in species across the animal kingdom, from the tiniest insects to the large whales. Project Tiger was launched. Explain
how the project was implemented and
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Arctic terns are believed to migrate around 40,000 km. These birds have the longest migration
of any animal in the world. Monarch butterflies migrate to avoid cold temperatures in the talk about the impact of this project.
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winter. These butterflies cannot survive freezing temperatures, so they fly from Canada all the
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way to Mexico, where they gather to keep warm over winter. Humpback whales migrate to What is migration?
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warmer waters in winter. It is a journey that can take over 8,000 km each way, making it the
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Explain the term migration. Show

longest migration of any mammal on the Earth.
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students a video on migratory birds.

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Migration is said to affect the distribution of prey and predators, keep nutrients cycling around
Explain why certain species migrate.
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the planet and also help with the spread of pollen and seeds.
Give examples of migratory animals
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What can we do to conserve trees?

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such as Arctic terns, monarch

Reduce the use of paper: We get paper from trees. It is estimated that 35 per cent of all global butterflies and humpback whales.
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wood harvested are used to make paper. Responsible use of paper can help conserve trees.
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Some ways are: What can we do to conserve trees?

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• Use both sides of paper whenever possible. (pages 96–97)

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• Use cloth napkins instead of paper napkins or use those made from recycled paper.
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• Buy products with the least amount of paper and plastic packaging.
Stress that we need to make conscious
efforts to conserve trees. Ask students
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to suggest ways by which we can
reduce the felling of trees. Talk about
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the importance of saving paper and

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ways to do so. Encourage students to

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participate in tree plantation drives

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organised in their town or city.

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• Reduce the amount of paper cups, bowls and bags you use. Re-use gift paper bags or
• Analysing give your gift in a re-usable bag. Use reusable plates for birthday parties and entertaining
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• Observing instead of paper plates.
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• Exploring Planting trees: This is the simplest way to grow and conserve trees for future generations.
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• Plant saplings of trees in places around your home and school. Encourage your family and
friends to plant more trees.
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Life Skills • Donate trees to organisations that plant trees on a large scale.
INT
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Critical thinking • Join tree plantation drives organised by local municipalities in the area you live in.
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Find out about such activities by a simple internet search.
• Self-awareness
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• Problem-solving Real-world Connect! Look It Up!

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When a little girl is born in Piplantri village Search online for possible
answers and discuss in class.
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of Rajasthan, 111 trees are planted in her
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honour. The parents of the child pledge to What is Miyawaki method of planting
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take care of the trees. trees?
id

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thinking As Section Review 3

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7E Evaluate
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students have understood the concepts To list the flora and fauna exclusive to a particular region.
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taught so far. Let students complete the 1. The Asiatic Lion is found only in the Gir Forests of Gujarat. The Sangai deer is found only in
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Keibul Lamjao National Park of Manipur. What are such species called that are only found in a
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exercise on their own in class. Then, specific geographical area?

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(a) Exotic species (b) Epidemic species

can verify their responses. If students (c) Endemic species (d) Pandemic species
have doubts, revisit the respective To explain recycling of paper to describe ways to reduce deforestation.
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section to clarify concepts. 2. What do you think is the likely method to reduce deforestation?
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(a) Limiting the use of paper (b) Reducing the usage of paper cups
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(c) Using both sides of paper (d) All of these

Look It Up! 7E Extend
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SVID
Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Keywords

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Exploring Deforestation: The large-scale destruction of Reforestation: The process of planting

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forests due to natural or human-made causes trees in a forest where the number of trees
Inform students about the importance Desertification: The rapid loss of topsoil and has been decreasing
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of planting trees then ask them to

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loss of plant life on productive land Afforestation: Creating a new forest in an

explore Miyawki method of planting Habitat: The natural environment of a plant area where there were no trees before
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or animal Flora: All the plant life occurring in an area

trees. Inform that this method
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Biosphere: All the living things found on land, Fauna: All the animal life occurring in an area
involves planting two to four trees per under the ground, in water and in air Migration: The movement of animals in large
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square metre. Species: A group of organisms which share numbers from one place to another place due
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common features that differentiate them from to various reasons

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others, and which can interbreed with each other

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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Explore

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Talk about this commendable tree plantation practice in Piplantri village of Rajasthan. Ask students to search about more
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such traditions.
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Skills instilled: Observation, Analysis, Self-awareness

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This section will help students learn about the protected areas. Explain the task. Let students complete it themselves and
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then discuss the responses.

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• Analysing
(a) Describe briefly the causes of deforestation.
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• Observing
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(b) Elaborate on any four consequences of deforestation.
(c) Compare and contrast national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves, giving one • Exploring
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example of each.
(d) Explain why it is important to track and monitor the status of endangered species.
Life Skills
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21st
C. PUZZLE OVER Century Critical thinking PROBLEM-SOLVING 1 1 -
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Skills • Critical thinking
1. In a jungle, tribal people and wild animals live very close to each other. How do they adjust with
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each other? • Self-awareness
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21st
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1. Project Work Century Multiple intelligence
Skills
Puzzle Over 7E Evaluate
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There are over 50 Tiger Reserves in India under the Project Tiger initiative, spread out in various
states of the country. Make a list of all the Tiger Reserves in our country. Find out the approximate
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population of tigers in each Tiger Reserves. Also, find out which state has maximum Tiger
Reserves. Create a poster showing this information. thinking
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2. Research/Activity Century Media literacy Read the question aloud and discuss
Skills
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Research about the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve. Find out its location on a map of India,
with students.
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the zones it is composed of, the story of how it got its name, its flora and fauna, and create a
Tell them that along with their
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presentation using relevant pictures and present in class.

protection, for hunting, tribals impose
a discipline on themselves not to hunt
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Value
3. Discuss and Answer Education Cooperation
certain kinds of birds and animals in a
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Have a class discussion to highlight the fact that conservation is the need of the hour citing certain season or area.
examples from recent events.
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4. Connect to Life Life

Skills Advocacy
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Project Work 7E Extend, Elaborate

Imagine yourself to be one of the animals on the endangered list. Write a letter to humans trying to
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highlight the problem you face for survival. Skills instilled: Critical thinking,
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Life Decision making

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Self¯chec
checkk Skills Self-awareness
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I can: Ask the students to prepare a project

differentiate between the two types of deforestation. on tiger reserves in India with the help
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list a few causes of human-made deforestation and consequences of deforestation. of the internet. Ask them to list the
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discuss steps being taken to conserve forests in India. following information:

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discuss the three types of areas that are created to protect wildlife.
1. How many tiger reserves are there
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explain how initiatives such as the Project Tiger has helped in conserving tigers in India.
in India?
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appreciate the importance of conserving forests and wildlife as it means protecting the major biodiversity of
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the Earth.
2. Name all of them.
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3. What is the total approximate

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100 population of tigers in India?

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4. Design a poster for the tiger-saving

campaign.
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Research/Activity 7E Engage, Evaluate

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Skills instilled: Creativity, Critical thinking, Initiative and self-direction

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Discuss and Answer

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Ask students to take the help of the internet for collecting information and 7E Extend, Engage
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prepare a presentation on Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve.

Skills instilled: Collaboration,
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Teacher’s Support Discuss with students about the crisis

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of fuel and damage to trees and the

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environment due to our wastage. Tell

Access additional Teacher’s Support resources that
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them to conserve things and use them

create energised textbooks and enable learning/
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wisely as it is the need of the hour.

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teaching more proficient and technology-driven

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through the given QR code:

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• Lesson-wise PPT facilitates hybrid teaching

model.
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SUPERVISED LAB WORK
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1. Aim: To understand protected areas such as a Biosphere Reserve
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Let’s take the example of the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve to understand protected areas .
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Location and zones: The Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve is a reserve situated in the Satpura ranges
of Madhya Pradesh. It covers an area of over 4900 square kilometres. The Pachmarhi reserve is so
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big that it has the Satpura National Park as well as the Bori Wildlife Sanctuary and the Pachmahri
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Wildlife Sanctuary within it. The Tawa water reservoir is also located here.
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A reserve consists of designated zones or areas.
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(a) Core Area: It comprises a strictly protected zone that contributes to the conservation of
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biodiversity. The core zone is kept absolutely undisturbed and is free from all human activities.
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(b) Buffer Zone: It surrounds or
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adjoins the core area(s), and
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is used for activities such as HUMAN SETTLEMENT

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scientific research, monitoring, RESEARCH
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training and education. Human

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activities are permitted only if EDUCATION & TRAINING
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these do not adversely affect the TOURISM

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ecological diversity.
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Core area
(c) Transition Area: This is
the outermost part of a Buffer zones
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reserve. The transition area is Transition area

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where local tribal people are

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allowed to have their settlements and carry out activities such as crop cultivation and grazing
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of animals.
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In the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve, the Satpura National Park is designated as the core zone and
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the remaining area including the Bori and Pachmarhi Wild Sanctuaries, serve as the
buffer zones.
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Flora: The Reserve consists of a very large number of plants. The forests are dominated by sal trees, teak
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and giant tree ferns. Endemic vegetation includes wild mango and silver fern.
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Fauna: Most of the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve is covered with dense forest and is an ideal habitat for
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wild animals. Animals such as tigers, leopards, chital deer, rhesus monkeys and wild bear are found here.
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The endemic fauna includes chinkara, nilgai, Indian giant squirrels, and flying squirrels.
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The Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve is a UNESCO-listed reserve that protects several hundred species of
plants and animals that live in the two wildlife sanctuaries and the national park that is a part of the
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reserve. The reserve is also home to the Gond tribe.

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A biosphere reserve such as the Pachmarhi Reserve not only helps in the maintenance of biodiversity of
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the area, but it also promotes the economic development of the area, is home to the tribes living in the
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area as well as provides opportunities for scientific research and education.

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Worksheet 1
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(a) The large-scale destruction of forests due to natural or human-made causes ........................
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(b) The rapid loss of topsoil and loss of plant life ........................
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(c) The natural environment of a plant or animal ........................
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(d) A term used to describe the enormous variety of living things on the Earth ........................
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(e) A geographic area that includes all living organisms, as well their physical environment such as climate, soil
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and temperature ........................

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(f) A group of organisms which share common features that differentiate them from others, and which can interbreed
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with each other ........................

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(g) The process of planting trees in a forest where the number of trees has been decreasing ........................
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(h) Undomesticated animals and uncultivated plants that live in their natural habitats ........................
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(a) Extinct species i. Wildlife Sanctuary

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(b) Endangered species ii. Great Indian bustard

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(c) Endemic species iii. Humpback whales

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(d) IUCN Red List iv. National Park

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(e) Pachmarhi v. Lepidodendron

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(f) Gir Forest vi. Snow leopard

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(g) Nagarjuna Sagar vii. Biosphere Reserve

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(h) Migration viii. Asiatic lion

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(a) What is deforestation? What are the two types of deforestation?

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(b) How does cutting of trees leads to deforestation?

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(c) Define:
i. Biodiversity
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ii. Ecosystem
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(d) What are endemic species? Give two examples of endemic species.
(e) Write a short note on wildlife sanctuaries. Name any two wildlife sanctuaries.
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(f) What is the difference between extinct and endangered species?

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(g) Write a short note on Project Tiger.

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(h) Write whether the given places are wildlife sanctuaries, national parks or biosphere reserves.
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i. Periyar
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ii. Pachmarhi
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iii. Asola Bhatti

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iv. Great Nicobar

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4. Project Work
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(Skills instilled: Environmental literacy, Teamwork, Collaboration, Analysing, Information literacy)

Make groups of 5 and prepare a project on endangered extinct and endemic species. Make a PowerPoint presentation
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showing the images of these animals and their numbers.

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Worksheet 2
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1. Fill in the blanks.rs
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(a) …………... is an annual tree-planting festival celebrated in the month of July.
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(b) The rapid loss of topsoil and loss of plant life is called …………... .
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(c) The natural environment of a plant or an animal is called …………... .
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(d) …………... are areas that are established to protect the entire biodiversity of the area, including the tribal people who live in that area.
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(e) Species of plants and animals found in a specific geographical area are called endemic species …………... .
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(f) The movement of animals in large numbers from one place to another to overcome unfavourable conditions, for food, or to
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breed, is called …………... .

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(g) Species of living things that are no longer seen anywhere on the Earth are called …………... species.
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(h) …………... areas that are established to protect plants, animals and their natural habitats.
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(a) Deforestation i. A place which comprises of atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere

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(b) Desertification ii. The natural environment of a plant or an animal

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(c) Endemic species iii. refers to a group of organisms which share common features
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(d) Habitat iv. a geographic area that includes all living organisms,
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(e) Biodiversity v. destruction of forests due to natural or human-made causes

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(f) Ecosystem vi. rapid loss of topsoil and loss of plant life
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(g) Biosphere vii. the enormous variety of living things on the Earth
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(h) Species viii. species of plants and animals found in a specific geographical area
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(a) What are the causes of human made deforestation?

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(b) How does cutting of trees leads to flood?

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(c) Define:
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i. Endemic species
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ii. Wildlife sanctuary

(d) Define species. To which species do humans and mangoes belong?
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(e) Write a short note on biosphere reserves. Name two biosphere reserves.
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(f) What is the difference between endemic species and endangered species?
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(g) Write a short note on IUCN.

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(h) Categorise the given species into extinct, endangered or endemic.

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i. Asiatic lion
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ii. Giant squirrel

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iii. Blue whale

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iv. Saint Helena

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(Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Environmental literacy)

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What is migration in animals? State why animals migrate from one place to another. Explain the phenomena of
migration in Monarch butterflies and humpback whales.
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8
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CELL: STRUCTURE AND
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FUNCTION
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21st Century Skills
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• Observing
8 CELL: STRUCTURE AND
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• Analysing
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FUNCTION
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• Exploring
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Life Skills
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CHAPTER PREVIEW As
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• Cells • Critical thinking

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• Structure and functions of cells • Communication
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• Plant and animal cells

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t Begin by asking students what a

Wha
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you will learn cell means in the context of plants

and animals. Explain that a cell
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• Understand what a cell is, its

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is the basic building block of all
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discovery and types

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• Understand the structure and living organisms.

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functions of cells in general

• Differentiate between plant We all are made of cells, and cells
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cells and animal cells are responsible for everything

that happens inside the body of a
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living thing.
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Why
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Cells are present in all living

organisms. They are responsible
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21st
for everything that happens inside
our bodies.
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All living things, from the largest animals and plants
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Life cannot exist without cells. Your

body is made of many types of cells. to the smallest microscopic organisms, have something
in common!
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They make up your skin, bones,

muscles and much more. For this Do you know what that is?
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reason, it is important to understand

They are ALL made of cells.
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what cells are.

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Show students charts and diagrams of various types of cells. Let students observe the differences between them.
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21st Century Skills
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All living things whether they are bacteria, sharks, trees, flowers, beetles, giraffes, dolphins or
• Analysing
humans, have at least one cell.
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• Observing
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• Technology literacy What is a cell?
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All living things have cells. These tiny building blocks work together to create simple
Life Skills bacteria as well as more complex organisms, such as humans.
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Each organ is made of specialised structures known as tissues. Tissues are made up of cells.
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• Problem-solving Cells are, therefore, the basic units from which an organism is made. Just like a brick is a basic
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building block of a house, cells are building blocks of a body.
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Real-world Connect!
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Bricks Walls Rooms House
7E Engage, Elicit
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Cells Tissues Organs Organism
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Explain how we observe different As A cell is, thus, the structural and functional unit of a living Real-world Connect! 7E Extend
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components of a cell under the organism.

To see the different
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microscope. We stain them with a What do cells look like? components of a cell easily
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particular chemical, as different parts pick through the microscope,

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Most cells are extremely small and can only be seen specimens are stained as
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up different concentrations of the colour. under a microscope, as shown in Fig. 8.1. Cells were different parts pick up different
not observed until microscopes were invented. concentrations of the colour.
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Activity Corner In 1665, Robert Hooke, a British scientist, made

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a microscope and used it to observe tiny, box-like

7E Engage, Explore
objects in a slice of cork. In doing so, he discovered
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and named the cell—the building block of life. He

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thought the objects he had discovered looked like

Critical thinking
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the individual rooms in a monastery, which were
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Take students to the laboratory and known as cells. The word cell is derived from the
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perform the following experiment Latin cellula, meaning chambers.

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1. Take an onion bulb and remove its What are the types of cells? Fig. 8.1 Cells observed through a microscope
There are several types of cells depending on their size, shape and number.
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peel (pink covering).

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Size: Most cells are microscopic and we measure them with very small metric units,
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2. Place a small piece of the thin onion

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usually micrometres. A micrometre or micron is 0.0001 mm.

peel in a drop of water on a glass slide.
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• The smallest cells are bacteria, which generally range in size from 0.1 to 0.5 micrometre.
3. Add a drop of methylene blue
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• Human nerve cells are believed to be the longest cells. Nerve cells of the spinal cord can be
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solution to the layer and place a

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up to a metre long.
coverslip on it (with no air bubble
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• The largest cell is the unfertilised egg of an ostrich, which is 170 millimetre in diameter.
under the slip).
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102
4. Observe the slide under the
microscope.
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Concept Building 7E Explain, Friction, What causes friction

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What is a cell?
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Explain that all living beings are made of cells. Cells are very tiny. Using the example of how a building is made of bricks,
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explain how a body is made of cells. Make a flowchart on the board.

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Explain the meaning of the word ‘cell’ and how it was discovered. Show pictures of different types of cells. Emphasise
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that cells of different organisms differ in size, shape and number. Use the information given in the book to talk about the
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smallest and the largest cells.

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The size of a cell does not depend on the size of an organism.
Do You Know? • Analysing
For instance, a whale is bigger than a human, but it doesn’t
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A bacterial cell is smaller
mean that the cells of the whale will be bigger than those in • Observing
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than an animal cell, a
humans. Cell size varies depending on the part of the body it human red blood cell is • Exploring
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belongs to and its function. smaller than a human
nerve cell and all of these
Shape: Cells have different shapes depending on their functions. are smaller than the
Life Skills
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ostrich’s single-celled egg!
• The blood cell is disc-shaped (Fig. 8.2a) that allows it to float
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easily through the blood stream. • Critical thinking
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• The nerve cell is long and thin (Fig. 8.2b) that allows it to quickly pass on electric impulses • Self-awareness
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throughout the body.
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• The muscle cells are spindle-shaped (Fig. 8.2c), that is, long and pointed at both the ends
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so that they can contract and relax easily. Do You Know? 7E Explore, Engage
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• The white blood cells can change their shape so that they can protect the body by easily
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moving to the place where harmful organisms are present and easily engulf them. Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
thinking
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kinds of cells. Stress that the size of
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a cell does not depend on the size of

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the animal.
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a. Blood cell b. Nerve cell c. Muscle cell

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Fig. 8.2 Different shapes of cells

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The cell of Amoeba, a microorganism, is irregular in shape

(Fig. 8.3) and it can also change its shape. The change in
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shape is due to the formation of pseudopodia or false feet,

Concept Building
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which help Amoeba in movement and in capturing food. 7E Engage, Explain

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Number: Living organisms can be made up of a single cell or Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
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may be made up of more than one cell.

thinking
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• Organisms that are made of a single cell are called unicellular Food
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Pseudopodia
organisms. Some examples of unicellular organisms are Number
bacteria, Amoeba, Paramoecium, yeast and Euglena.
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• Organisms that are made of many cells are called Fig. 8.3 Irregular shape of Amoeba Explain that organisms may be
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multicellular organisms. Some examples of multicellular organisms are humans, animals unicellular (made of a single cell) or
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such as cat, beetle, giraffe and shark and plants such as mushroom, lily plant, mango tree multicellular (made of many cells).
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and giant sequoia tree.

Organisms
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All multicellular organisms were once single cells that divided and developed to become
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multicellular. A single-celled organism performs all the necessary functions that multicellular
organisms perform.
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103 Unicellular Multicellular

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E.g.: Bacteria, E.g.: Humans,

Amoeba, animals, plants
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Shape of cells Paramecium,

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yeast and Euglena

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Explain the shapes of cells with the help of the following table.
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Type of cell Shape of cell Function

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Blood cell Disc shape Allows cells to float easily through the bloodstream.
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Nerve cell Long and thin Allows cells to quickly pass on electric impulses throughout
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the body.
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Muscle cell Spindle shape Long and pointed at both ends so that they can contract and
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relax easily
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White blood cell No fixed shape; can change its shape Protects the body by easily moving to the place where harmful
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organisms are present and easily engulfing them.

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Show students pictures of different types of cells.

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A single-celled organism, like Amoeba, captures and
• Analysing
digests food, respires, excretes, grows and reproduces. Real-world Connect! 7E Extend
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• Observing In multicellular organisms similar functions are
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The human body is estimated to
• Exploring carried out by groups of specialised cells forming be made up of over 30 trillion
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different tissues. Tissues, in turn, form organs. Several (30,000,000,000,000) cells.
organs make up an organism.
INT
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Life Skills
•
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Critical thinking To classify animals as unicellular and multicellular animals.
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• Self-awareness Help Tony sort these living organisms into unicellular and multicellular organisms. Classify
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the organisms in the given table.
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• Communication
Multicellular Unicellular
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Humans Bacteria Lily plant
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Giraffe Yeast Paramoecium
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Real-world Connect! Amoeba Euglena Mushroom
7E Engage, Elicit
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Rat Shark Mango tree

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking As

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IVID
This fact will help students understand What are cells made up of?
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how tiny cells are and how many cells Cells are small and they are made of even smaller parts. Almost all cells consist of three
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make up a human body. parts—Cell membrane, Cytoplasm and Nucleus.

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Cell membrane: The cell membrane or the plasma membrane is the boundary of a cell
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Section Review 1 7E Evaluate that separates a cell from its surroundings. It acts as a protective layer of the cell and acts as a
flexible boundary that keeps the contents of the cell inside while still allowing for materials
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical to move through the membrane. It allows nutrients to enter the cell and waste to be removed
thinking, Problem-solving from the cell. It also gives shape to the cell.
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Cytoplasm: The part of the cell enclosed between the cell membrane and the nucleus is called
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cytoplasm. It is a jelly-like substance that mainly contains water. It also has many chemicals
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that are needed by the cell. Most of the cell’s activities happen in the cytoplasm. Within the
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cytoplasm are found tiny structures known as organelles (Fig. 8.4), which means ‘little organs’.
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exercise on their own in class. Then, Each organelle has a specific function that helps in the working of the cell.
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Some cytoplasmic organelles are:
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have doubts, revisit the respective Mitochondria: They are usually rod-shaped. Mitochondria produce the energy a cell needs to
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section to clarify concepts. carry out its functions. So, they are also known as the powerhouses of the cell. Mitochondria are
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more in number in cells that need a lot of energy such as the cells of the heart and the muscles.
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Endoplasmic Reticulum: These are thin-walled tubes that help in transporting material from
Activity Corner
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one part of the cell to another. They are also involved in the synthesis of proteins and fats.
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7E Engage, Explore Some of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are rough, with little structures called ribosomes built
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into their wall. Some ER are without ribosomes on them and are smooth.
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Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing, 104

Critical thinking
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Take students to the laboratory and

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perform the following experiment to Concept Building (pages 104–105) 7E Explain, Elaborate
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see the cell membrane.

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1. Take a clean toothpick, or a

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matchstick. What are cells made up of?

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2. Scrape the inside of your cheek

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Explain the structure of the cell with reference to the cell membrane,
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without hurting yourself using the cytoplasm, and nucleus. Show the diagram cell structure for better
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toothpick. understanding, before explaining the parts to students.

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3. Place the scrape in a drop of water

Ask students whether they have seen a water jelly ball toy for kids. For better
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on a glass slide.
understanding, relate the plastic flexible coating of the ball with the cell
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4. Add a drop of iodine solution and membrane. The jelly-like substance inside the ball is considered as cytoplasm
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place a coverslip on it.

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and different types of glitters, small ball and other things inside the ball are
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5. Observe the slide under the considered as nucleus and other cell organelles.
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microscope. You will see cell

membrane, cytoplasm and Explain to students a cell is like this ball only. Explain each part of the cell,
cell organelles and their functions with the help of the book.
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Ribosome: This is the organelle that helps make proteins. Near the nucleus, they are generally
• Analysing
found attached to the ER. Some of them are also found scattered in the cytoplasm.
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• Observing
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Golgi complex or apparatus: This organelle was named after the scientist Camillo Golgi. The
Golgi complex are tube-like structures that receive proteins and other materials from the ER, • Exploring
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package them and distribute them.
Ribosomes
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Lysosome Rough endoplasmic Life Skills
reticulum
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• Self-awareness
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Cytoplasm
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• Problem-solving
Golgi
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Smooth apparatus
endoplasmic
Activity Corner
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reticulum
7E Engage, Explore
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Nucleus
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Vacuole INT
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Cell membrane
Critical thinking
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Ask students to make a colourful, well
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Centrosome
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Mitochondria labelled model of a cell nucleus and

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Fig. 8.4 Cell organelles of an animal cell

explain its parts.
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Lysosome: These are small round bodies that have chemicals called enzymes that help break
down foreign material that may enter the cell. Lysosomes also breakdown parts of the cell so
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that they can be reused. Lysosomes are also called suicide bags of the cell because they can
even destroy their own cell, if it gets damaged.
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Vacuoles: These are fluid-filled spaces found in the cell that store food, water and other substances.
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Nucleus: This part of the cell controls all the cell’s activities and is the control centre of the
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cell. So, it is known as the ‘brain’ of the cell. It is generally spherical and located in the centre of
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the cell. Various parts of the nucleus are shown

in Fig. 8.5.
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Nuclear membrane: The nucleus is separated

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from the cytoplasm by a membrane called the Chromatin fibres

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nuclear membrane. This membrane allows the

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Nucleolus
movement of materials between the cytoplasm
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Nucleoplasm
and the inside of the nucleus.
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Nucleoplasm: This is the fluid-like substance

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Nuclear membrane
present inside the nucleus. It contains
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nucleolus and chromatin fibres. Fig. 8.5 Nucleus

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Nucleus
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Now explain to students that nucleus is considered as the brain of the cell. It is known as the control centre of the cell as
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it is controls all the activities of the cell. It is located in the centre of the cell and consist of four parts: Nuclear membrane,
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Nucleoplasm, Nucleolus and Chromatin fibres.

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Show a ball-shaped sharpener (as shown here) to students and ask to them imagine this sharpener as nucleus. Now
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the outer wall of this sharpener is nuclear membrane. Now open the ball and show students this sharpener is as nucleolus,
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add some small threads to the space around the sharpener with water Now tell students that this water is nucleoplasm and
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these small threads are chromatin fibres.

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Draw the diagram to show these parts and explain them one by one with the help of the book.
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Nucleolus: This is present inside the nucleus and is the site where ribosomes are synthesised.
• Analysing
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• Observing Chromatin fibres: They are thin thread-like structures present in the nucleoplasm that change
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into chromosomes during cell division. Chromosomes carry genes and help in inheritance or
• Exploring transfer of characters from the parents to the offspring.
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Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells 7E Elaborate
Life Skills
• Cells that lack a well-defined nucleus surrounded by a nuclear membrane are called prokaryotic cells.
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Critical thinking Organisms that have such cells are called prokaryotes (pro, primitive; karyon, nucleus). Examples of
prokaryotes are bacteria and blue-green algae.
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• Self-awareness • Cells that have a well-defined nucleus are called eukaryotic cells. Organisms that have such cells are
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called eukaryotes (eu, true; karyon, nucleus). All multicellular organisms are eukaryotes.
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Concept Building
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INT
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To list the different parts and functions of a typical cell.
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Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing Recall what you learnt and fill in the table correctly.
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As Part of the cell Structure Function

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells Nucleus Spherical and generally located in the
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centre of the cell

Explain that the major difference
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between prokaryotic and eukaryotic Chromatin fibres found in the Change into during
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. cell division.
cells is the nuclear membrane.
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Endoplasmic Thin- tubes found materials across the

reticulum in the . cell. Synthesises
A prokaryotic cell (e.g., cell of
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and .
bacteria) lacks a well-defined nucleus Golgi complex Tube-like structures found in the Receives, and
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surrounded by a nuclear membrane. . materials in the cell.

A eukaryotic cell (e.g., cell of any Cell membrane The flexible boundary that separates It allows materials to move in and out of
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multicellular organism) has a well- the from its the cell. It also gives
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surroundings. to the cell.

defined nucleus.
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Lysosomes Small round bodies containing They help materials
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Show diagrams of eukaryotic chemicals called . in the cell.

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Ribosomes Small round bodies either floating free They help in the synthesis of
and prokaryotic cells for better in the cytoplasm or attached to the .
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understanding.
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Nucleolus Small round body found in the It helps in the synthesis of
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. .
Section Review 2
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7E Evaluate
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical What are the differences between a plant cell and an animal cell?
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thinking, Problem-solving Plant and animal cells have all the parts we just learnt about. However, there are
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some special parts that are present in plant cells that are not present in animal cells.
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taught so far. Let students complete the 106

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have doubts, revisit the respective Concept Building (pages 106–107) 7E Explain, Elaborate
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section to clarify concepts. Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing

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What are the differences between a plant cell and an animal cell?
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Elaborate that both plant cells and animal cells have all the parts we have
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studied so far. In addition, there are some special parts that are present in
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plant cells but absent in animal cells and vice versa. Draw a diagram of the
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animal cell and plant cell on the board and explain the differences between
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them. Draw cell wall, plastids and large vacuoles in plant cell and explain each
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part of plant cell in detail with the help of the book. Guide students that these
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are absent in animal cells.

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Now draw centrosomes and lysosomes in animal cells and explain in detail
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with the help of the book.

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(c) The onion is multicellular because it is made of many cells.
• Observing
(d) The onion is multicellular because its cells only do one function.
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• Analysing
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B. SUBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS REASONING 1 1-2 2 • Exploring
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(a) Define cell.
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(b) List the three main parts of a cell.
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(c) Write what an organelle is and name any two organelles seen in an animal cell. • Critical thinking
(d) Associate the organelle with the correct statement. • Communication
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i. Site of protein synthesis
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ii. Releases energy

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iii. Contains enzymes to breakdown things
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iv. Used in animal cells only during cell division
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(e) Write any two functions of the cell wall in a plant cell. Adaptive reasoning
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(a) Use an example each to describe unicellular and multicellular organisms. recall the shape of plant and animal
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(b) Think and write what would happen if the following organelles were not present in cells. cells. Then ask them to identify the
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i. Cell membrane ii. Nucleolus correct option.
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iii. Mitochondria iv. Endoplasmic reticulum

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v. Lysosomes
cell wall but plant cells have a rigid cell
(c) Compare and contrast a plant cell and an animal cell bringing out the similarities and
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differences. Draw simple diagrams and label the parts to bring out these similarities wall, which gives them a specific shape.
and differences.
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(d) Identify any two ways in which plastids are useful to plants.
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21st
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Skills instilled: Creating
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1. Tony wants to know why the shape of most plant cells is rectangular, but animal cells are of many
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Take students to the laboratory. Show
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different shapes. Can you answer this question correctly? Tick the correct answer.
them a microscope and explain its
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(a) The cell wall in plants is flexible. (b) The cell wall in animals is flexible.
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(c) The cell wall in animals is rigid. (d) The cell wall in plants is rigid.
parts with their function.
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Discuss and Answer (page 112)

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1. Project Work Skills Self-management
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7E Elaborate, Extend
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Visit the biology laboratory of your school. Carefully examine the various parts of a microscope.
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Draw its diagram and learn about the functioning of the microscope.
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2. Research/Activity Life Critical thinking

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Skills Communication
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This section helps students learn more

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Carry out a research about the different types of cells and create a class quiz using this data.
about unicellular and multicellular
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111 organisms. Ask them to seek help for

the research, if required
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Research/Activity 7E Explore, Extend Value Education (page 112)

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7E Elaborate, Extend
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Divide students into two groups and ask them to research on different types of Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing,
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cells. Then arrange for a quiz in which both groups ask each other questions. Critical thinking
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This section helps students learn about

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teamwork and collaboration.

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Teacher’s Support
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SUPERVISED LAB WORK
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1. Aim: To observe the permanent slide of Amoeba and Paramecium to examine unicellular organisms.
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Materials required: Permanent slides of Amoeba and Paramecium and two compound microscopes
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What to do:
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1. Place the permanent slide of Amoeba in one microscope and that of Paramecium in the other.
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2. Have students view the slides one-by-one, giving each student at least 30 seconds of observation
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time on each slide.
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3. As each student completes viewing the slides, they should be asked to draw what they saw.
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Observation: Their drawings/sketches should have the shape as well as the location of the nucleus
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clearly marked and in line with what the permanent slides have.
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Conclusion: Students get a first-hand glimpse of what a cell looks like as well as what single-celled
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animals look like.

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2. Aim: To observe a single cell (hen’s egg).

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Materials required: For method 1—A hen’s egg and a flat plate; For method 2—A hen’s egg, a deep
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pan, and water at room temperature

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What to do:
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Method 1
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1. Carefully crack an egg onto a flat plate.

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2. Have students observe the contents.

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Observation: The spherical yellow material is the yolk. The jelly-like transparent liquid surrounding the
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yolk is albumin.
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Method 2
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1. Boil the egg for 7 to 8 minutes. Remove and place in ice-cold water till cool. Remove the shell. Cut
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the boiled egg into two halves.

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Observation: The boiled egg has a yellow part and a white part surrounding it. The white part is the
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albumin while the yellow part is the yolk.

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Conclusion: The hen’s egg is a single cell containing fat and protein components. After the egg is
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fertilized, this single cell undergoes multiple divisions to form the multi-cellular chicken.
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3. Aim: To prepare a temporary slide of an onion peel and observe the cells under a microscope.
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Materials required: A small onion, blade, forceps, glass slides, coverslip, iodine solution, dropper,
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blotting paper, and microscope

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What to do:
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1. Cut the onion into four halves.

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2. Separate the fleshy scales with the help of a pair of forceps and carefully peel out a piece of the
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onion scale.
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3. Place the peeled scale on a glass slide and add a drop of dilute iodine solution. Iodine will stain the
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onion peel.
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4. After a little while, carefully cover the onion peel with a coverslip. Wipe any extra liquid from on the
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sides of the coverslip using a blotting paper.

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5. Have the students view the slide under the microscope as well as draw what they saw
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Observation: A large vacuoles and thick cell walls should be visible.

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(a) The structural and functional unit of a living organism is called a ....................... .
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(c) ...................... discovered and named cell.
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(d) Human nerve cells are believed to be the ....................... .
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(e) An organism that is made of a single cell is called a ....................... .
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(f) ...................... captures and digests food, respires, excretes, grows and reproduces.
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(g) The ...................... is the boundary of a cell that separates a cell from its surroundings.
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2. Answer in one or two words.
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(a) What is the shape of nerve cell? ............................................

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(b) What is a cell made up of? ............................................

(c) Which organelle is the power house of cell?
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............................................
(d) What is the brain of the cell? ............................................
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(e) Which organelle helps make protein? ............................................

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(f) Who invented Golgi-complex or apparatus? ............................................

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(g) Name the cell that lacks a well-defined nucleus surrounded by a nuclear membrane. ............................................
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(a) Define cell.

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(b) What is nucleus?

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(c) What do you understand by cytoplasm?

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(d) Name two organelles that are found in plant cells but absent in animal cells.
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(e) Define eukaryotic cell.

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(f) Label the following diagram of an animal cell.

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4. Project Work
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(Skills instilled: observation, Critical thinking)

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Collect water samples from different places and observe them under the microscope in the school laboratory. Write and draw diagrams
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Worksheet 2
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(a) Nucleolus is not present inside the nucleus.
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(b) Mitochondria are also known as the powerhouses of the cell.

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(c) Cell is not present in all living organisms.
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(d) Plastids have chloroplast which help to make food in green plants.
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(e) Cell membrane is also known as plasma membrane.

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(f) In plant cells, the vacuole sometimes functions as the lysosome.

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(g) Chromoplast does not give colour to flowers and fruits.

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(h) Nucleoplasm is present outside the nucleus.

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(a) Golgi-complex i. Suicide bags

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(b) Ribosomes ii. Present in Animal cell

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(c) Nucleus iii. Attached to ER

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(d) Endoplasmic Reticulum iv. Powerhouse of cell

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(e) Chromatin fibres v. Control centre of cell

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(f) Lysosomes vi. transport material from one part of the cell to another
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(g) Vacuoles vii. help in cell division of animal cells

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(h) Centrosome viii. store food, water and other substances

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(a) What are multicellular organisms?

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(b) What is the shape of white blood cells and what are their functions?
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(c) What are organelles?

(d) What is nucleoplasm?
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(e) Give two differences between animal cell and plant cell.
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(Skills instilled: Observation, Analysing, Critical thinking)

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Make a model of an animal cell and use various easily available items like pulses, thread, etc., to show different organelles.
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Present your model in class.

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9
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REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
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21st Century Skills
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• Observing
9 REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
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• Analysing
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• Exploring
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Life Skills
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• Critical thinking • Types of reproduction

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• Communication • Asexual reproduction
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• Sexual reproduction
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• Reproduction in humans
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Ask students to name a few animals t

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and their babies. Ask what would

you will learn
happen if animals did not produce
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• Understand about
babies.
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reproduction and its types

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Talk why the process of • Understand the types of

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asexual reproduction in
reproduction is important. animals
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• Understand the types of

sexual reproduction in animals
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Why
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Life would not exist on the Earth

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if plants and animals did not

reproduce to create their offspring.
By reproducing, a living organism 21st
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can be sure that there is another

Skills
individual of its kind to take its place Look at the family of lion. Did you notice the young ones
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when it dies. with their parents? Animals reproduce to give rise to young
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So, it is important to know about ones that are just like themselves.
General Awareness this characteristic of living things.
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What if animals didn’t reproduce?

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Skills instilled: Observing,
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Analysing, Critical thinking

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Ask students to fill in the following table:

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Animals Young ones

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Human
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Cat
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Dog
Hen
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21st Century Skills
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All organisms reproduce. There would be no living things on the Earth if reproduction did
• Analysing
not happen. Animals and plants would die and there will be no offspring to replace them. The
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• Observing period of time for which a living organism lives is called lifespan. Without a mechanism for
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• Technology literacy reproduction, life would come to an end.
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What is reproduction?
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Reproduction allows organisms to pass on their traits or characteristics to their offspring. The
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Critical thinking biological process by which organisms give rise to their own kind, that is their offspring, is called
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• Problem-solving reproduction. Young ones of living organisms are called offspring. The offspring of a duck is
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called a duckling, that of a lion is called a cub and the offspring of a giraffe is called a calf.
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What are the types of reproduction?

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Different animals show different types or modes of reproduction. Living organisms show two
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical main types of reproduction—Asexual reproduction and Sexual reproduction.
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Asexual reproduction: The type of reproduction in which the offspring are produced from a
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single parent is called asexual reproduction. This kind of reproduction results in offspring that
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This section helps in evaluating if As is an exact copy or is identical to each other as well as to the parent. Examples of animals that
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students have understood the concepts reproduce by the asexual mode of reproduction are Amoeba, Hydra and bacteria. Animals such
as starfish and worms can also reproduce asexually.
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exercise on their own in class. Then, Sexual reproduction: The type of reproduction in which the offspring are produced involving
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two individuals of different sexes is called sexual reproduction. Offspring may look similar to
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discuss the answers so that students their parents, but they are not exact copies or identical. Examples of animals that reproduce by
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the sexual mode of reproduction are humans, frogs, butterflies, ducks, lions and giraffes.
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section to clarify concepts. Section Review 1 7E Evaluate

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To differentiate between asexual and sexual reproduction.

Recall what you learnt to fill in the given table.
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Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
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Number of parents
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Characteristics of offspring Identical

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Two examples
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What are some types of asexual reproduction?

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Asexual reproduction is the simplest form of reproduction in animals. In this process,

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a single parent replicates its body cells and gives rise to its offspring. Some examples of
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asexual reproduction are budding and binary fission.

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Concept Building 7E Explain,

Elaborate
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Re Again
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What is reproduction?
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Reproduction
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into parts: Production Making

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Ask students to name some unicellular and multicellular organisms. Ask if all organisms reproduce in the same manner.
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What are the types of reproduction?

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Explain asexual and sexual Asexual Offspring produced from a single parent
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reproduction.
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Types of reproduction
Offspring produced from the involvement
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Sexual
of two individuals of different sexes
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Budding: A type of asexual • Analysing
reproduction in which a small part
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of the body of the parent organism • Observing
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forms an outgrowth or bud which • Exploring
then becomes a new organism is called
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budding. This is commonly seen 1 2 3 4
Fig. 9.1 Budding in Hydra
in animals such as Hydra (Fig. 9.1),
Life Skills
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sea anemone and corals.
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In Hydra, a small outgrowth called bud is formed on the side of its body by repeated cell • Critical thinking
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division of the parent cells. The bud stays attached to the parent body as it grows into a fully • Self-awareness
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developed organism. The bud will stay attached to the parent until it reaches maturity at which
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point it breaks off and becomes an independent offspring. A single adult Hydra can have many
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buds and many offspring at the same time. Activity Corner
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Binary fission: A type of asexual
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7E Engage, Explore
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reproduction in which the parent
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organism divides to form two Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing,

new organisms is called binary
Critical thinking
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fission. This is commonly seen in Mother As

Pseudopodia Nucleus Cytoplasm Daughter
Show pictures of reproduction in Hydra
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animals such as Amoeba (Fig. 9.2), Amoeba are pulled in divides divides Amoeba
Paramoecium and bacteria. Fig. 9.2 Binary fission in Amoeba and Amoeba and ask how the process in
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each is different.
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In Amoeba, the pseudopodia are pulled in and the body gets rounded. All the organelles get
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replicated, and then the nucleus elongates and divides. The cytoplasm then divides. Two
identical daughter Amoebae are formed, which will then grow into two separate adults that
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can undergo binary fission to become four, and so on. In binary fission, the parent undergoes
changes to form the offspring, whereas in budding, the parent remains as it is and the offspring
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emerges out of the parent.
Cloning
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An asexual reproduction that is artificially induced to create an organism genetically identical to

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another organism is called cloning.

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The first cloned animal was a sheep, named Dolly, which was born in 1996. The cloning was
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successfully conducted by Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh
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(Scotland). To create Dolly, the nucleus was removed from a donor egg cell (a Scottish
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Blackface breed of sheep). The nucleus from a second sheep (a Finn Dorset breed of sheep) was
then introduced into the donor cell, in a laboratory. This was allowed to divide before being
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implanted in a third sheep (a Scottish Blackface breed of sheep). This resulted in the birth of
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Dolly. Since Dolly was given birth by the Blackface breed of sheep, it was expected that Dolly
would have a black face too. However, Dolly’s face and genetic material were all found to be
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exactly the same as the Finn Dorset sheep from whose cell the nucleus was taken. So, Dolly can
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be called a clone of the Finn Dorset sheep.

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Concept Building (pages 114–115) 7E Engage, Explain, Elaborate

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What are some types of asexual reproduction?

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Explain the sequence of events in budding:

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Bud formation Bud (one or many) stays attached to the parent Bud breaks off becomes an
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Parent Hydra till it developed fully into an organism.

on parent body independent offspring.
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Explain the process of binary fission in Amoeba:

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Parent body pulls Replication of all Elongation and division of Formation of two identical
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in pseudopodia organelles in parent body nucleus and then cytoplasm daughter Amoebae
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Differentiate between types of asexual reproduction Ask students if they have seen identical twins. Discuss if twins can be
called clones. Explain that identical twins have the same DNA as each other, but their DNA is different from that of their
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parents. A clone, however, has only one parent and has exactly the same DNA as that of the parent.
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Tell them the story of the first cloned animal, Dolly.

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• Observing To differentiate between budding and binary fission.
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• Exploring Complete the given table.
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Budding Binary fission
Number of parents
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Life Skills Sequence of events
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Critical thinking Effect on the parent Parent divides to form offspring
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• Self-awareness Example Amoeba
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• Communication
What are some types of sexual reproduction?
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In sexual reproduction, two individuals—one male and the other female—are required. Each
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individual produces a special reproductive cell called gamete. The male gamete is called sperm
and the female gamete is called egg or ovum. The process by which the male and the female
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical gametes unite is called fertilisation. So, we can define sexual reproduction as the process
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As by which offspring are formed by the fertilisation of female gametes (eggs or ova) and male
gametes (sperms).
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students have understood the concepts What are the types of fertilisation?
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taught so far. Let students complete the Fertilisation can happen either inside the body of the individual or outside the body. Based on
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exercise on their own in class. Then, this, fertilisation is of two types—External fertilisation and Internal fertilisation.
discuss the answers so that students External fertilisation: In this type of fertilisation, the fusion of male and female gametes
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can verify their responses. If students occurs outside the body. External fertilisation usually occurs in an aquatic environment where
have doubts, revisit the respective both eggs and sperms are released into the water. After the sperm reaches the egg, fertilisation
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section to clarify concepts. takes place. Most external fertilisation happens during the process of spawning where the
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female releases eggs and the male releases sperms in the same area, at the same time. A large
number of eggs are produced because the chance of survival of all the eggs is very less as the
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eggs are laid in the environment where they are prone to various dangers. Some examples of
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animals that reproduce by external fertilisation are fish, crabs, starfish and frogs.
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Internal fertilisation: In this type of fertilisation, the fusion of male and female gametes
occurs usually inside the female’s body. Internal fertilisation occurs most often in terrestrial
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animals, although some aquatic animals also use this method. Less numbers of eggs are
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produced as the chance of survival of the eggs is more as they are protected inside the body of
the parent with a sufficient supply of nutrients. Some examples of organisms that reproduce
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by internal fertilisation are insects such as butterflies and mosquitoes, reptiles such as snakes,
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birds such as hens, and mammals such as cows, dogs, cats and humans. INT
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After fertilisation takes place, whether external or internal, the sperm and the ovum fuse
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resulting in the formation of a cell known as the zygote. The zygote develops in to the
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embryo which further develops to form the offspring.

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Concept Building 7E Engage, Explain, Elaborate, Elicit

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What are some types of sexual reproduction?

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Ask students why human offspring are unique and not clones of their parents. Explain the process of production and
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fusion of gametes to get the combined DNA. Explain the term ‘fertilisation’.
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What are the types of fertilisation?

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Explain that to identify the type of fertilisation, we just need to keep in mind whether male gametes are deposited inside or
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outside the female parent’s body.

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Explain internal and external fertilisation with the help of examples.

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develops into the embryo, and the embryo further develops into the offspring.
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What are viviparous and oviparous animals? • Analysing
Depending on how offspring are produced, animals can be divided into two types.
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• Observing
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1. Viviparous animals 2. Oviparous animals
• Exploring
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Viviparous animals: Animals that give birth to live offspring (i.e. babies) are called viviparous
animals. In such animals, after fertilisation, the development of the offspring takes place
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inside the body of the female parent. Once the development process is complete, the female Life Skills
parent gives birth to a fully developed live offspring. Some examples of viviparous animals are
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mammals such as cow, dog, cat, apes and humans. • Critical thinking
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Oviparous animals: Animals that lay eggs, which hatch into Look It Up! 7E Elicit • Self-awareness
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offspring, are called oviparous animals. In such animals the Search online for answers • Problem-solving
fertilisation may be external or internal, but the young ones
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are always hatched out of the body. After fertilisation, the Not all mammals are
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Activity Corner
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development of the offspring takes place inside the egg. The viviparous. Which are the
developing eggs could be either inside the body of the female mammals that lay eggs?
7E Engage, Explore
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parent as in hens and snakes or outside the body as in frogs and What are ovoviviparous
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butterflies. Once the offspring is developed, it breaks out or

As animals? Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing,
hatches out of the egg. Some examples of oviparous animals are
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Critical thinking
frogs, snakes, lizards, hens, duck, fish and butterflies.
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Make a list of at least ten animals and
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Let us take some examples to understand reproduction in oviparous animals.

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ask students if these animals lay eggs

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How does a hen reproduce? or give birth to young ones. Then

Birds such as hen, crow and pigeon lay eggs. They bear their young ones in hard-shelled eggs classify animals with the help of the
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which hatch when the development process is complete. Let us understand the reproduction in following flow chart:
birds by taking the hen as an example (Fig. 9.3).
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1. Inside the body of the hen the gametes Depending on how

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fertilise to form a zygote. offspring are produced

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Egg
2. The newly formed single-celled zygote begins
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to divide into 2, then 4, 8, 16, 32 and so on.

Viviparous animals Oviparous snimals
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3. As it divides and grows, many protective

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layers are formed around it. The hard shell of

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the hen’s egg is one such protective layer. Hatching

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developing embryo, the hen lays the egg. 7E Engage, Explore, Explain
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5. Development of the embryo inside the egg is

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called incubation. The embryo takes about

Baby chick Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
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3 weeks to develop into a chick. This is called Fig. 9.3 Life cycle of a hen thinking, Problem-solving
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the incubation period. Adult birds sit on the eggs to keep them warm till they hatch. This
What are viviparous and oviparous
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is called brooding.
animals?
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Explain what viviparous animals are
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by taking the example of humans and

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how the embryo gets parental care.

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Explain what oviparous animals are

Skills instilled: Thought-provoking, Critical thinking
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by taking the example of a hen. Draw

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Talk about the platypus, a unique animal. Despite being a mammal, the the steps of the life cycle of a hen to
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platypus is adapted to survive in aquatic habitats and surprisingly lays eggs. explain the reproduction in oviparous
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The eggs hatch within two weeks, and the babies are nourished by their animals.
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mother’s milk. So, the platypus is considered to be an oviparous mammal.

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Explain that ‘ovoviviparous animals’ are egg-laying animals, such as sharks,

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rays, snakes, fishes and insects, that keep their fertilised eggs inside the female
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body until the young ones are hatched from the egg.
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6. After the chick is completely developed, it breaks open the egg shell and comes out. This is
• Observing
called hatching.
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• Analysing
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7. The baby chick feeds and grows in to an adult and the life cycle continues.
• Exploring
In hens, the baby chick that hatches out of the egg resembles the parent, but in a frog, what
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hatches out of the eggs has no resemblance to the adult.
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Life Skills
How does a frog reproduce?
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Critical thinking Unlike terrestrial animals, animals that lay eggs in water do not have hard-shelled eggs. Frogs
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• Communication are amphibians, that is, they are animals that spend their lives in water as well as on land. A
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frog goes through four main stages of life (Fig. 9.4).
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Eggs Tadpole (larva) Froglet Frog

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Concept Building
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1. The female frog lays a large number of jelly-like
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7E Engage, Explore, Explain eggs in water. The male releases sperms in the
same area, at the same time to fertilise the eggs
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical externally. The embryo grows inside the eggs.
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thinking, Problem-solving As Eggs Embryo

2. When mature, the eggs hatch into tadpoles.
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How does a frog reproduce? Tadpoles are the larva of frogs. The tadpoles
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spend their time swimming in water, eating
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Ask students if the baby chick that and growing. They breathe using gills and have Tadpole
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Frog
hatches out of the egg resembles the
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a tail. As they grow further, tadpoles develop

parent. Now show a picture of a froglet fore legs and hind legs, have a longer body and
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more distinct head. They still breathe using

and ask if it resembles the frog. Then
gills and have a tail.
explain the stages of the life cycle of Tadpole with 2 legs
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Froglet
a frog. 3. The tadpoles then change into the froglets, Fig. 9.4 Life cycle of a frog
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which look almost like the adult frog. A froglet

Introduce the term metamorphosis and breathes with lungs and still has some of its tail.
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give examples of animals that undergo

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4. The froglets lose their tail as it gets absorbed by the body and change into frogs. The frog
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metamorphosis. breathes with lungs.

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IVID
From jelly-like eggs laid in water, they grow into fish-like tadpoles, and finally develop
legs suitable for land! The series of major changes by which a larva becomes an adult is
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called metamorphosis. The word metamorphosis means a major change of form. We see
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metamorphosis in several insects such as mosquitoes, silkworm moth and butterfly.

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How does a butterfly reproduce?

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Let us understand reproduction and metamorphosis in insects by taking the butterfly as an

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example (Fig. 9.5). A butterfly goes through four main stages of life, changing and growing at
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each stage.
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Eggs Caterpillar (larva) Pupa Butterfly

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How does a butterfly reproduce?

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Ask students to identify these pictures. Tell them these show the different stages in the life cycle of a butterfly.
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Explain the characteristics of four key stages of life cycle of butterfly.

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How do humans reproduce? IVID • Observing
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The reproductive system is one of the most important systems in living organisms, • Analysing
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including humans. Humans reproduce using the sexual mode of reproduction,
• Exploring
that is the type of reproduction in which the offspring are produced involving two
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individuals—the male and the female. In humans, the reproductive systems in males
and females are different, with different organs performing specific functions.
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Life Skills
What is the male reproduction system in humans?
The main functions of the male reproduction Testis
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Seminal vesicles
system (Fig. 9.6) are to produce the male • Communication
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reproductive cells or male gametes called

sperms, and to deliver the sperms into
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Section Review 3
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the female, to enable internal fertilisation.
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The male reproductive organs include the 7E Evaluate
following parts.
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Testes: There are two testes (singular, testis) in

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a male body. The two oval-shaped testes (also As thinking, Problem-solving

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called testicles) lie outside the body in a pouch

(Page 119)
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of skin called the scrotum. A testis is made up
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of several coiled tubes that produce sperms.

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Millions of sperms are produced by the testes. This section helps in evaluating if
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Each sperm is a single cell consisting of a head, students have understood the concepts
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a middle piece and a tail (Fig. 9.7). The head Penis

Sperm duct
of the sperm has a large nucleus containing (Vas deferens) exercise on their own in class. Then,
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chromatin fibres. The middle part consists of a discuss the answers so that students
Fig. 9.6 Male reproductive system
mass of mitochondria. The tail gives the sperm can verify their responses. If students
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cell movement. It whips and undulates so that it Middle have doubts, revisit the respective
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can travel to the egg cell or ovum. Tail piece Head

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Sperm ducts: There are two sperm ducts (vas deferens) in a male
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body. Each is a narrow tube that helps transport the sperms produced Mitochondria Nucleus
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in the testes. Fig. 9.7 Structure of a sperm Concept Building

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Seminal vesicles: These are a pair of glands connected to the sperm duct that produces 7E Engage, Explore, Explain
seminal fluids that mix with sperm to form semen.
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Penis: The penis is a muscular organ that helps transfer the sperms from the body of the male
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to the body of the female for fertilisation to take place.

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What is the female reproduction system in humans? How do humans reproduce?

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The female reproductive system (Fig. 9.8) in humans has three main functions—produce the
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female reproductive cells or female gametes called eggs or ova, receive sperms and provide an
Ask how sperms enter the female
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environment in which a fertilised egg can develop. body for internal fertilisation. Tell
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120
students human males and females
have different reproductive systems to
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produce gametes.
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What is the male reproductive system in humans? Human male reproductive system
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Explain the structure and functions of each part of the Structure Functions
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human male reproductive system. Ask students to fill

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Testes
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Sperm ducts
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characteristics to offspring.
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Seminal vesicles
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Penis
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mitochondria in sperm mobility.

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The female reproductive organs include the following parts.
• Observing
Ovaries: Females have two ovaries one on each
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Uterus Ovary
• Analysing
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side of the lower abdomen. The eggs or ova are
• Exploring produced in the ovaries and release one egg each
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month into the oviduct. The ovum has a central
nucleus that contains the chromatin fibres
Life Skills
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(Fig. 9.9). Surrounding the nucleus is cell plasma
that contains nutritional elements essential to the
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Critical thinking developing egg cell.
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• Communication Oviducts: Close to each ovary is the open end
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of an oviduct. The oviduct (also called Fallopian
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tube) is a tube that transports eggs from the ovary

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to the uterus. It is in the oviduct that fertilisation Vagina Oviduct
takes place. Once fertilised, the zygote travels to
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the uterus. Fig. 9.8 Female reproductive system
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Uterus: The uterus is the part of the body where the zygote develops
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uterus are composed of layers of muscles. At its lower end, it becomes
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smaller and leads into a narrow opening leading to the vagina. Nucleus
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Vagina: The vagina leads to the outside of the female body. This is
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the passageway that receives the sperms from the male as well the
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passageway that enables the baby to come out during birth.

Fig. 9.9 Structure of an ovum
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What is the process of fertilisation in humans? ANM

Fertilisation in humans is internal fertilisation,
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that is the fusion of the sperm and ovum

takes place inside the body of the female
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Concept Building parent(Fig. 9.10).

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7E Engage, Explore, Explain Ovum (egg)

The sperms from the male are introduced into the
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical female’s body through the vagina. The sperms move
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up the vagina, pass through the uterus and reach

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into the oviducts. If the sperms encounter the ovum

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What is the female reproductive in the oviduct, fertilisation takes place, that is fusion
of the sperm and ovum takes place. Only one sperm Sperm
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system in humans? (pages 120–121) can attach itself to the ovum and fertilise it. As Fig. 9.10 Process of fertilisation in humans
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soon as fertilisation occurs, the wall of the ovum

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Ask students the name of the gamete becomes hard and no more sperms can enter it. The fertilised egg is called the zygote. During
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produced by the female. Discuss if fertilisation, the nucleus of the sperm cell fuses with the nucleus of the egg cell to form a single
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the female gamete is motile and how nucleus. This zygote contains all the genetic information that will be needed as it grows and
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it fuses with the sperm. Explain the

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develops. The zygote travels into the uterus and gets attached or implanted to the uterus. The
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female reproductive system with the female is said to be pregnant once implantation has taken place. The zygote after repeated
help of a video. divisions is called the embryo. The embryo now starts the process of development in the uterus.
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121
Ask students to fill in the given table.
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Explain the structure of an ovum.

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What is the process of fertilisation in humans? Human female reproductive system

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Ask why there are millions of sperm released in males and

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Structure Functions
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what happens to the zygote after fertilisation. With the

Ovaries
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help of the diagram, explain the path of the sperm in the

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female reproductive system and how fertilisation takes Oviducts

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place in the oviduct. Explain why only one sperm fuses

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Uterus
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with an ovum, how a zygote forms, and how a zygote

Vagina
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becomes an embryo after repeated divisions.

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What are the stages in the development of an embryo in humans?
• Observing
There are three different processes in the development
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of the embryo. The first process is growth. Growth • Analysing
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means that the actual number of cells increases. The • Exploring
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zygote (one fertilised cell) divides into two identical cells
Placenta
that each in turn divide into two more. This process
of cell division is repeated several times. The second
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Umbillical cord
process is development. Most of the cells become
Life Skills
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specialised cells, which in turn work together as tissues. • Critical thinking
The third process is cellular differentiation. Cellular Urinary
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differentiation means that cells change so that they can
bladder • Communication
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Urethra
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perform certain specific tasks. They work together and

Vagina
arrange themselves into specific organs to carry out the
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life processes. From eight weeks after fertilisation, when Real-world Connect! 7E Extend
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cell differentiation has taken place and body parts have
been developed, the embryo is called the foetus. The Skills instilled: Critical thinking
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Fig. 9.11 Foetus inside the uterus
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foetus grows inside the uterus and when fully developed,

the female parent gives birth to the baby (Fig. 9.11).
Gestation is the period of time between
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It is calculated from the first day of the
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In humans, pregnancy normally lasts about 280 days, or about nine months. This is known as the woman’s last menstrual period.
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gestation period. This time span is divided into three trimesters. Each trimester lasts about three
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months. During each of the three trimesters, the foetus grows and develops. The gestation period of human beings
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INT
is 270 to 280 days (approximately). It is

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Section Review 3 7E Evaluate usually about 36 weeks on average.

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To list the stages in the reproduction in humans to describe the process of embryo and
foetus formation.
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Recall and fill in the flowchart correctly.

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Male Female Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical

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Produces male gametes called . Produces female gametes called .

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The male gametes enter the female body through the of the female. The female
gamete is released by the . taught so far. Let students complete the
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discuss the answers so that students can

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Fertilisation occurs in the .

verify their responses. If students have
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The zygote divides to form the and it gets implanted in the . doubts, revisit the respective section to
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clarify concepts.
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The cells of the embryo become differentiated and a fully formed is developed.
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Concept Building
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After the complete development is over, the female gives to the baby.
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What are the stages in the development of an embryo in humans?

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Use the following flow chart to explain the different processes in the development of the embryo.
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• Actual number of cells increases by division

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Growth
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of zygote.
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• Most of the cells become specialised and start

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Development
working as a tissue. Each cell get its specialised role.
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• Cells develop unique structures and abilities for

Differentiation
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their specialised functions.

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Foetus • Body parts start developing

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Explain that the foetus grows inside the uterus and the female parent gives birth to the fully developed baby via the vagina.
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Keywords
• Observing
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Lifespan: The period of time for which a living Sexual reproduction: The type of reproduction
• Analysing
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organism lives in which the offspring are produced involving
• Exploring Reproduction: The biological process by which two individuals of different sexes
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organisms give rise to their own kind, that is Gamete: A special reproductive cell
their offspring Fertilisation: The process by which the male
SVID
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Offspring: Young ones of living organisms and the female gametes unite
Life Skills
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Critical thinking
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• Communication 21st
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Century Analysis, Observation
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Skills
Visit a poultry farm. Observe carefully and try to find out the answers to the following. If needed,
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talk to the manager of the farm.
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1. What are layers and broilers?
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Observation 2. Do hens lay fertilised or unfertilised eggs? How is it controlled?
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3. Is there any difference in the nutritional value of the fertilised and unfertilised eggs?
Take students to a poultry farm and help
Based on your observations, prepare a detailed report. Also, prepare a flowchart showing the
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them differentiate between layers and As steps the journey of eggs from the poultry farm to the market.
broilers.
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Broilers Layers
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(i) Broilers are (i) Layers are

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chickens used chickens used

for meat. to produce
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eggs.
Chapter Review 7E Evaluate
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(ii) The feed for (ii) Layers are fed

broilers is with vitamins,
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protein-rich minerals, A. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS FLUENCY 1 2-3 4

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with adequate especially 1. Choose the correct answer. INT

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amount of calcium, and
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(a) Sexual mode of reproduction is seen in this animal.

fat. Levels of mirconutrients. i. Amoeba ii. Snake iii. Hydra iv. Bacteria
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vitamins A and (iii) They require (b) External fertilisation is seen in this animal.
K is kept high.
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enough space
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i. Fish ii. Butterfly iii. Amoeba iv. Dog

and proper
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(c) This is not a stage in the development of a frog.

lighting to
i. Froglet ii. Caterpillar iii. Tadpole iv. Eggs
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grow.
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(d) This is not an oviparous animal.

(iii) They do not (iv) They lay eggs
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require much at the age of i. Cow ii. Hen iii. Butterfly iv. Frog
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space and 20 weeks. (e) Egg-laying animals show this kind of reproduction.
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lighting. i. Sexual ii. Asexual iii. Budding iv. Binary fission

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(iv) They have fast (v) They have high

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growth and are mortality as 123

ready to be used compared to
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for meat after broilers.

6–7 weeks.
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Explain the journey of eggs from the

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poultry farm to the market through a

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flowchart or a video.
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(b) Define cloning, briefly describing the process.
• Observing
(c) Can we call the process of human reproduction as metamorphosis? Explain why or why not.
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• Analysing
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(d) Draw simple diagrams and label the parts of a human sperm and an ovum.
(e) Describe briefly the development of the embryo in humans. • Exploring
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21st
C. PUZZLE OVER Century Critical thinking PROBLEM-SOLVING - 1 1
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Skills Life Skills
1. Help Ananya understand the difference between the sperm cells and ova of an animal. Tick the
correct option.
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(a) Sperm cells are produced in the female parent while both sperm cells and ova are produced in • Communication
the male parent.
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(b) Sperm cells are female gametes while ova are male gametes.
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(c) Sperm cells are produced in the male parent while both sperm cells and ova are produced in
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the female parent.
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(d) Sperm cells are male gametes while ova are female gametes. Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing,
Adaptive reasoning
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21st
Ask students to read the question and
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1. Project Work Century Analysis

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Skills
recall the features of sperm and ova.
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Observe live Hydra. Collect a few water weeds from ponds or ditches along with the pond water
Then ask them to identify the correct
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and put them in a glass jar. In a few days, you may see several Hydra, a transparent, jellylike
option.
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organism with tentacles, clinging to the sides of the jar. Carefully take out few Hydra from the jar
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and put them on a watch glass and observe them with the help of a hand lens. Draw and write what
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you observed.
21st Project Work 7E Extend
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2. Research/Activity Century Technology literacy

Skills
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In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF) is usually used in people in cases when internal fertilisation cannot occur
due to several reasons. Conduct a research about IVF and write a brief note on it, its history, India’s Take students to a nearby pond to collect
rs
first baby born using IVF, etc.

21st
a few water weeds along with the pond
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3. Discuss and Answer Century Social and cultural skills water and put them in a glass jar.
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Skills
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On 25 July, 1978, Louise Joy Brown, the world’s first successful ‘test tube’ baby was born in Great Take a few drops of pond water in the
Britain. Although it was a medical marvel, are there possibilities of the ill-use of this technology?
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watch glass and help students observe

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Hold a class discussion on this topic.

and identify Hydra with the help of a
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Life
Self¯check Skills Self-awareness hand lens.
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I can:
Ask students to draw what they observe.
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As
tell the difference between asexual and sexual reproduction with an example of each.
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list the differences between external fertilisation and internal fertilisation with two examples of each.
define metamorphosis and explain it using of examples of frog and butterfly. Research/Activity 7E Elaborate
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describe the structure and function of the male and female reproductive systems in humans.
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describe the process of reproduction in humans from gamete formation to birth.

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125 Ask the students to find out the answer

on their own and make a report. Help
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them if they face any difficulty.

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Discuss and Answer 7E Extend

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Ask students to find information on the world’s first successful ‘test tube’ baby. Discuss how the technology in such cases
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can be misused.
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Teacher’s Support
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Worksheet 1
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(a) The process of attachment of embryo in the uterus ..........................
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(b) Specialised reproductive cells in humans ..........................

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(c) First cloned animal ..........................
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(d) An ovoviviparous animal ..........................
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(e) Larva of a frog ..........................
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(f) Pupa of a butterfly ..........................

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(g) Egg-laying mammal As ..........................

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2. Match the human reproductive system part with its function:
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(a) Ovary i. Transfers the sperms from male body to female body
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(b) Oviduct ii. Zygote develops into the embryo here

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(c) Vagina iii. Produce sperms

(d) Uterus
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iv. Transports eggs from the ovary to the uterus

(e) Testes v. Produces seminal fluids
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(f) Penis vi. Produces ovum

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(g) Natural fibre vii. Receives the sperms

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3. Answer the following.

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(a) What is an embryo?

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(b) What is metamorphosis?

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(c) What is spawning?

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(d) What are the two types of asexual reproduction?

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(e) What are the three main parts of a sperm cell?

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(f) Why do hens sit on their eggs?

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(g) How does the larva of a frog breathe?

(h) How are characters transferred from parents to offspring?
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4. Project Work
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(Skills: Technology literacy, Information literacy, Thought-provoking, Multiple intelligence)

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Plan a trip to the zoo in your city and list the names of different animals and their babies. Make a PowerPoint presentation for these
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animals, showing the type of fertilization (external or internal) that takes place in them and whether they are oviparous, viviparous
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or ovoviviparous.
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If a woman is unable to get pregnant, what could be the cause? Is it only women who are responsible for not getting pregnant, or are
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both men and women equally responsible? How do women get artificially pregnant?
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Worksheet 2
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(a) A mass of mitochondria in the tail part of the sperm provides energy for mobility.
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(b) Mosquitoes, silkworms, moths and butterflies undergo metamorphosis.

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(c) A froglet breathes with gills and still has some of its tail.
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(d) The development of the embryo inside the egg is called brooding.
id
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As
(e) The zygote develops into the gamete which further develops to form the offspring.
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(f) The process by which the male and the female gametes unite is called fertilisation.
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(g) Cloning is artificially induced asexual reproduction.

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(h) The period of time for which a living organism lives is called time period.
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2. Name the type of fertilisation involved in the reproduction of the following organisms.
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(a) Butterfly
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(b) Hen
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(c) Cow
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(d) Mosquito
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(e) Snake
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(f) Dog
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(g) Crab
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(h) Starfish
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As
am

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(a) What is the key difference between reproduction in Hydra and Paramecium?
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(b) What is the key difference between reproduction in humans and hens?
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(c) What is the key difference between the life cycles of butterflies and hens?
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(d) What is the key difference between the asexual reproduction of Dolly and a bacterium?
(e) How is the human male gamete different from the female gamete?
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(f) Why are platypus and echidna called unusual mammals?

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(g) Define brooding, incubation and incubation period.

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(h) Define ovoviviparous animals.

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Rohan was playing in the park. He noticed a worm and wondered, ‘Is it a caterpillar? ’Does a butterfly really come from a worm? If
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not, how is it different? Help him find the answer.

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10
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REACHING THE AGE
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OF ADOLESCENCE
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21st Century Skills
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• Observing
10 REACHING THE AGE
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• Analysing
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OF ADOLESCENCE
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• Exploring
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Life Skills
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As CHAPTER PREVIEW
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• Critical thinking • Adolescence

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• Communication • Effects of hormones
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• Reproductive phase
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• Reproductive health
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Introduce the chapter by narrating Wha
you will learn
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the following story:

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• Understand adolescence and

Sachin is in grade 11. He has puberty
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changed schools recently and is • Learn the effects of hormones

• Understand the reproductive
missing his friends. So, he takes out
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cycle in humans
a photo album that has pictures of • Learn about nutritional needs
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his school days since Class Nursery. in adolescents

While going through the pictures, he
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notices how he and his classmates

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had changed from their childhood

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to grade 10. Many of them had Why

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suddenly shot up in height. Some it is important to learn

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boys looked very funny with a hairy Adolescence is the period of

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transition between childhood

line above their lips. He stands and and adulthood. It includes some 21st
looks at himself in the mirror and
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big changes—to the body and to WARM-UP Century Thought provoking

Skills
many questions pop up in his mind. the way a young person relates to
the world. Humans who are at an age between childhood and
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He wants to know: Understanding what to

adulthood are neither children nor adults! This stage in
the growth of humans is exciting but creates anxiety at
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expect at different stages can

• Have I grown up into an adult promote healthy development
the same time.
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or am I still a child? throughout adolescence and into Do you know what this unique stage of human development
is called?
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early adulthood.
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• Am I as grown up as my father?
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• If not, at what stage am I? 126

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Ask students if they can help

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se
Sachin understand at what stage of

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human development he is.

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As
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Then introduce and define the

term ‘adolescence’.
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Growth is one of the characteristics of all living beings. Offspring of living beings grow to
• Analysing
become adults. In humans, offspring grow from being babies to children to teenagers to young
s
adults to mature adults to old people. It is only after growing up to a certain age that human • Observing
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beings and many other animals can reproduce. • Technology literacy
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What is adolescence? IVID
Life Skills
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Adolescence is the stage of human life between childhood and adulthood. The period of
rs
life, when the human body undergoes changes, leading to reproductive maturity, is called
adolescence. The word adolescence is derived from Latin word adolescere meaning ‘to
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grow up’ or ‘to mature’. • Problem-solving
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Adolescence begins around the age of 10 and lasts up to 19 years of age. Children in this age
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group are called adolescents. Since this period mainly covers, the teens, that is, 13 to 19 years Subject Connect
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of age, adolescents are also called teenagers. The period of adolescence varies from person to
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7E Engage, Explore
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person, but generally, adolescence may begin a year or two earlier in girls than in boys.
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What is puberty? Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing,

Critical thinking
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Adolescence is characterised by changes such as development of breasts in girls, and deepening
am
of voice and facial hair in boys. These changes are indications that an adolescent is in the
Prepare two charts for puberty
process of attaining sexual maturity. Puberty is the period during which adolescents reach sexual
&
maturity and become capable of reproduction. The term puberty is sometimes equated with
changes in boys and girls.
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adolescence. However, puberty is only a small part of the larger stage of adolescence.
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Females start puberty around the ages of 10 to 11, and males around the ages of 11 to 12.
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Puberty causes changes that affect males and females differently.
What are the major changes during puberty?

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A distinct change that occurs during puberty is the emergence of secondary sexual
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characteristics. Physical characteristics that develop during puberty which distinguish the
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males and females, but not directly involved in reproduction are called secondary sexual
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characteristics.
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Increase in height: The most noticeable change during puberty is a rapid increase in height
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and weight. This is known as the growth spurt. This does not happen evenly across the entire
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body. There is a marked increase in the lengths of the hands and legs. At its peak, some kids are
known to grow as much as four or more inches in a year. The rate of growth may differ from
se
id
person to person. Girls seem to grow faster than boys in the initial stages, but both reach their
br
maximum height around 18 years of age. At the end of this growth spurt, most adolescents
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reach close to their adult height.

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Changes in body proportions: Before puberty, the bodies of boys and girls are very similar.
&
During puberty, muscle and fat increase as well as get redistributed. This redistribution gives girls
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and boys a more adult-like appearance. A boy’s body becomes more muscular and his shoulders
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grow wider. A girl’s body usually becomes curvier as hips widen and shoulders become slender.
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127
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rs

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What is adolescence?
m
e
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Giving the example of growth in plants, explain the concept of growth and changes in human beings. Talk about the
g
different stages of development and the ability to reproduce at reaching a certain stage. Compare childhood with adulthood
se
id
and introduce the stage of adolescence.

br
As
What is puberty?
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Explain the characteristics of adolescence in boys and girls using the prepared charts. Define puberty and differentiate
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between adolescence and puberty.

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• Analysing Change in voice: The voices of both girls and boys change. Girls
tend to develop a high-pitched and soft voice. In boys, the voice
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• Observing box or larynx increases in size. As the voice box grows, the voice
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• Exploring in boys can sometimes go from high to low or from low to high.
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This ‘cracking’ of voice eventually stops and their voices deepen,
once the larynx has fully grown. The larynx protrudes outwards
Life Skills
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in the neck region (Fig. 10.1) and is called the Adam’s apple.
Fig. 10.1 Adam’s apple
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Critical thinking Increased activity of glands: During puberty, sebaceous (oil)
glands get active. This can cause the skin to get oily and in some
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• Self-awareness adolescents lead to blocked pores resulting in pimples or acne
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(Fig. 10.2). These generally clear up in time. Boys and girls also
tend to perspire or sweat more during puberty due to overactive
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m
sweat glands.
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical Emergence of facial and body hair: In boys, there is the
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appearance of facial hair leading to the formation of moustache.
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Fig. 10.2 Pimples

Facial hair is not generally seen in girls. Appearance of hair in
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This section helps in evaluating if As the arm pits and in the pubic area (area above the thighs) is seen in both girls and boys.
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Reaching mental, intellectual and emotional maturity: Adolescence is a time of rapid

&
intellectual development. By the age of 15 or so, many adolescents have basic thinking abilities
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comparable to those of adults. During adolescence most teens develop a stronger sense
discuss the answers so that students can
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of personal identity. Teens also generally develop a greater perception of their feelings of
verify their responses. If students have self-esteem and an increased awareness of body image.
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doubts, revisit the respective section to

Development of sex organs: In girls, the uterus and ovaries enlarge and the ovaries start
clarify concepts.
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producing mature eggs. In boys, testes and penis develop completely and the testes start
producing sperms.
rs
ve

t
en
To enumerate different variations that take place in body at puberty.

ni
List all the changes that take place during puberty.

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Only in males Only in females In both

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Concept Building (pages 127–

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id
128) 7E Engage, Explain, Elaborate

br
As

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thinking
&
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What are the major changes during

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puberty?
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128
Explain each characteristic of
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adolescence.
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Changes during puberty Methods to explain the concept

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Increase in height Ask students to compare the size of their old and new clothes both in width and height.
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Changes in body proportion Ask students to notice changes in the pattern of their inner wears. Show a chart
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depicting the physical development and changes in human body.

e
ss
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Changes in voice Show a video on the changes Adam’s apple and changes in voice during adolescence.
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id
Increased activity of gland Draw oil glands on the board to explain the reasons behind pimples.
br
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Emergence of facial and Ask boys to compare their facial hair growth with that of adult men. Make students
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body hair aware about the pubic and arm pit hair growth.
&
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Reaching mental, intellectual Explain the differences between mental, intellectual and emotional maturity.
s
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and emotional maturity

Development of sex organs Relating with the changes in body proportion, talk about the development of sex organs
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and initiation of gamete formation.

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What are the effects of hormones during adolescence? • Analysing
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The development of secondary sexual characteristics during adolescence is initiated by the
• Observing
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action of hormones. The hormones released into the bloodstream reach a specific body part
called the target organ or target site which responds to the hormones. The hormones that help • Exploring
Pr
in the development and control of the reproductive organs and secondary sexual characteristics
are called sex hormones. A hormone, in general, is a chemical substance, produced by a gland
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and carried by the blood, which alters the activity of specific target organs. Life Skills
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A gland is a group of tissues which secretes particular chemical substances for use in the body or • Critical thinking
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for discharge into the surroundings. Hormones are made and secreted by the endocrine glands. • Self-awareness
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The endocrine glands discharge hormones directly into the blood and so are also called
en
ni
ductless glands. The major glands that make up the human endocrine system (Fig. 10.3) are • Communication
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pituitary gland, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, adrenal glands and pancreas. ANM
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Pituitary gland: This gland, located at the base Male Female Activity Corner
of the brain, is also called the master gland of the
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7E Engage, Elicit
id
Pituitary
endocrine system because its hormones control
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the activities of many of the other endocrine As

Thyroid Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
glands. Pituitary gland secretes the Thyroid
am
thinking, Problem-solving, Funway

stimulating hormone (TSH) and Growth
&
hormone (GH).
learning
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TSH controls the growth and functions of the Conduct this activity to explain the
es
Adrenals
thyroid gland. Its deficiency prevents the thyroid Pancreas
concept of gland, hormone and target
organs. Call out three students. Give
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gland from working properly. GH controls the

growth and development of the body. Ovaries/Uterus one student a piece of paper and ask
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Ovaries: They are paired organs that lie in Testes him/her to write a small task. The
second student will carry the chit to
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the pelvic region of the female body. In girls, Fig. 10.3 Human endocrine glands
a hormone released by the pituitary gland (except for testes in males and ovaries in females, the third student, who is responsible
ve
stimulates the ovaries to produce female sex the other endocrine glands shown are common to for completing the task. Explain that
t
males and females)
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hormones called progesterone and oestrogen. the first student represents a gland
Oestrogen is responsible for the production of ova, the growth spurt and the development
producing hormones, the message on
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of secondary sexual characteristics in girls. Progesterone is responsible for the reproductive

the chit represents a hormone, and the
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cycle in females as well as milk-production after the birth of a baby.

student carrying the chit represents
Testes: They are paired organs that lie within the scrotum of the male body. In boys, a
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id
the bloodstream. The student who is

hormone released by the pituitary gland stimulates the testes to produce the male sex hormone
taking action is the target organ.
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As
called testosterone. Testosterone is responsible for the production of sperm cells, the growth
am
spurt and the development of secondary sexual characteristics in boys.

&
Thyroid gland: This gland is located at the base of the throat and it produces the hormone Do You Know? 7E Extend
'C
called thyroxine. This hormone regulates the rate of metabolism and respiration, and plays an
Skills instilled: Critical thinking
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Explain that the adrenaline hormone is

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129
the reason behind getting goosebumps.
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What are the effects of hormones during adolescence?

m
e
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Make a table as given below to talk about hormones.

g
se
id
Gland Location Hormone secreted Targeted organ or site Functions

br
As
am
Pituitary
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Thyroid
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Adrenal
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Pancreas
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important role in growth and development. Inability of the body to produce thyroxine may
• Analysing
result in a disease called goitre, which causes swelling of the neck.
s
• Observing
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Adrenal glands: These are paired glands found one on top of each kidney and they secrete
• Exploring the hormone called epinephrine or adrenaline. This hormone is also called the fight or
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flight hormone because it prepares the body to respond to a potentially stressful or dangerous
situation. The changes brought about by adrenaline are generally very quick and last a short
ity
Life Skills time. Some of the changes brought about by adrenaline are increase in heartbeat, blood
• rs
Critical thinking pressure, blood sugar levels and energy levels of the body.
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• Self-awareness Pancreas: This gland is located near the liver and produces the hormone called insulin. It
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regulates the blood sugar level. Inability of the body to produce insulin in sufficient quantity may
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• Problem-solving result in a disease called diabetes.

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m
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To explain the effects of hormones in the development of secondary sexual characteristics in
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical order to illustrate growth during puberty.

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1. During puberty which secondary sexual characteristic is likely to develop when testosterone is
As released in males? Tick the correct option.
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This section helps in evaluating if (a) High-pitched voice (b) Enlargement of hip bones
&
students have understood the concepts (c) Development of Adam’s apple (d) Growth of hair on head
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taught so far. Let students complete the 2. Which secondary sexual characteristic develops in females during puberty by the hormones
s
given below? Tick the correct option.

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(a) Thyroxine—milk production (b) Adrenalin—development of breasts
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(c) Oestrogen—maturation of ova (d) Testosterone—formation of ovaries

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section to clarify concepts What is the reproductive phase in humans?

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Recall that puberty is the period during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and become
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capable of reproduction. In males, the capacity to produce sperms starts at puberty and
t
generally lasts throughout life. However, in females, the capacity to produce ova starts at
en
ni
puberty and continues till they are about 45 to 55 years of age. Therefore, in humans, the
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reproductive phase in males lasts longer than in females. The most important part of the
reproductive phase in human females is the menstrual cycle.
ge
ss
What is the menstrual cycle in human females?

se
id
The menstrual cycle is generally a 28-day cycle that is the female body’s way of preparing
br
As
for pregnancy (Fig. 10.4). The preparation begins when the ovaries produce the hormones
am
oestrogen and progesterone. Other hormones released by the pituitary gland stimulate the
maturing and release of the egg or ovum from the ovary.
&
'C
The release of the egg from the ovary is called ovulation, and it occurs in the middle of the
s
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cycle—usually day 14 of a 28-day cycle. From the ovary, the egg moves into one of the
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130
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What is the reproductive phase in humans?

m
e
ss
Recall all the changes that occur during puberty and ask which change is most important of all. Explain that development of
g
reproductive organs is the most important one. This development is called sexual maturity, which means puberty in its true sense.
se
id
br
Ask if puberty means both males and females can reproduce anytime throughout their life.
As
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Explain the time period of gamete formation in males and females.

&
'C
What is the menstrual cycle in human females? (pages 130–131)

s
es
Explain that ovaries in females are like egg bags that have a fixed number of egg follicles or immured egg cells stored inside
Pr
them. Egg cells get released one after another only the onset of puberty. So, the capacity for reproduction or reproduction
phase in females begins with ovulation or puberty and it stops when all eggs have been exhausted. Make a graph to classify
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the female reproductive phase into menarche, ovulation and menopause.

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fallopian tubes. If the egg is fertilised by a sperm, the fertilised egg will take about 2 to 4 days
• Observing
to travel down the fallopian tube to the uterus or womb. It will then attach to the thick, blood-
s
rich lining of the uterus. If it is not fertilised, the egg begins to fall apart, the oestrogen and • Analysing
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progesterone levels drop, and the lining of the uterus breaks down and is shed—this bleeding • Exploring
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is known as menstruation or a period.
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1. An egg develops Life Skills
in the ovary.
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2. The egg moves • Communication
t
down the fallopian
en
ni
tube and the lining of

the womb thickens.
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Activity Corner
m
ge
ss
7E Engage, Elicit
se
id

br
As thinking, Problem-solving, Funway

learning
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4. The egg is not fertilised

and the lining of the womb
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and the egg is shed as Ask the students to make a menstrual
'C
menstrual blood. cycle pie chart.

s
3. The egg reaches

es
the uterus. The lining

continues to thicken.
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Fig. 10.4 Menstrual cycle

ity
rs
A menstrual cycle lasts from the first day of one period to the first day of the next period.
The typical cycle of an adult female is 28 days, although some are as short as 22 days and
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others are as long as 45 days. Periods usually last about 5 to 7 days, although that can vary,
t
en
ni
too. Sometimes, young women have abdominal pains, cramps, headache and tiredness as well
as feel emotional during periods. These are all normal symptoms and are not signs of any
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illness or disease. Periods normally occur between 10 and 15 years of age. The first period
ge
ss
is called menarche. As a woman grows older, her reproductive capacity decreases and her
menstrual cycle comes to a stop between the ages of 45 and 55. This stage when a woman stops
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id
menstruating is called menopause. So, it can be said that the reproductive phase of a woman
br
lasts from menarche to menopause.

As
am
Menstruation occurs when the egg does not get fertilised. In case the egg is fertilised, it begins
&
to divide and then gets embedded in the uterus for further development and the female is said
'C
to be pregnant. Inside the fertilised egg or zygote, the information that determines the gender
Concept Building
s
of a baby is present.
es

Pr
131
ity
rs
Make a menstrual cycle chart and

ve
explain each step.

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m
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&
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• Analysing What determines the gender of a human baby?
The gender of a baby, whether a male or a female, is determined by the information carried in
s
• Observing
es
the chromosomes—the thread-like structures found inside the nucleus of cells. Each human
• Exploring cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. Out of these, one pair of chromosomes determines
Pr
the gender or sex of an individual and is thus called sex chromosomes. The cells of females
contain 22 plus a pair of X chromosomes (XX), whereas the cells of males contain 22 plus one
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Life Skills X and one Y chromosome (XY).
• rs
Critical thinking The sperm and ovum contain only one set Female Male
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of the pair of sex chromosomes (Fig. 10.5).
• Self-awareness So, when the sperms are formed, some XY
t
XX
en
ni
• Problem-solving sperms can have an X chromosome while

U
some sperms can have a Y chromosome in
m
X Egg X X Sperm Y
their nucleus. When the ova are formed, all
ge
ss
the ova will have X chromosomes in their
nucleus. When the ovum gets fertilised,
se
id

the sex of the baby will depend on which XX XY XX
br
XY
As sperm fertilises it. If a sperm carrying the
am
This section helps in evaluating if X chromosome fertilises the ovum, the Female Male Female Male
baby will be a girl, as the chromosome Fig. 10.5 Chromosome pair of zygote
&
pair of the zygote will be XX. If a sperm carrying the Y chromosome
'C

s
fertilises the ovum, the baby will be a boy, as the chromosome pair of the zygote will be XY.
es

discuss the answers so that students Therefore, it is the sex chromosomes of the male that determine the gender or sex of a baby.
Pr
So, the belief in some societies that it is the female who is responsible for the sex of her baby
is scientifically incorrect.
ity

rs

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To describe menstruation or menarche and menopause to explain the reproductive phases

Activity Corner
t
of life in humans.
en
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7E Engage, Elicit Identify the correct reproductive phase of women A and B based on the given descriptions. Tick
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the correct option.

Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical (a) A has just started her periods so she is in menopause, and B is in the middle of her periods and
ge
ss
thinking, Problem-solving, Funway so she in undergoing menstruation.

se
id
learning (b) A is in the middle of her periods and so she is undergoing menopause, and B has just stopped
her periods so she is also undergoing menstruation.
br
As
Prepare three ‘X’ chromosome (c) A has just stopped her periods so she is undergoing menstruation, and B is in the middle of her
am
flashcards and one ‘Y’ chromosome periods and so she is in menopause.

&
flashcard. (d) A has just stopped her periods so she is in menopause, and B is in the middle of her periods and
so she is undergoing menstruation.
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Draw a circle representing the sperm

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and place one X and one Y flashcard

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in it. 132
Draw another circle representing the
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egg and place two X flashcards in it.

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Draw a third circle for the zygote. Ask Concept Building 7E Engage, Explore, Explain
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students to place one chromosome

t

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each from the male and female

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chromosomes.
m
What determines the gender of a human baby?

e
ss
Through the activity suggested, explain the concept of sex chromosomes,

g
the number of chromosomes in a gamete, how the chromosome distribution

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id
occurs during zygote formation and why this distribution is important.

br
As
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Discuss the myths and facts about general beliefs about gender
determination.
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What is reproductive health? • Analysing
s
Reproductive health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and • Observing
es
not merely the absence of disease, in all matters relating to the reproductive system and to its
functions and processes. The following areas need special attention in an adolescent.
• Exploring
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Nutritional needs: Since adolescence is a time when the body is undergoing rapid and
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dramatic changes, it is very important to provide the right nutrients to the adolescent. Eating Life Skills
a balanced diet with the right proportion of carbohydrates, proteins, fats and minerals is
rs
important. Adolescent girls, since they start menstruating at this stage, need to, in addition to • Critical thinking
ve
a balanced diet, have food rich in zinc, calcium and iron. Dieting during adolescence is not a • Self-awareness
t
good idea as it will do more harm than good to the rapidly growing body.
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• Problem-solving
Personal hygiene: Adolescents need to maintain personal hygiene by bathing and changing
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m
clothes regularly, especially since the sweat glands and sebaceous glands are very active during
ge
ss
this stage. One should wash the face regularly too, to avoid pimples from forming due to closed Activity Corner
pores. It is also very important for both boys and girls to keep the genital areas clean to avoid 7E Engage, Elicit
se
id
infections. Girls should be especially aware of menstrual supplies such as sanitary pads and
br
tampons, and on how best to use them. As Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
am
Physical exercise: Getting enough exercise is very important as exercise will help build strong thinking, Problem-solving, Funway
&
bones and muscles. Running, brisk walking, swimming, dancing and cycling are some forms of learning
'C
exercise that one could take part in. Along with exercise, it is important to get adequate sleep,
s
as it helps keep one alert. Ask students to make a poster on a

es
balanced diet for adolescents.

Substance abuse: Most adolescents go through confusion and insecurity, as this is the stage
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when a lot of development is happening in their bodies as well as minds. It is important to

remember that this is a part of growing up and is nothing to be worried about. However,
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some adolescents, to prove to their friends that they are grown up or under peer pressure,
rs
may indulge in alcoholism, smoking and may even take drugs. The repeated use of harmful
substances such as drugs, tobacco and alcohol is known as substance abuse. Alcohol, nicotine
ve
(present in tobacco products like cigarettes) and drugs such as cocaine and marijuana are
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examples of harmful substances.

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Substance abuse affects health as it harms important organs in the body and can also lead to
premature death. Many of these substances are addictive, which means that once a person
ge
ss
starts taking them one develops dependence on them. This is called addiction. Addiction
Concept Building
se
id
makes it difficult to stop taking these substances. It is, therefore, important to say no to these
substances and completely avoid them.
br

As
People who use syringes to inject drugs into themselves stand the risk of transmitting the
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HIV virus that causes the deadly disease called Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome or Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
&
AIDS. The HIV virus is transmitted from an infected person to a healthy person through thinking, Problem-solving
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contaminated syringes. It is also spread through sexual contact with an infected person.
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What is reproductive health?

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133 Define reproductive health. Use

the table given below to talk about
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reproductive health in adolescence.

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Areas of special attention How to pay attention

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Nutritional needs (a) Taking a balanced diet and nutritional supplements

(b) Avoiding dieting
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Personal hygiene (a) How and what type of sanitary pads should be used?
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(b) How to avoid pimples?

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(c) How to keep the genital areas clean?

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Physical exercise Staying physically fit and active, as well as getting enough rest.
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Substance abuse Being aware of what things should never be consumed

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Being aware of addictive substances

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Being aware of things that transmit diseases

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21st Century Skills
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• Analysing Adolescence is one of the most rapid phases of human development. The changes in
adolescence have health consequence not only in adolescence but also over one’s adult life.
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• Observing Adolescents are particularly at high risk of unintentional injuries, teenage pregnancy, sexually
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• Exploring transmitted disease and infections, and abuse of tobacco, drugs and alcohol. It is, therefore,
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important that the overall health and well-being of an adolescent, including reproductive
health is promoted by giving healthy choices to adolescents that can help them be healthy and
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productive into adulthood.
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Critical thinking Section Review 4 7E Evaluate
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• Self-awareness To elucidate the need for a balanced diet in order to explain the nutritional needs of
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What is the need for adolescents to have a balanced diet? Tick the correct option.
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(a) to get proteins, fats, vitamins and carbohydrates in the required amount
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(b) to get proteins, fats, vitamins, carbohydrates in equal amount
(c) to get a lot of carbohydrates compared to proteins and fats
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(d) to get a lot of fats compared to proteins and carbohydrates

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SVID
Keywords
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taught so far. Let students complete the Adolescence: The period of life, when the Gland: A group of tissues which secretes
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human body undergoes changes, leading to particular chemical substances for use in
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reproductive maturity the body

discuss the answers so that students Puberty: The period during which adolescents Ovulation: The release of the egg from the ovary
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can verify their responses. If students reach sexually maturity and become capable Menarche: The first period or menstruation
of reproduction
have doubts, revisit the respective Menopause: A stage when a woman stops
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Hormone: A chemical substance, produced by menstruating

section to clarify concepts. a gland and carried by the blood, which alters
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the activity of specific target organs

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7E Explain, Extend Experiential Learning Century Health literacy
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Skills
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Skills instilled: Creating Menstrual Cycle Beads

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Girls could collect 28 beads to make a bracelet representing the

Guide students to make a personalised menstrual cycle. Use beads to represent days when they have
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colour-coding necklace or bracelet of their periods, yellow beads for all the other days and a white or
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blue bead to represent ovulation. On a flexible wire, string the

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28 beads. beads in this sequence: 7 red beads, 7 yellow beads, one white
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or blue bead and 13 yellow beads. Wrap a small rubber band on

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the first red bead to represent the first day of the period. Move
Subject Connect the rubber band over one bead each day moving in a clockwise
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direction. This helps keep track of one’s menstrual cycle and be

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prepared for each period.

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134
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Organise an essay writing competition

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on the topic drug abuse. Ask students

Puzzle Over (page 136) 7E Evaluate
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to collect information on the topic

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and write an essay on it. This will Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing, Adaptive reasoning
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make students aware of the health

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1. Ask students to recall the story of Sachin that was narrated at the
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consequences of drugs and the risk of

transmitting the HIV virus. beginning of the chapter. Then ask them to identify the correct option.
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2. Ask students to recall how the HIV virus is transferred from one person
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to another and identify the correct option.

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D. SKILL CRAFT ANALYSIS & CREATING 1 2-3 4 • Analysing
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1. Project Work Skills Self-management • Observing
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Make a list of food items you eat in a week. Now, prepare a diet plan to meet the daily requirement • Exploring
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during adolescence.
21st
2. Research/Activity Century Health literacy
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Skills Life Skills
Search about the ill-effects of consuming alcohol and drugs. Make a presentation in class to
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demonstrate your findings. • Critical thinking
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3. Discuss and Answer
21st
Century Media literacy • Self-awareness
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What is Red Cross Society? What are their main goals? Share your findings with classmates and
• Problem-solving
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have a class discussion.
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21st
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4. Connect to Life Century Civic literacy
Skills
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Akshit and his friends were sitting on their seats while travelling in a bus. A pregnant lady boarded Skills instilled: Creating
the bus. Akshit immediately got up to give her his seat. What value does this teach us?
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Life adolescents so they can follow a

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I can:
healthy eating plan. Help students
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create and follow a menu chart

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describe adolescence, define puberty and list the changes that take place in human body during puberty.
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accordingly.
define secondary sexual characteristics.
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list the major endocrine glands, their location and functions.

describe the menstrual cycle in human females. Research/Activity 7E Elaborate
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explain how the sex chromosomes of the father determine the gender of a human baby.
describe the factors that affect the reproductive health of adolescents. Skills instilled: Information literacy,
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appreciate the importance of learning about the age of adolescence. Analysing, Observing
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and alcohol abuse and present the

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information in class.
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Discuss and Answer 7E Elaborate

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Skills instilled: Information literacy

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Show students an informative video

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or a PowerPoint presentation on Red

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Cross Society.
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137
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Discuss how Akshit’s action is commendable. Talk about being sensitive to the needs of people who may require help and
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following common courtesies in public places.

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Teacher’s Support
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Worksheet 1
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(a) The period of life, when the human body undergoes changes, leading to reproductive maturity. .............................
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(b) Another name for adolescents. .............................
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(c) The period during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and become capable of reproduction. .............................
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(d) Larynx protruding outwards in the neck region. .............................
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(e) Hormone responsible for the production of ova. .............................
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(f) A gland that produces thyroxin and is located at the base of the throat. .............................
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(g) Hormone produced by the pancreas. As .............................

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(h) The release of the egg from the ovary. .............................

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2. Match the following hormones with their glands.

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(a) Oestrogen i. Pancreas

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(b) Testosterone ii. Thyroid gland

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(c) Thyroxin iii. Pituitary gland

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(d) Adrenaline iv. Ovary

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(e) Insulin v. Adrenal glands

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(f) Thyroid stimulating hormone vi. Testes

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(a) What determines the gender of a human baby?

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(b) What is reproductive health?

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(c) Define substance abuse.

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(d) How is AIDS transmitted from an infected person to a healthy person?

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(e) What are sex chromosomes?

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(f) Why is the difference between menarche and menopause?

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(g) What is the role of hormone progesterone in human females?

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(h) How are characteristics transferred from parents to offspring?

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4. Project Work
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Visit a doctor to gain in-depth knowledge about drug abuse and addiction.
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Worksheet 2
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(a) Sex chromosomes of the male determine the gender or sex of a baby.
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(b) In humans, the reproductive phase in males lasts longer than in females.
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(c) The inability of the body to produce thyroxin may result in a disease called diabetes.
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(d) Hormones are made and secreted by exocrine glands.

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(e) The most noticeable change during puberty is the rapid decrease in height and weight.
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(f) Puberty causes changes that affect males and females differently.
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2. Write at least one function of each of the following hormones.

(a) Progesterone
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(b) Testosterone
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(c) Thyroxin
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(d) Adrenaline
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(e) Insulin
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(f) Estrogen
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(a) Give a brief description of the menstrual cycle in women.

(b) How do sex chromosomes determine the gender or sex of a baby?
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(c) What is the belief in some societies that it is the mother who determines the sex of her child scientifically incorrect?
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(d) What is the main difference between ovulation and menstruation?

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(e) What is reproductive health?

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(f) Why does a balanced diet need special attention in adolescents?

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(g) List some ways an adolescent can maintain personal hygiene.

(h) Define substance abuse with the help of some examples.
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While playing outside, Riya felt abdominal cramps, headache and tiredness. Are these signs of any illness or disease? If not, then why
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was she feeling such symptoms? Help Riya understand the symptoms.
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Unit 4 | Moving Things, People and Ideas
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11
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FORCE AND PRESSURE
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21st Century Skills
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• Observing
11 FORCE AND PRESSURE
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• Analysing
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• Exploring
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As CHAPTER PREVIEW
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• Critical thinking • Force

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• Types of force
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• Pressure
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Start the class by asking students

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what comes to their mind when Wha

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they hear the word ‘force’.
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you will learn

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Discuss their answers and explain • Understand force and its

examples in daily life
that we experience various kinds
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• Learn the effects of force

of forces every day. Give and elicit around us
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examples of forces such as pulling • Understand the types of force

• Learn about pressure and its
a chair, pushing a box, cutting
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examples around us
vegetables and so on.
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Ask students to look at the picture

given in the textbook and describe
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a tug-of-war game. Explain how,

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in this game, force is applied from

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Why
opposite sides. Ask whether push it is important to learn
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or pull force in this game. WARM-UP 7E Elicit

We experience different kinds of
force in everyday life. It is therefore Everything on the Earth is powered by force—the pushes and
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important to learn how they impact pulls which act on our bodies and on the things around us.
our lives. Can you identify the force being applied in the given
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It is important to become aware of picture? Is it a pull or a push?

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Activity Corner the effects of force such as friction, Force makes things move but can it also stop things
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gravity and magnetic force. from moving?

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A small activity can be done in class to make students understand the concept of force.
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Ask a student to open the class door from inside the class and go out. Then ask the same student to enter the class by
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opening the door from the outside.

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Explain that when we open the class door from inside we are applying pulling force to open the door and from outside the
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class, the door is opened by applying pushing force.

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Ask students to give more examples of force.

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To get something to move, it must either be pushed
Science Fact 7E Extend • Analysing
or pulled. We pull the rope in a game of tug-of-war.
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We push the thumb pin to fix it on a board. We push A force is not something that an • Observing
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the shopping cart as we go along a grocery store. So, object contains or ‘has in it’. A force is
exerted on one object by another. All • Technology literacy
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most actions in our everyday life can be grouped as a objects, living as well as non-living,
push or a pull. Every push or pull we exert results in a can apply a force on another object
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force being applied to some objects. as well as be affected by force.
What is force?
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• Problem-solving
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A push or a pull on an object is known as force.
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Actions such as pushing and pulling require force to be Push

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Science Fact 7E Elaborate, Extend
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exerted (Fig. 11.1). So, we can say that force is used when Pull
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we push or pull a box, push the pedal of the bicycle, when
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we press the brakes, when we pull the door open or push
Fig. 11.1 Example of push and pull
thinking
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it shut.
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Force is also used in actions such as stretching an exercise band, Explain students that all living and
non-living objects apply force on each
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crushing a can, twisting a towel and lifting boxes (Fig. 11.2).

Force is, therefore, needed to lift, turn, move, open, close, push, other and are also affected by the force.
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pull and so on. Also, tell them force is not inbuilt. It is
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Twisting a towel Lifting boxes

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exerted from the outside on one object

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More than one force can act on an object at the same time. Fig. 11.2 Examples of applying force
Think about all the different forces we need to ride a by another.
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bicycle (Fig. 11.3). Our feet push the pedals, our hands
push and pull the handlebars and brakes, and the muscles
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in our body help us stay balanced and not fall off the
bicycle. The tyres push against the ground, while the
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ground pushes back on the tyres.

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What are the characteristics of force?

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Force has a few characteristics. Fig. 11.3 Riding a bicycle

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Force requires interaction between objects: Imagine the start of a football match. If we
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place the football on the ground, it will continue to remain there until the players move it. It
will move only when a force is applied on it by either pushing it or pulling it.
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For a force to come into play, it is important that there are at least two objects that
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interact with each other. If there is no interaction between objects, there is no force acting
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between them.
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A force is, therefore, a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object’s interaction with
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another object.
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What is force?
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Start the class by explaining that force is something pulling and pushing things. Force requires pull or push on an object.
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Give examples: we push the pedals of the cycle to move it and pull the brakes to stop. Ask students to give more examples
to know their understanding.
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Explain that sometimes more than one type of force is applied on an object. For example, while pedalling a cycle, muscular
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force is applied on the pedals and frictional force acts on the wheels.
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What are the characteristics of force?

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Use the explanation given in the textbook to talk about the characteristics of force.
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• Analysing Force has magnitude: When football players
kick the ball to another player (Fig. 11.4), they are
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• Observing using a certain amount of strength to push the
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• Exploring ball. Sometimes, the strength is less when passing
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the ball to a team member or the strength may be
more when kicking to score a goal. The strength
Life Skills
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of a force is usually expressed by its magnitude.
The magnitude of a force is its size or strength with
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Critical thinking which it acts on an object.
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• Self-awareness Force has direction: While playing football, the
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ball moves in the direction of the force applied. Fig. 11.4 Players kicking a football
To change the direction of the moving
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ball, we will have to kick the ball in a Do You Know? 7E Extend
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particular direction. When we kick the Spring Balance or Newton’s Balance
ball, we apply a certain force to change Newton’s balance is a device used to measure the
Analysing
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the direction of the moving ball. All force acting on an object. It consists of a coiled
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spring, a graduated scale and a pointer to slide over

Show students a spring balance and As force has direction.
the graduated scale. When a force is applied, the
explain its functioning by hanging
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The magnitude and direction of a force spring gets stretched. The stretching of the spring is
weight on it. measured by the pointer sliding over the graduated
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are equally important. When force
scale. The reading on the scale gives the magnitude
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is applied to push in a direction, the

Also explain how the reading on the of the force.
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object moves in the direction in which

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scale gives the magnitude of the force. the force is applied.

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Force 1 Force 2 Net force

Net force = 0
Force 1 Force 2
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Opposite directions, unbalanced forces

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Opposite directions, balanced forces Fig. 11.6 Two unequal forces

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acting in opposite directions

Fig. 11.5 Two equal forces acting in opposite directions
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Force 1
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Net force
If two forces push in opposite directions, the
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object will not move if the two forces are equal

Force 2
(Fig. 11.5). In this case, the two forces balance each
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other and are called balanced forces. Fig. 11.7 Two equal forces acting in the
same direction
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Suppose you and your friend both push a box. What happens if you and your friend push
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with the same force on the box in opposite directions? The box does not move. The forces
are balanced—their effects cancel each other out and they do not cause change in an object’s
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motion. Thus, with balanced forces, the net or resultant force is zero.
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When two forces push in opposite directions, the object moves in the direction in which the
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greater force is applied (Fig. 11.6). In this case, the two forces are not equal and are called
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unbalanced forces.
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Force has magnitude.

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Use the example of the game to football to explain how the strength or Force
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size of force is usually shown by its magnitude.

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Force has direction. Unbalanced force Balanced force

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Explain how direction is equally important for force. If we want to

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change the direction of an object, we have to apply a certain force Object in motion Stopping of Object at rest
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to change the direction. Give examples to support your explanation. moving object
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Explain the concept of balanced and unbalanced force through examples given in the book.
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What happens if you push with more force on the box than your friend in opposite directions?
As the forces are unbalanced because you are pushing harder, the forces do not cancel each
• Analysing
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other out. Thus, with unbalanced forces, the box moves in the direction of the stronger force. • Observing
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What happens if you and your friend both push in • Exploring
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the same direction? When the combined forces
are in the same direction, the net force equals the Although forces cannot be seen directly,
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combined forces added together (Fig. 11.7).
their effects can be observed and measured. Life Skills
The SI unit of measurement of force is the
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Therefore, if there is more than one force acting newton, symbolised by the letter N and
named in honour of the English physicist
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on an object, the forces can be added up if they
Isaac Newton. Much of what is known today • Self-awareness
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act in the same direction (Fig. 11.7), or subtracted about force is based on Newton’s laws
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if they act in opposite directions (Fig. 11.6). of motion. • Communication

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Real-world Connect!
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To classify common actions involving motion of objects as push or pull in order to define the
7E Engage, Elicit
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term force.
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1. The pictures show a number of common forces in action. Decide if the force is a push or Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
a pull. Write your answer in the given space.
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thinking
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Explain how we measure force. Tell
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students some interesting facts about

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Newton and his laws of motion.

Opening a Crushing a Lifting a Pressing a
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refrigerator door can suitcase light switch
(a) (b) (c) (d) Section Review 1 7E Evaluate

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To provide examples where force is being applied in order to explain that two objects must
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interact for a force to come into play.

2. Which of these activities indicates one object is applying force on another object? Tick the thinking, Problem-solving
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correct option.
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(a) A batsman hitting a cricket ball (b) Two people standing next to each other
(c) A bowl of ice melting into water (d) A glass of water turning into ice students have understood the concepts
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3. A person wants to lift a heavy bucket. Which two objects should interact in order to lift the taught so far. Let students complete the
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bucket? Tick the correct option.

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(a) Ground and the bucket (b) Hand and the ground
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(c) Bucket and the hand (d) Bucket and the bucket
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What are the effects of force? have doubts, revisit the respective
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We cannot really see force, but we know a force exists by observing the effects of force. We can
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see two general effects of force.

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1. Force can change the state of motion of an object.

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2. Force can change the shape of an object.

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What are the effects of force?

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Explain the two effects of force: it can change the shape of an object and it can change the state of motion of object. Give
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examples to explain these two effects in detail.

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• Analysing How does force change the state of motion of an object?
If an object is moving, it is in a state of motion. If an object is not moving, it is in a state of
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• Observing
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rest, that is, in zero state of motion. The state of rest is considered to be the state of zero speed.
• Exploring An object may be at rest or in motion; both are its states of motion. Force can change the state
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of motion of an object in the following ways.
Make a stationary object move: Suppose you have to cycle to the nearby florist to get flowers.
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Life Skills
As you sit on the seat and push the pedal, the cycle moves forward. This means you have used
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Critical thinking force to make the stationary cycle (Fig. 11.8) move.
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• Self-awareness Change the speed of a moving object: You see an empty stretch
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of road on the way and you push the pedal faster. The cycle moves
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• Problem-solving
faster. This means you have used force to increase the speed of the
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moving cycle. As you are nearing the florist, you pedal slowly and
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Section Review 2 7E Evaluate the cycle slows down. This means you have used force to decrease
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the speed of the moving cycle. Fig. 11.8 Stationary cycle
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical Change the direction of a moving object: Just before you reach the florist, there is a curve in
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As the road. You turn the handlebar and the moving cycle turns along the curve. This means you
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This section helps in evaluating if have used force to change the direction of the moving cycle.
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students have understood the concepts Make a moving object stop: Once you reach the florist, you pull the
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taught so far. Let students complete the brakes on the handlebar and the cycle comes to a stop. This means
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exercise on their own in class. Then, you have used force to make the moving cycle stop.
discuss the answers so that students How does force change the shape of an object?
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can verify their responses. If students Force can be used to change the shape and also the size of an object.
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When a potter takes a ball of clay and shapes it on the potter’s wheel, Fig. 11.9 Force changing the
section to clarify concepts. force is being used to change the shape and size of the clay (Fig. 11.9). shape and size of clay
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Activity Corner
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To predict the motion of an object when force is applied vis-à-vis when force is not applied in
7E Engage, Explore order to explain that a force may bring a change in the state of motion of an object.
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1. Person A pushes a box with a certain force. Person B helps him by pushing the box in the same
Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing, direction. How does it affect the state of motion of the box? Tick the correct option.
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Critical thinking (a) It brings the box to rest. (b) It changes the direction of the box.
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(c) It increases the speed of the box. (d) It changes the shape of the box.
1. Take a ball and place it on the
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2. You pick up few books lying on a table and put them in your bag. How does it affect the
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table. Gently push the ball along state of motion of the books? Tick the correct option.
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the surface of table. The ball (a) The force applied makes a moving object stop.
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begins to move. This explains that (b) The force applied makes a stationary object move.
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a ball at rest begins to move when (c) The force applied changes the speed of the object.
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a force is applied to it. (d) The force applied changes the shape of the object.
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2. Place your palm in front of the 147

moving ball; it comes to a stop.
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This explains when an object is

placed in the path of a moving
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ball, it applies a force to the Concept Building 7E Explain, Elaborate

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moving ball. Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing

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3. Now push the ball again and

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How does force change the state of motion of an object?

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apply more force from opposite

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direction. The ball will start Explain what is meant by state of rest, i.e., when an object is not moving, and
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moving in the opposite direction. state of motion, i.e., when the object is moving. When the object is at rest, it is
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This explains force can change the considered to be at zero speed.

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direction of moving object.

Force can make a stationary object move, change its speed, change its
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4. Apply more force to the ball. Its direction and make a moving object stop.
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speed will increase. This explains

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force increases the speed of a How does force change the shape of an object?
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moving object. Give examples to explain how force on an object can change its shape.
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To predict the changes when force is applied to a body that is not free to move in order to • Analysing
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explain that force can cause change in shape of objects.
• Observing
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3. What happens when Anu blows air into a balloon? Tick the correct option.
(a) It remains as it is. (b) It breaks into two pieces. • Exploring
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(c) The state of the balloon changes. (d) The shape of the balloon changes.
4. Anu blows the balloon, ties the end and then pushes it with both her hands as
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shown here. What effect of force will be seen on the balloon? Tick the correct option. Life Skills
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(a) Its shape changes.
(c) Its speed changes.
(b) Its colour changes.
(d) Its direction changes.
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What are the types of forces?
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Activity Corner
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Forces can be broadly divided into two main types—contact forces and non-contact
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forces. 7E Engage, Explore
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What are contact forces? Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing,

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Forces which are exerted when two objects are in actual (physical)
As Critical thinking
contact with each other are said to be contact forces. Muscular
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force and frictional force are examples of contact forces.

Teacher can go for a fun activity. Ask
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students to take a lemon, cut it half and
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Muscular force: We exert force to do most things, be it apply force to squeeze it. What will you
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exercising, riding a bicycle, playing football, walking, dancing,

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eating, cycling, etc. (Fig. 11.10). The force exerted by our muscles
observe? Applying force to squeeze the
lemon leads to change its shape.
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to push or pull an object is called muscular force. Muscular force

is also seen when we chew food, when we breathe and when the Fig. 11.10 Example
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heart beats. of muscular force
Frictional force: When we push a ball along the ground, it does not move forever. The ball
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rolls along for a while, slows down and then completely stops. The force that slowed down
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the ball is known as frictional force or friction. Friction is a force that opposes motion.
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Friction occurs between the two surfaces that are in contact, that is, the ground and the ball.
Thus, frictional force or friction is the force that opposes the motion of two surfaces that are in
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contact. The amount of friction depends on the surfaces involved. Rough surfaces have more
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friction than smooth surfaces. For example, when you kick a ball on the ground, it moves a
long way before it stops. If you hit the same ball with the same force on a rough carpet, it will
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barely move.
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What are non-contact forces?

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Forces which are exerted when two objects are not in actual (physical) contact with each other
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are said to be non-contact forces. Gravitational force, electrostatic force and magnetic force are
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examples of non-contact forces.

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Gravitational force: When you jump up in the air, you are pulled back to the ground, even
though nothing seems to be touching you. This force that pulled you towards the ground is
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What are the types of forces?

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Contact force Non-contact force

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Teach students the types of forces with the help of a flowchart.

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Gravitational
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What are contact forces? Muscular force

force
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Explain what contact force means. Talk about the use of muscular force in Frictional force Electrostatic
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activities like dancing, walking, exercising and even breathing. Ask students to give force
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more examples of muscular force. Talk about the use of frictional force by giving examples.
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Magnetic force
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What are non-contact forces? (pages 148–149)

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Explain what non-contact force means. Talk about the use of gravitational, electrostatic and magnetic forces.
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gravitational force or gravity. The force with which an object pulls other objects towards itself is
• Analysing called the gravitational force or gravity. This kind of force is a force of attraction. The force
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• Observing of gravity acts on all objects all the time without us being
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• Exploring aware of it. Gravity is not a property of the Earth alone as
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every object in the universe, whether small or large, exerts
gravitational force on every other object.
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Life Skills It is the force that holds the Earth, the Sun and the stars
rs together and keeps the planets in their orbits. Fruits falling from
trees, water flowing downward from a tap and a ball thrown up Fig. 11.11 Examples of
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• Self-awareness falling down are examples of gravitational force (Fig. 11.11). gravitational force
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• Problem-solving Electrostatic force: If you rub a balloon against your hair 20 or 30

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times and then hold the balloon a few inches away from your head,
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you will find your hair ‘standing’ towards the balloon (Fig. 11.12). This
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Activity Corner
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happens because rubbing the balloon gives it an electric charge (a small
7E Engage, Explore amount of electricity) that attracts your hair to the balloon. The force
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that attracts a charged object to another object is called the electrostatic

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Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing, As force. Crackling sound of fibres of an acrylic sweater when you take it
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Critical thinking off, rubbed plastic combs and rulers attracting pieces of paper, etc., are Fig. 11.12 Example of
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examples of electrostatic forces. electrostatic force
Perform this activity to explain the
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electrostatic force. 21st

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Test It Yourself! Century Conceptual understanding

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1. Take a comb and clean it properly. Take two clear plastic rulers and a small plastic bottle (water or soft
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drink—a bottle with a lid that is 2–3 centimetres wide). Rub one ruler
2. Tear the paper into small pieces. with wool and balance it on the bottle lid. Now rub the other ruler,
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and bring the rubbed end of this second ruler near the rubbed end of
3. Now rub the comb into your hair the first ruler. You will see the ruler on the bottle rotate away from the
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for some time. second ruler because the two rulers are similarly charged and push
each other away.
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4. Bring it close to small pieces of

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Magnetic force: If you bring a magnet close to the refrigerator door,

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paper.
you will find that the magnet ‘jumps’ to the door. This is because the
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5. You will observe pieces of paper magnet exerts a force of attraction on the door. The force that attracts a
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get attracted towards the comb.

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magnetic substance to a magnet is called the magnetic force. If you bring

the same magnet close to a glass bottle, the magnet will not stick to the
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This is because rubbing the comb in

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glass. This is because glass is not a magnetic substance.

hair generates electrostatic charge in
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A magnet can exert a force on another magnet without being in contact

the comb and this force attracts pieces
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with it. Like poles (North–North or South–South) of two magnets

of paper toward the comb.
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repel each other and unlike poles (North–South) attract each other.
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The closer a magnet is to the object or another magnet, the stronger

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the force. Magnet attracting coins, metal clips and another magnets are Fig. 11.13 Examples of
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examples of magnetic forces (Fig. 11.13). magnetic force

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• Observing
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To cite examples from daily life where an action causes change in movement or shape
due to the contact between two objects in order to define contact forces. • Exploring
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1. Which of these pictures is an example of contact forces? Tick the correct option.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
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• Self-awareness
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To illustrate with examples from daily life an action that causes change in movement or
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shape without contact between two objects in order to define non-contact forces.
2. This is an example of a non-contact force. Tick the correct option.
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(a) An apple falling from a tree (b) Drawing water from a well
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(c) A ball rolling on the ground (d) Pressing a clay ball

As This section helps in evaluating if
I ticked option because . students have understood the concepts
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3. At a birthday party, kids rubbed balloons on their sweaters and decorated the walls by placing
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these balloons on the wall. The balloons stuck to the wall like magic. Which force caused the
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balloons to stick to the wall? Tick the correct option.

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(a) Muscular force (b) Electrostatic force

(c) Gravitational force (d) Magnetic force can verify their responses. If students
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I ticked option because . have doubts, revisit the respective

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What is pressure?
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If you hold a sharp pencil between two fingers and start pressing Look It Up! 7E Engage, Elicit
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Force Force
it from both sides (Fig. 11.14), you will feel pain on the finger that
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is pressing against the pointed end of the pencil. You will not feel Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
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pain on the finger that is pressing against the flat end of the pencil. thinking
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Fig. 11.14 Pressing a pencil

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If the force applied on both ends of the pencil is the same, why is
there pain in one finger and no pain in the other?
between fingers (Elder‘s Ask students to search the internet for
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supervision is required.)
information on other units of pressure
This is because the effect of force on a surface depends on the area
such as torr, bar, atm, and psi.
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over which the force is spread. When the area is small, like the tip of the pencil, the effect of the
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force is more. When the area is big, like the flat end of the pencil, the effect of the force is less.
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This effect that force produces on a surface is called pressure.

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Pressure is a measure of the amount of force acting on a given amount of surface area. Pressure
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is defined as the force per unit area acting on a surface. Pressure allows metal boats to float,
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airplanes to fly, straws to suck water and balloons to hold their shape. Concept Building
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thinking
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What is pressure?
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Ask students that what they understand by the word ‘pressure’. Now, ask students to do the activity suggested in the book.
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Explain how the force on a surface depends on the area over which the force is spread.
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The smaller the area, the greater is the pressure.

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The greater the force (on a particular area), the greater is the greater pressure.
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Discuss the applications of pressure and explain how pressure is related to surface area.
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Explain the mathematical relationship between force, area and pressure,

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i.e., P = F/A, where P is pressure, F is force, A is area. Talk about the SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa). Solve some
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numerical to explain the use of the formula.

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3. Animals such as camels (Fig. 11.7) and elephants have broad feet. The
• Analysing
wide feet spread their body weight over a large surface and thus the
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• Observing pressure applied on the surface is less. This is why camels’ feet do not
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• Exploring sink in the sand and elephants are able to walk on the ground without
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destroying the ground it is walking on.
4. Bags and suitcases have broad straps and handles to increase the Fig. 11.17 Broad
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surface area. So, the pressure exerted on hands and shoulders would be less feet of a camel
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Conversely, pressure increases if surface area decreases. Examples of small area producing
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• Analysing
greater pressure are given below.
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1. Knives are created with sharp edges. A sharp knife cuts better than a
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Science Fact 7E Elaborate, Extend
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blunt knife. This is because the sharp blade has a smaller surface area
that exerts more pressure when used.
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2. Athletes wear shoes that have spikes on the sole
thinking
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(Fig. 11.18). The smaller surface area of the spikes on

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Inform students that both liquids and As athletic shoes help athletes gain greater traction on the
gases are fluids. They do not have a ground when running on a track. They can, thus, run fast
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Fig. 11.18 Spikes on

without slipping.
definite shape, they can be made to shoe sole
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flow or move and their molecules 3. Tools such as spades have a thin and sharp edge (Fig. 11.19). The thin and
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easily move fast and tumble over one sharp edge of a spade puts greater pressure on the ground. This makes
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Fig. 11.19 Spade

digging with a spade easy.
another freely. Fluids can push objects
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with force. 4. The tip of a nail or a needle is small and sharp. The smaller area of the tip allows the nail to
go easily into wood or the needle to go easily into clothes rather than the blunt ends.
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Concept Building Do liquids exert pressure?

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7E Explain, Elaborate If you were to take an inflatable swimming ring and throw it into a swimming pool, will it sink?
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The swimming ring floats on the water. If you try to push it down, it pops up and continues to
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float. As you try to push down, it will feel that the water is pushing it back up! Why do you think
thinking this happens? This is because the water exerts pressure on the swimming ring.
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Liquids such as water exert pressure on objects immersed in them. When an object is
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Do liquids exert pressure?

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immersed in a liquid, the liquid exerts an upward force on the object. If the weight of the object
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is less than the upward force of the liquid, the object will float. If the weight of the object is
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Ask students why the inflatable

more than the upward force of the liquid, the object will sink.
swimming tubes do not sink in water.
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Properties of liquid pressure: Liquids such as Science Fact 7E Elaborate

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Explain that water exerts pressure on water exhibit certain properties related to pressure.
Liquids and gases are called fluids
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the swimming tube, and weight of as they can flow. They do not have
1. Water exerts pressure on the walls of the
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the tube is less than the pressure, so it

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a definite shape. Fluids can push

container that holds it. Liquid pressure increases
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floats. with depth.

objects with force.
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Arrange for students to conduct the 152

experiments given in the textbook on
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properties of liquids. Help students

understand the applications of these
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properties in real life. Activity Corner 7E Explain, Elaborate, Extend

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Students can perform the following activity to understand that water exerts
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equal pressure on all sides at the same depth.

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1. Take a balloon and tie it at the lower end of a glass tube whose both ends
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are open. Hold the tube vertically.

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2. Now, pour some water in the tube.

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3. The balloon will bulge out.

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This shows water exert equal pressure from all sides.

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4. Now add more water in the tube. The balloon will bulge further.
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This shows that liquid pressure at a point increases with increase in height of
the liquid column above that point.
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3. The pressure of a fluid depends on the height of the column of water above the place where
you measure the pressure.
• Observing
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• Analysing
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21st
Test It Yourself! Century Observation, Analysis
Skills • Exploring
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Pour the same amount of water into two cylinders, one cylinder
being wide and shallow, and the other being tall and narrow. Will
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the pressure caused by the weight of the water be the same at the Life Skills
bottom of both cylinders? No, the pressure will be greater at the
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bottom of the tall, narrow cylinder. • Critical thinking
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Now pour different amounts of water into two cylinders of the same size.
Will the pressure caused by the weight of the water be the same at the 100 100 • Communication
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90 90
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80 80
bottom of both cylinders? No, the pressure will be greater in the cylinder 70
60
70
60
with the taller column of water. 50 50

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7E Engage, Elicit
40 40
Look It Up!
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30 30
This shows that a taller column of liquid will have greater pressure on a 20
10
20
10
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surface than a shorter column.
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thinking,
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Do gases exert pressure?

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Gases, just like liquids, exert pressure. As Look It Up! 7E Explore

With the help of internet, ask students
to find out answers to the given
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If you were riding a bicycle over a road bump, would you Search online for answers and
questions.
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feel the bump? What if you took out some air from the discuss in class.
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tyre and then went over the same road bump? Which ride 1. Why do deodorant spray cans
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carry warning signs to tell

Help students if they find any
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seems smoother? The ride with air inside the tyres feel
you not to leave them out in difficulty. Explain that it can build
smoother because the pressure of the air inside the tyre
the Sun? pressure due to heat and explode,
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acts as a cushion, and you do not feel the bump too hard.
When air is removed from the tyre, the pressure of air
2. How much is the atmospheric and Standard atmospheric pressure is
pressure at sea level?
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inside the tyre is reduced and you feel the bump. 101,325 Pa
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Test It Yourself! Discovery-based learning

Concept Building
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1. Take an empty, dry metal can and pour some water into it. Boil this water for a few minutes
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until you can see steam coming out. 7E Explain, Elaborate

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2. Quickly remove the can using tongs and invert it into a large bowl of ice cold water.
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You will observe that the can gets crushed.

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thinking
Why did this happen?
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When cold water comes in contact with the can, the steam inside the can condenses and gets
converted to water. So, the air inside becomes less and the air pressure reduces. As a result, the Do gases exert pressure?
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atmospheric pressure outside the can is greater than the pressure inside the can and it crushes the can.
Explain that gases exert pressure because
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gas particles move freely and collide with

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At birthday parties you blow air into a balloon to expand it. The air inside the balloon exerts a
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pressure on the inner wall of the balloon. However, if you blow in too much air, the increased the wall of the container. The more often
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pressure of the air can cause the balloon to burst.

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particles collide, the more pressure they

exert. Explain this concept by making
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a diagram on the board and giving
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examples like air in a tyre.

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Atmospheric pressure (pages 154–155)

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Explain what atmosphere means and how it exerts pressure on objects. Define atmospheric pressure as the pressure exerted
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on an object by the weight of the air above it.

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Explain why we do not feel atmospheric pressure this is so because the air inside our body balances out atmospheric
e
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pressure.
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Discuss the differences in atmospheric pressure at different places on the Earth. For example, when we go to the hills we
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feel change in pressure.

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Show a mercury barometer. Explain how it is used.

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Discuss the applications of atmospheric pressure.

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Areas with low pressure are generally associated with bad weather. Areas with high pressure, on
• Observing the other hand, are typically associated with good weather.
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• Analysing
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What are the practical applications of atmospheric pressure?
• Exploring 1. When we travel by air, aircrafts maintain an artificial pressure inside the aircraft cabin so
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that passengers remain comfortable while flying. The pressure created inside the aircraft
balances the outside atmospheric pressure. When we take off, we are moving to an area of
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Life Skills lesser atmospheric pressure on the outside, and when we land, we are moving to an area of
• rs
Critical thinking higher atmospheric pressure on the outside. In both these cases, our ears ‘pop’ to balance
the difference in pressure that is felt.
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• Communication
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2. When air is sucked out of a drinking straw (Fig. 11.21), the air
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pressure inside the straw decreases. The atmospheric pressure

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Section Review 4 7E Evaluate acting on the surface of the liquid is now greater than that
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inside the straw and this pushes the liquid up the straw into
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical our mouth. Fig. 11.21 Drinking straw
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3. When the tip of the injection syringe (Fig. 11.22) is inserted into
the rubber top of the medicine bottle and the piston pulled up,
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This section helps in evaluating if As the pressure inside the syringe becomes lower. The atmospheric
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pressure acting on the liquid pushes it up the syringe.

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4. When we place a dropper inside a liquid and press the rubber
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exercise on their own in class. Then, Fig. 11.22 A syringe

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bulb, the air inside the dropper escapes as air bubbles. Now, when
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the rubber bulb is released, the atmospheric pressure being greater pushes the liquid inside
can verify their responses. If students the dropper.
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INT
section to clarify concepts. Section Review 4 7E Evaluate
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To derive the formula and calculate the pressure for a given force applied on a given
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area in order to explain common requirements of sharp knife, etc.

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1. A knife is used to cut a vegetable. How much pressure would be exerted by the knife if a
force of 10 N is exerted on an area of 0.5 m2? Tick the correct option.
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(a) 10 N/m2 (b) 20 N/m2 (c) 30 N/m2 (d) 40 N/m2

2. A porter carried a box on a round cloth of area 200 cm2 over his head. The pressure exerted by
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the box was 0.25 N/cm2. What was the force exerted?
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(a) 100 N (b) 50 N (c) 25 N (d) 10 N

To discover the direction of pressure applied by a liquid when put in a container, to conclude
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that liquids exert pressure on the walls of the container.

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3. During the festival of Holi, Anu placed coloured water in balloons to fill them up. The balloons
As
looked bigger at the bottom than the top. Which of these statements correctly explains this?
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Tick the correct option.

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(a) The surrounding air exerts pressure on the water inside the balloon.
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(b) The water exerts pressure to the top of the balloon

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(c) The water exerts pressure towards the wall of the balloon.
(d) The air inside exerts pressure towards the bottom of the balloon.
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Experiential Learning (page 157) 7E Explore, Engage

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Encourage the students to conduct a simple experiment to observe the atmospheric pressure in action.
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Ask students to give predictions before performing the experiment. Then, ask them to verify if their predictions were correct or
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not after completing the experiment. Encourage them to give reasons for the observation. Ask them to write a short note to state
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the reasons for the observed outcome.

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Discuss their answers in class and help if needed.

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Scientific PROBLEM-SOLVING - 1 2
C. PUZZLE OVER Proficiency Adaptive reasoning • Observing
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• Analysing
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1. Forces F1 and F2 are acting on the given carton as shown. What F1
would be the net force on the carton? Choose the correct option.
F2
• Exploring
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(a) F1 (b) F2 (c) F1 − F2 (d) F1 + F2
2. The area of a small plate is 15 cm 15 cm and the air in a column above it exerts a force of 2250 N
Life Skills
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on it. How much atmospheric pressure is exerted by the air on the plate?
(a) 1 N/cm 2
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(c) 15 N/cm2 (d) 150 N/cm2
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• Communication
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D. SKILL CRAFT ANALYSIS & CREATING 1 2 3
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21st
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1. Project Work Century Research

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Skills
Find out what a manometer is. Where is it used? What does a typical manometer look like?
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How does a manometer work? Create a report and present in class. Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing,
Adaptive reasoning
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2. Discuss and Answer Life

Skills Critical thinking, Teamwork
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Can magicians sleeping on a bed of nails be explained using the concept of pressure? Find out 1. To help students to find the
about it and discuss in class. correct answer, demonstrate the
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activity in class. Let students

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Scientific
3. Connect to Life Proficiency Productive disposition observe the activity and answer
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the question.
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Be a careful observer. Observe as many real-life examples of pressure and force around you. Note
them for a week and share in class citing reasons why you think its an application of pressure. For
2. Ask students to apply the formula
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example: On a road you may have observed that a truck carrying heavy load has more than 4 tyres.
Reason: Because the tyres increase the area and so the pressure on the road is less. to calculate pressure.
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Life
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I can:
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define force using everyday examples to explain a push or pull on an objects.
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differentiate between balanced and unbalanced, and contact and non-contact forces.
Ask students to find out information
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understand the everyday application of pressure.

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about a manometer and present the

appreciate the need to understand force and pressure that exist in real-life contexts.
information in class.
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Discuss and Answer 7E Elaborate

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Refer to the Teacher's book for additional activities to reinforce concepts.
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Teamwork
1. To study the effect of force on different objects 4. To show that liquids exert pressure in all directions
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2. To observe the effect of pressure 5. To observe the dependence of pressure on the Ask students to recall the properties
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3. To show the presence of atmospheric pressure surface area of an object

of pressure and discuss the given
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situation.
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Connect to Life
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Teacher’s Support 7E Elicit, Extend, Elaborate

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Access additional Teacher’s Support resources that Skills instilled: Innovation, Observing,
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create energised textbooks and enable learning/ Analysing

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Ask students to observe daily instances
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in life that are applications of pressure.

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• Lesson-wise PPT facilitates hybrid teaching

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SUPERVISED LAB WORK
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1. Aim: To study the effect of force on different objects
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Materials required: Wheat dough (used for making chapatti), metal spring, play dough, rubber bands,
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table, chair, toy car, and ball
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What to do:
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1. Apply force on each object, one-by-one by either pushing them or pulling them.
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2. Have students note down what they observe.
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Observation: Have students categorise observations under different headings like ‘change of shape’,
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‘change in size’, ‘makes a stationary object move’, and so on.
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Conclusion: Force (a pull or a push) has different effects on different objects.
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2. Aim: To observe the effect of pressure

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Materials required: A bunch of 10 to 15 sheets of paper and a sharp nail
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What to do:
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1. Keep the bunch of paper on a table.

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2. Press the paper very hard with the head of the nail. Observe what happens to the paper.
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3. Now turn the nail around and with its pointed end press very hard on the paper. Have students note
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their observations.
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Observation: When pressed very hard, the head of the nail may make an impression on the paper.
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However, the pointed end of the nail makes a hole in the paper with much less effort.
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Conclusion: The head of the nail has a greater surface area than the pointed end. Therefore, the pointed
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end of the nail exerts greater pressure with less force. This shows that greater the area, lesser the
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pressure, and lesser the area, greater the pressure.

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3. Aim: To show the presence of atmospheric pressure

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Materials required: A tin container (such as a coca cola can), water, cold water in a large bowl or basin,
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tongs and a burner

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What to do:
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1. Fill the tin container 1/4th full of water and keep it over a burner.
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2. When the water has boiled and steam starts coming out of its mouth, remove it from the fire with
the help of tongs.
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3. Quickly upturn the container in the bowl of cold water.

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Observation: The container crushes inwards deforming it.

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Conclusion: When the water boils, the steam drives out air from the container. On upturning the can
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in the cold water, the steam inside the container condenses and changes into water. This creates a lower
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air pressure inside the can. The atmospheric pressure outside the container is greater and so it pushes
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the container inwards deforming it.

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4. Aim: To show that liquids exert pressure in all directions

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Materials required: A 25-cm-long smooth rubber pipe (similar to a garden hose) and a balloon with a
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neck that fits in tightly on the rim of the pipe

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What to do:
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1. Attach the balloon (without blowing it) to one end of the tube.
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2. Fill water through the other end.

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3. Move the tube sideways so that the balloon is at various angles.

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Observation: The balloon bulges out with the pressure of the water, regardless of the angle at which
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you hold it.
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Conclusion: Water (and other liquids) exerts pressure in all directions.
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5. Aim: To observe the dependence of pressure on the surface area of an object
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Materials required: Six rectangular slabs of iron and a small plastic table.
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What to do:
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1. Arrange blocks on a bench placing them side-by-side. (Arrangement 1)
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2. Again, rearrange these blocks by placing them on top of the other at the centre of the same bench.
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(Arrangement 2)
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Observation:
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In arrangement 1, the bench remains normal and is not affected by the force or weight of the blocks.
In arrangement 2, the bench either bends or breaks under the weight of the iron.
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Conclusion: The pressure exerted per unit area in the case of 2 is more than the pressure being exerted
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per unit area in the case of 1. Hence, the bench bends in the case of 2.
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Note: Have students calculate this to understand better. Assume each block weighs 30 kg and the area
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of the base of each block is 25 cm by 15 cm. Use the formula, pressure = Force (weight)/Area.
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Worksheet 1
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(a) A push or a pull on an object is known as ....................... .
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(b) The ...................... of a force is its size or strength with which it acts on an object.
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(c) Muscular force and frictional force are examples of ...................... force.
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(d) The force per unit area acting on a surface is called ....................... .
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(e) Snowshoes are used on deep snow because they have ....................... .
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(f) Bags and suitcases have ...................... straps and handles to increase the surface area.
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(g) Like poles of two magnets ...................... each other.
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2. Give one example of each of the following.
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(a) Gravitational force

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(b) Muscular force

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(c) Electrostatic force

(d) Magnetic force
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(e) Frictional force

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(f) Large area producing less pressure

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(g) Narrow area producing more pressure

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(h) Atmospheric pressure

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(a) Explain force.

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(b) What is balanced force?

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(c) What will happen if you and your friend both push a box with equal force in the opposite directions? Explain.
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(d) Define pressure.

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(e) Make a flowchart to show different types of forces.

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4. Project Work
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(Skills instilled: Observation, Critical thinking)

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Take two balloons and blow air into them. Press a board pin on one balloon. What will happen to the balloon? Write your observation.
Now arrange board pins in a square shape with their pointed side up. Press the balloon on the pins. What happens to the balloon now?
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Explain the difference in the observations.

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Worksheet 2
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(a) Pressure allows metal boats to float.
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(b) Force changes the direction of a moving object.

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(c) Force does not have direction.
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(d) Muscular force is a non-contact force.

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(e) Unlike poles of a magnet attracts each other.
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(f) The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa).
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(g) The greater the force on a particular area, the greater is the pressure.
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(h) At the same depth, liquids such as water exert equal pressure on all sides.
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(a) Small area i. Gravitational force

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(b) Opening a drawer ii. Balanced force

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(c) Falling of fruit iii. More pressure
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(d) Force per unit area iv. pull

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(e) Barometer v. push

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(f) zero resultant force vi. Pressure

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(g) Dams vii. Atmospheric pressure

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(h) peddling bicycle viii. Liquid pressure

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(a) Write the characteristics of force.

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(b) How is pressure calculated?

(c) What are the effects of force?
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(d) What is electrostatic force?

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(e) If a force of 20 N is applied over an area of 5 m2, calculate the pressure.

(f) What is the following figure explaining?
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Raman’s teacher asked him to show air pressure using a boiled egg, bottle, paper strips and matchbox. How will Raman show an air
pressure experiment with these things?
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12
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FRICTION
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21st Century Skills
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• Observing
12 FRICTION
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• Analysing
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• Exploring
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Life Skills
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• Critical thinking • Friction

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• Communication • Types of friction
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• Friction—A necessary evil

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Tell them how early man used Wha
you will learn
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stones to get fire, and how fire

• Understand friction and
produces by rubbing stones because
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factors affecting it
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friction produces heat.
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• Learn about the types of

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friction
Tell them to rub their hand they
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• Understand the advantages

will feel the heat as rubbing of and disadvantages of friction
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hands creates friction which • Learn about methods to

reduce as well as increase
produces heat.
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friction
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• Know about fluid friction

If they’re unable to relate, help them
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by giving correct answers.

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Activity Corner Why

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7E Explain, Elaborate, Extend it is important to learn

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One of the most important contact

Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing, forces—the force of friction—
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Critical thinking supports most of the movements in

WARM-UP 7E Engage
our day-to-day life.
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1. Ask the students to make an It is, therefore, necessary to become What could possibly be common between lighting a fire by
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aware of the importance and the rubbing together stones, oiling the hinges of a sliding gate
inclined surface with the help effects of the force of friction. and simply just walking on the ground?
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of two or three books on the

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surface of the smooth table.

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2. Now take a pen or cell and roll
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it on an inclined surface.
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What do you observe? The pen or cell will move fast on the surface of the table. Now, mark the point till the pen or cell
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is reached. Now put some sand on the tabletop and spread it on the surface of the table.
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3. Repeat this activity again. What do you observe now? The pen or cell will not move fast on the surface; this is because
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of sand. Now, mark the point.

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4. Compare the two points. You will observe that the second point is not too far as compared to the first one, this is
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because of friction. The sand particle creates friction between them and the pen or cell which hinders its smooth
movement on the table.
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21st Century Skills
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When early humans rubbed two stones together to start a fire, they were using the force of
• Analysing
friction without perhaps knowing it. The seemingly simple act of walking on the ground is
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possible because of the force of friction. Similarly, we oil the hinges of a sliding gate to reduce • Observing
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the friction between the wheels of the gate and the railing they slides against. We learnt earlier • Technology literacy
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that friction is a contact force as it comes into play when there is physical contact between the
surfaces of objects. Let us learn more about it.
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What is friction? rs • Critical thinking
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We learnt that when we push a ball along the ground, it does not move forever. The ball • Problem-solving
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rolls along for a while, slows down and then completely stops. The force that slowed down
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the ball is known as frictional force or friction. Friction is a force that opposes motion.
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Friction occurs between the two surfaces that are in contact, that is, the ground and the Activity Corner
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ball. Thus, frictional force or friction is the force that opposes the motion of two surfaces
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7E Engage, Explore
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that are in contact. It is also a contact force.
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If we try to move a big box across the ground, we need Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing,
Critical thinking
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to exert a pushing force on the box. We will notice that

it is difficult to push the box along the ground. It feels
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as if there is something pushing against you. This force Ask the students to push the table,
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that pushes against your pushing force is the force of Motion when they were pushing it, ask them if
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friction exerted by the ground. Friction, in this example they are able to push it easily or if they
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(Fig. 12.1), acts between the surface of the box and the
Force of friction
are feeling something is stopping them
surface of the ground and makes it difficult to push the to push.
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box along the ground. Fig. 12.1 Frictional force

This force that is stopping the table
What causes friction?
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Box
to move is the frictional force. Tell
What causes friction is not yet completely understood. them when you are pushing the table
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There are a few scientific observations on this. Ground

you are applying pushing force but
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Objects may look smooth, but show irregular edges when the force which is stopping you to
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observed under a microscope. It is believed that friction Force move the table is the frictional force
happens when the rough edges of one surface interlock
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which always acts opposite to the

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with the rough edges of another object (Fig. 12.2), and Friction
pushing force.
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some of the object’s energy is used to break off those

Gravity
rough edges to keep the object moving. Although rough
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Fig. 12.2 Cause of friction: Irregularities

surfaces have more friction, even completely smooth on the surfaces in contact
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objects have some friction.

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Another line of thought is that friction is the result of the molecules in both objects being
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attracted to each other. When two surfaces come in contact, their atoms and molecules pull
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each other to themselves. When such surfaces are moved, breaking of these forces between
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them causes resistance to motion or friction. Whatever may be the cause of friction, there are a
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few factors that affect friction.

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Concept Building 7E Explain, Friction, What causes friction

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What is friction?
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Explain to the students that when you are seeing any smooth surface, it’s not actually smooth. It has some rough edges if
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you see it under the microscope.

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It is believed that when two surfaces come in contact, they interlock with each other and create friction.
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Try to show the surface under the microscope or make a picture on the board and explain the interlocking of the surface.
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An explanation can also be given in another way also that the objects are made up of molecules and atoms.
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When the two surfaces come in contact these atoms and molecules pull each other and make a bond.
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When we move the surface this bond breaks and causes resistance or friction.
Show them with the help of a diagram or you can take two brushes over each other with bristles to show a bond.
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21st Century Skills
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• Analysing What are the factors affecting friction?
Friction is affected by a number of factors, which are as follows.
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• Observing
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1. The amount of friction depends on the nature of the surfaces in contact. Rough surfaces
• Exploring have more friction than smooth surfaces. For example, when we use force to push a box,
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it seems hard to move the box. If we pour some soapy water on the floor, we will find that
the box moves over the floor very smoothly.
Life Skills
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2. The amount of friction also depends on the force with which the two surfaces press on
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Critical thinking each other. The more the force between the two surfaces, the more the friction. When
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• Self-awareness the surfaces are pushing together more, the force between the two surfaces increases. This
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is because more of the irregular edges on the surface of the materials come into contact
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with each other, resulting in more friction and thus more force is required to move them.
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Test It Yourself!
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21st
Test It Yourself! Century Observation, Critical thinking
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7E Engage, Elicit Skills
1. Take a thick rug and pull it across the floor. Observe the effort required to do this. Now place a
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Skills instilled: Observation, Critical heavy box over it and pull it again. Was this easier or harder to pull?
thinking
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pushing it lightly. Note the distance it travels before it comes to a stop.
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Ask students to take a thick rug and

Now bring the plastic container back to the starting position. Sprinkle some water on the
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pull it and now place a heavy box over tabletop. Push the container, trying to use the same amount of force as the last time. Note the
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the rug and again pull it. Tell them

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distance travelled by the container.

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to write their observation. Similarly Try this once again, this time by sprinkling some drops of oil over the water on the tabletop.
ask students to take a plastic box Why did the same container with the same amount of force exerted on it, travel different
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and push it with maximum force on distances? Does it have anything to do with the surface on which the container was moving?
Communication: Based on the factors affecting friction, in both cases, draw out one inference
the table, repeat this activity again
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each based on your observations. Record them and discuss in class.

by sprinkling water on the table and
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again by sprinkling oil drops with the

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same force . Section Review 1 7E Evaluate

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To analyse and identify the number of bodies interacting, when frictional force is felt, in
Now, ask students what their order to establish that friction is a contact force.
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observations are and also if different

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1. A box is being pulled on the floor. What are the bodies that are interacting when frictional force
factors affect friction or not. is felt?
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(a) Box and gravity (b) Floor and gravity (c) Box and floor (d) None of these
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I chose option because .

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To analyse situations where resistance is felt while applying force to move a body, in order to
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explain that frictional force acts in opposite direction to motion.

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2. Which option describes a situation where resistance accompanies the applied force?
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(a) While kicking a football (b) While opening the door

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This section helps in the evaluation (c) While lifting a bucket (d) While burning a matchstick
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of students. Let the students complete

their worksheets on their own in the
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classroom. Then, explain the answers
so that students can verify their
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answers. Help them if they get stuck

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somewhere. Concept Building 7E Engage, Explain

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What are the factors affecting friction?

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By using flowchart students can easily understand the factors affecting

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friction.
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Smooth
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(less friction) More (with more

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Surface force more friction)

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Rough
(More friction) Less (with less
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Factors affecting friction

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force less friction)

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Force (with which two surfaces are)

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21st Century Skills
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I chose option because here the force is acting in • Analysing
direction and friction is acting in direction.
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• Observing
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3. Look at the two images. Which suitcase will be easier to drag along
the ground? • Exploring
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I chose image because .
Image 1 Image 2
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Life Skills
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What are the types of friction? Look It Up! 7E Explore • Critical thinking
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There are several types of friction. The major types are as follows: Search online for • Self-awareness
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answers and discuss
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1. Static friction 2. Sliding friction in class. • Communication

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3. Rolling friction 4. Fluid friction What is the study of
friction called? What
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What is static friction? are its main industrial Look It Up! 7E Engage, Elicit
uses?
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Static friction is a force that keeps an object at rest. That is, it is the Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
frictional force between a stationary object and the sliding surface.
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As thinking,
Static means stationary, so an object will stay in place until it experiences a great enough
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force to overcome the static friction. If a small amount of force is applied to an object, static Ask the students to find out what the
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friction acts on it in the opposite direction and the object does not move. If the force applied is study of friction is called with the help
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increased, at one point the maximum static friction will be reached, and the object will begin
of the internet and also how friction is
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to move. The frictional force that prevents two surfaces that are in contact from sliding past each
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other is called static friction.

useful to industries.
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To understand this, imagine that you are riding a bicycle on the road. It is the static friction
between the tyre and the road that keeps your bicycle on the road. If at the next corner, you
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encounter a wet and oily stretch of road, your bicycle will slip or skid. This is because the static
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friction is less on a slippery road and not enough to keep your bicycle on the road, and the
bicycle will tend to skid or slip.
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Concept Building
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Examples of static friction are a stone resting on the ground, travelling on an escalator without
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falling, a nail fixed on the wall without it falling off, a car parked on a slope with its brakes on
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and holding objects in our hands without dropping them.

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What is sliding friction?

The force of friction between two objects when they are sliding over What are the types of friction?
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each other is called sliding friction. Suppose you are pushing a Explain types of friction by using a
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box across the floor. As the force you are applying to the box is
flowchart
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larger than the force from static friction, the box moves along
the ground. If you now stop pushing the box, the box will stop Friction
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moving. This is because there is another type of friction opposing

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the motion of the box, called the sliding friction (Fig. 12.3). Fig. 12.3 Sliding friction
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Sliding friction acts in the direction opposite to the motion of a surface when it is sliding on
another surface. It causes the box to slow down and stop when you stop pushing it. Static Sliding Rolling Fluid
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Firstly, explain to students, how many types of friction there are.

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What is static friction?

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To explain static friction, first define the meaning of static and then take different examples of static friction before
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explaining it like riding a bicycle on a road and on an oily surface, and ask students about their views. After listening to
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their observation explain static friction.

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What is sliding friction?

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To explain sliding friction, first show students that by pushing a box or table on the floor, it moves, and when you stop
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pushing, it stops. This is because of sliding friction. And then explain it in detail by giving other examples like striking a
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matchstick across the matchbox.

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21st Century Skills
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The force of sliding friction is less than the force of static friction. Examples of sliding friction
• Analysing
are children sliding on a playground slide, pushing a book across a table, striking a matchstick
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• Observing across the matchbox and a long jumper sliding across the sandpit.
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• Exploring What is rolling friction?
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The frictional force that slows down the speed of the rolling object is called rolling friction. Rolling
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Life Skills friction occurs when a round surface, like a ball or a wheel, rolls over a surface (Fig. 12.4). It is the
force of friction that resists the motion of an object when it rolls over a surface.
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Critical thinking When a force is applied, the object will not initially move due to
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• Self-awareness static friction. After the force applied exceeds the static friction, the
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object starts to roll over the other surface. When an object rolls, it
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• Problem-solving
undergoes deformation and a small area comes into contact with the Fig. 12.4 Rolling friction
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surface which reduces the speed of the object.
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Activity Corner
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Rolling friction is generally less than sliding friction. Examples of rolling friction are a football
7E Engage, Explore rolling on the ground coming to a stop, a car moving on the road coming to a stop when the engine
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is switched off and a skateboard pushed on the ground coming to a stop after rolling for a while.
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Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing, As Static friction, sliding friction and rolling friction are generally seen in solid objects (Fig. 12.5).
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Critical thinking In solids, static friction is more than sliding friction and sliding friction is more than
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Take a cardboard and put drop of rolling friction.
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water, oil and honey on it. Tilt the card Motion

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No motion Motion
board slightly. Observe which drop is Force
coming fast and which one is coming
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Force
slow on the surface. Friction Friction Friction
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Gravity Gravity Gravity

Static friction Sliding friction Rolling friction
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Fig. 12.5 Three types of friction

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Direction of
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What is fluid friction? motion
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Object
Fluids, that is, liquids and gases, also exert frictional
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force on objects that move through them. The force Fluid friction
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exerted by fluids that resist the motion of objects that

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move through them is called fluid friction (Fig. 12.6). Fluid

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This is also called drag or drag force. Fig. 12.6 Fluid friction
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Let us take water and air as examples of fluids to understand this. When we run or cycle fast,
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we feel as if air is pushing us back. This is an example of drag exerted by air. Similarly, when we
swim, it requires effort to push the water aside to swim through. This is an example of drag exerted
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by water. This drag of air and water on moving objects acts as the frictional force slowing down
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objects moving through it.

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What is rolling friction?

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To explain rolling friction, first show the students how a ball rolls on the floor and explain that when a ball starts rolling on the
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surface it is because of static friction but when the force applied to the ball exceeds the static friction it starts rolling and then
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explain rolling friction. Also, explain to them that rolling friction is less than static friction by sharing various examples.
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Before starting fluid friction, explain to students that static friction, sliding friction, and rolling friction are generally seen
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in solids.
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Static friction > sliding friction > rolling friction

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What is fluid friction?

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Before explaining fluid friction to students, first explain that fluids mean liquids and gases. The force which is exerted by
fluids (for examples, while swimming or rowing boat) to stop motion is called fluid friction. Explain fluid friction in detail.
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Fluid friction depends on the following: 7E Extend
• Analysing
Real-world Connect!
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1. Speed of the object: The faster the speed at which an object • Observing
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moves in a fluid, the greater will be the frictional force A horizontally moving body can
experienced by it. For example, an aircraft flying at a greater cut through liquid more easily • Exploring
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than a body moving vertically.
speed experiences greater friction due to air than the same
aircraft flying at a slower speed. Similarly, a fast-moving
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boat will experience greater friction due to water than Life Skills
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the same boat moving at a slower speed. • Critical thinking
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2. Size of an object: The larger the object, the greater is the
• Self-awareness
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fluid friction it feels when moving through fluids. This
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means that a larger aircraft will feel more drag due to air
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as compared to a smaller aircraft. A larger boat will feel Real-world Connect!
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more drag due to water than a smaller boat.
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7E Engage, Elicit
3. Shape of the object: Since air and water offer great
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resistance to movement, it is important to have a shape Fig. 12.7 Shape and size of an object Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
that can travel through these fluids with the least resistance. affect fluid friction
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As thinking
An object that is shaped to travel through air or water with
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as little resistance as possible is said to be streamlined. So, an object that is streamlined A horizontal moving body can cut
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will be able to pass through fluids with less resistance as compared to an object that is not through the liquid more easily than
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streamlined. In addition to the streamlined shape, aircrafts and speedboats have engines a body moving vertically because the
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that help overcome fluid friction by generating a force opposite to the direction of friction. more the surface of the body more will
The shape of a bird and a fish are examples of a streamlined body seen in nature. We have be the fluid friction.
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taken inspiration from this shape when designing aircrafts, bullet trains, speed boats,
racing helmets and also how we shape our body when swimming fast.
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Test It Yourself!
4. Nature of the fluid: All fluids do not show the same amount of fluid friction or drag. The
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thicker the fluid, that is, the more viscous it is, the more the drag exerted by the fluid. The 7E Engage, Elicit
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thinner the fluid, that is, the less viscous it is, the lesser
Skills instilled: Observation, Critical
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the fluid friction exerted by the liquid. For example, an
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object dropped in a jar of honey will sink slowly as it thinking

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experiences a much larger drag than an object dropped in Ask the students to collect different
a jar of water. This is because honey is more viscous than
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liquids of different viscosity in differ

water. Similarly, if you were to run on a road and run in
cups i.e., water, hair gel, honey,
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the shallow end of a swimming pool, you will find that it

is easier to run on the road than to run in water. This is vegetable oil and soapy water. Also, ask
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because air is lighter than water. them to rate their viscous nature, then
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Fig. 12.8 Example of streamlined body drop a paperclip in each of the liquid
Test It Yourself!
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7E Explore
and note the time taken by the clip to
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Take five clear plastic cups. Take equal amounts of water, hair gel, honey, vegetable oil and soapy
reach the bottom.
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water. Pour the liquids, one in each cup. Now take a paper clip and drop it into each glass one by
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one, noting down the time taken for the paper clip to reach the bottom of each cup. Note your
results. Which was the fastest and which was the slowest? Infer the reasons for your results.
Now ask them the to write the fastest
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and slowest clip with reason.
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Here, explain the different properties of fluid friction using the below tabular format.
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Properties Fluid friction Example

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Speed of the object

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Size of an object
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Shape of the object

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Nature of the fluid

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After explaining, ask the students to give their own examples for better understanding.
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• Observing To differentiate between the types of friction in order to explain the use of different friction
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reducing strategies.
• Exploring
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1. Look at the picture. Do you think circular wheels will make the work of carrying the load easier?
Why are wheels circular and not square? Tick the correct option.
We are
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Life Skills (a) Rolling friction is less than sliding friction. No thanks! too busy.
(b) Rolling friction is more than sliding friction.
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Critical thinking (c) Sliding friction is more than static friction.
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(d) Static friction is lower than sliding friction
• Self-awareness and rolling friction.
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I chose option
because the circular wheel
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Section Review 2
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7E Evaluate .
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2. Jolly went to a railway station to see the launch of the new bullet train. He noticed that the front
Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical of the train looked almost like that of an aircraft. Why is the front of the train shaped like this?
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Tick the correct option.

(a) This kind of shape maximises drag. (b) This kind of shape looks nice.
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This section helps in the evaluation As (c) This kind of shape minimises drag. (d) This kind of shape equalises drag.
of students. Let the students complete
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their worksheets on their own in the
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class. Then, explain the answers so that

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Why is friction referred to as a necessary evil?

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students can verify their answers. Help

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Friction is necessary in many daily applications as it prevents slipping or sliding. But it can
them if they get stuck somewhere. sometimes be a hindrance because it resists motion. So, it is important to understand the
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advantages and disadvantages of the force of friction.

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What are the advantages of friction?

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Friction has many advantages in our life. A few instances are given below.
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1. Friction between the feet and the ground allows

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movements like standing, walking, etc. It would be
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really tough just to stand up if there was no friction

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between our feet and the ground. We will slip and

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Concept Building fall on a polished floor as friction is less on the

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7E Explain, Advantages smooth surface.

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2. Friction between the surface of the road and tyres of

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical vehicles allows vehicles to move (Fig. 12.9). Without
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thinking friction, the car would be skidding on the road Fig. 12.9 Friction allows vehicles to move
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causing accidents. Vehicles tend to skid on roads after a

Why is friction referred to as a
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rain shower because friction is less due to the ground getting wet.
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necessary evil? 3. Friction between paper and pencil enables us to draw and write on paper. If there was
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no friction, the pencil would keep slipping and we would not be able to write or draw
Friction is a necessary evil that can anything. It is difficult to write on a smooth paper as compared to a coarse paper because
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be explained better by comparing 166 friction is less on the smooth paper.

the advantages and disadvantages of
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friction with the following examples:

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1. Friction helps us to walk or stand on the ground. 1. Wear and tear

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2. Friction allows vehicles to move on the road. (a) Friction between shoe and ground cause wear
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3. Friction enables us to draw or write on paper. and tear

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4. Friction helps us to hold the object by providing a grip. (b) Friction between tyres and road surface cause
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worn out and cause wear and tear.

5. Friction between matchstick and matchbox sparks fire.
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(c) Friction between brakes can cause wear and tear

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6. Friction helps to stop a bicycle by brake and

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avoid accidents. 2. Friction generates heat which causes damage to

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the machine.
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3. Expenditure of energy
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4. Generating Noise
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Give a few more examples to explain them better and ask students to know if they have understood or not.
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How can we reduce friction? • Analysing
Some ways to reduce friction are given below.
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• Observing
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1. Application of lubricants: The most common
method used to reduce friction between moving
• Exploring
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surfaces is by using lubricants. Substances applied
to reduce friction between moving surfaces are Life Skills
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called lubricants. Oil and grease are commonly
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used lubricants (Fig. 12.12). Lubricants reduce
Door hinge
friction because they form a layer between
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Fig. 12.12 Lubricants reduce friction • Self-awareness
the moving parts. For example, we use oil on
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creaking door hinges or gates so that they can

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move smoothly. Similarly, mechanics use grease Look It Up! 7E Engage, Elicit
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in between moving parts of automobiles. Cooked
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foods tend to stick to pans. Teflon on non-stick Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
cookware reduces friction between the food and thinking,
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the pan, causing the food to slide and not stick.

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Fine powder is sprinkled on carrom boards to As Ask the students to find out what are
Maglev trains with the help of the
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reduce friction.
internet and also how they succeed in
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2. Streamlined shape: The streamlined shape
reducing friction.
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helps reduce fluid friction. This shape Fig. 12.13 Streamlined shape of boat
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allows objects to move smoothly across fluids

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such as air and water. For example, a speedboat can move very fast over water due to its
Concept Building
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streamlined shape (Fig. 12.13). Racing cyclists crouch down low on their bikes to reduce
the air resistance on them. This helps them cycle faster. They also wear streamlined 7E Explain, Elaborate
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helmets that allow air to flow over them more easily.

3. Using wheels: Wheels help in converting sliding friction to rolling friction, thereby Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
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reducing friction. For example, it is difficult to drag a suitcase on the ground, but when we thinking
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attach wheels to the suitcase, it can be easily rolled across the ground. Or if several suitcases
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How can we reduce friction?
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are placed on a trolley with wheels, it is easy to move the heavy suitcases.
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Explain to students the ways of

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4. Using ball bearings: A ball bearing is a small device consisting of two rings that have
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small balls between the rings (Fig. 12.14). Bearings reduce friction by providing smooth reducing friction by giving them
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metal balls or rollers, and a smooth inner and outer

day-to-day examples.
metal surface for the balls to roll against. These balls or Look It Up! 7E Elicit
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rollers allow the device to spin Search online for answers and discuss Also, ask them how they reduce
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friction at home.
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smoothly. These are commonly in class.

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used in moving parts such as Reducing contact during sliding can 1. Application of lubricants; ask
wheel hubs of vehicles and in reduce friction. Maglev trains are an
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example of this. What are Maglev them how they reduce the
axles of bicycles and fans.
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trains and how have they succeeded in annoying sound coming from
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reducing friction? their bicycle or door hinges.

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Fig. 12.14 Ball bearings

2. Streamlined shapes; ask them why
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birds and fishes have streamlined
bodies and then explain with
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more examples.
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Activity Corner 7E Engage, Explore 3. Using wheel; ask students why

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there are wheels on the suitcase

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and tell some examples from your

home like a TV trolley, etc.
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1. Ask students to take two papers.

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2. Ask them to make an aeroplane out of one of those papers and ask them 4. Using ball bearings; ask students
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to leave the other one as it is. did they have ever seen ball
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3. Now ask them to drop the two from the same height at the same time. bearing in wheels for example in
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skates, etc, and then explain in

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4. Now, ask them to observe which one of the two touches the ground first.
detail.
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Ask students to give reasons. Explain to them that the paper aeroplane will
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face less fluid friction and move smoothly towards the ground as its shape 5. Polishing surface; Ask students
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is streamlined whereas, the normal paper will face more friction and move why their floors are polished and
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then give them an explanation.

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erratically towards the ground due to its shape which is not streamlined.
6. Adding an air cushion; explain
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them by giving an example of tyres

when air is filled inside them.
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5. Polishing surfaces: Smooth surfaces offer less friction than
• Analysing
rough surfaces. So, by polishing surfaces we can reduce friction.
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• Observing For instance, polishing wooden surfaces, tiles and floors
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• Exploring reduce friction.
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6. Adding an air cushion: A thin cushion of air between surfaces
reduces friction. For instance, the air filled inside tyres or inside
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Life Skills bubble wraps.
•
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Critical thinking How can we increase friction? Fig. 12.15 Air-filled tyres
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• Analysing Some ways to increase friction are given below.
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1. Making the surfaces rough: Rough surfaces offer

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more friction. So, we can increase friction by making
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the surface rough. For example, football boots have
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical studs (Fig. 12.16) that can stick to cracks in the
ground to increase friction so that the player does
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not slip and fall. Tyres of vehicles have grooves called

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Fig. 12.16 Studs Fig. 12.17 Treads

This section helps in the evaluation As treads (Fig. 12.17) that make the surface of the tyre
in shoes in tyres
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of students. Let the students complete rough so that vehicles do not skid when moving.
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their worksheets on their own in the 2. Reducing lubrication: Since lubrication reduces friction, removing it can increase friction.
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class. Then, explain the answers so that For example, rubbing chalk powder on sweaty hands gives a better grip to a pole-vaulter.
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students can verify their answers. Help Similarly, tennis players wipe sweat off their hands to get a better grip on the racquet, and
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them if they get stuck somewhere. gymnasts rub their hands in an absorbent powder that allows their hands to get a better grip.
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3. Bringing the surfaces closer to each other: When two objects press against each other,
the friction between them increases. This fact is used when designing brakes. For example,
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Concept Building car brakes work because of friction. As the brake pads rub against the car’s wheels, the car
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7E Explain, Elaborate slows down. Similarly, when we press down the brakes on a bicycle, the brake pad touches
the wheels and slows down the bicycle.
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical 4. Increasing the surface area: When the surface area of contact is increased, friction
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thinking increases. For example, when an aircraft comes in to land, the flaps on the wings are
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adjusted so that the air resistance can increase, slowing down the aircraft.
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How can we increase friction?

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Firstly, explain why there is a need to
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increase friction, and then first give To provide advantages and disadvantages of friction in order to justify friction as a
necessary evil.
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examples and then an explanation.

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1. Bhuvan dropped a bag of marbles on the floor and had a fall by slipping on them. Why do you
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This will make their understanding think he fell? Tick the correct option.
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better, for e.g., football shoes have (a) The marbles increased the friction. (b) The marbles decreased the friction.
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studs so that they will not fall on the
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The friction between Bhuvan and the floor was before the marbles fell on the
ground for this we need to make the floor. The marbles the friction between Bhuvan and the floor.
surface rough so that studs can stick
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to the ground. Similarly, by reducing
lubrication and rubbing chalk powder
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on hand one can grip things strongly.

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Similarly, by bringing surfaces closer Activity Corner 7E Explain, Elaborate

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to each other one can increase

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friction. Also, by increasing surface

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area, friction increases e.g., when 1. Ask the students to walk on the floor only wearing socks on their feet.
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aircraft lands, its wings are adjusted to 2. They will feel slippery in walking on the floor.
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increase friction for slowing it down.

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3. Now, take a glue gun and make some zig-zag lines on the bottom of the socks.
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4. Again, walk on the floor, this time it will not feel slippery.
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This is because by adding lines on the bottom of the socks, there will be
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an increase in the friction between them.

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Skills instilled: Observation, Analysis, Self-awareness

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This section will help students predict the result of the given experiment using properties of force which they have learnt in
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this chapter . Explain the task. Let students complete it themselves and then discuss the responses.
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4. Observe and answer. Weight (rider + bike) • Observing
Look at the picture shown alongside.
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• Analysing
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Discuss the types of friction showed
by the four forces shown in the picture. Gear + chain • Exploring
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Air
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Tyre
Life Skills
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• Communication
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Puzzle Over
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(a) Define friction citing an example of how it opposes motion. 7E Evaluate
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(b) Compare and contrast static friction, sliding friction and rolling friction.
(c) List two factors affecting friction with an example of each. Adaptive reasoning
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(d) Define fluid friction with an example.

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2. Answer the following in detail. As To help the students to find the

correct answers, demonstrate this
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(a) Explain what causes friction.

activity in class using all four papers.
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(b) Describe the factors that affect fluid friction with an example of each.
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Let the students observe and answer

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(c) Describe any three ways in which friction is a disadvantage to us.

the questions.
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(d) Explain why friction is called a necessary evil.

Applaud the students who give
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Scientific
C. PUZZLE OVER Proficiency Adaptive reasoning PROBLEM-SOLVING 3 1-2 1 correct answer.
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1. Noel designed a model of a car ramp. He wants to cover the ramp For the second question ask the
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so that the toy car could stop after travelling a very small distance. students what they will do to push a
heavy box, let them think and relate
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Which material would be best to cover the ramp and why?

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(a) Butter paper (b) Glossy paper their situation with the question to
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(c) Sandpaper (d) Silk cloth give answer.

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2. A coolie at the railway station wants to move a heavy box from one part of the platform to the
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other. What should he do to reduce the effort?

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ANALYSIS & CREATING
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D. SKILL CRAFT 1 2-3 3

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21st Skills instilled: Creating

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1. Project Work Century Technology literacy

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Skills
Divide the students in four groups and
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Divide the class into groups of four. Ask them to prepare a PowerPoint presentation on the
following topics. Present in front of the class. ask the students to make a PowerPoint
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presentation on the topics given and

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(a) Skiing and friction

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(b) Slippery surface vs Sticky surfaces present in front of the class.

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(c) Skydiving and friction Help students, if they find any

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172 difficulty in making PowerPoint

presentation,
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Connect to Life Research/Activity 7E Elaborate

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Skills instilled: Innovation, Observing, Analysing Analysing, Observing

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Ask students to observe daily instances in life and find out whether friction is Ask the students to find out the answer
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on their own and make a report.

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a boon or curse to them, make a list and write your observation.

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Help them if they find any difficulty

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Teacher’s Support
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Access additional Teacher’s Support resources that

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create energised textbooks and enable learning/

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SUPERVISED LAB WORK
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1. Aim: To show that frictional force depends on the nature of the two surfaces in contact.
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Materials required: A brick, plastic sheet, a large piece of sandpaper, strong thread, and spring balance
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What to do:
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1. Tie the strong thread to the brick.
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2. Attach the thread to a spring balance and pull gently on a smooth table.
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3. Note the reading on the spring balance.
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4. Repeat this by placing one after the other plastic sheet and the large piece of sandpaper on the
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table.
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5. Have students record the readings in each instance.
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Observation: The spring balance will show lesser reading with the plastic sheet as compared to the
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sandpaper.
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Conclusion: In general, smooth surfaces offer lesser friction than rough surfaces. Thus, the reading on
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the spring balance will be higher for rougher surfaces such as sandpaper as compared to the plastic
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sheet or the smooth table.

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2. Aim: To study the effect of the weight of a body on friction.

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Materials required: A light cardboard box and a few heavy objects that will fit inside the cardboard box.
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What to do:
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1. Place the cardboard box on the floor or on a smooth tabletop.

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2. Push the box so that it moves a little ahead. Have students push the box and have them make a
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mental note of the resistance (friction) offered by the box.

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3. Place heavy objects inside the box and repeat step 2.

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Observation: When the box is heavier, it offers more resistance as compared to when no heavy objects
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are kept inside it.

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Conclusion: On account of its smaller weight, the lighter box presses on the floor with less force and
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hence the friction between the lighter box and the floor is less. This lesser force of friction allows the
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lighter box to be moved easily by applying a smaller push. On the other hand, because of its greater
weight, the heavy box presses on the floor with a greater force. Since the surfaces of heavy box and floor
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are pressed together harder (with a greater force) the friction between them increases and becomes
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much greater. Thus, the frictional force increases as the weight of the body (mass) increases.
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3. Aim: To show that rolling friction is less than sliding friction.

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Materials required: A thick book and 4–6 round-edged pencils of equal size.
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What to do:
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1. Place the book on a table top.

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2. Push the book so that it moves a little ahead. Have students push the book and have them make a
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mental note of the resistance (friction) offered by the book.

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3. Place the pencils between the book and the tabletop.

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4. Repeat step 2.
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Observation: It is easier the move the book across the table top when the pencils are placed under it
than without the pencils.
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Conclusion: The rounded edges of the pencils act as rollers and so it is easier to move the book placed on
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rollers (pencils) than to slide it directly over the tabletop. Thus, rolling friction is less than sliding friction.
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4. Aim: To show that the force required to overcome friction at the instant an object just tends to start moving from
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rest, is a measure of static friction.
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Materials required: A heavy brick, a strong thread and a spring balance.
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What to do:
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2. Attach the thread to a spring balance.
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3. Gently pull the spring balance with a small force. The brick, however, does not move.
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4. Now, use a little more force such that the brick moves forward a little. Note the reading on the spring balance
when the brick moves.
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Observation: The brick does not move when gentle force is applied, but it moves when a greater force is used.
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Conclusion: When the brick is pushed gently it does not move because its motion is being opposed by the force
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of friction which acts in the opposite direction. As the force applied is increased it ultimately, becomes a little more
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than the maximum frictional force and the brick just tends to move on the surface of the table. This means that the
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frictional force acting between the brick and table top has a maximum value beyond which it cannot increase. The
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force exerted to make the brick just tend to move is equal (but opposite) to the force of friction. Static friction comes
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into play when we try to move a stationary object (which is at rest). The reading on the spring balance just as the
brick moves is the magnitude of static friction between the brick and the table top. Thus, we can say that the force
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required to overcome friction at the instant an object just tends to start moving from rest, is a measure of static
friction.
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5. Aim: To show that sliding friction is smaller than static friction.

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Materials required: A heavy brick, a strong thread and a spring balance.

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What to do:
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2. Attach the thread to a spring balance.

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3. Gently pull the spring balance with a small force. The brick, however, does not move.
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4. Now, use a little more force such that the brick moves forward a little. Note the reading on the spring balance
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when the brick moves.

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5. Continue to pull the spring balance so that the brick moves along the tabletop to a greater distance. Note the
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reading on the spring balance when the brick moves further.

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6. Have the students predict which reading will be greater—when the brick just moved or when it was continuing
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to move on the table.

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Observation: The reading when the brick just started to move is greater than when the brick continued to move on
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the table.
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Conclusion: The force required to keep an object moving slowly (or sliding) with the same speed is a measure of sliding
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friction. The force required to keep the wooden block sliding (once it has started sliding) is less than the static friction.
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In other words, when an object starts sliding, then the friction is less. When an object has already started moving (or
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sliding), the irregularities on its surface do not get enough time to lock into the irregularities on the surface of the
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other object completely. Since the interlocking of the two surfaces is less when an object has already started moving, it
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requires lesser force to move the object. Thus, sliding friction is smaller than static friction.
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Worksheet 1
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1. Fill in the blanks.rs
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(a) Sprinkling power on the carrom board will …………... friction.
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(b) When the surface area of contact is increased, its friction …………....
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(c) The force of sliding friction is less than the force of …………....
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(d) Travelling on an escalator without falling is an example of …………....
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(e) In solids, sliding friction is …………... than rolling friction.
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(f) We can reduce friction by …………... the door joints.

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(a) Why are aircraft streamlined in shape? …………...…...

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(b) Why do football boots have studs in them? …………...…...

(c) Why do tyres have grooves in them? …………...…...
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(d) Why does an object move faster on a smooth surface? …………...…...

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(e) Why does an object sink slowly when dropped in a bottle of honey? …………...…...
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(f) Why does a larger boat feel more drag due to water than a smaller boat? …………...…...
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(g) Which two bodies are interacting when a car is riding on the road? …………...…...
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(h) Out of the four types of friction, which friction is the least? …………...…...
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(a) What is friction?

(b) How many types of friction are there? Name them.
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(c) In which direction does the frictional force act on the object?
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(d) What are the factors affecting friction?

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(e) What is rolling friction?

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(f) Give two advantages of friction.

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(g) Give two disadvantages of friction.

(h) Mark the direction of frictional force in the following figure.
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Force
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Friction
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Gravity
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4. Project Work
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(Skills instilled: Observation, Critical thinking)

Students will do an experiment by filling a bottle or small jar with uncooked rice. Make sure to fill the bottle all the way top. Now
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insert a pencil in the bottle filled up with rice. Now, grab the pencil and lift it up. Write your observations. Will you be able to take out
a pencil from rice easily or will it pick up the whole bottle with the pencil? Click the pictures and write the reason for your answer.
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(a) Making the surface rough is a way to reduce friction.
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(b) Football shoes with studs are used to increase friction.

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(c) Frictional force only depends on the nature of the surface.
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(d) Friction is a necessary evil.
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(e) The more the force between the two surfaces, the more the friction.
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(f) Oiling door joints will reduce friction.

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(g) Drag force is also called fluid friction.

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(h) The shape of the boat that is not streamlined will reduce friction.
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2. Name the type of friction involved in the following examples.

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(a) Children sliding on a playground slide

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(b) Stone resting on the ground

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(c) A nail fixed on the wall

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(d) A football rolling on the ground coming to a stop

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(e) An aircraft flying at a greater speed

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(f) Striking a matchstick against a matchbox

(g) Pushing the box
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(h) Swimming
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(a) What is sliding friction?

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(b) How does the nature of fluid affect friction?

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(c) Define how friction is a necessary evil?

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(d) What is the cause of friction?

(e) Define rolling fiction.
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(f) Why do our hands get warm when we rub them?

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Ria was playing with her younger brother in her house with water. Suddenly the water from the bucket falls on the wooden stairs and
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they become wet and slippery. What will Ria do now to make wooden steps less slippery so that her brother does not slip on them?
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13
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SOUND
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21st Century Skills
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• Observing
13 SOUND
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• Analysing
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• Exploring
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Life Skills
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• Critical thinking • Sound and vibrations

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• Communication • Production of sound in
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humans
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• Characteristics of sound
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• Noise
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Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing t

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you will learn

Ask the students to sit quietly and
• Understand how sound is
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listen to the sounds around them. produced

Then make a list of the different
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• Learn about sound production

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sounds they heard in class. by commonly known musical
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instruments
Now, ask them how they can hear • Learn about how sound
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is produced and detected

these sounds. by humans
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• Understand the
characteristics of sound
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• Learn about noise pollution

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Why
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Sounds tell us about the world

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around us and are an important

part of our lives. Doctors can listen
to their patients’ heartbeat to help
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diagnose illness. We can identify

people by the unique sound of their
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voices. We can identify animals by WARM-UP 7E Elicit

their sounds, and so on.
We hear so many different kinds of sounds around us.
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It is, therefore, necessary to

Children singing, dogs barking, car honking, pressure
understand how sound is produced
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cooker whistling, bell ringing and so on.

as well as how excessive sound or
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How do we hear sound?

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noise can cause noise pollution!

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174
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Activity Corner 7E Explain, Elicit, Extend

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Ask the students to make groups of 3 students and discuss the different sounds that they associate with different things
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around them like roar of a lion, rustle of leaves, etc. Then, list all of them and observe how many different sounds they can
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identify and how many more there are.

Explain to them how sounds are produced.
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Talk a little about noise and noise pollution.

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21st Century Skills
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A lot of what we learn about our world comes to us through our sense of hearing. The sounds
• Analysing
we hear are made possible by our ears. We hear different sounds around us, and each object
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produces a distinct sound. There are cats meowing, vegetable sellers yelling. loudspeakers • Observing
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blaring, music playing, traffic honking, school bell ringing, etc. • Technology literacy
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How is sound produced?
Life Skills
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Any object that can produce a sound is called a source of sound.
Sound is made by an object when it vibrates. A vibration is the to-
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and-fro movement of an object or parts of an object. We can observe • Critical thinking
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vibrations when we pluck the strings of a guitar or a sitar, or beat a • Problem-solving
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drum (Fig. 13.1). This makes the air around the object vibrate and
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ANM
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when the vibrations of the air reach our ears, we hear it as sound. Fig. 13.1 Drum
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The moving vibration is called a sound wave. Concept Building
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The closer we are to the source of sound, the clearer we can hear the sound. If we are far 7E Engage, Explore
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away from the source of sound, we hear the sound the less clearly.
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Test It Yourself! 7E Explore
Critical thinking
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Place a ruler on the edge of a desk, such that about eight inches of it hangs over the side. Place
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one hand on the four inches that remain on the desk, to hold the ruler securely. With your other
hand, hit hard on the end of the ruler that is hanging off of the desk. How is sound produced?
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The ruler will vibrate up and down, and produce a low sound. Take a string and ask two students to
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hold the two ends tightly. Now, ask

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What are some everyday examples of vibrations that produce sound? another student to pull at the centre of
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Let us look at a few common examples to understand that the to-and-fro motion
the string and leave it.
is avibration and that this vibration results in us hearing the sound.
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1. Hitting a metal gong: In some schools, a bell or metal gong is rung to indicate Discuss what happens and why.
that the period is over. A small metal plate is hung by a string and hit with
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a stick to produce a loud sound. If we try to gently touch the plate, we will feel Relate this to vibrations and sound waves.
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vibrations on our fingertips. If we hold the plate tightly, we will find that the
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Fig. 13.2 Metal gong
vibrations stop, and we will no longer be able to hear the sound.
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2. Striking across a rubber band: Stretch a rubber band across the thumb and
Test It Yourself!
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forefinger of your hand (Fig. 13.3). Using the other hand strike across the 7E Elaborate, Engage
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rubber band. You will hear a sound and you will also be able to see the
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rubber band vibrating very fast. If you strike hard, the vibrations are Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing,
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Critical Thinking
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faster and the soundlouder than if you strike gently.

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3. Ringing a bicycle bell: If you were to ring a bicycle bell (Fig 13.4), it makes a loud Fig. 13.3 Stretched
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Ask one student in each row to perform

sound. Gently touching the bell with your fingertips makes you feel the vibration. rubber bands
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the experiment. The rest of the class

5. Sound of thunder: When there is a very loud thunder, the window panes
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will observe. Ask the students to hit the

start to rattle. This is because the vibrations of the thunder are so
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ruler with different intensities. (Keep in

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strong that the sound waves make the window panes vibrate too.
mind not to hit too hard!)
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6. Hi-fi Speakers: If you take off the cover of a hi-fi speaker and play
loud music, you will be able to see the inner membrane vibrating. Ask them to compare the vibrations
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Fig. 13.4 Bicycle bell 175

produced in each and then discuss
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why this happened.

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What are some everyday examples of vibrations that produce sound?

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Discuss the properties of objects shown in the pictures given in the coursebook one by one.
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Then ask them to place their hands on their throat and speak. They should feel the vibrations in their neck. Infer how
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vibrations are to-and-fro motions and how they result in sound.

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7. Speaking: If you place your fingers at your throat and speak, you will be able to feel the
• Analysing
vibrations of the sound you are making.
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• Observing
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How do musical instruments produce sound?
• Exploring The most common example of sound is music produced by musical instruments. Different
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musical instruments produce different kinds of sound due to the vibrations of different parts.
Life Skills
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Depending on the parts that vibrate, musical instruments can be broadly divided into three types.
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Critical thinking 1. Stringed instruments: 2. Wind instruments: 3. Percussion instruments:
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Musical instruments in which Musical instruments in which Musical instruments in which
• Self-awareness a string vibrates to produce vibrations are created by blowing vibrations are produced by striking
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sound are known as stringed air are known as wind instruments. the surface of the objects are
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instruments. Examples are sitar, Examples are flute, harmonica, known as persussion instruments.
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Concept Building harp, violin and guitar. In each shehnai, trumpet and saxophone. Examples are drum, cymbals,
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of these instruments, a vibrating In each of these instruments, the tabla, dholak and ghatam. In each
7E Engage, Elicit, Explain, Elaborate
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string produces sound. vibrating air produces sound. of these instruments, the stretched
membrane or the vibrating surface
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing produces sound.

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Violin
How do musical instruments As Dholak
Cymbals
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Trumpet
produce sound? Harp
&
Ghatam
Harmonica
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Ask students to make a list of musical

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Fig. 13.5 Stringed instruments Fig. 13.6 Wind instruments Fig. 13.7 Percussion instruments
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instruments that they are aware of.

Now ask them to get small images of
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these instruments and make flashcards
in class. To list examples of body moving in a to-and-fro motion in order to explain vibration.
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1. This is an example of an object that vibrates to make sound. Tick the correct option.
Define a stringed instrument. Then
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(a) A spinning top (b) A coin that is tossed

call one student at a time and ask them
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(c) A marble rolled on a carpet (d) A guitar string being plucked

to pick up stringed instruments from
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2. Look at these pictures. What is vibrating in each to make a sound? Write in the given space.
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the pile of flashcards.

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Repeat the same activity for wind

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instruments and percussion

instruments.
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Image 1: Blowing a whistle Image 2: SingingFPO Image 3: Ringing a bell Image 4: Plucking a rubber band
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(a) Image 1 (b) Image 2

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(c) Image 3 (d) Image 4

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3. Tick all the options that show that an object is vibrating.

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(a) Clouds in the sky (b) A mobile phone ringing on silent mode
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(c) A speaker playing music (d) A drum while you’re playing it

(e) A guitar hanging on the wall (f ) A washing machine that is switched off
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This section helps in the evaluation of students.

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Let the students complete their worksheets on their own in class.

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Then, discuss the answers so that students can verify their answers.
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Help them if they get stuck somewhere.

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How do humans produce sound? • Analysing
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Like most animals, we humans also produce sound. We can say that we are also a source of sound. • Observing
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As you hum or speak, place your fingers against your throat and you will feel vibrations. Our • Exploring
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throat has a part called the larynx. It is also called the voice box. It is located at the upper end
of our windpipe or trachea. Two vocal cords are stretched across the larynx in such a way that
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it leaves a narrow slit between them for air to pass through. When we speak, we push air from Life Skills
our lungs through the slit and the vocal cords vibrate producing sound. There are muscles attached
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to the vocal cords. These muscles can make the vocal cords tight or loose. It is with the help of these • Critical thinking
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muscles that we can make different sounds. • Self-awareness
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Test It Yourself! Discovery-based learning • Communication

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Take a small piece of
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paper and fold it in the
Vocal cords
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Concept Building
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(located middle. Make a semi-
Larynx inside the circular cut in the middle
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(Voice Box) larynx) as shown in the figure.

Hold the free ends of the paper on either
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Trachea As
side and blow through the slit. Listen to Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
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[This view is looking down the the sound produced. thinking, Observing
throat into the larynx.]
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Our vocal cords produce sound in a similar
Fig. 13.8 Vocal cords manner when air passes through it. How do humans produce sound?
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The muscles in the throat also help people vary

Ask a student to recall what you had
21st
discussed about speaking and sound.
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their sound. Musicians train these muscles to Look It Up! Century Information literacy
Skills
produce a range of different sounds—from Search online for answers and discuss in class. Get a chart made using the following
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loud to soft and from shrill to deep. The

length and thickness of your vocal cords help
What organs help the following animals make image.
sounds?
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determine the sound of your voice. Shorter, 1. Snakes 2. Birds 3. Cats Now, explain the different parts of
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thinner vocal cords vibrate giving out a the image.

4. Frogs 5. Dolphins
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different sound as compared to longer or
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thicker vocal cords. This explains why children,

Vocal
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whose vocal cords are still growing, have higher voices than adults. During adolescence when
cords
children are growing, the larynx also grows. This is especially so in teenage boys. This is the Larynx
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(located
reason why their voice ‘cracks’, as the vocal cords are adjusting to the growing larynx. (Voice
inside the
Box)
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Now that we have learnt how we produce sounds, let us understand how we hear sounds. larynx)
Trachea
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IVID
How do we hear sounds? [This view is looking down
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Our ears help us hear sounds. The human ear is made of three main parts. the throat into the larynx.]
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1. The outer ear: This is the part that we can see on the side of our heads. Our outer ear is Do a fun activity in class where you ask
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shaped roughly like a funnel. This shape helps collect sound waves. Our outer ear is thus students to make different funny sounds.
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the sound collector. It collects sound waves and directs them into the ear canal.
Now, discuss how the same person
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177 can produce different sounds. Also,

discuss why the voice of boys change
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over time and why girls generally have

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a shriller voice.
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Test It Yourself! 7E Elicit, Explore

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Let the students perform the activity.

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They can then change the size of the cut and see if there is any difference in the sound produced.
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Discuss why this would happen.

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking, Information literacy

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Ask the students to pick any one animal from the list. Research online, make a diagram or a chart about the organs that
help the animal make sounds and then present it in class.
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At the end of the ear canal is the
• Analysing Semicircular
eardrum, which is a membrane that canals Auditory
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• Observing stretches across the ear canal. The
Auricle nerves
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• Exploring ear drum vibrates when sound waves Hammer
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strike it and it passes on the vibration Ear canal
to the middle ear.
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Life Skills 2. The middle ear: When the
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• Critical thinking vibrations to three small connected Cochlea
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Stirrup
• Self-awareness bones—the hammer, anvil and
Eardrum
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stirrup. The bones amplify the Anvil
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• Problem-solving
vibrations, that is, they turn up or
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Outer ear Middle Inner ear
increase the vibrations. Our middle
ear
Concept Building (pages 177–178) ear is thus a sound amplifier.
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Fig. 13.9 Human ear
The stirrup vibrates a second
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membrane called the oval window.

This marks the beginning of the inner ear.
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21st
Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical As Real-world Connect! Skills Century Health literacy
3. The inner ear: The inner ear is filled with
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thinking, Observing The ear can be damaged by disease, age and

fluid. Vibrations in the fluid are transmitted
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to the cochlea, which is shell-shaped and exposure to very loud sounds. Constant exposure
How do we hear sounds?
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to loud noise can damage the cells in the cochlea.

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has cells that turn the vibrations into electric

A simple way to protect your hearing is to turn
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Using the image, explain the different impulses. These cells generate impulses down the volume when you listen on the earphones.
parts of the ear. containing information about the sound. The The volume should be low enough that only you can
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inner ear is thus the sound analyser. These hear the sound in your earphones. If someone else
Semicircular canals impulses are carried by the auditory nerves nearby can hear the sound, it is too loud!
Auditory
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Auricle nerves and the message is passed on to the part of the

brain that is responsible for hearing. That is how we hear sounds.
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Hammer
What is required for the propagation of sound?
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Ear canal
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We know that when an object vibrates, it makes the air around the object vibrate and when
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the vibrations of the air reach our ears, we hear it as sound. This moving vibration is called a
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Cochlea sound wave. Sound waves travel because of the movement of particles such as particles of the
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Stirrup air. If there are no particles, sound waves cannot travel. Thus, the vibrating object must be in
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Eardrum Anvil contact with some material that will carry or transmit the sound. This means sound waves can
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travel only through a medium, or sound requires a medium for its propagation, that is, for
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Inner
Outer ear travelling from one point to another. Any substance or material that a wave can travel through
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Middle ear
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is called a medium.
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ear Language Check

Sound cannot travel through vacuum. There are no particles
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in a vacuum, such as outer space. Therefore, we cannot hear Use a dictionary to define
After discussing about the outer ear,
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‘medium’ as a noun that

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sound in outer space.

ask the students what would happen if might relate to sound.
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there was no ear drum at all.

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Once you have explained about 178

middle ear, ask the students to think
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of something else that can be used to

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amplify sound. Real-world Connect! 7E Engage, Explain

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After completing the discussion, get

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking, Health literacy

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a bowl of water, hit it on the sides

Ask one student to shout. Ask the others to recollect their reactions. Then
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with a prong and show how it

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produces vibrations. explain how loud noise is harmful and how it can turn us deaf. Discuss ways
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to avoid it.
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Discuss the answers of the students

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and correct them if they are wrong.

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As

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Language Check 7E Extend Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking, Observing

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing

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What is required for the propagation of sound?

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Explain the meaning of the term Recollect the activity of vibrations in water. Elaborate on how sound is
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‘medium’ in the context of sound. emitted by similar vibrations.

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Discuss how there is no sound in vacuum by talking about soundproof rooms as an

example. Ask the students if they can think of other places where there is no sound.
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Most sound waves that we hear travel through the medium of air. However, sound waves can
• Analysing
also travel through other media, such as water and metal. So, sound can travel through gases,
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liquids and solids. A doctor examines us using a stethoscope. He/she can hear the sound from • Observing
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within our body because sound can travel through solids. Aquatic animals communicate with • Exploring
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each other because sound can travel through liquids. We are able to hear a person standing
near us speak because sound can travel through gases.
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Life Skills
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Try this simple activity to understand propagation of sound
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through different media. In a quiet room, tap your finger gently • Teamwork
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on the surface of a desk or a table. Pay attention to how loud
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the sound is. Now, put your ear down on the desk and continue • Problem-solving
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tapping your finger gently. Your finger should stay about the
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same distance away from your ear as it was when you tapped
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the first time. How is the sound different? You will observe that Test It Yourself!
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the sound is louder when you place your ear on the desk.
7E Elicit, Engage, Explore
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When one taps the desk, it causes the particles in the desk to vibrate and the vibrations travel
through the desk like they do through the air. The particles in solids are arranged such that it is
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As
generally easier for sound waves to travel through solids than through gases. So, the waves have Skills instilled: Creativity, Analysing,
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more energy when they reach your ears, and more energy means a louder sound. Thought provoking
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Perform the activity in class. Ask
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From the activity, we can conclude two things. First, sound travels through gases (through air
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in the first case) as well as through solids (through the table in the second case). Second, sound the students to hear the bell through
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travels differently in different media—the sound was louder through the solid (table) than the bottle.
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through the gas (air).

Ask them to discuss the outcome of
the experiment.
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Test It Yourself!
Try this activity to observe if sound travels in liquids. Take a basin and fill it with water almost to Conclude how sound can travel
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the top. Cut off the bottom half of a plastic bottle and hold it just below the surface of the water, through solids, liquids as well as gases.
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without touching the basin. Place your ear over the top of the bottle. Take a small bell and with
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the other hand ring the bell under water. You will be able to hear the bell. This shows that
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sound travels though liquids too.

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What is the speed of sound?

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Medium Speed (m/s)

Generally, it is seen that sound waves travel fastest in solids (approx)
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and slowest through gases. This is because in solids, the Air (0 °C) 331
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particles are closely packed; in liquids, they are loosely packed Air (20 °C) 343
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and in gases, they are very loosely packed. The closer the
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Water 1480
particles are, the faster the sound propagates through them.
Steel 5100
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The temperature of the material that sound waves are

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Glass 4540
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travelling through also affects the speed of sound. Diamond 12000

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179
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Test It Yourself! 7E Elicit, Engage, Explore

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Skills instilled: Creativity, Analysing, Thought provoking

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Here, ask the students to perform the activity in class individually.

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Then ask them to answer the following questions:

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1. Did they hear a sound both the times?

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2. Did the intensity of sound increase when they tapped louder?

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3. Which sound was louder, the one in air or the one when they pressed their ear to the table?
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4. What did they infer from the experiment?

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5. Why was sound louder in one than the other?

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Discuss the answers and help the students with the correct answers.
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21st
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As a substance heats up, its particles move Look It Up! Century Thought provoking
• Analysing Skills
faster, and the faster the speed of sound is in Search online for answers and discuss
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• Observing the material. For example, the speed of sound in class.
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• Exploring in air at 0 °C is 331 m/s, while at 20 °C, it is Why do we see the lightning first and hear the
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343 m/s. sound of thunder a little later?
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Life Skills
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To list and identify functions of parts of the human body that produce sound in order to
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• Self-awareness explain the process of sound production.
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1. This part of the human throat is responsible for the voice produced by a human. Tick the correct
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• Problem-solving
option.
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(a) Larynx (b) Trachea (c) Pharynx (d) Cochlea
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Concept Building (pages 179–180) 2. This is how sound is produced by the voice box in a human throat. Tick the correct option.
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(a) The voice box vibrates by the air coming out of our stomach.
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(b) The vocal cords vibrate by the air coming in through our nostrils.
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(c) The lungs force air through the slit of the vocal cord and the vocal cords vibrate
Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical As producing sound.
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thinking, Thought Provoking (d) The stretched vocal cords across the voice box produce the air to vibrate the voice box.
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What is the speed of sound?

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What are the characteristics of sound?

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previous class. Ask the students why We learnt how sound requires a medium to propagate. Since sound travels as a wave, it is
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sound was loudest in the table, lesser important to understand a few basic properties of waves.
in water and least in air.
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What are some properties of waves?

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Waves are vibrations that transfer energy from place to place without matter (solid, liquid or gas)
media based on the table given in being transferred. It is the medium that vibrates as the waves travel through. It is similar to the
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the book. Mexican wave in a football crowd. The wave moves around the stadium, while each spectator
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stays in their seat only moving up then down when it is their turn.
Then talk about the effect of
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temperature on the speed of sound. properties of waves. A waveform is just a schematic representation that helps us understand
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waves.
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rest position. Thus, amplitude is the distance from either rest to crest or rest to trough.
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Wavelength: It is the distance between a point on one wave and the same point on the next
thinking, Thought provoking
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wave. It is often easiest to measure this from the crest of one wave to the crest of the next wave,
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Ask the students if they have heard but since a wave is a repeating pattern, it does not matter where, as long as it is measured at the
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thunder and seen lightning along with same point in each wave.
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it. Ask them to find out why thunder is

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heard after lightning strikes. 180

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Discuss the findings in the next class.

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What are the characteristics of sound?

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This section helps in the evaluation

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Involve the class in making a Mexican Wave. Then discuss how the wave
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of students. moved without any student moving from their place. Extend this to define a
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Let the students complete their wave and how it propagates. Ask a few students to come forward and make
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worksheets on their own in class. the wave again. Then pause them at some point of the wave.
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Define amplitude and wavelength by pointing to different positions of the

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Then, share the correct answers so

students forming the wave.
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that students can verify their answers.

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Discuss the doubts of the students.

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The horizontal line The crest of a wave is the point on
The trough of a wave is
the point on the medium
• Analysing
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drawn through the diagram the medium that exhibits the maximum that exhibits the maximum • Observing
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represents the equilibrium upward movement from the rest position. downward movement from
or rest position of the
particles. This is the position
the rest position. • Exploring
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Wavelength
that the particles would be in Amplitude
if there were no disturbance Crest
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moving through it. As soon
as there is a disturbance, the Equilibrium
Life Skills
particles begin to vibrate position
upwards and downwards.
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• Self-awareness
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Amplitude Trough
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Fig. 13.10 A diagrammatic representation of a sound waveform
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Frequency: It is the number of complete back- Science Fact 7E Extend
and-forth vibrations or oscillations of a particle of Science Fact 7E Extend
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the medium made each second. It refers to how Waves with very high frequencies are
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often the particles of the medium vibrate when Asmeasured in kilohertz (kHz), megahertz Critical thinking
a wave passes through the medium. The unit of (MHz) and gigahertz (GHz).
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frequency is the hertz (Hz). Discuss with the students about higher
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units for measuring sound.
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1 hertz = 1 vibration/second
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Frequency of 30 Hz means 30 vibrations in

a second. As a sound wave moves through a
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medium, each particle of the medium vibrates at

the same frequency.
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Properties of sound waves: Sounds waves

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travels in the same direction as the movement of Movement of the particle

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particles of the medium. Longitudinal waves have

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Fig. 13.11 Longitudinal wave

areas of compression and areas of rarefaction.
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compression and rarefaction (Fig. 13.12).

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Compressions
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Rarefactions
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Fig. 13.12 Compressions and rarefactions

181
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Concept Building (pages 181– 182) 7E Engage, Explain, Elaborate

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Explain the waveform of sound detail with the help of the diagram.
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moved when the wave was at pause.

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Then ask them how many times they moved in a second. Define frequency based on this. Then define the unit of
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frequency - Hertz.
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Introduce transverse waves and longitudinal waves.

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Using the diagrams of compression and rarefaction, explain more about longitudinal waves.
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The amplitude (Fig. 13.13) of a longitudinal wave is the Larger amplitude
• Analysing
distance between the particles in the areas where it is
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• Observing compressed. The closer the particles are to each other, the
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• Exploring higher is the amplitude. The further away the particles
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are, the lower is the amplitude.
The frequency of a longitudinal wave is the number of Smaller amplitude
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compressions and rarefactions made each second. Fig. 13.13 Amplitude: difference in
particle distance
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Critical thinking What is loudness and pitch of sound?
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• Self-awareness We learnt that in humans, sound is detected by the ears
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and interpreted by the brain.
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• Problem-solving
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140 dB Fireworks
Loudness: How loud or soft a sound is, depends on its
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130 dB Jet engine
amplitude. The greater the amplitude, the louder the
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120 dB Siren
sound. So, loudness is dependent on the amplitude of the
7E Engage, Explain, Elaborate sound wave. The higher the amplitude of the wave is, 110 dB Trombone
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the more compressed the particles in the compression 100 dB Helicopter

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical As are and the more spread out they are in the rarefactions.
90 dB Hair dryer
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More energy is, therefore, required by the vibrating

object that created the wave to force the particles closer 80 dB Truck
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What is loudness and pitch of sound? together or spread them farther apart. So, sound waves
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70 dB Car
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with greater amplitude carry more energy and thus

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Here, first play a little activity with sound louder. Sound waves with smaller amplitude 60 dB Conversation
students. Ask the students to fill carry less energy and thus sound quieter. 50 dB Refrigerator
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the table. The music you listen to would sound perfectly fine to 40 dB Rain
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you, yet sound too loud to your mother, who may want 30 dB Rustle of leaves
Sound Intensity you to reduce the sound! This means that the perception
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(Loud/Soft) of loudness could vary from person to person. 20 dB Whisper

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Cartoon on TV Loudness is measured in decibels (dB). The faintest
10 dB
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News on TV sound that a human ear can detect is known as the

threshold of hearing. This is marked as 0 dB on the Fig. 13.14 Decibel scale
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Science Fact 7E Explain
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Sound pressure is the amount of air pressure fluctuation a noise
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proportional to the square

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of the amplitude of the source creates. We ‘hear’ or perceive sound pressure as loudness.
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vibration producing the Generally, the farther one moves from the source of sound, the
Then ask them to think as their sound. For example, if the quieter it sounds. Also, if there are hard surfaces that can reflect
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parents/teacher and again fill the amplitude becomes twice, the sound (e.g., walls in a room), the sound will feel louder
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the loudness increases by than if you heard the same sound, from the same distance, in a
table. Now ask if there is a difference
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a factor of 4. wide-open field.

between the two tables?
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Also, talk about perception of sound.

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Discuss decibel scales of a few sound Do You Know? 7E Extend

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emitting objects.
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Take the students out in the open. Now, ask the students to spread out and
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Science Fact 7E Extend

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stand apart. Ask one student to call another’s name who is standing far off.
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Is the student audible?

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happened if they had been in the

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classroom instead of the open when Discuss how loudness changes with amplitude.
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the student was calling out the name.

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Discuss sound pressure based on the

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above inference.
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Pitch: The shrillness of sound is known as its pitch. How shrill or sharp a sound is,
depends on its frequency. The greater the frequency, the greater is the pitch. So, pitch is
• Analysing
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dependent on the frequency of the sound wave. The higher the frequency, the more the • Observing
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number of compressions and rarefactions that will go past a given point in the medium every • Exploring
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second. This leads to a greater pitch of sound. If the number of compressions and rarefactions
that go past a point in the given medium in a second is less, it means the frequency is less. This
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leads to a lesser pitch of sound. Life Skills
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A drum vibrates with low frequency, and so, it has a low pitch. A flute vibrates with a higher
frequency, and so, it has a higher pitch when compared to a drum.
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• Self-awareness
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What are the types of sound?
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The range of frequencies of sound wave varies from

• Problem-solving
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108
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1 Hz to 108 Hz. In general terms, the frequencies
that we can hear are said to be audible sounds, while
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the frequencies we cannot hear are called inaudible
107 Concept Building
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sounds. The frequencies of sound waves can be Ultrasound

placed into three range categories. 106
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Infrasound: The sound with frequency less than

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Sound frequencies (in Hz)
20 Hz is called infrasound. Such waves are inaudible

105 thinking, Problem-solving
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to human ear. The vibrations of such frequency can 20 kHz Ask two good singers, one boy and one
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104
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be felt rather than heard. The waves of an earthquake girl, to sing a few lines of a song. Ask
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are infrasound in nature.

103
the class if they noticed any difference
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Acoustic sound: The waves with frequencies between Acoustic sound in the way they sung the song.
20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz) are called acoustic
102 Explain the term ‘pitch’ to the class.
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sound. Such waves are audible to the human ear.

The audible sounds include all the sounds we hear
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101 20 Hz
around us such as musical instruments.
Real-world Connect! 7E Elaborate
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Ultrasound: The waves with frequencies above Infrasound

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20,000 Hz are called ultrasound. Such waves are also

inaudible to human ear. Animals such as dogs, bats,
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Ask the students to research about the

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whales, dolphins and crickets, produce and hear Fig. 13.15 Frequencies of sound waves
frequencies that can be heard by like
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ultrasound.
dogs, bats, whales, dolphins, crickets
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and elephants.
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Real-world Connect! 7E Elaborate

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200,000 Hz. While dogs, cats, bats and dolphins have an unusual ability to detect ultrasound, made by elephants is different from
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an elephant possesses the unusual ability to detect infrasound. the rest.

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Discuss the findings in class.

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183
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Concept Building 7E Engage, Explore, Extend

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing, Critical thinking, Thought Provoking

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What are the types of sound?

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Ask the students if they have felt the tremors of an earthquake.

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Ask them to make a list of sounds they can hear around them.
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Tell them how animals like dogs, bats, whales, dolphins and crickets make sounds to call out to their friends. Also, tell
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them how these sounds are not heard by us.

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Define infrasound, acoustic sound and ultrasound.

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Discuss the range of these sounds based on the figure.

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• Analysing Reflection of Sound: When sound waves strike an object, the sound waves can pass through the
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object, be absorbed by the object or be reflected from the object. A reflected sound wave is called
• Observing
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an echo. Some species of bats use sound waves to find their prey by the process of echolocation.
• Exploring It is the process of locating objects by making sounds and interpreting the sound waves that are
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reflected back. Bats can discover how far away and how big an insect is from the sound waves that
bounce back. Dolphins, whales and other marine animals also use echolocation to locate objects.
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Life Skills Reflection of underwater sound waves is also used to find objects using Sound Navigation and
Ranging or SONAR. In this technique, a sound wave is sent underwater. When the sound wave
• rs
Critical thinking hits something solid, it is reflected or bounces back. An underwater microphone picks up the
reflected sound. Knowing the speed of sound in water, the distance to the object can be found by
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• Self-awareness measuring how much time passes between the time the sound was sent and when the reflected
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signal was received.
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INT
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To differentiate between frequency and amplitude in order to describe factors
7E Elicit, Explain, Elaborate
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responsible for loudness and pitch of the sound.

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1. What properties of sound change with respect to change in frequency and amplitude?
Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical As Tick the correct option.
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thinking, Observing (a) Pitch changes with amplitude (b) Loudness changes with amplitude
&
(c) Loudness changes with frequency (d) Pitch change with frequency
Reflection of sound
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2. In an experiment, Mansi placed some grains of sand on a speaker. She then gradually increased
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the volume of the music coming from the speaker. The grains of sand on the speaker jumped
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Talk about how one hears his/her about more vigorously. What does this mean? Tick the correct option.
own voice when you call out on a
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(a) The speed of the sound increased (b) The loudness of the sound increased
mountainside. Discuss the term echo. (c) The loudness of the sound decreased (d) The speed of sound decreased
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To recall the audible range of sound for humans in order to explain why certain sounds
Talk about echolocation and how cannot be heard by humans.
animals use it.
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3. Mansi used the ultrasonic sound waves to transmit a message to her friend. What is the reason
the sound could not be heard by her friend? Tick the correct option.
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Discuss SONAR. (a) It has loudness above 10 dB. (b) It has loudness above 80 dB.
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(c) It has a frequency below 20 Hz. (d) It has a frequency above 20 kHz.
Ask the students to think how the
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naval submarines use SONAR.

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What is noise?
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Using their inference elaborate on

how SONAR helps to detect sound When we hear sounds like a flute playing, birds chirping or
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underwater. children singing, we call these sounds music. When we hear

a. Musical note
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sounds like slamming of a door, a mixer running in the

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kitchen or children shouting in the classroom, we call these

Concept Building (pages 184–185) sounds noise. What is the difference between the two?
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7E Elicit, Explore, Elaborate We know that sound is created by vibrations and that the b. Noise
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vibrating particles make the air particles around them Fig. 13.16 Music and noise
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Critical thinking, Problem-solving 184

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What is noise?
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Leave the class unmonitored for two Section Review 3 7E Evaluate

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minutes. Come back and discuss how

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Then discuss how this could have been This section helps in the evaluation of students.
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disturbing the class next door. Let the students complete their worksheets on their own in class.
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Introduce the concept of noise. Then, share the correct answers so that students can verify their answers.
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Talk about regular and irregular

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Discuss the doubts if any.

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sound waves. Discuss the differences

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between musical sound and noise

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based on the diagram.

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vibrate, and these travelling sound waves reach our ear and make the air particles inside our
• Analysing
ears vibrate. This sends signals to our brain that we heard a sound.
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• Observing
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It is noticed that music and sounds associated with music create regular wave patterns (Fig. 13.6b).
Noise creates irregular wave patterns (Fig. 13.6a). Regular sound waves that are pleasant to hear are • Exploring
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called music. Irregular sound waves that are harsh to hear are called noise.
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Whether it is music or noise, when sound waves become too loud, they are harmful to us. Life Skills
What is noise pollution?rs • Critical thinking
Unwanted or disturbing sound that affects the health and well-being of humans and other
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organisms is considered to be noise pollution. Hearing damage begins to occur at sound levels
• Self-awareness
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of about 85 dB. Some music concerts produce sound levels as high as 120 dB, while sounds • Problem-solving
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of aircrafts are close to 150 dB. The amount of damage depends on the sound levels and the
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length of time a person is exposed to the sound.
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Sources of noise pollution: Some common sources of noise pollution are:
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1. Traffic on roads, especially the constant Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing,

Critical thinking
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honking of vehicles. This is the largest

source of noise pollution in cities.
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Talk about tinnitus in class.

2. Use of loudspeakers and bursting of
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crackers during festivals and weddings. Discuss how it occurs and how it can
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3. Construction work such as buildings be avoided.

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and road repair work, especially where

Also, talk about the damage it
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drills and heavy machinery are used.

4. Noise of aircrafts taking off and landing,
can cause.
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especially in areas around airports.

5. Very loud music in public places, as well
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as in our homes.
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6. Home appliances such as mixers and

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washing machines, especially if they are

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running in small rooms. Fig. 13.17 Sources of noise pollution

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7. Car alarms and popular ‘boom cars’ equipped with powerful stereo systems that are usually
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played with volume and bass turned up abnormally high and the car windows rolled down.
8. Listening to music through headphones that are set too loud.
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Harmful effects of noise

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pollution: Although we cannot see Real-world Connect! 7E Extend

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noise pollution, it is increasingly

You may have heard a ringing or buzzing sound in your ears
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becoming one of the most harmful after going to a party, concert or other loud events. This
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types of pollution. Some harmful is called tinnitus. It usually gets better in a few days, but
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effects of noise pollution are: tinnitus in your ears is a sign that there is some damage to
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the hair cells in your ear.

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185
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Concept Building 7E Explore, Explain, Elaborate

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Teamwork, Critical thinking, Environmental literacy

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What is noise pollution?

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Talk about noise pollution.

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Divide the class into groups of 6 students. Give them different scenarios of noise pollution like traffic in the city, loud party
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late in the night, drill and heavy machinery at a construction site, aircrafts taking off and landing, etc. Ask the students
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to make a chart that covers the decibel levels of sound, images of the topic, images of affected people and other living
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organisms, and how such disturbances can be avoided or minimised.

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1. Constant exposure to loud noise can damage the hair cells in the cochlea. Damage of hair
• Analysing
cells can lead to hearing impairment as we mammals cannot make new hair cells. It has now
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• Observing become a major concern in cities across the world.
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• Exploring 2. Exposure to loud noise can also cause high blood pressure, heart disease, sleep
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disturbances and stress. These health problems can affect all age groups.
3. Depression and anxiety are also some of the harmful side effects of noise pollution.
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Life Skills 4. Noise affects brain responses and people’s ability to focus. Studies have revealed that
• rs
Critical thinking as children grow, constant exposure to loud sounds can threaten their health and cause
learning problems.
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• Self-awareness
Controlling noise pollution: Some ways in which noise pollution can be controlled are:
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• Problem-solving
1. Keep the volume of your television, radio or music system low.
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2. While using headphones, keep the volume as low as possible.
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3. Try to avoid going to areas that are too noisy. If that is not possible, then use earplugs when
you are in a noisy area because it reduces the overall noise of the surroundings.
186) 7E Explore, Explain, Elaborate
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4. It is best to avoid bursting crackers and using loudspeakers at festivals and weddings.
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Skills instilled: Analysing, As 5. Continuous honking of vehicles should be stopped as it causes a lot of noise.
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Teamwork, Critical thinking, 6. We must plant trees and plants around us as they help to absorb sound to a great extent.
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7. We must avoid living in residential areas close to airports. In fact, residential areas should
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not be planned around airports.

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Let the groups present their charts

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8. People using loud machinery should use protective gear.

in class.
What is hearing impairment?
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Based on the presentations, discuss the A person who is not able to hear as well as someone
harmful effects of noise pollution and Do You Know? 7E Extend
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with normal hearing—hearing thresholds of 20 dB It is estimated that about

how it can be controlled. or more in both ears—is said to have hearing loss 30 per cent of people over 65 have
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or hearing impairment. It makes it hard to hear or some hearing loss due to aging. This
Make a list of both the harmful effects
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understand sounds. Deafness is total hearing loss, is because some hair cells and nerve
and control measures. Add to the list fibres in the inner ear degenerate
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where the person can barely hear a sound.
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wherever required. and are lost as people age.

In some people, hearing loss or hearing impairment
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is from birth or due to some disease. In others, hearing loss could happen due to continuous
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exposure to noise or due to old age.

Hearing loss can affect the ability to develop communication, language and social skills.
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Because speech develops as the direct result of hearing, a person with a hearing loss may have
provoking, Critical thinking
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defective speech also. People with severe hearing loss are taught sign language so that they
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Discuss the estimated statistics of are able to communicate with others. Hearing aids, cochlear implants and surgery are some
methods by which people with partial hearing loss can hear.
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people over the age of 65 having some

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hearing loss due to aging.

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people age. 186

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Concept Building 7E Elicit, Explore, Elaborate

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing, Critical thinking

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What is hearing impairment?

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Call out the name of some student at random. Ask him/her to stand up. Now, whisper the name of another student and
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ask him/her to stand up.

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Discuss why one stood up and the other one could not, based on the decibel levels.
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Then introduce hearing impairment at low decibel levels. Talk about deafness.
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Discuss sign language.

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Also, discuss ways to help the hearing-impaired people.

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To list the harmful effects of noise pollution in order to differentiate noise and music. • Observing
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1. Mansi’s father works in a factory where a lot of industrial machines run daily. What harmful • Exploring
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effects is he likely to suffer from?
(a) Lack of speech (b) Lack of vision (c) Lack of hearing (d) Lack of tasting
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2. Mansi’s mother was listening to soft music on the radio, when she accidently pushed against Life Skills
the volume knob that increased the volume real loud. Which is these is the correct statement?
(a)
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Soft music played at low volume did not cause noise pollution. • Critical thinking
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(b) Very loud music was pleasant to hear.
• Self-awareness
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(c) Soft music played very loud can cause noise pollution.
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(d) Very loud music was unpleasant to hear. • Problem-solving

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Keywords
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Sound: The form of energy that produces Wavelength: The distance between a point Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
vibrations which can be heard by the ears on one wave and the same point on the next
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Vibration: The to-and-fro movement of

an object or parts of an object
wave As
Frequency: The number of complete back-and- This section helps in the evaluation
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Amplitude: The maximum distance moved by a forth vibrations or oscillations of a particle of the
of students.
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particle on the medium from its rest position medium made each second
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Let the students complete their

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worksheets on their own in class.

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21st
Experiential Learning Century Creativity
Skills
Then, dictate the answers so that
students can verify their answers.
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Goal: To create a musical instrument and learn how sound is produced using it.
Materials required: 8 to 10 thick drinking straws, scissors, Cellophane tape Help them if they get stuck somewhere.
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What to do:
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Step 1: Take the straws and line them up side-by-side and cut them at an angle
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as shown in the picture.
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Step 2: Tape the straws together firmly to make a pan flute.

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Step 3: Blow through the straws.

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mouth on the straws or it will not work!

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Conclude and apply:

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1. Observe what happened. Did each straw produce the same sound or were they different sounds?
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2. Recall and infer the reasons for the observation.

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3. Write a short note giving your reasons for the observed outcome.
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Communicating: Compare your results and discuss differences observed, if any.

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Experiential Learning 7E Engage, Evaluate

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Help students to create a musical instrument using simple materials. Discuss how this instrument produces sound. Then,
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let students analyse and compare the instruments made by them and sound produced by these instruments.
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21st Century Skills
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Mark if the following statements are true or false. Give reasons for your choice.
• Analysing (a) Waveform 2 has the highest pitch. True / False
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• Observing (b) Waveform 4 has the highest pitch. True / False
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• Exploring (c) Waveform 1 has the loudest sound. True / False
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(d) Waveform 3 has the lowest pitch. True / False
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Life Skills 1. Answer the following in brief.
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Critical thinking (a) Define ‘sound’ citing an example of how it is caused due to vibrations.
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(b) List two everyday examples of sound produced due to vibrations.
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(c) Compare and contrast stringed instruments, wind instruments and percussion instruments.
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• Problem solving (d) Define amplitude and frequency of a wave.

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(e) List the three ranges of sound frequencies, giving one example of each.
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Puzzle Over 7E Extend
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(a) Explain how sound is produced in humans.
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical (b) Define medium and describe how sound is propagated through a medium.
(c) Explain briefly why sound travels fastest in solids as compared to liquids and gases.
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As (d) Explain how we hear sounds drawing a well-labelled diagrammatic sketch of the ear.
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Ask students to recall the propagation (e) Describe any three sources and harmful effects of noise pollution and any three ways in
which we can control or reduce noise.
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of sound waves through different
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materials and vacuum.

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Scientific PROBLEM-SOLVING -
C. PUZZLE OVER Proficiency Adaptive reasoning 1 2
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Ask students to observe the stings of

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a guitar and conclude the variation in 1. Chhavi does an activity where she puts a ringing mobile phone in an empty, dry glass tumbler.
She covers the glass tumbler with her hand. She then removes air from the glass tumbler by using
the sound produced by different stings a vacuum pump and observes that the sound of the phone gradually fades away. What can be
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when plucked. concluded from the observation?

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2. Saif ’s guitar has two metal strings, A and B, of different thicknesses. String A vibrates at the rate
of 30 vibrations per second and string B vibrates at a rate of 10 vibrations per second. How many
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Project Work 7E Extend, Engage

vibrations per second should be given to string B in order to produce a higher frequency sound
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than string A?
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Observing, Creativity
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D. SKILL CRAFT ANALYSIS & CREATING 1 2 3

21st
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Explain how a ‘Jal Tarang’ works. Ask 1. Project Work Century Creativity
Skills
the students to make it at home and
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Make a ‘jal tarang’. Prepare a report on the steps followed to create it and its working. Include
play some music on it. Ask them to get pictures/video to support your findings.
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their pictures clicked and videos made

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while performing the activity.

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Ask them to strike with different levels

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of force (but not too hard!) and note

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Let them share their report in class.
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Research Activity (page 190) 7E Engage, Explore

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking, Multiple intelligence

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Ask the students to research on the speech recognition apps available on the internet. They should find out about its pros
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and cons. Based on their findings, they should be able to identify which app would be best suited for the hearing impaired.
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They can bring their findings to class and debate on which app is better if the findings vary.
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SUPERVISED LAB WORK
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1. Aim: To demonstrate that sound is produced by vibration.
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Materials required: Students!
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What to do:
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1. Have the students gently hold their throats with their fingertips.
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2. Have the students say, ‘Hello, everyone. My name is (their name). I study in class 8 and I love science.’
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3. Have the students note what they felt under their fingertips.
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Observation: Vibrations are felt on fingertips when students speak.
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Conclusion: Sound is produced by the vibration of the vocal cords.
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2. Aim: To show that sound travels faster through solids than that through air.
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Materials required: a metallic metre ruler for each group of students and a pen for each (optional).
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What to do:
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1. Divide the class into groups of two. Have one group of students come to the head of the class.
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2. Now take the metal ruler and hold one end close to the ear of one of the students of the group.
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3. Have the other group member lightly scratch the opposite end of the scale with a pen or fingernails.
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4. Ask the student whose ear was close to the ruler, if he/she could hear anything. Ask the rest of the
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class if they heard anything.

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5. Have the rest of the class follow steps 2 and 3. Each student in the group can take turns so that each
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can note the observations.

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Observation: The sound of scratching through the metallic ruler should be heard quite loudly by the
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student, while the other students around would not hear the sound of scratching.
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Conclusion: The sound waves travelled through the ruler (a solid) faster than in air. If it could have
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travelled faster in air, everyone would have been able to hear the scratching sound.
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3. Aim: To make a toy telephone.

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Materials required: Two tin cans open at one end, a sharp nail, a hammer and a strong thick thread
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about 15 to 20 metres long.

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What to do:
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1. Divide the class into groups of two.

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2. Using a nail and hammer, carefully pierce a hole at the bottom of each tin can.
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3. Pass one end of the thread through the hole of one tin can and tie a large knot at its end such that it
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does not pass through the hole, but holds the thread inside the can.
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4. Pass the other end of the thread through the hole of the second tin can and tie a knot, similarly.
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5. Have one group of students hold a can each, and move to the door of the room. Have one of the
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students move outside the classroom, while the other stays inside.
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6. Have the students move away from each other so that the thread is stretched tightly.
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7. Have one student hold the tin can to his/her mouth, while the other student holds the tin can to his/her ear.
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8. Have the student with the ‘mouthpiece’ speak a sentence into it. Ask the student at the other end
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if he/she heard what was said. The student who heard the words now places the tin can in his/her
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mouth and replies to the other student who now holds the tin can to his/her ears.
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9. The other groups can try out steps 4 to 7 and record their observations.
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Observation: Both students should be able to hear what the other spoke into the tin can.
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Conclusion: In this case of toy telephone, the sound made by the child while speaking, travels through
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the thread, which is a solid substance, to the other end where it could be heard clearly.
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4. Aim: To show that a medium is necessary for the propagation of sound.
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Materials required: A large glass bell jar, an electric bell, and a vacuum pump
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What to do:
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1. Suspend the electric bell in an airtight glass bell jar connected to a vacuum pump.
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2. Press the switch of the bell. Have the students note what they observed.
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3. Keeping the bell switched on, pump out the air from the glass jar using the vacuum pump. Have the
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students note their observations.

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Observation: The ringing of the bell was heard clearly in the first instance. When air is being
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removed from the bell jar, the sound of the bell become fainter, and after some time, the sound will
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not be heard.
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Conclusion: When there are air molecules in the bell jar, they propagate the sound waves and so the
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ringing bell can be heard. When there is no air present inside the jar, there is no sound detectable,
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although the clapper of the bell can be seen moving. This shows that a medium is necessary for the
propagation of sound.
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5. Aim: To demonstrate that frequency of sound increases with the decrease in the length of the vibrating
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air column.
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What to do:
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1. Fill one bottle with water up to the halfway mark, the second bottle at exactly three-quarters up, and
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leave the third bottle empty.

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2. Blow across the top of the empty bottle. Do this by holding the bottle upright (so it is perpendicular
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to your face). Touch your lower lip to the edge of the bottle, pursing your upper lip and blowing
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gently over the opening. Make sure you can make a clear note. Have the students make a note of the
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kind of sound they hear.

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3. Then blow across the top of the half-full bottle. Have the students note the sound they heard.
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4. Finally, blow across the top of the bottle that is three-quarters full and the sound is noted.
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Observation: The empty bottle should produce a low-pitch sound, a little higher pitch sound in the
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bottle that is half full and the highest pitch in the bottle that was three-quarters full.
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Conclusion: The pitch of the sound we hear depends on the frequency of the sound wave that can be
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created within the bottle’s air. The shorter the air column (that is, the shorter the height of the air in the
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bottle) the higher the frequency, and the higher the frequency the higher the perceived pitch. This is
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why the empty bottle that has the largest air column produced a sound wave with a lower frequency
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than the others and the bottle that was nearly full (three-quarters full) made the highest pitch. Thus, the
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frequency of sound increases with the decrease in the length of the vibrating air column.
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6. Aim: To perform an activity to demonstrate the working of the eardrum.
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Materials required: A plastic can, a balloon, a few rubber bands and a few rice grains.
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What to do:
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1. Cut both ends of the plastic can.
2. Cut the top of the balloon and stretch it across one end of the plastic can fastening it tightly with a
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few rubber bands.
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3. Hold the plastic can vertically in your hand with the balloon-covered end at the top. Place a few rice
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grains over the stretched balloon cover.
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4. Keeping the plastic can vertical, ask students to come under the plastic can and shout
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something loud upwards from the open end (lower end) of the plastic can by bringing their
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mouths below it.
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Observation: The rice grains start jumping up and down with each loud sound.
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Conclusion: When sound waves fall on the stretched sheet, the sheet starts vibrating, resulting in the
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movement of the rice grains. This is how the eardrum in our ear works. When sound waves fall on our
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eardrum, it vibrates and carries forward the sound waves.

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Worksheet 1
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1. Name the following.
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(a) To and fro movement of an object.
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(b) It is also called the voice box.
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(c) Nerves that carry sound signals to the brain.
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(d) Speed of sound in water.
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(e) The maximum distance moved by a particle on the medium from its rest position.
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(f) Unit for measuring loudness of sound.

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(g) Full form of SONAR. As

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(h) Buzzing sound in the ear after being in a loud place.

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(a) Wind Instrument i. Guitar

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(b) Sound collector of the ear. ii. Inner ear

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(c) Stringed Instrument iii. Ultrasound

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(d) The point on the wave with maximum iv. Infrasound

upward movement from the rest position.
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(e) Sound Analyzer of the ear. v. Pitch
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(f) Shrillness of sound vi. Outer ear

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(g) Less than 20 Hz vii. Flute

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(h) More than 20,000 Hz viii. Crest

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(a) How do vocal cords help in making sound?

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(b) Why is there no sound in outer space?

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(c) Compare the speed of sound in solids, liquids and gases.

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(d) Differentiate between compressions and rarefactions.

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(e) How do bats move in the night?

(f) List the harmful effects of noise pollution.
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4. Project Work
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Plan a trip to a school for the hearing disabled. Let the children observe how they study and how they use sign language. Make a
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PowerPoint presentation showing the images and the use of different teaching methods.
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Worksheet 2
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1. State true or false.
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(a) Children, whose vocal cords are still growing, have higher voices than adults.
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(b) Sound does not require a medium for its propagation.
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(c) Sound is louder through solids than through gases.

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(d) The higher the frequency the lower is the pitch.
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(e) Hearing damage begins to occur at sound levels of about 85 dB.
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(f) Exposure to loud noise can also cause high blood pressure, heart disease, sleep disturbances and stress.
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(g) Some hair cells and nerve fibres in the inner ear degenerate and are lost as people age.
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(h) Dolphins can detect frequencies as low as 10 Hz.

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(a) The ...................... we are to the source of sound, the clearer we can hear the sound.
(b) A doctor examines us using a ....................... .
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(c) As a substance heats up, its particles move ....................... .

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(d) ...................... is the distance between a point on one wave and the same point on the next wave.
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(e) The faintest sound that a human ear can detect is known as ....................... .
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(f) ...................... sound waves are pleasant to hear.

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(g) ...................... is total hearing loss.
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(h) People with severe hearing loss are taught ...................... so that they are able to communicate with others.
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(a) What are percussion instruments? Give two examples.
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(b) How do singers produce a range of different sounds?

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(c) Explain the function of the inner ear.

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(d) What kind of wave is shown in the picture given below? Describe it.
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Direction of propagation
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(e) Differentiate between acoustic sound and ultrasound.

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(f) State four ways to control noise pollution.

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(g) Why does speech defect go along with hearing impairment?

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(Skills instilled: Creativity, Information literacy, Thought provoking, Multiple intelligence)

Ask the students to make a collage on noise pollution and its ill effects and present in class.
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Unit 5 | How Things Work
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14
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CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF
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ELECTRIC CURRENT
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21st Century Skills
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Unit 5 | How Things Work
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• Observing
14 CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF
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• Analysing
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• Exploring
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ELECTRIC CURRENT
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Life Skills
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As CHAPTER PREVIEW
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• Critical thinking • Conductors of electricity

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• Communication • Chemical effects of electric
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current
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• Electroplating and its uses

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Ask the students to make a list Wha

you will learn
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of electric appliances in their

• Distinguish between good
household. Then ask them to
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and poor conductors of

categorise these into those that get
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electricity
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hot when electricity is switched on • Learn about how liquids

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conduct electricity
and those that don’t.
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• Learn about some chemical

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effects of electricity
If they’re unable to categorise, help
• Understand the process of
them by giving hints on how they
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electroplating and its uses

can say that the appliance gets
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heated or not.
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Why
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Why it is Important to Learn

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Our lives would be very difficult

7E Explain, Elaborate without the effects of electric
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current. Most daily-life objects such

as wheel rims, cutlery, watches, WARM-UP 7E Engage
Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing, faucets, etc., use the chemical
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Most appliances around us run on electric current.

Critical thinking effects of electric current.
Electric current is also used to run electric trains, create
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It is, therefore, necessary to

nickel-plated wheel rims, gold-plated watches, chrome-
Draw this table and ask them to fill it. understand what these chemical
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plated faucets and cutlery as well as copper-plated jugs.

effects are and how we use them in
Then discuss why some change
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our lives. How does electric current do this?

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colour and some

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don’t. Restrict the discussion to

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why it happens.
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Object Does it change colour over time? (Y/N)

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Iron railing
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Silver ring
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Rim of the bicycle

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Copper jug
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21st Century Skills
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For an electrical appliance such as a refrigerator, or television to work, electricity must flow
• Analysing
through it. The flow of electricity is called an electric current. In earlier classes, we have defined
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electric current as the rate of flow of electric charge. Charge is a physical property of an object. An • Observing
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object can have a positive charge, a negative charge or no charge at all. The movement of electric • Technology literacy
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charge determines if an object is a good conductor or a poor conductor of electricity.
Life Skills
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What is meant by conduction of electricity?
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Materials in which electric charges can move easily are called good conductors of electricity.
Electrons in good conductors are not held tightly by the atoms of the object and can move
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easily. Metals such as copper and aluminium are said to be good conductors of electricity. • Problem-solving
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Materials in which electric charges cannot move easily are called poor conductors of electricity.
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Concept Building 7E Extend
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Electrons in poor conductors are held tightly by the atoms of the object and cannot move
easily. Plastics, glass, rubber and wood are said to be poor conductors of electricity.
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In order to verify which substances are good conductors and
Critical thinking
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poor conductors of electricity, we can place the substances

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in an electric circuit similar to that shown in Fig. 14.1. Place

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the substance between two clips to complete the circuit. If the
Electric Current and Charge
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light bulb glows brightly, the substance is a good conductor Switch the fan off (if it is already on),
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of electricity. If the light bulb glows very lightly or does not otherwise switch it on and then off.
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glow at all, the substance is a poor conductor of electricity. Fig. 14.1 Conduction tester circuit
Ask the students how the fan was
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Such a circuit can be used as a conduction tester.

working and why did it stop.
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Sometimes, when the electric current is weak, the bulb of such LED
a tester does not glow. In such cases, a Light Emitting Diode or Define electric current and charge for
(−)
them here.
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LED is used in place of a bulb which glows even when a weak (+)
current flows in the circuit. It may be noted that the longer
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1.5 V Battery 1.5 V Battery

terminal of LED is always connected to the positive terminal of
Test It Yourself!
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the battery and the shorter terminal is connected to the (+) (−)
Fig. 14.2 Conduction tester circuit using LED
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negative terminal of the battery as shown in Fig. 14.2. 7E Elaborate, Engage
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Conduction testing can also be done using a magnetic compass. If a compass is placed over the
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wires of a simple circuit, the deflection of the needle shows the conduction of electricity. The
Critical thinking
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magnetic needle of the compass gets deflected even if a weak current flows in the circuit.
Do You Know? 7E Extend Help students perform the following
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Most substances can conduct electricity, activity in class.
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Make an electric tester to test conduction of electricity. if the right conditions are provided.
Using Fig. 14.1 as reference, create a simple electric That is why it is preferable to classify Take a bulb/LED, a battery, a switch
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circuit using a bulb, a cell, couple of clips and substances as good conductors and and two clips. Fix all these with wires.
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connecting wires. Place samples of wood, paper, poor conductors instead of classifying
Then attach a piece of aluminium foil
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glass, copper wire, aluminium foil, etc. in between the them as conductors and insulators.
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clips to complete the circuit. Note and tabulate your Recall that insulators are substances that between the clips. Repeat with copper,
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results and discuss in class. do not conduct electricity.

plastic and wood.
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196 Discuss their observations in each

case. Also, ask why using an LED in
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place of the bulb is better.

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Concept Building 7E Elaborate, Extend

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing Do You Know? 7E Engage, Elicit

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What is meant by conduction of electricity?

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Analysing
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Ask the students why they are asked to wear slippers when using electric
Ask them which is the correct way of
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appliances.
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working for an electrician. Then tell

Then discuss good conductors and poor conductors of electricity.
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them about insulators. Also, discuss

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why classification of substances should

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Take a magnetic needle near a light bulb that is switched on. Show the
be as good conductors and poor
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deflection in the needle. Ask the students to explain why this is happening.
conductors instead of conductors and
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Help them with the correct answer if they are not able to arrive at it. insulators.
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21st Century Skills
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• Analysing Do liquids conduct electricity?
Some liquids are good conductors of electricity. Liquids Real-world Connect! 7E Explain
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• Observing
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that conduct electricity through them are known as We can get an electric shock
• Exploring conducting liquids. The electrical conductivity of if we touch running electric
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liquids can be tested by using an LED in a circuit similar appliances with wet hands. This
is because the tap water on our
to the one discussed earlier. If you take the liquid
hands has impurities and so it is
Life Skills
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being tested in a non-reactive container such as a small a good conductor of electricity.
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• Critical thinking in it, the glowing LED will indicate that the liquid is a
Wet hands are, therefore, better
conductors than dry hands!
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• Self-awareness conductor of electricity. Several liquids can be checked
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for electrical conductivity in the same way. Examples of conducting liquids are rainwater,
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sea water, lime juice, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, copper sulphate solution and vinegar
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Concept Building
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(acetic acid). Examples of liquids that are non-conducting liquids are distilled water, cooking
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7E Explore, Elaborate, Elicit oil and sugar solution.
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It is seen that most liquids that conduct electricity are solutions of acids, bases and salts.
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Pure water, which is free of impurities, is a poor conductor of electricity. On the other
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thinking As hand, tap water and water from rivers, lakes, etc., which contain some impurities, are
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Do liquids conduct electricity? good conductors of electricity. So, the presence of even minute impurities can make water
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a good conductor of electricity.
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Perform the following activity in class.

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Take an LED, a battery, a switch Test It Yourself! 7E Explore
and two clips. Fix all these with Test if impurities can make water a good conductor. Take an electric steamer/vapouriser
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commonly found in most homes. Pour into it some drinking water from the water filter or RO
wires. Then take distilled water in filter. Connect the steamer to an electric outlet and switch it on. Note the time taken for the
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a container. Insert the clips into the steam to form.

container. Check whether the LED Switch the steamer off and add a pinch of salt into the water. Switch it on and again note the
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time taken for the steam to form. Note your results and discuss in class.
glows or not. Repeat with tap.
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Discuss liquids as good conductors
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and poor conductors, giving examples.

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Ask them why tap water is a good To distinguish between good and poor conductors of electricity in
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conductor and distilled water is not. order to explain that various materials can conduct electricity under Magnetic
certain conditions.
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compass
Give them the correct answer if they Giri makes a circuit to test electrical conductivity using a magnetic
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are unable to explain it. compass. Which of the following solutions will show a deflection of
Switch
the compass needle? Tick the correct option.
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(a) Sugar solution (b) Distilled water Liquid

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to be
Test It Yourself! (c) Salt solution (d) Cooking oil
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tested
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7E Elaborate, Engage
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thinking
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Pour some drinking water into a

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steamer, connect the steamer to Real-world Connect! 7E Engage, Elicit

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an electric outlet and switch it on.

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Observe steam forming and time it. Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking
en
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Switch off the steamer. Next, add a

Ask the students what would happen if they touched running electric
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pinch of salt into the water. Switch on

appliances with wet hands. Explain to them why this happens. Also, talk
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and again time the formation of steam.

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about how wet hands are better conductors than dry hands.
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Discuss why steam took different time

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to form in both the cases.

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As

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&
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This section helps in the evaluation of students. Let the students answer the
s
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MCQ on their own in the class. Then, discuss the answer so that students can
verify their answer.
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21st Century Skills
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What are the chemical effects of electric current? • Analysing
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When electricity is passed through a conducting solution, the molecules of the solution • Observing
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dissociate, or breakdown, into ions. Ions are atoms or group of atoms with a positive or a
negative charge. These ions cause electrical conduction through the liquid. A liquid that • Exploring
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conducts electricity due to the presence of ions is called an electrolyte. This means that all
conducting liquids are electrolytes.
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Life Skills
Depending on how well they conduct electricity, electrolytes can be strong or weak. A strong
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electrolyte conducts electricity very well. Examples of strong electrolytes are copper sulphate • Critical thinking
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solution, sodium chloride solution, hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid. A weak • Self-awareness
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electrolyte conducts electricity to a lesser extent than a strong electrolyte. Examples of weak
en
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electrolytes are tap water, rainwater, lime juice and vinegar.

• Communication
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The process of decomposition of a chemical compound in a solution when an electric current
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Concept Building
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passes through it is called electrolysis. Electrolysis is one of the chemical effects of electric
current. The term ‘electro’ refers to electricity and ‘lysis’ means breaking down. Electrolysis, 7E Explain, Elaborate
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therefore, simply means ‘electric splitting’.

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What is electrolysis? As Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing

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To understand how electrolysis works, let us take the

+ − What is electrolysis?
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example of water. Water contains molecules of H2O. One
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Hydrogen Oxygen
molecule of H2O is made up of two hydrogen (H) atoms The teacher will write the symbol of
s
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and one oxygen (O) atom. If we pass electricity through water and explain its composition.
water, it will dissociate into hydrogen and oxygen. For
Explain the terms electrode, anode,
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this, we will need to make an electric current flow through

the water using electrodes. An electrode is something that
cathode and electrolytic cell based on
the diagram.
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conducts or carries electricity through the electrolyte. The

electrode which is connected to the positive terminal of the Then explain why a battery (DC
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battery gets positively charged, called anode. The electrode

current) is attached and the circuit is
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which is connected to the negative terminal of the battery

not completed using the main electric
t
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gets negatively charged, called cathode.

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line (AC current) in the room.

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In electrolysis, electric current flows between a cathode

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and an anode. An arrangement or a device that uses Fig. 14.3 An electrolytic cell Next, explain the process of electrolysis
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electrical energy to produce a chemical reaction in a of water and how hydrogen and
conducting liquid or electrolyte is called an electrolytic cell. For electrolysis to take place, oxygen are collected at the two
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the electrodes are required to be at constant opposite polarity throughout the process. terminals after electrolysis.
br
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This is possible by using a direct electric current (DC). Electrolysis cannot take place with
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an alternating electric current (AC), because when we pass an AC current, the polarity of
the electrodes will keep changing and the ions will not be attracted towards any particular
&
electrode, creating disruption in the ionisation process.

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Concept Building 7E Engage, Elicit

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What are the chemical effects of electric current?

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Discuss and complete the table in class.

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Term Definition
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Ion
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Electrolyte
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Strong electrolyte
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Weak electrolyte
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Electrolysis
Make a random list of strong and weak electrolytes and ask students to sort them into the two heads.
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21st Century Skills
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When water is used as an electrolyte in an
• Analysing
electrolytic cell, and graphite rods are used as Real-world Connect! 7E Extend
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• Observing electrodes, the electrons flow from one electrode
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Electric outlets and appliances
• Exploring to the other. This helps in creating a circuit and in our homes and offices mostly
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a free flow of electrons. Formation of bubbles at use alternating current. However,
the ends of the electrodes show that the process of smartphones, laptops, torches, etc.,
that are battery-powered rely on
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Life Skills electrolysis is taking place. Since like charges attract
storing direct current.
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• Critical thinking hydrogen ions flow to the negative electrode or
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• Self-awareness cathode and this results in hydrogen gas (H₂)
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bubbles. Similarly, the negatively charged
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• Problem-solving oxygen ions flow to the positive electrode or From water: From sodium
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chloride:
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anode and form bubbles of oxygen gas (O₂)
as shown in Fig. 14.3.
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Concept Building
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Since water is a weak electrolyte, common Formed at the Formed at the
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cathode: anode:
table salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) is
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical As sometimes added to make it a strong

electrolyte. On passing electricity, salt water Formed in the
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thinking solution:
dissociates into sodium ions (Na+) and
&
chloride ions (Cl−), each of which helps
What is electrolysis?
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ANM
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conduct electricity. In this case, the chlorine

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Fig. 14.4 Formation of NaOH

Now, ask the students to recollect that ions flow to the anode, hydrogen ions flow
water is a poor electrolyte. to the cathode and the resulting solution forms
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sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as shown in Fig. 14.4.

Then explain why sodium chloride
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is added to it. On the basis of the

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diagram, explain to them how it Test It Yourself! Discovery-based learning
improves the flow of electrons.

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Carefully cut a potato in half. Take two pieces of insulated copper wire about
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6-inches long. Remove about an inch of insulation from each end of each wire.
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Attach one end of each wire to a 9-volt battery. Stick the other end of each wire
Test It Yourself! 7E Extend into the cut side of the potato about an inch or so apart.
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You will observe that one of the wires will give a greenish-blue colour to the area
Skills instilled: Observing, Critical
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of potato under it. Notice that this wire is connected to the positive terminal of
thinking the battery. The other end of the wire inserted inside the potato may show some Experimental
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bubbles or nothing at all depending on the water content of the potato. setup
Here, ask the students to perform the
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The electric current is reacting with the water inside the potato to split it into hydrogen and
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activity and observe the colour change. oxygen. The oxygen reacts with the copper wire attached to the positive terminal to produce the
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greenish-coloured copper oxide. Hydrogen moves to the wire connected to the negative terminal
Ask them to explain why the colour of
&
with no visible chemical reaction.

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the potato changed.

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Help them with the correct answer

after discussion.
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Real-world Connect! 7E Explore, Elicit

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Make flash cards of appliances that work on electric supply and that work on a battery. Now ask one child at a time to pick
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a card and tell whether it works on electric supply or on battery.

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Fill the table accordingly.

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Runs on electric supply Runs on battery

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&
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Then explain the concept of alternating current and direct current.

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21st Century Skills
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Depending on the metal used as electrodes and the type of electrolyte used, the chemical
• Analysing
effects of electric current could be any of the following kind.
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• Observing
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• Production of gases shown by the formation of bubbles
• Change in the colour of the electrolyte indicating a change to the electrolyte • Exploring
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• Deposition of layer of metal on the electrodes
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What are the uses of electrolysis? Life Skills
• Electrolysis is used commercially to separate sodium chloride into sodium and chlorine.
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• Electrolysis is used in water to separate oxygen from hydrogen. The hydrogen gas released • Critical thinking
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can be used for making hydrogen fuel. • Teamwork
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• Electrolysis is used in mining to extract metal or other valuable material from its natural ore.
en
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• Problem-solving
• Electrolysis is used to remove rust and to clean metal objects including old coins.
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• Electrolysis is employed for coating one metal with another by the process of electroplating.
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Concept Building 7E Extend
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To list commonly known chemical effects of electricity in order to establish that electricity
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causes chemical reactions. As 2–

O ions form
+
H ions
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1. An experiment setup to pass electricity through O2 gas form H2 gas

tap water is shown in the diagram. Bubbles Types of Chemical Effects
&
Anode Cathode
were seen in water as soon as the circuit was
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Explain this section using the below

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complete. Bubbles stopped as soon

flowchart and ask the students to think
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as the battery was disconnected. What is the

reason for this observation? Fill in the blanks to
of examples of the first two types of
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complete the answer.

When water is used as an in an
chemical effects.
electrolytic cell and graphite rods are used as
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electrodes, the electrons flow from one electrode Types of chemical

to the other. Formation of bubbles at the ends effects
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Electrolytic Battery (source

of the electrodes shows that the process of solution of electricity)
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is taking place.
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2. In the same setup, a lighted candle is brought near the two test tubes to determine which test Production
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Change in Deposition
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tube had hydrogen or oxygen. What do you think would be observed? Tick the correct option.
of gases colour of of layer of
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(a) Both the gases will put off the candle.

electrolyte metal on
(b) Both the gases will help the candle burn.
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(c) Hydrogen will put off the candle while oxygen would help the candle to burn.
electrodes
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(d) Hydrogen will help the candle to burn while oxygen would put off the candle.
I chose option because I have learnt earlier that gas helps in
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combustion.
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&
What is electroplating? thinking, Problem-solving

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The process in which one metal is coated over another by the process of electrolysis is called
This section helps in the evaluation of
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electroplating. In this process, there exists an electrolyte through which current passes.
students. Let the students answer the
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200 MCQs on their own in the class. Then,

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can verify their answer.

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Concept Building 7E Elicit, Engage, Explain The teacher can help the students if
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Skills instilled: Creative thinking, Analysing, Thought provoking they are stuck somewhere.
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What are the uses of electrolysis?

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The teacher can write the uses on the black/white board as she explains them.
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She can ask these questions along with each use:

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1. Chemical formula of sodium chloride

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2. Use of oxygen and hydrogen gas

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3. One metal that is extracted

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4. An example of a rusted article

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5. Something that is coated with another metal

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She can provide answers to questions the students are unable to answer or
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may state other examples as well.

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21st Century Skills
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Two electrodes are placed in the electrolyte and are connected to the terminals of a battery. IVID
• Analysing The object to be electroplated is placed at the cathode, the metal to be used for coating is
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• Observing placed at the anode and the solution of a soluble salt of the metal to be deposited is used as
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• Exploring the electrolyte.
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How to electroplate a metal spoon with copper?
The object to be electroplated is placed at the cathode (e.g., metal spoon). The metal to be
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Life Skills used for coating is placed at the anode (e.g., copper rod); and the solution of a soluble salt of
• rs
Critical thinking the metal to be deposited is used as the electrolyte (e.g., copper sulphate solution), as shown
in Fig. 14.5. When electric current is passed through the electrolyte, copper sulphate gets
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• Self-awareness dissociated into copper ions and sulphate
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Key
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• Problem-solving ions. The copper ions being positively + –

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charged move to the cathode. A thin layer
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of metallic copper thus gets deposited on
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the metal spoon.
Metal
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If the copper being deposited on the metal spoon

spoon is coming from the dissociated (cathode)
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical As copper sulphate solution, then why do we Flattened
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thinking, Problem-solving need the copper rod at the anode? As more copper Copper
sulphate
&
wire
and more copper gets dissociated from solution
What is electroplating? (anode)
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the copper sulphate solution, the copper (electrolyte)

s
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ions in the electrolyte are continuously

Introduce this section by recollecting
replenished by the copper at the anode.
the last use of electrolysis done
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The net result is the effective transfer of

previously. Then define electroplating. metal from the anode to the cathode.
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Fig. 14.5 Electroplating

Show the diagram given in the book. What are the uses of electroplating?
Point to the electrolyte, anode as well
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21st
• Jewellery makers electroplate silver and gold on less Century Global awareness
as cathode as you define them. Then expensive metals. A thin layer of precious metal is
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Skills
explain the process in detail. often coated on jewellery to make it more lustrous Real-world Connect!
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en
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and attractive to potential buyers. Interestingly, the medals awarded

Ask the following questions: in the 2020 Tokyo Olympics and
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• The long life of steel and iron is due to

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Paralympics are believed to have

electroplating. They are plated with other metals
• What happens if there is no copper
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been manufactured from metals

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like zinc, nickel or chromium which prevent extracted from mobile phones and
wire at the anode? the base metal from getting corroded. Hence,
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other recycled waste items.

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• Why is the electrolyte copper electroplating acts as a protective barrier for the
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metals and protects them from different atmospheric conditions.

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sulphate if ions are coming from

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the anode? • Nickel plating is done on a metal surface to reduce friction in materials such as electric
conductors. It reduces the chances of early wear and tear of the metal.
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• Can the electrolyte be replaced

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• Gold and silver are good conductors of electricity, but quite expensive to use.
with tap water?
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So, metals are plated with very small amounts of silver and gold to increase their
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Help the students with the correct

answers.
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201
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Real-world Connect!
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7E Elaborate, Elicit Concept Building (pages 201–202) 7E Elicit, Engage, Elaborate

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Skills instilled: Observing, Skills instilled: Creative thinking, Analysing, Thought provoking
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Environmental literacy, Global

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What are the uses of electroplating?

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awareness
e
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Discuss the medals given during Explain the uses in short. Then the class can be divided into groups. Each
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the Olympic games. Then state how group will get one use and they can make a poster or collage elaborating on
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these were manufactured from metals the use they have been allotted. The poster/collage elaborating on the uses
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extracted from mobile phones and can be displayed in class. Before that the team leader would explain what the
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other recycled waste items. poster/collage depicts and how electroplating is used in it.
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conductivity and decrease cost. Cell phones, computers
and other electronic devices use electroplating techniques
• Analysing
s
in their circuits. • Observing
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• Chromium plating is done on many objects such as car • Exploring
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parts, metal taps, kitchen gas burners, bicycle handlebars, Gold-plated Chromium-
wheel rims and many others. Chromium is used because watch plated tap
Fig. 14.6 Electroplated objects
Life Skills
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it does not corrode, resists scratches and has a shiny
appearance.
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• Copper plating is done on cutlery and cooking pots for extra shine. • Critical thinking
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• Tin cans, used for storing food, are made by electroplating tin onto iron. Tin is less reactive • Self-awareness
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than iron. Thus, food does not come into contact with iron and is protected from getting spoilt.
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• Problem-solving
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Section Review 3
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7E Evaluate
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To describe the process of electroplating in order to explain the application of chemical
effects of electricity on metals.
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1. What happens when current is passed in a solution of copper sulphate having an iron nail as
br
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cathode and a copper rod as anode? Tick the correct option.
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(a) Copper forms a layer on the iron nail. This section helps in the evaluation of
(b) Iron gets deposited on the copper rod.
&
students. Let the students answer the
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(c) Iron rod completely dissolves in the solution.

questions on their own in the class.
s
(d) Sulphur forms a layer on the walls of the container.

Then ask them one by one to state
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I chose option because dissociates into and ions.

The positively charged ions will flow towards the and form a layer their answers. Help with the correct
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over it. answers if the students fail to reach

2. Giri made a list of the applications of electroplating on metals. He learns that zinc metal is the correct answers.
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electroplated over iron. Why is electroplating of iron done? Tick the correct option.
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(a) To change the surface properties of the iron

(b) To make it resistant to atmospheric moisture and prevent rusting
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(c) To make the iron look shiny

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(d) To change the chemical properties of iron

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Keywords
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Good conductor: A material which allows a Electrolysis: The process of producing SVID
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large amount of current to pass through it easily chemical reactions in liquids by passing
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electricity
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Poor conductor: A material which allows only a

small amount of current to pass through it Electroplating: The process of coating a
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Electrolyte: A conducting liquid solution metal on another material by electrolysis

&
Electrodes: A conducting material connected to

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the two terminals of a battery and immersed in

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the electrolyte
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202
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Experiential Learning (page 203) 7E Engage, Evaluate

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Help students to set up the required experiment to electrolyse water. Show them how to make proper connections between pencil
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lids and terminals of the battery. Ask them to closely observe the process of electrolysis when electricity passes through the water.
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&
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21st Century Skills
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Scientific
• Analysing C. PUZZLE OVER Proficiency Adaptive reasoning PROBLEM-SOLVING - 1 1
s
• Observing
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1. Lopa wanted to set up an electrolytic cell at home to see if
• Exploring tap water can conduct electricity. She wanted to connect Metal
the electrodes to the electric outlet at home, but her father spoon
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Flattened
stopped her from doing so, telling her that the experiment (cathode)
copper
will not work. wire Copper
Life Skills
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(anode) sulphate
Briefly explain why the experiment will not work and solution
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• Self-awareness D. SKILL CRAFT ANALYSIS & CREATING 1 2-3 3
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• Problem solving
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Scientific
1. Project Work Proficiency Productive disposition
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Puzzle Over 7E Engage Create a simple LED circuit and compare the conductivity of apple juice, soft drink, vinegar, RO
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water, tap water and soap solution.
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2. Discuss and Answer 21st

Century Thought provoking
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Skills
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Explain students the difference Discuss why or why not.

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between AC power supply and DC 21st
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3. Connect to Life
power supply. Discuss why it not Century Environmental literacy
s
Skills
possible to observe electroplating with
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Disposal of used liquids from electroplating is becoming a serious source of pollution. Find out if
AC power supply. India has guidelines for the disposal of such waste and what the extent of this pollution is in our
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country is. Create a brief report and present in class.

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Life
Project Work 7E Extend, Engage Self¯check Skills Self-awareness
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I can:
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differentiate between good conductors and poor conductors of electricity.

Ask a few students to get apple juice,
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briefly describe the process of electrolysis and electroplating.
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soft drink, vinegar, RO water and soap list at least three uses each of electrolysis and electroplating.
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solution. appreciate the need to understand about the chemical effects of electric current in our daily life.
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The students can then be taken to the

laboratory where you can setup an ed L a
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bW
Super
electric circuit using an LED, a switch

or k

br
As
and electrodes.
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Then the above-mentioned liquids as well
&
1. To test the electrical conductivity of lemon juice and 3. To observe electroplating of copper on stainless steel.
as tap water can be tested one by one to
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vinegar.
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check if they conduct electricity or not. 2. To show that gases are produced when electric
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current is passed through a solution of common salt.

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205
Discuss and Answer 7E Extend
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Critical thinking
Teacher’s Support
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Divide the class into two groups. Give

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Access additional Teacher’s Support resources that create

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these two situations to the groups.

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energised textbooks and enable learning/teaching more

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• Think of a way to coat nickel over

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proficient and technology-driven through the given QR codes:

a plastic spoon.
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• Diagnostic test • Lesson-wise PPT

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• Think of a way to coat chromium

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(unit-wise) facilitates hybrid

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over a wooden door frame.

supports teachers teaching model.
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Ask them to discuss amongst themselves to identify

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if this is possible or not. Tell them to give students’ skill

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reasons for their conclusion. learning curve.

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After completing the group activity, open

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the discussion to the whole class and

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then conclude why it is not possible.

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SUPERVISED LAB WORK
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1. Aim: To test the electrical conductivity of lemon juice and vinegar.
s
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Materials required: Lemon juice, vinegar, two plastic bottle caps, insulated copper wire, battery, and a
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light-emitting diode (LED)
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What to do:
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1. Create an electric circuit as shown.
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2. Take a small amount of lemon juice in a plastic bottle cap and dip the two free ends of the copper
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wire into it, taking care that the free ends of the wire do not touch each other. Have students note if
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the LED glows or not.
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3. Repeat step 2 using vinegar instead of lemon juice.
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Observation: The LED will glow in each case.

br
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Conclusion: The glowing LED indicates that lemon juice as well as vinegar are good conductors of electricity.
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2. Aim: To show that gases are produced when electric current is passed through a solution of
&
'C
common salt
s
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Materials required: A 9-volt cell, two electrical wires (about 15 cm each), a glass beaker, insulation tape,
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a blade, some tap water, and common salt (table salt)

What to do:
ity
rs
1. Take the two pieces of electrical wires and remove, using a blade, about 2 inches of the outer
insulating plastic covering from each end.
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2. Connect one end of each of the two wires to the positive and negative terminals of the cell.
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3. Half-fill the beaker with tap water. Add some common salt and stir well to dissolve the salt.
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4. Dip the two free ends of the wires into the water, taking care that they do not touch each other. Have
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students note down what they observe.

br
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5. Remove the positive terminal from the salt solution and have students note down what they
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observe.
&
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Observation: One should notice tiny bubbles at the wire connected to the negative terminal (cathode) of
s
the cell. On removing the positive terminal from the salt solution, the bubbling should stop.
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Conclusion: The bubbles formed at the negative terminal are due to the formation of hydrogen gas.
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Removing the positive terminal from the salt solution shows that no bubbles are now formed at the
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cathode. Dip the wire back into the solution and the bubbling will start again. Thus, gases are produced
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when the electric current is passed through a solution of common salt.

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Note: Chlorine gas is produced at the wire connected to the positive terminal (anode), but the reaction
t
en
is much slower and cannot be observed easily.

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3. Aim: To observe the electroplating of copper on stainless steel

e
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Materials required: 20 g copper sulphate dissolved in 100 ml of water, a flattened copper wire, two
g
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connecting wires, a battery (3–5 volts), a beaker, and a stainless steel spoon.
br
As
What to do:
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1. Take copper sulphate solution in a beaker.

&
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2. Connect a flattened copper wire (acts as the anode) to the positive terminal of the battery using a
s
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connecting wire.
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3. Similarly, connect the stainless steel spoon (acts as the cathode) to the negative terminal of the
&
battery using a connecting wire.
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4. Dip the copper strip and the spoon into the copper sulphate solution.
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5. Leave the set-up for 20–25 minutes.
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6. Disconnect the electricity and remove the spoon from the solution. Have students note their
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observations.
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Observation: A uniform brown coating is formed on the spoon.
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Conclusion: When an electric current is passed through the electrolyte, copper sulphate gets
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dissociated into copper ions and sulphate ions. The copper ions being positively charged move to the
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cathode. A thin layer of metallic copper thus gets deposited on the metal spoon.
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(a) The flow of electricity. .....................................
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(b) Materials in which electric charge cannot move easily. .....................................

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(c) Full form of LED. .....................................
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(d) Atoms or groups of atoms .....................................
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(e) Negatively charged electrode .....................................
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(f) Chemical name of table salt .....................................

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(g) Type of charge on oxygen ions As .....................................

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(h) A device that uses electrical energy to produce a chemical reaction in a conducting liquid or electrolyte. .....................................
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Element Uses
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(a) Table salt dissociates into i. Poor conductor of electricity

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(b) Copper ii. Battery

(c) Deflection in magnetic needle iii. Sodium ion and chlorine ion
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(d) Liquid that conducts electricity iv. Graphite

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(f) DC source vi. Good conductor of electricity

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(g) Electrode during electrolysis of water vii. Conduction of electricity

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(h) Hydrogen viii. Electrolyte

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(a) Why is an LED used in place of a bulb in a conduction tester?

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(b) Why is pure water a poor conductor of electricity while tap water is a good conductor of electricity?
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(c) Why can electrolysis not take place in an AC circuit?

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(d) What are the three types of chemical effects that can result from the flow of electric current?
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(e) Why is nickel plated on metals?

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4. Project Work
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‘The long life of steel and iron is due to electroplating.’ Research on the different places this electroplated iron is used. Make a
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(a) Aluminium is a good conductor of electricity. .............................
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(b) If we pass electricity through water, it will dissociate into hydrogen and oxygen. .............................
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(c) Hydrogen ions are negatively charged. .............................

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(d) Object to be electroplated is kept at the anode. .............................
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(e) Chromium is electroplated on bicycle handles. .............................
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(h) Laptops work on a DC source. .............................

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(a) The longer terminal of LED is always connected to the …………... terminal of the battery.
(b) The process of decomposition of a chemical compound in a solution when an electric current passes through it is called ………….. .
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(c) The electrode connected to the negative terminal of the battery gets negatively charged and is called …………... .
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(d) …………... charges attract and …………... charges repel.

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(e) …………... plating is done on cutlery and cooking pots for extra shine.
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(f) Lime juice is a …………... electrolyte.

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(h) If the light bulb glows brightly in an electric circuit, the substance is a …………... conductor of electricity.
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(a) Why is iron electroplated with zinc, nickel or chromium?
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(b) Common salt is added in water during the process of electrolysis. Give reason.
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(c) Why is there the need of the anode made of the metal to be electroplated when the electrolyte itself is a solution of a soluble salt of
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the metal to be deposited?

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(e) Other than adding preservatives, how do canned food last for long periods of time?
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Ask the students to set up an LED circuit using vegetables like carrot, lemon etc. Record their observations and state their inference.
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Unit 6 | Natural Phenomena
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15
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SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA
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21st Century Skills
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Unit 6 | Natural Phenomena
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• Observing
15 SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA
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• Analysing
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• Exploring
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Life Skills
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CHAPTER PREVIEW As
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• Electric charges
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• Lightning • Communication
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• Earthquakes
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Warm-up 7E Explore, Engage

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Wha
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Thinking
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you will learn

• Learn about electric charges
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Ask the students to name all the

• Understand about types
types of natural disasters that have
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of charges
occurred in the past. Why are they
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• Learn about the electroscope
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• Understand the process of called ‘Natural’?

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lightning formation
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• Understand how earthquakes Along with this, students should

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are caused
be able to tell two simple steps that
they can take to protect themselves
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from the destructive effects.

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Why
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We have heard of news reports

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regarding natural phenomena such

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as volcanic eruptions, cyclones,

lightning and earthquakes.
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Phenomena such as lightning are

caused by electric charges, while
earthquakes are caused by the WARM-UP 7E Elicit
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movement of the Earth’s crust. Lightning and earthquakes are natural phenomena that we
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It is important to understand how have either seen, experienced or read about.

they occur and learn how to protect Both these phenomena can lead to large-scale destruction.
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ourselves from their destructive

Why do you think these are called natural phenomena?
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effects.
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Why it is Important to Learn 7E Explain, Elaborate, Extend

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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Engage

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The students can be divided into groups of four and they have to select any one natural disaster that has occurred in the
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country and based on their research on that, they have to fill the following table:
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Name of the disaster Have you experienced it? City/State where it has occurred How does it impact?
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• Observing What is an electric charge?
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• Analysing Have you noticed how your hair may stand when you run a plastic comb through it?
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Sometimes polyester clothes stick to each other when they are taken out of a dryer. You
must have also seen a flash of lightning during a thunderstorm. What do all these have
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Life Skills in common?
7E Extend
Real-world Connect!
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All of them are the result of electric charges
• Critical thinking On dry days, you might get a ‘shock’ when you
called static electricity. Static charge or
rs static electricity refers to an electric charge
open a door, put on a sweater or touch another
person. This is static electricity at work.
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Real-world Connect! that tends to stay on the surface of an object,
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rather than flow away quickly. So, static
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7E Engage, Extend electricity is the electric charge at rest on an Integrated

Pedagogy English
Language Check
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object. Sometimes these charges build up.
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Skills instilled: Critical thinking When this happens, the charges may suddenly ‘Static’ comes from the Greek word
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‘statikos’, meaning causing to stand. Find
Ask the students if they have observed move to another object, causing a spark.
out what the word ‘stationary’ means.
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their hair stand when they run a An object can have a positive charge, a negative
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plastic comb through it? Give more As charge or no charge at all. Charged
such examples and explain static objects exert a force (a push or a pull) on
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Attraction
electricity. other charged objects, which is known as
Opposite charges attract
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electrostatic force.
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Glass rod Silk cloth

Ask them to share any one or more
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Opposite electric charges attract each

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instances where they have observed other, that is, they tend to move towards
Repulsion
static electricity in real life. each other. Same electric charges repel
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each other, that is, they tend to move away

Like charges repel Glass rod Glass rod
from each other (Fig. 15.1).
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Language Check 7E Engage Fig. 15.1 Electrostatic force

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Skills instilled: Analysing

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Ask the students what they understand
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• Inflate two balloons. Rub the inflated balloons with a woollen cloth. Now bring the balloons
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by the word ‘Static’? Help them with close to each other. Note what you observe.
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the correct answer. Let them also think

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• Similarly, take two pieces of nylon. Rub them on a sheet of paper. Now, bring both the pieces of
of some synonyms. nylon close to each other. Note what you observe.
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• Bring one balloon and one piece of nylon close to each other. Note what you observe.
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You will find that the two balloons repel each other when brought close to each other, as do the
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two nylon pieces. However, the balloon and nylon piece stick to each other. This indicates that:
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(a) the balloon and the nylon piece have opposite charges, so they attract each other.
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(b) the two balloons have the same charge, so they repel each other.
(c) the two nylon pieces have the same charge, so they repel each other.
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Do the first activity in class yourself

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and give the other two as homework

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and ask the students to record their

observations.
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Concept Building 7E Explain, Engage

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What is an electric charge?

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Draw three objects on the board and explain to the students that an object can have a
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negative charge, a positive charge or neutral (no charge at all). Explain electrostatic force.
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Draw the diagram given below on the board and explain the various scenarios of attraction
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Opposite charges attract

and repulsion.
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Like charges repel

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What type of interaction will happen when a charged object is brought near a neutral object?
• Observing
You may say that there will not be any interaction at all, neither attraction nor repulsion.
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Surprisingly, scientists have found that any charged object, whether positively charged or • Analysing
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negatively charged, will attract a neutral object. So, we can state the following facts about
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electric charges:
1. There are two types of electric charges: positive charge and negative charge.
Life Skills
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2. Opposite charges attract one another. Electron
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3. Like charges repel each other. • Thought provoking
4. Charged objects attract neutral objects.
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Proton
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Where does electric charge come from? Concept Building
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Nucleus
The centre of an atom, the nucleus, has particles called 7E Explain, Engage
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protons and neutrons (Fig. 15.2). Particles called
Neutron
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electrons move around the nucleus. Protons have a Skills instilled: Critical thinking,
positive charge. Electrons have a negative charge.
Analysing
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Neutrons have no electric charge. Because protons and Fig. 15.2 Structure of an atom
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electrons have opposite charges, they are attracted to As

each other. This attraction holds electrons in atoms. So, atoms of objects are held together
What is an electric charge?
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by electric forces or electric charges. An atom has the same number of protons and Draw a charged object on the board.
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electrons. So, the positive and negative charges cancel each other out. This makes the atom Adjacent to it, draw another object
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electrically neutral. It has no overall electric charge. which is neutral. Discuss what
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How can objects become charged? ANM will happen to the neutral charge:
(i) Attraction (ii) Repulsion (iii)
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If the number of protons and electrons in the atoms of an object is not equal, the atom
becomes a charged particle or an ion. An atom becomes negatively charged if it gains extra Continues to stay neutral.
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electrons. An atom that loses electrons becomes positively charged. It is important to note
that it is the electrons that move, that is, are gained or lost, and not the protons. Since the After gathering the student’s
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protons are tightly held in the nucleus, they do not move. When an object is said to have a responses, close the discussion
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positive charge, it means that the object has a net positive charge, or it has many more protons than by giving the answer to the above
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electrons. Similarly, an object with a net negative charge has many more electrons than protons. question. Summarise the discussion
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There are three ways in which objects can be charged. by stating the following facts about
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1. Charging by friction 2. Charging by conduction 3. Charging by induction electric charges: (1) Charges are of two
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types: Positive & Negative charges,

Charging by friction: Charge can build up when two materials are rubbed against each other.
(2) Opposite charges attract each
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When this happens, electrons are transferred from one material to the other. One material
ends up with more electrons, so it now has an overall negative charge. The other material ends other, (3) Like Charges repel each
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up with fewer electrons, so it now has an overall positive charge. This process of charging two other and (4) Charged objects attract
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objects by rubbing them against each other is called charging by friction (Fig. 15.3). It is also neutral objects.
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known as triboelectric charging. Rubbing a piece of nylon on paper, rubbing a rubber balloon
Where does electric charge
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against a sweater and combing your hair with a plastic comb are examples of charging by friction.
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When objects become charged by friction, one object has a stronger attraction to electrons come from?
than the other object and, therefore, pulls electrons off the object that has the weaker attraction
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for them. As a result, both objects become charged. 211 Draw a diagram of an atom and
label the following: (1) Protons
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(2) Electrons (3) Neutrons

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Explain their characteristics.

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Ask the following question to the students: What is the overall charge on the atom? After getting various responses, help
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Do a role play in the class with eight students. Two students can become protons and two can become electrons. They
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can represent atom 1. The other four students become atom 2, where two can become protons and other two can become
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electrons. Show the movement of an electron (student) from atom 1 to atom 2 and then classify them as positively and
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negatively charged.
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How can objects become charged?

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Glass rod
• Observing
Silk cloth
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Electron
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a. Two objects with opposite charges b. Objects rubbed against each other c. The object that gains electrons
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• Critical thinking becomes negatively charged. The
object that loses electrons becomes
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Thought Provoking Fig. 15.3 Charging by friction
positively charged.
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Similarly, when an ebonite rod (ebonite is a hard rubber) is rubbed with wool, electrons
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Concept Building flow from the wool to the ebonite rod. The ebonite rod becomes negatively charged, and
since wool has lost electrons, it becomes positively charged.
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Charging by conduction: Charging by conduction
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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, involves the contact of a charged object with a neutral
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Analysing object. Charging happens when electrons move from one
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object to another by direct contact (Fig. 15.4). The process Neutral Charged
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Charging by friction (pages 211–212) As of charging an uncharged object by touching it to a charged

Charged rod
Fig. 15.4 Charging by conduction
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object is called charging by conduction.

Explain the process by taking various
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The uncharged object will acquire the same charge as that of the charged object it is in contact
real-life examples of the process such
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with. This means that if the charged object is positively charged, the uncharged object in
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as rubbing of glass rod with silk cloth,

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contact with it will acquire a positive charge. If the charged object is negatively charged, the
plastic ruler rubbed on dry air. Show uncharged object in contact with it will acquire a negative charge. If the object being charged
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the following diagram in the class and is a good conductor of electricity, the charge it acquires spreads to all parts of its surface.
explain the process of transferring of However, if the object being charged is a poor conductor of electricity, the charge it acquires
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electrons from one body to another. mostly remains at the place where the contact was made.
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Both charging by friction and charging by conduction involve the two objects coming in
Charging by conduction contact with each other. Therefore, these two methods are also called charging by contact.
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Explain the concept of charging by Charging by induction: This method involves no physical contact between the charged and
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induction by showing Fig. 15.3 to the uncharged object. The process of charging an uncharged body by bringing a charged body
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near it but not in contact with it is called charging by induction (Fig. 15.5). When charging
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the students.
by induction, the neutral object always takes on the charge opposite to that of the charged
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Explain various scenarios where object near it. This means that if a positively charged object is brought close to a neutral
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object, the neutral object becomes negatively charged by induction. Similarly, if a negatively
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the charged objects are positive and

negative charged. charged object is brought close to a neutral object, the neutral object becomes positively
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charged by induction.
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Ask the following questions to the When you charge a balloon by rubbing it on your hair and bring it close to a wall, the balloon
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students: will stick to the wall. This is an example of charging by induction.

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(a) What happens if the object is a

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poor conductor of electricity?

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(b) Can the objects be charged 212
without coming in contact?

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Charging by induction (pages 212–213)

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Pick up any object in your hand and ask if it is possible to charge the object without any physical contact?
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Take the real-life example of charging a balloon by rubbing in our hair and then it sticks to the wall.
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Discuss the flow of charges by showing the diagram to the students and then explain process of charging by induction.
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The extra electrons on the balloon This side of the
due to charging makes it negatively
wall is positively Electrons in • Observing
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charged the wall move
charged. This will repel the electrons • Analysing
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away from
in the area of the wall close to the balloon
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balloon. The electrons in the wall
move away from the balloon, creating Negatively
Attraction
This side of the Life Skills
charged balloon wall is negatively
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a positively charged area on the wall. charged
The negatively charged balloon is Neutral wall • Critical thinking
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attracted to the positively charged area Fig. 15.5 Charging by induction • Thought provoking
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of the wall and sticks to it.
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How are electric charges detected? Concept Building 7E Elicit, Explain

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To test whether an object has charge, we use a
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device called the electroscope. It was invented
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in 1748 by a French physicist, Jean Nollet. It can
How are electric charges detected?
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detect static electric charges.
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Ask the students if they have seen or

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One type of electroscope is a glass beaker with

a metal rod inside it (Fig. 15.6). The metal rod
As heard about electroscopes.
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connects to a knob at the top of the beaker. There

Explain the working of the
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are two metal branches, or leaves, at the bottom
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of the metal rod. This is called a metal-leaf electroscope to the students with
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the help of a diagram given in the

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electroscope (Fig. 15.6). When the electroscope is

not charged, the leaves hang straight down. When coursebook.
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the electroscope is charged, the leaves repel each The metal leaves The leaves repel each
other, or spread apart. The greater the charge,

hang down when
there is no charge to
other when they are
positively or negatively
Ask the following questions to the
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the greater is the separation between the leaves. the rod charged students:
When an object with a negative charge touches the Fig. 15.6 Metal-leaf electroscope
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knob, electrons travel down the rod to the leaves.

(a) What will happen if positive
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Both leaves gain negative charges. Similarly, when an object with a positive charge touches charge touches the knob?
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the knob, it attracts electrons that move up the rod. The leaves now have a positive charge.
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(b) What will happen if negative

When the leaves have a charge, positive or negative, they repel each other and spread apart.
charge touches the knob?
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An electroscope whose leaves are spread apart indicates that the object that touched it was
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(c) Can the electroscope differentiate

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charged. However, it does not indicate if the charge is positive or negative.

between the types of charges?
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What is electric discharge?

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Charges that build up as static electricity on a charged object eventually leave it. When an
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object gets charged, the charge stays on it till it finds a way to escape, that is, to get transferred
to another object. The loss of static electricity as the charge moves off an object is called electric
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discharge. Sparks are an example of an electric discharge. Lightning is also an example of a very
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large electric discharge or transfer of electric charge.

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Concept Building 7E Elicit, Elaborate

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What is electric discharge?

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Ask the students if we stick a balloon charged by induction to the wall, for how long it will continue to stick there. When
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will it fall?
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Discuss the answer with the students and explain the concept of electric discharge.
As
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Ask the students whether they have seen sparks while taking out their sweater. What is the reason behind the same?
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Discuss the answer with the students and tell them that lightning is also an example of large electric discharge or transfer
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of electric charge.
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21st Century Skills
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• Observing
To analyse if two charged objects attract or repel each other in order to establish that similar
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• Analysing charges repel each other while opposite charges attract each other.
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1. Lata rubbed two balloons on her hair and hung them on a stand using thread,
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as shown here. She noticed that the balloons moved away from each other.
Life Skills What do you think caused the balloons to repel each other? Tick the correct
option.
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• Critical thinking (a) They did not get charged properly. (b) They had like charges.
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Thought provoking (c) They had opposite charges. (d) They had neutral charges.
2. Lata saw the picture given below in a book. Help her answer the related questions.
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Section Review 1
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7E Engage, Evaluate
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(a) This kind of charging is called charging by
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Problem-solving
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(b) What would be the charge on the sphere, if the rod in contact was positively charged? Why?
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This section helps in the evaluation of As To examine the working of electroscope to detect if an object is charged or not.
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students. 3. Lata made an electroscope at home using a glass bottle, an aluminium ball
and aluminium foil. To test the working of the device, she brought a charged
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Explain the experiments to the object near the aluminium ball on top of the bottle. What changes is she likely
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to have observed? Tick the correct option.

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students and let them attempt

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(a) The aluminium ball starts to shake.

questions (1) and (2). (b) The colour of the aluminium changes.
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Ask any one student to summarise the (c) The aluminium foils inside the bottle stick to each other.
(d) The aluminium foils inside the bottle repel each other.
working of the electroscope and let
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them answer the question (3).

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What is lightning?
Discuss the correct answers in class.
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Lightning is a large static discharge—a transfer of charge between two objects. It happens if
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there is a build-up of static electricity in clouds during heavy rain and thunderstorms.
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Concept Building How is lightning caused?

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7E Explain, Engage During thunderstorms, especially when it is hot and humid, + + + + +

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there is vigorous movement of air currents, and water

Skills instilled: Critical thinking droplets in rain clouds collide with each other and get
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charged. The positive charge moves to the top parts of the − − − − −

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What is lightning?
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rain cloud, while the negative charges move to the lower

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parts of the rain cloud. As these charges get created, they

Ask the students if they have observed
get accumulated, causing a build-up of charges. The bottom
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lightning. of the cloud that has a build-up of negative charges creates a + + + + +

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Define and explain lightning to them. temporary positively charged area on the ground. Since air
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is a poor conductor, the discharge does not happen till there Fig. 15.7 Cloud to ground lightning
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Concept Building 7E Explain, Elicit

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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Analyzing

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How is lightning caused?

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Ask the students to give some examples of good conductors of electricity. Ask them whether air is a good conductor of
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electricity or not.
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With the help of the diagram, discuss the movement of the charges in the rain cloud.
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is enough build-up to overcome the poor conductivity of air, and then there is a sudden static
• Observing
discharge between the cloud and the ground. This discharge is accompanied by light, and we
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see it as lightning. This is called cloud to ground lightning. • Analysing
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As the discharge travels through the air, it generates a great amount of heat, believed to be around
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25,000 °C. This large amount of heat causes the air molecules to rapidly expand. This expansion Life Skills
causes a loud sound, the thunder. This is why a lightning is accompanied by thunder. And since
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light travels faster than sound, we see the lightning first and hear the thunder a little while later. • Critical thinking
Depending on the time gap between seeing the lightning and hearing the thunder, we can tell
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how far away from us the lightning has occurred. The farther the lightning, the greater is the time
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taken for us to hear the thunder.
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What are the dangers of lightning? Concept Building 7E Explain, Elicit

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Lightning can cause damage and injury because it releases a very large amount of energy.
Lightning usually strikes the highest point in a charged area. That point provides the shortest
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path for the charges to reach the ground. Anything that sticks up or out can provide a path for
Thought provoking
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lightning. Therefore, tall buildings, trees

and people in open areas risk being struck Real-world Connect! 7E Elaborate, Explain How is lightning caused?
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by lightning. As
You may have heard people say that household Ask the students if they have ever
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appliances and wirings at homes should be

If lightning hits a tree or a building, it can
‘earthed’. Earthing is provided in the wiring of our
heard the thunder noise during the
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start a fire. One way to avoid the damage homes, offices, etc., to protect us from electric lightning. Why do we see the lightning
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is to make the charges flow into the Earth’s shocks which may occur due to any leakage of first and hear the sound a little later?
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surface instead. Earth is a large neutral electric current from electrical appliances.
conductor that can absorb excess charge. Metal wires, called earth wires, are used for this Discuss the answer with the students.
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Making a path for electric charge to go into purpose and in an electric plug, it is identified by
the ground is called grounding. Grounding a green plastic insulation around it.
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provides a path for electric charges to move Earth wire

to the Earth’s surface, so it is also called 7E Explore, Elaborate
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Neutral wire Live wire

earthing (Fig. 15.8).
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During a storm, a tall building may be struck Skills instilled: Critical thinking,
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Analysing
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by lightning. So, most tall buildings have

Outer insulation Cable grip
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a lightning rod or conductor on the roof.

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A lightning conductor is a pointed metal What are the dangers of lightning?

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rod connected to the ground by a wire. We say that objects that

are connected to the ground by a conductor, such as a wire, are
Lightning Share some anecdotes and instances
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rod
grounded or earthed. Any object that is grounded provides a path with the students of the dangers of
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lightning. Lightning is a major reason

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for electric charges to move to the ground. Wire

for forest fires. Ask the students why
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Scientific
Proficiency Productive disposition lightning strikes tall buildings and
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Do You Know? trees? Can lightning strike at the same

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Ground rod
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Lightning can also be useful. The heat from lightning combines

place twice?
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the nitrogen and oxygen in the air to form nitrates and other
Fig. 15.8 Grounding or earthing
compounds, which are useful for the growth of plants. These
Conclude the discussion and explain
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nutrients fall to the ground and mix with soil when it rains.
215 the process of grounding to the
students. Also explain the reason for
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the presence of a lightning conductor

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Real-world Connect! 7E Elaborate, Explain on the top of the buildings.

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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Analysing Ask the students why earthing is
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important.
Take an electric plug and remove the plastic case to release the three wires
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from the case. Show it to the students and help them identify the earth wire. Explain the experiment to the students
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Explain to them the need of earthing at home. and discuss their doubts.
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Do You Know? 7E Extend, Elaborate

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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Environment literacy

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Ask the students if they are aware of any uses of lightning.

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Help the students with the correct answer.

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• Avoid contact with water during a thunderstorm. Do not bathe, shower, wash dishes or have
• Observing any other contact with water during a thunderstorm. Lightning can travel through plumbing.
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• Analysing • Avoid using corded phones as they are not safe to use during a thunderstorm.
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• Avoid leaning and lying on concrete floors and walls. Lightning can travel through metal
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wires or bars in concrete walls or flooring.
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• Critical thinking Section Review 2 7E Evaluate
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Thought provoking To recall examples of visible sparks to explain the phenomenon of lightning.
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1. Saurabh was taking off his sweater in a dark room. He saw a spark and heard a cracking sound
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that scared him. Which natural phenomenon is of a similar nature?
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(a) Fog (b) Lightning (c) Earthquake (d) Rain

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7E Engage, Elicit, Explain To examine the sequence of lightning occurring in clouds in order to explain the process of
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electric discharge in nature.
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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, 2. Jeena studied that during thunderstorms, vigorous movement of air current and water droplets
results in a build-up of charges in the clouds. Which phenomenon will result by the discharge of
Analysing, Thought provoking
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these built-up charges in nature?

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How do we protect ourselves from As (a) Rain (b) Earthquake (c) Tornado (d) Lightning
3. Help Lata find out which of these images explains the discharge of charges that results in the
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thunderstorm and lightning? occurrence of lightning. Tick the correct option.

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(a) (b) (c) (d)
Divide the students into groups of
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three. Give different scenarios to each

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group where they have to enact the

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best way to protect ourselves if we are

stuck in a thunderstorm. They have to
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show the do’s and don’ts and explain

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the reasons.
What are earthquakes?
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Compile these short skits and it can be

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With the advancement in technology, these days it is
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presented in the school assembly for

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possible to predict quite accurately the occurrence of

mass awareness.
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many natural phenomena. This gives us time to take

adequate measures to protect ourselves from the damage
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Section Review 2 7E Evaluate caused by these phenomena. However, earthquake is a

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natural phenomenon that can strike anywhere at any

Fig. 15.10 Damaged houses due to
Skills instilled: Critical thinking, time, although there are areas of the world that are more
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earthquake
Problem-solving prone to earthquakes than other areas. IVID
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An earthquake is the sudden quake or shaking of the Earth that causes extensive damage
Read out the question (1) and (2) in
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to life and property, wherever it strikes (Fig 15.10). Earthquakes can cause floods, landslides
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the class and let the students raise their

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and tsunamis. To understand earthquakes, it is important to know the internal structure

hands and tell the answer.
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of the Earth.
Let the students attempt the question
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(3) on their own.
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Discuss the answer with the students.

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Concept Building 7E Explore, Explain

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What are earthquakes?

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Ask the students if they have heard about earthquakes or have experienced
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them. Cite some examples of earthquakes like that of Bhuj, 2001.

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Close the discussion by explaining the meaning of earthquake and its

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consequences.
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What is the internal structure of the Earth?
• Observing
If you could travel deep into the Earth’s surface, you would find it is made of three concentric
s
• Analysing
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layers: crust, mantle and core (Fig. 15.11). Each layer has its own chemical composition and
properties.
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• The Earth’s crust is the outermost layer where we live, consisting mainly of silicon and Life Skills
aluminium. The crust is of two types: a continental crust that varies in thickness between
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20 km and 90 km, and an oceanic crust that varies in thickness between 5 km and 10 km. • Critical thinking
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• The mantle is the thickest of
Earth’s layers and takes up 83
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per cent of the Earth’s volume. It
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extends down to about 2900 km
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Crust
from the crust to the Earth’s core
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Mantle
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and is largely composed of dark,
Outer Core
dense, igneous rocks containing
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Inner Core
iron and magnesium.
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The upper part of the mantle and

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the crust make up the lithosphere,

which is broken up into pieces
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called ‘plates’. The interaction

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of these plates is responsible for
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earthquakes, volcanic eruptions

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and the formation of mountain Fig. 15.11 Internal structure of the Earth
ranges and ocean basins.
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• The core has two layers: an inner core and an outer core. The core is mostly iron with
some nickel, and takes up 16 per cent of the Earth’s total volume. The temperature in the Concept Building
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outer core is so high that iron and nickel are found in a molten state—the outer core is 7E Explore, Engage
thus liquid. The inner core, although it has the same high temperature as the outer core,
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is so deep down that it is acted upon by so much pressure that iron and nickel remain as Skills instilled: Critical thinking,
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solids—the inner core is thus solid.

Analysing
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How does the Earth move to cause an earthquake?

What is the internal structure of
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The rigid upper part of the Earth’s mantle and the crust—the
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lithosphere—is not smooth. It is broken into sections called tectonic

the Earth?
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plates or simply plates. Plates can be large sections of the Earth’s crust
and upper mantle. These plates move around very slowly. Sometimes Take the example of an onion and
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it takes more than a year for a plate to move only a few centimetres. explain the students. Just like an onion
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As
The places where the edges of different plates meet are called plate has concentric layers. The interior of the
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boundaries. At their boundaries, plates can move apart, come together

earth also consists of concentric layers.
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or slide past each other (Fig 15.12). This constant movement of the
Ask the students if they are aware of
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plates creates forces that affect the Earth’s surface at the boundaries of
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the plates. The movement puts stress on rocks near the edges of the Fig. 15.12 Movement of
the names of the layers.
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tectonic plates
Explain the layers of the earth to the
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students and make the following table
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for them.
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Layers Features Thickness

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Crust Continental crust: Silica & Aluminium (Si-Al) 20 km–90 km

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Oceanic crust: Silica & Magnesium (Si-Ma) 5 km–10 km

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Mantle Composed of dark, dense, igneous rocks. 2900 km

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Core (outer & inner) Made of nickel & Iron 3500 km (outer + inner)
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7E Elicit, Explain
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How does the Earth move to cause an earthquake?

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Do a small activity in class. Take a textbook and hold it horizontally. Move the book slowly and then vigorously in a
horizontal manner. Explain the concept of tectonic plates and their movement with the help of the book. Take another
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book and hold it adjacent to the first book. Demonstrate plate boundaries and explain the concept to the students.
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plates. To relieve this stress, rocks bend, stretch or compress. If the force is great enough, the
• Observing
rocks will break. A large break in rocks along which movement occurs is called a fault.
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• Analysing
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An earthquake is the vibration of the Earth caused by the sudden release of this stress energy,
usually located at a fault that involves the movement of blocks of rocks. Earthquakes may be
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Life Skills small vibrations that no one notices. Or they may be enormous vibrations that cause a great
deal of damage. Most earthquakes result from rocks moving over, under or past each other
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• Critical thinking along fault surfaces.
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Thought provoking Following an earthquake there are usually adjustments along a fault, which generate a series of
smaller earthquakes called ‘aftershocks’. Aftershocks usually continue for a few days after the
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initial earthquake, but may sometimes persist for months.
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How do we measure earthquakes? Epicentre
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Skills instilled: Critical thinking Earthquakes send out vibrations, called seismic waves, in
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all directions. These waves travel out in all directions from
Explain the term fault to the students. the point where the strain energy is released. This point is Depth
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Repeat the activity of moving the the focus, or point of origin, of an earthquake (Fig. 15.13).
books in a horizontal manner. Place a
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The focus is usually deep inside the Earth. The epicentre

pen or duster on the top of the book
As is the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
Focus
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Fault
and move it vigorously to demonstrate Geographical areas that have a high probability of seismic Fig. 15.13 Origin of an earthquake
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activities or earthquakes are called seismic zones or
the impact caused by the earthquake.
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earthquake belts. These are areas on the Earth’s surface that lie above plate boundaries.
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Also explain the term ‘aftershocks’ to

Integrated
the students. Test It Yourself! Pedagogy
Social Science
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1. You will need a map of the world. Based on an Internet search, mark in red, the 7 major plates.
How do we measure earthquakes?
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Now search for locations of major earthquakes in the last decade and mark them on your map
in blue. Do you find any relationship between the occurrence of earthquakes and the location
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where continental plates meet? Discuss your findings in class.

Observation
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2. Based on the Internet search, mark the seismic zones on a map of India. Find out the Indian
states that are within these seismic zones. Is the city you live in within such a zone? Make a
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Ask the students if they have observed
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report and discuss in class.

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the ripples when we throw a stone in

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water. Compare this to the initiation Scientists use an instrument called a

of an earthquake and its vibration seismograph to measure seismic waves
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Frame
(Fig. 15.14). A seismograph registers the waves Wire
moving in all directions. Weight
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and records the time at which each wave Rotating drum

With the help of the diagram, explain arrived. It is made up of a rotating drum of Vibrations
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focus, epicentre and fault to the paper and a hanging weight, or pendulum,
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students. with a pen or marker attached to it. When Base

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seismic waves reach the seismograph, the

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Ask students to name various drum vibrates, but the pendulum remains at Fig. 15.14 Seismograph
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measuring instruments like

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rest. The unmoving pen traces a record of the

thermometer, scale, speedometer,
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barometer. 219
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Ask them to name the instrument

used to measure earthquakes.
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Test It Yourself! 7E Evaluate

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Explain the working of seismographs

Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Thought provoking
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to the students and its process of

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recording the time of seismic waves. Let the students do this assignment at home. Let them mark the continental
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plates and earthquake-prone areas. Discuss their findings in class.

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vibrations on the moving drum of paper. The paper record
of a seismic event is called a seismogram, and scientists
• Observing
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who use seismic waves to study earthquakes are called • Analysing
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seismologists. There are seismograph stations all over the
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world that help determine where earthquake epicentres
are located. This is done by comparing seismograms from Life Skills
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at least three separate locations on the Earth.
A seismogram is shown in Fig. 15.15. The height of
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the lines on a seismogram is a measure of energy the
Fig. 15.15 Seismogram • Thought provoking
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earthquake released. The measure of energy released is
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called the magnitude of an earthquake. The taller the lines are on the seismogram, the greater is the
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magnitude of the earthquake.

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The Richter Magnitude Scale or the Richter Look It Up! 7E Explore Skills instilled: Critical thinking
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scale is used to describe the magnitude of
earthquakes based on the height of the lines
Search online for answers and discuss in class. Discuss the work of a seismologist
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on a seismogram. The Richter scale starts 1. Find out how seismologists determine the with the students.
epicentre of an earthquake. (Clue: It is a
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with 1. Thousands of earthquakes occur on As

triangulation method.) Explain the Richter scale to students
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the Earth every day. However, earthquakes

2. What is a Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale? and draw the following table for the
with a magnitude of 3.0 or below are
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generally not noticed and cause no damage.
students.
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We usually feel earthquakes with a magnitude between 3.0 and 4.9. Destructive earthquakes, that
Magnitude Earthquake
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is, earthquakes that cause damage, have a magnitude of 5.0 or more on the Richter scale. The
earthquakes that cause the most damage and take the most lives have a magnitude of 6.8 or higher. Below 3.0 No damage
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How can we protect ourselves during an earthquake? 3.0–4.9 We feel tremors

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People living in seismic zones, where earthquakes are more likely to occur, have to be prepared
5.0 and above Destructive
at all times. Some ways in which they can make themselves ‘earthquake safe’ are as follows.
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• The buildings in these zones should be designed to withstand major tremors. Modern 6.8 and above Most destructive
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building technology has made it possible to build homes that are as resistant as possible.
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• In highly seismic areas, it is safer to construct buildings using mud or timber rather than
using heavy construction material. Look It Up! 7E Explore, Explain
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• In such areas, the roofs must be made of lightweight material to minimise damages caused
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if the roof falls down during an earthquake.

• Cupboards and shelves should be fixed to the walls, so that they do not fall easily. Observation
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• Furniture or things prone to toppling should not be placed near doors that you might use as
Give this activity as an assignment to
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an escape route.
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• Emergency supplies to last at least 2–3 days should be kept ready. the students and discuss the questions
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• Since some buildings may catch fire due to an earthquake, it is necessary that all buildings, in class.
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especially tall buildings, have fire-fighting equipment in working order.

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In the event that an earthquake does strike, follow these steps to protect yourself. If you are indoors:
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Concept Building 7E Engage, Explain, Elicit

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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Observation

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How can we protect ourselves during an earthquake?

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Divide the class into three groups. Let group 1 come up with a presentation where they have to explain about earthquake
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preparedness. Group 2 has to come up with the steps to protect ourselves if we are indoors and group 3 comes up with
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protective measures if we are outdoors.

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• Take shelter under a large table and stay there till
• Observing the shaking stops. Real-world Connect! 7E Extend
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• Analysing • Stay away from tall and heavy objects that may fall In India, The Central Building
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on you. Research Institute at Roorkee
has developed technology to make
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• Stay away from glass windows as they may shatter
quake-resistant houses. Read
Life Skills due to the earthquake. about this.
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• Do not stay under doorways as they may not be
• Critical thinking strong enough.
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Thought provoking • If you are in bed, stay in bed and protect your head with a pillow.
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If you are outdoors:
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• Find a clear spot, away from buildings, trees and overhead power lines. Drop to the ground
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Real-world Connect!
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7E Extend
and stay there till the shaking stops.
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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, • If you are in a car or a bus, do not come out. Ask the driver to drive slowly to a clear spot.
Do not come out of the vehicle till the tremors have stopped.
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Analysing
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Ask the students to prepare a list of Section Review 3 7E Evaluate

the cities in India which are prone
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to earthquakes.
As To describe the phenomenon of earthquake in order to explain that the ground beneath us is
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not static.
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Discuss the research of the Central 1. Lokesh studied that the Earth’s crust is not in one piece but is broken into many fragments
known as plates. These plates are responsible for the occurrence of an earthquake. What causes
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Building Research Institute at Roorkee

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the plates to result in an earthquake? Tick the correct option.

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to make quake-resistance houses. (a) Distance of the plates from the equator (b) Difference in thickness of the plates
(c) Difference in size of the plates (d) Movement of the plates
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And how can the implementation of To identify and explain seismic zones around the Earth to explain why some areas are more
the research be helpful for these cities? affected by earthquakes than others.
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2. Lokesh’s teacher told the class that some areas are more prone to earthquakes than others.
What do you think might be the reason for this? Tick the correct option.
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(a) They are situated along the coastal region. (b) They are situated above a plate boundary.
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(c) They are situated near a tropical region. (d) They are situated near a desert region.
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Thought provoking
Keywords
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SVID
This section is for the evaluation of
Static electricity: Electric charge at rest on Electric discharge: The loss of static
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the students. Let the students complete an object electricity as the charge moves off an object
their worksheets.
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Electroscope: A device used to detect and Grounding: Making a path for electric
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measure charges on an object charge to go into the ground

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Read out the answers in class, so the

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Encourage students to construct a home-made seismograph using simple materials. Discuss how this instrument works to record
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the earthquake. Discuss the devastating effects of earthquakes in the class.

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(a) Explain what an electroscope is and how it helps to detect a charged body.
• Observing
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(b) Describe briefly the three ways by which objects can be charged. • Analysing
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(c) What is an earthquake and how is it caused? Explain the precautions that must be taken
during an earthquake.
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(d) Describe the structure of the Earth with the help of a well-labelled diagram. Life Skills
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C. PUZZLE OVER
Scientific
Proficiency Adaptive reasoning PROBLEM-SOLVING 1 1 - • Critical thinking
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1. Two balloons were rubbed with wool. Label the figures as:
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(a) balloons before being rubbed with wool
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(b) balloons after being rubbed with wool Puzzle Over 7E Engage
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Explain what happens in the two cases.
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D. SKILL CRAFT ANALYSIS & CREATING 1 2-3 3 thinking, Thought provoking
21st
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Skills Ask students to recall the facts about

Inspect your building. Does it have a lightning conductor? How many buildings in your electric charge, that is, like charges
br
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neighbourhood have lightning conductors? Find out about the measures that have been taken to
repel and unlike charges attract.
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stay safe during any natural disaster. Create a ‘To Do’ list and share in class.
&
Life
2. Discuss and Answer Skills Teamwork
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Organise a role play on ‘when earthquake happens’ to sensitise people about the safety measures to
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be observed during and after an earthquake.

21st Skills instilled: Technology literacy,
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3. Connect to Life Century Initiative and self-direction

Skills Analysis
We cannot predict an earthquake but can stay prepared if one occurs. An earthquake
Ask the students to do this activity at
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emergency kit will make sure you have all you need at your fingertips and address any
injuries, in case of a disaster. Prepare an earthquake emergency kit and keep it at an easily home. Have them make a presentation
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reachable place in your house.

and record their observations. Let
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Self¯check
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them share their findings in the class.
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I can:
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Discuss and Answer

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define static electricity and describe three ways in which objects can be charged.
explain briefly the working of an electroscope.
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7E Extend, Evaluate
explain how earthquakes occur and how it is measured.
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list at least five ways to protect oneself during lightning and an earthquake. Skills instilled: Critical thinking,
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Environment literacy
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ed L a
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Divide the students into groups. Let

Super
or k

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them organise a role-play to sensitise

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people about the safety measures

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1. To study the charging by friction, conduction and induction. 2. To study the working of a metal-leaf electroscope. to be observed during and after an
earthquake. Let the best play be
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224
presented in the school assembly.
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Connect to Life 7E Extend

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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Environment literacy

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Ask the students to perform this activity and prepare an earthquake emergency kit. Share their findings and show the kit to
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the class.
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Teacher’s Support
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SUPERVISED LAB WORK
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1. Aim: To study the charging by friction, conduction and induction.
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Materials required: Two inflated balloons, a small polythene bag, some pieces of paper, two ballpoint
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pen refills, a piece of woollen cloth and a glass beaker.
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What to do:
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1. Take an inflated balloon and rub it against a woollen cloth.
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2. Bring it close to the pieces of paper and have students note down their observations.
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Observation: The pieces of paper will get stuck to the balloon.

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3. Take one ballpoint pen refill and rub the polythene bag on it vigorously.
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4. Carefully place this refill in the glass beaker.
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5. Touch the second refill (uncharged) to the refill (charged) in the beaker. Have students note down
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their observations. As
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Observation: The refill in the beaker moves away from the second refill.
&
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6. Take the second inflated balloon and rub it with the woollen cloth.
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7. Bring it close to the second refill (uncharged). Have students note what they observe.
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Observation: The balloon gets attracted to the refill.

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Conclusion: When the inflated balloon is rubbed against wool, it becomes a charged body and attracts
the pieces of paper. This is charging by friction. When a charged refill is touched by an uncharged refill,
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the uncharged refill gets charged. Since both will have like charges, they will repel each other. This is
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charging by conduction. When the charged balloon is brought near the uncharged refill, the refill gets
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charged with the charge opposite to that of the balloon. Thus, the balloon gets attracted to the refill as
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Triboelectric series Triboelectric series (insulators only)

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Material Type Material

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Silicone rubber Insulator Polyvinylchloride plastic

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Polyethylene Insulator Polyester Negative

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Saran Insulator Hard rubber

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Negative Synthetic rubber Insulator Cotton

Brass/silver Conductor Paper Neutral
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Nickel/copper Conductor Silk

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Steel Conductor Wool

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Neutral Cotton Insulator Nylon
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Paper Insulator Your hair

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Nylon Insulator
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2. Aim: To study the working of a metal-leaf electroscope
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Materials required: An empty glass jam jar with a plastic lid, a 6-to-8-inches long copper wire, a pair of
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pliers, a piece of plastic straw, two small identical pieces of aluminium foil with a small hole punched on
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one end of each foil, a piece of thermocole and a piece of woollen cloth.
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What to do:
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1. Punch a hole in the lid of the jam jar bottle big enough for the straw to go through.
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2. Using a plier, coil one end of the copper wire. Pass the other end of the coil through a small piece of
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plastic straw. Push the copper wire with the straw through the lid of the jar.
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3. Hook the end of the copper wire and place the two aluminium foil pieces through it such that the
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hooked end holds the foils in place.

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4. Carefully screw the jar lid tightly, ensuring that the aluminium foils hang freely inside the jam jar as
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shown in the figure. The electroscope is now ready.
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6. Touch the charged thermocole to the top of the copper coil. Have students note what they observe.
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Observation: The two aluminium pieces diverge or move away from each other by opening up.
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Conclusion: When we touch the top end of the metal clip with the negatively charged thermocole,
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some of its negative charges are transferred to the top end of the copper wire. Since the copper wire is a
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good conductor, it conducts the electric charge to the two aluminium pieces. The two aluminium pieces
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get charged with the same kind of electric charge—negative charge and so repel each other. This causes
the aluminium pieces to diverge.
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Note: This electroscope works best when the air is dry rather than humid. Also, the jar lid should not
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be metallic.
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Worksheet 1
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(a) Charged objects exert a force on other charged objects known as …………... .
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(b) An atom becomes …………... charged if it gains an extra electron.

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(c) The process of charging objects by rubbing them against each other is called …………... .
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(d) We use a device called …………... to test whether an object has a charge or not.
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(e) …………... happens when there is a build-up of static electricity in clouds during heavy rain and thunderstorms.
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(f) Grounding is also called …………... .

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(g) Tall buildings have a …………... on the roof.
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(h) The shaking of the Earth that causes extensive damage to life and property is called …………... .
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(a) The process of charging an uncharged object by touching it to a charged object is called charging by induction.
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(b) The outermost layer of the Earth is called Crust.

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(c) The focus is the point above the epicenter.

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(d) Scientists use an instrument called seismograph to measure seismic waves.

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(e) The core has two layers: Crust and Mantle.
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(f) A large break in rocks along which movements occur is called a fault.
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(g) When charging by induction, the neutral object always takes on the charge opposite to that of charge.
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(h) There are five ways in which objects can be charged.

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3. Answer the following questions:

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(a) Explain how lightning is caused with the help of the diagram given below.
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+ + + + +
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− − − − −
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+ + + + +
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(b) What are the dangers of lightning?

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(c) Explain charging by induction.

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(d) What is electric discharge?

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(e) State any three methods to protect ourselves during thunderstorms and lightning.
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(f) What are seismic zones?

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(g) What is the Richter Magnitude scale?

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4. Project Work
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‘Earthquakes are caused due to the movement of the tectonic plates.’ What are the other natural disasters that occur due to the
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movement of the tectonic plates? Create a case study on the PowerPoint presentation on any one of the natural disasters.
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Worksheet 2
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(a) The process of charging an uncharged body by bringing a charged body near it but not in contact with it.
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(b) The loss of static electricity as the charge moves off an object.
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(c) An example of electric discharge.

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(d) Making a path for electric charge to go into the ground.
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(e) The thickest layer of the Earth.
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(f) The places where the edges of different plates meet.

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(g) Scientists who use seismic waves to study earthquakes.
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(h) This layer takes up 16% of the Earth’s volume.

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(a) Vibrations generated by earthquake i. Positively charged particle

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(b) Electric charge at rest on an object ii. Fault

(c) Proton iii. Static electricity
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(d) Outermost layer of the Earth iv. Seismic waves

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(e) Scale to describe the magnitude of earthquakes v. Lightning

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(f) Instrument used to measure seismic waves vi. Richter Scale

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(g) Large break in rocks along which movement occurs vii. Seismograph
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(h) Example of large electric discharge viii. Crust

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(a) Briefly explain the structure of the atom.

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(b) Refer to the picture given below. Name the process of charging the object and explain it.
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Glass rod
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Silk cloth
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Electron
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(c) Explain the mechanism of the electroscope. Can it detect the nature of the charge?
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(d) What is lightning? Why do tall buildings have a conductor on the rooftop?
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(e) Write a short note on the layers of the Earth.

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(f) What are tectonic plates?

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(g) State two methods to protect ourselves during thunderstorms and lightning if we are indoors.
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(Skills: Critical thinking, Self-awareness)

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Construct a simple electroscope using an empty bottle, a piece of cardboard, a paper clip, and small strips of aluminium foil. Bring
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different objects near the electroscope and write your inferences.

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Unit 6 | Natural Phenomenon
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16
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LIGHT
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21st Century Skills
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• Observing
16 LIGHT
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• Analysing
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• Exploring
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Life Skills
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• Critical thinking • Reflection of light

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• Communication • Plane mirrors
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• Human eye
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Ask the students to recollect the Wha
you will learn
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various activities that happened

around them since they woke up in • Learn about reflection of light
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the morning. Then ask them if to • Understand the laws of

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reflection
recollect what colour dresses were • Learn about reflection in a
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different teachers wearing.

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plane mirror
• Understand the working of
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Make it a fun activity with an open the human eye

discussion. • Learn about visually
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challenged people
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Then introduce ‘sight’ to them.

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Why
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WARM-UP 7E Elicit
It is light that allows us to see and
it is because of light that we see The sense of sight is one of the most important of our
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everything in spectacular colour. senses. Sight allows us to see the world around us. A
scenery, birds and animals, our favourite sports being
It is important to understand how
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played, reading a book, seeing the Moon and stars at night

light helps us see things and learn
etc., are the gifts of sight.
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about how properties of light help

Why it is Important to Learn in creating devices useful to us. Do you recall what it is that helps our eyes see things?
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Critical thinking
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Draw this table and ask them to fill it.

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Object Colour
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Sky during the day

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Sky at night
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Table in a lighted room

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Table in a dark room

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Then explain how light helps us visualise things. Name a few devices that use light.
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21st Century Skills
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It is light that allows us to see. Light originates from a source. We have learnt that objects that
• Analysing
give out light are called luminous objects and the objects that do not give out light are called
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non-luminous objects. Everything we see results from light entering our eyes. This light is • Observing
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either given off by luminous objects, such as the Sun and light bulbs, or reflected by non- • Technology literacy
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luminous objects, such as trees, books, buildings and people around us.
We know that a ray of light is a narrow beam of light that travels in a straight line. It will,
Life Skills
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however, be more accurate to think of a source of light as giving off a countless number of light
rays that are travelling away from the light source in all directions.
We are able to see objects around us due to reflection of light from non-luminous objects. Let
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us learn what reflection is.
• Problem-solving
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What is reflection of light?

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Concept Building
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To understand reflection, imagine sitting to read a book and the lights go off. You will not be
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7E Elicit, Explore, Elaborate
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able to read till the lights come back on. An object such as the book does not give off light on
its own because it is a non-luminous object. However, when you allow light to fall on the book,
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the light bounces off the book and into your eyes, and you are able to see clearly the letters on Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing,
Critical thinking
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the pages of the book and are able to read the book. This bouncing off of light from objects it falls
on is a property of light called reflection of light.
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Light
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Similarly, you can see reflection of your face in the mirror because light from the Sun or a light
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bulb bounces off your face, hits the mirror and reflects to your eyes. When light rays hit an object Make this table and ask the students to
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and get reflected, they follow the laws of reflection. give a few examples of each.
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What are the laws of reflection?

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Light bounces off some objects and passes through others, Luminous Non-luminous
depending on what the object is made up of. Reflection happens objects objects
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when light bounces off an object. To understand reflection,

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consider a ray of light striking a plane mirror. One useful tool that
is generally used to depict the way reflection of light takes place is
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a ray diagram. A ray diagram is a diagrammatic representation of

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the possible paths light can take to get from one place to another
from a source or object, to an observer or a screen.
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In Fig. 16.1, the incoming ray of light is called the incident ray. Now define ‘a ray of light’ as well as a
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An imaginary line that is drawn perpendicular to the surface of a

source of light.
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plane mirror where the incident ray strikes is called the normal
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Fig. 16.1 Laws of reflection

to the surface. The incident ray and the normal form an angle
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called the angle of incidence. After striking the mirror, the ray of Language Check 7E Extend
Language Check
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light bounces off and it is called the reflected ray. The reflected
Find out the meaning of
Skills instilled: Observing, Information
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ray forms an angle with the normal called the angle of reflection.
the word ‘Kaleidoscope’
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According to the laws of reflection: literacy

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in the English language.

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1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

2. The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray all lie on the same plane.
Show them a kaleidoscope and ask
the students to spell it. Also ask
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them to look up more about it in the
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dictionary.
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What is reflection of light?

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Take a mirror and ask one student to look into it and describe what he/she
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saw. Now, ask another student to sit in a dark corner, open a book and read
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from it. Now, ask the class why the first student saw his/her reflection and
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why the second student found it difficult to read from the book. Then explain
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reflection of light.
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What are the laws of reflection?

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With the help of Fig. 16.1, define a ray diagram and then explain each of the
labels and the laws of reflection.
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21st Century Skills
Scientific
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• Analysing Test It Yourself!
Yourself! Proficiency Conceptual understanding
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• Observing
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Verify the law of reflection. Work in pairs to do this activity. You will need a mirror, pieces of paper,
• Exploring sticky tape and two pieces of long rope.
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1. Find a place where there is a wall with plenty of space around it. Hang or attach a mirror at eye
level on the wall. Now cover the mirror with a piece of paper.
Life Skills
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2. Now, both you and your partner should try to guess where you both need to stand to see each
other’s reflection in the mirror. When you both agree on the places, mark them on the floor by
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Critical thinking sticking a piece of paper at each of the spots.
3. Remove the paper from the mirror. Stand at your chosen place to determine if you can see
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• Self-awareness each other’s reflection in the mirror.
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4. If you cannot see each other, try moving to different places until you can. Mark this place by
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sticking a piece of paper on the floor.

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Test it Yourself?
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5. Next, place a piece of rope on the floor from the centre of your place markers to the wall
7E Elaborate, Engage straight under the centre of the mirror. These should be straight lines!
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6. Look at the angles made by the ropes on the floor and the wall to see if they are of the same size.
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical Note your observations and describe them in class.
thinking, Collaboration
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As If we change the angle of incidence, the angle of reflection also changes.

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Divide the class into groups of two.

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Then perform the activity in class. Test It Yourself!
Yourself!
Scientific
Proficiency Procedural fluency
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Once the activity is done, commend

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Verify the relation between the angle of incidence and

the students for their efforts. the angle of reflection. You will need a small mirror, a
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white chart paper, a small cardboard box, a torch, pencil,

Discuss how the laws of reflection ruler and a protractor.
were proved physically by this activity.
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1. Place the white chart paper on the floor and stand

the mirror on one edge of the paper.
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2. Cut a small vertical slit on the box such that when

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light is shone through it, it will leave the box as a thin

beam. (Alternatively, if you have a laser torch, you can
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shine it directly on to the mirror.)

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3. You will be able to see the incident ray and reflected

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ray quite clearly. Mark on the chart paper, the

‘normal’, perpendicular to the surface of the mirror.
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Normal
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Draw over the beams of light to mark the incident Angle of Angle of
ray and the reflected ray. incidence reflection
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4. Using a protractor, note the angle of incidence and
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the angle of reflection.
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Change the direction of the beam by moving the box.
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Note the angle of incidence and angle of reflection
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each time. Try this out with at least three different
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Angle of Angle of
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directions, including one straight on the normal.
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incidence reflection
Record your observations and discuss in class. Normal
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Test it Yourself! 7E Elaborate, Engage

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking, Collaboration

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Bring all the requirements to class.

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Ask two students to come and perform the experiment. One will set up everything and the second would show the markings.
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Then call another set of students and perform the activity. Repeat three times.
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Now, ask five students to come one by one and measure angle of incidence and angle of reflection for each set of markings.
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Discuss the findings in class. Ask the students what they conclude from the activity.
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Let us see what would happen when a ray of light is incident M
perpendicular to a plane mirror. This means that the incident ray is

• Analysing
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travelling along the normal to reach the surface of the mirror. The • Observing
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Incident Reflected
angle of incidence for such a ray of light is zero. Since the angle ray ray
• Exploring
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of incidence is zero, the angle of reflection will also be zero. M’
Thus, the reflected ray will also travel back along the normal. This Fig. 16.2 Incident ray is
perpendicular to
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is an example of the incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray the plane mirror. ANM Life Skills
represented by the same line in a ray diagram, as shown in Fig. 16.2.
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What are regular and diffused reflections?
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Light reflects off most objects, such as mirrors and walls. However, we can see our • Self-awareness
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reflection in a mirror, but cannot see our reflection on a wall. • Communication

This has to do with the surface the light reflects from. How well
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we can see our reflection depends on the smoothness of the
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Concept Building 7E Engage, Elicit
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reflecting surface. Fig. 16.3 Regular reflection
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Objects having a smooth surface, such as mirrors, reflect all the light rays
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at the same angle, that is, parallel incident rays remain parallel after they Critical thinking
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are reflected. Such a reflection is called regular reflection (Fig. 16.3). Fig. 16.4 Diffused or irregular
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This kind of reflection allows us to see a sharp image as a reflection. reflection

What happens when the incident
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Objects with irregular or uneven surfaces, such as walls, reflect the light rays in different directions,
ray is perpendicular to the plane
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that is, parallel incident rays do not remain parallel after they are reflected. This is because when
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the surface is uneven, the normal at the point of incidence is different for different rays. Such a mirror?
reflection is called diffused reflection or irregular reflection (Fig. 16.4). This kind of reflection
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does not give sharp images and thus prevents us from seeing images reflected off such surfaces. Explain the concept with the help of
Fig. 16.2 given in the coursebook.
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To explain reflection as a bouncing off of

Some of the reflected light rays hit the mirror. Section Review 1 7E Evaluate
light from objects and entering our eyes.
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1. Roma looked at her reflection in the The light rays reflect off of Roma in all
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directions.
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mirror before heading off to school.

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Sequence the steps in the path that light The light source gives out rays of light. thinking, Problem-solving
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rays take when Roma sees her image

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Some of the reflected light rays hit Roma’s eyes.

in a mirror. The steps are written in The light rays reflect off of the mirror in all
This section helps in the evaluation of
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scrambled order on the right. Number directions. students. Let the students answer the
them to show the correct order.
questions on their own in the class.
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Roma sees her image in the mirror.

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Some of the light rays strike Roma. Then, discuss the answers so that
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As

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To identify and calculate the angles of incidence and reflection of a ray of light to illustrate
the laws of reflection in real life. The teacher can help the students if
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2. Roma switched on a torch light and pointed it towards a mirror. She calculated the angle of they are stuck somewhere.
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incidence and found it to be 60°. What is the angle of reflection?

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(a) 50° (b) 60° (c) 50° (d) 90°

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What are regular and diffused reflections?

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Explain regular and diffused reflections based on the diagram given in the coursebook.
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Then draw this table and involve the students in filling it.
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Regular reflection Diffused reflection

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Example: Example:
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21st Century Skills
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• Analysing To distinguish between reflection from a rough and a smooth surface in order to differentiate
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between diffused and regular reflections.
• Observing
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3. In the given figure, the rays marked in blue are
• Exploring incident rays, the rays marked in red are the reflected
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rays and the black lines represent the normal to
the surface of each ray of light. Does the given
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figure represent a regular reflection or a diffused
Life Skills reflection? Give reasons to justify your answer.
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Critical thinking
What is a mirror?
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• Self-awareness
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A mirror is any surface that produces a regular
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• Problem-solving reflection. A pool of still water, a shiny metal object and

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even a window can be a mirror (Fig 16.5). The shape
of a mirror changes the way light reflects off it. For
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Concept Building
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example, your reflection in a bathroom mirror will look
7E Elicit, Explain, Elaborate different from your reflection in a shiny metal cup.
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Based on their shape, there are three types of mirrors:

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing As plane, concave and convex. The laws of reflection hold
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good regardless of the shape of the mirror used. In this Fig. 16.5 Example of regular reflection
What is a mirror? lesson, we will learn only about plane mirrors.
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Show the images of various types of What are plane mirrors?

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objects where mirrors are being used A plane mirror is a mirror that has a flat surface. Most mirrors
in class and ask the students to explain
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you see at home are plane mirrors. Let us see how the plane
what kind of image they see in each mirror follows the laws of reflection.
of them.
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In the given ray diagram (Fig. 16.6), rays (lines with arrows) are
drawn to represent the incident ray falling on a mirror and the
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Then introduce the terms ‘plane’,

reflected ray bouncing off the mirror to the eye. Notice that the
‘convex’ and ‘concave’ to describe
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image is drawn using a dotted line. This indicates that the image
different types of mirrors.
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Fig. 16.6 Ray diagram of reflection
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appears to be seen behind the mirror. Two light rays A and B

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in a plane mirror
originating from point O on an object are reflected by a flat
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mirror M, into the eye of an observer. The reflected rays

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C and D are obtained by using the laws of reflection. The

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object is the source of the incident rays, and an image is

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generally seen where reflected rays meet. In this case, since

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the reflected rays are moving away from each other, only
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by extending these reflected rays backward can they meet.

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They seem to meet at point P behind the mirror, which is

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where the image appears to be located.

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Fig. 16.7 Virtual image formed in

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Look at Fig. 16.7. It appears as if the image of the child plane mirror
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is behind the mirror or ‘inside’ the mirror. Such images that ‘seem to form’ from rays of light
without actually doing so are called virtual images. Formation of a virtual image is one of the
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characteristics of plane mirrors. 229

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Concept Building 7E Elicit, Elaborate

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking, Observing

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What are plane mirrors?

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Explain how light travels in a plane mirror with the help of Fig. 16.6.
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Then ask a student to move forward and backward in front of a mirror. Ask the class what happens to his image. Where do
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they see him? Is he inside the mirror? Wait for them to answer and then elaborate on the term ‘virtual image’.
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Now, ask the student to move away from the mirror to one side. Ask if he is still visible in the mirror? Now explain
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‘line of sight’.
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21st Century Skills
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Also, to be able to see an object in a mirror, the observer Test It Yourself!
Yourself! 7E Explore • Analysing
has to be in the line of sight of the object.
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Stand in front of a mirror and try to
• Observing
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What are the characteristics of plane mirrors? observe, in the mirror, the image of
Images produced by a plane mirror have the following

any object placed at your right or • Exploring
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left side in the mirror. Now, move
characteristics: sideways such that the image is no
longer visible to you in the mirror.
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1. The image formed is upright. This means that the
This indicates that you have moved Life Skills
image is erect, and not inverted. out of the line of sight of the object.
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2. The image formed by a plane mirror is the same • Critical thinking
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size as that of the object. • Teamwork
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3. The distance of the object from the mirror is equal to the distance of the image from the
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• Problem-solving
mirror, that is, object distance is equal to image distance.
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4. The image is a virtual image because light rays do not actually meet at the image. We see
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Test it Yourself! 7E Explore
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the image because our eyes project the light rays backward and so it appears as if the image
is behind the mirror.
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5. In a plane mirror, the left of the object appears to be the right of the image and vice versa. Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
thinking, Collaboration
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This is called right–left inversion or lateral inversion. As

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If you place two plane mirrors perpendicular to each other, it is possible for the ray of light Ask the students to go home and
to bounce off both the mirrors (Fig. 16.8). If an incident ray strikes one mirror at an angle of
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perform the activity. They will observe
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incidence of 30°, it will get reflected forming an angle of reflection of 30°. This reflected ray on
how they moved out of the line of sight
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hitting the second mirror will be treated as an incident ray to the second mirror. Figure 16.9
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shows how the reflected ray forms an angle of 60° with the normal.
of the object that they were focussing on.
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Fig. 16.8 Incident ray striking Fig. 16.9 Reflected ray leaving
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the first mirror at an angle of the second mirror at an angle of

incidence of 30° reflection of 60°
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Thus, we see that a reflected ray can reflect again.

Concept Building
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This principle is used in the making of a periscope. A Mirror

Path of
periscope uses two parallel mirrors facing each other 7E Explain, Elaborate
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light
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to bounce light between them so that people can see

Mirror
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around corners or look at things that are too high Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
for them to see (Fig. 16.10). Periscopes are especially
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useful in submarines, army tanks and are also used by
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Fig. 16.10 Reflection using parallel

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soldiers in bunkers to see things outside without being mirrors in a periscope

What are the characteristics of
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seen themselves!
plane mirrors?
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Draw the table and explain the
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characteristics of plane mirrors.

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Upright The image is erect.

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Same size Image is same size as object

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Equal Distance Object distance = image distance

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Virtual Image Image appears to be behind the mirror

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Laterally inverted In the mirror, left side appears right and right side appears left
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Ask students how someone sitting inside a submarine can view things above the sea level. Encourage students to share their
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views in class and then introduce the periscope.

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Explain its working with the help of images given in Figs. 16.8, 16.9 and 16.10.
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Can mirrors make multiple images?
• Analysing
We can see interesting reflection patterns when two
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• Observing or more mirrors are placed in combination. We have
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seen that when an object is placed in front of a plane
• Exploring mirror, we see the image of the object. If the same object
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is placed in front of two mirrors placed at an angle, we a. b.
will see the image of the object in both the mirrors.
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Life Skills Interestingly, as we change the angle between the two
rs mirrors, we will see more images of the single object.
• Critical thinking Look at Fig. 16.11 to observe this.
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• Self-awareness If two mirrors are placed c. d.
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parallel to each other
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• Problem-solving and the object is placed

Fig. 16.11 An object placed in front of two
mirrors kept at varying angles
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at a point other than the
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midpoint between them, then we are able to see the image-of-an-
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Concept Building
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image that continues without an end, as in the given figure.
7E Engage, Explain Multiple mirrors are used to create a kaleidoscope.
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7E Elaborate
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical As The mathematical formula to calculate the number of images one
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thinking, Thought provoking can see in this setup is (360°/angle between the mirrors ) – 1. For
instance, (360°/120°) – 1 = 3 – 1 = 2.
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Can mirrors make multiple images? Since two images are visible, the mirrors in Fig. 16.11b seem to be
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Fig. 16.12 Object placed placed at 120° angle.

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between two parallel mirrors

Ask the students why there are so What do you think are the angles in the other two figures?
many images of the same child in
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Fig. 16.12. Wait for their answers and Kaleidoscope: A kaleidoscope is a small device made
then tell them the correct reason. of two or more mirrors or reflective surfaces positioned
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at an angle to each other, usually forming a V-shape or

Now, explain the concept of formation
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a triangle. This device creates creative picture patterns

of multiple images. Also, explain when light falls on its surface and the observer looks
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into the device through a small opening created on one

what happens in case of mirrors kept
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of its ends.
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parallel to each other. A kaleidoscope works on the principle of multiple

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Eyehole
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reflections. One can observe multiple reflections in a

Number of images formed between kaleidoscope as it is generally made using three mirrors Fig. 16.13 A kaleidoscope
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angled at 60° to each other to form a triangle that reflects

two mirrors the objects.
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Let the students count the number of These reflectors are surrounded by a tube. At one end of the tube is a collection of brightly
br
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coloured objects, held in place by a circle of glass or plastic. At the other end, there is an
images of the boy in the mirror. Wait
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eyehole. As you look through the eyehole and rotate the tube, the objects at the end of the
for them to come to some answer. kaleidoscope move and create endless patterns, where each pattern is unique.
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Now explain how the students can

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calculate the number of images that

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are formed in the previous image if

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they are aware of the angle between 231

the two mirrors.
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Concept Building 7E Explore, Elicit

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Skills instilled: Observing, Thought provoking

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Kaleidoscope
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Recollect how you had discussed about kaleidoscope in the beginning.

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Ask the students to explain how it works now that they are aware about
multiple mirrors.
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Then explain its features and working.

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Show the students an actual kaleidoscope and ask them to describe what they
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observe each time the ring is turned.

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Uses of plane mirrors: Some common uses of plane Do You Know?
In 1816, Scotsman Dr David
• Analysing
mirrors are:
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Brewster was the first to • Observing
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• Looking mirror: It is the most common use of plane arrange mirrors and objects in a
mirrors. At least one mirror can be seen in every tube and call it a kaleidoscope. • Exploring
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household. Looking mirrors can also be found in salons
and clothing stores.
Life Skills
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• Solar cookers: A plane mirror in a solar cooker
reflects the bulk of the sunlight that falls on it. Solar
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cookers are one of the most effective ways to cook • Critical thinking
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using solar energy. • Self-awareness
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• Periscopes: They are commonly used in a
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• Problem-solving
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submarine. For stealth purposes, a submarine cannot

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come to the surface of the ocean every time it wants
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to observe the surface. So, submarines make use of Fig. 16.14 A periscope
Concept Building
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periscopes (Fig. 16.14).
7E Elicit, Engage, Elaborate
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To illustrate with a line diagram how images invert when reflecting from a mirror in order to Skills instilled: Creative thinking,
Analysing, Thought provoking, Observing
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see the applications of the laws of reflection.

1. Roma studied that a plane mirror results in an inverted image after reflecting. Which of these
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represents the image likely to be formed by a plane mirror? Tick the correct option. Uses of plane mirrors
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Plane Plane Plane Plane

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mirror mirror mirror mirror Ask the students to state some uses of
q q
plane mirrors that have been discussed
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q q P q
P
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(a) (b) (c) (d) previously. This would include looking

mirror, kaleidoscope and periscope.
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This characteristic of plane mirrors is called

To establish that light can reflect multiple times with a set of mirrors by constructing a
Then add to the list by explaining
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kaleidoscope.
about a solar cooker.
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2. Roma created a kaleidoscope and observed that she was able to see several beautiful patterns in it.
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What do you think causes the kaleidoscope to form these patterns? Tick the correct option.
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(a) Due to large amount of light falling on the kaleidoscope

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(b) Due to multiple reflection of light

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(c) Due to the smoothness of the reflecting surface

Skills instilled: Thought provoking,
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(d) Due to the roughness of the reflecting surface

Observing
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How do our eyes help us see things? Tell the class about Scotsman Dr David
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The only range of wavelengths of light that humans can see is between 400 nm (nanometres) Brewster and his invention. Ask the
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and 700 nm, called visible light. All of the wavelengths of visible light combine to make white children to research and get pictures of
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light. This means that white light contains all of the colours of visible light, and each colour has his kaleidoscope.
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a different wavelength. Sunlight is white light and is thus made up of a combination of several
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colours. We see different wavelengths of visible light as different colours. This range of colours
Concept Building
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232 7E Explain, Elaborate

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Skills instilled: Thought provoking,

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Section Review 2 7E Evaluate Observing

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking, Problem-solving How do our eyes help us see things?
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This section helps in the evaluation of students. Let the students answer the Explain the term ‘visible light’. Then
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questions on their own in the class. show the image of a rainbow and ask the
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children to name all the colours in it.

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The teacher can discuss the correct answers, so the students know the
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correct answers. Now, explain how all these colours

combine to form white light. Introduce
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the term ‘wavelength’.

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Continue by explaining more

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about sunlight.
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Define the term ‘visible spectrum’ and

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‘dispersion of light’.
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that we can see is called the visible spectrum. The seven colours of the visible spectrum are
• Analysing
violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red.
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• Observing
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Test It Yourself! Discovery-based learning
• Exploring
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Splitting of light: This should be tried out in a room with a window that has a wall
near it.
Life Skills
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Take a glass three-fourth full of water. Place a plane mirror in it at an angle.
Position the glass so that sunlight from the window shines directly at the
• Critical thinking rs mirror. You may have to shift the mirror to find the right angle. Look for a
reflection on the wall. It would be easier to see this if the room is dark. Adjust
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• Self-awareness the angle of the mirror until you see a rainbow on the wall.
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• Problem solving
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This splitting of light into its constituent colours is known as dispersion of light. Rainbow is a
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natural phenomenon showing dispersion.
Test It Yourself! 7E Extend, Engage
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How do we see objects in colour?
Light reaches our eyes after being reflected off an object or after being transmitted through
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an object. The colour of an object depends on the wavelength of light that reaches our eyes. A
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The teacher can demonstrate the activity As coloured opaque object absorbs some light wavelengths and reflects other light wavelengths.
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in class. Then students can also try to The light that is absorbed by the object does not reach our eyes; only the reflected light
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perform the same activity at home. reaches our eyes. The colours that are reflected by an opaque object, thus, determine its colour.
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When white light shines on a tomato, only red light is reflected. The other colours of light are
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absorbed. Therefore, the tomato looks red to you. Similarly, the stalk of the tomato looks green
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Concept Building 7E Elaborate because it absorbs all the colours, but reflects green. IVID
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Interestingly, when all the colours of light are reflected, the object looks white and
when all the colours of light are absorbed, the object looks black.
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How do our eyes detect light?

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How do our eyes detect light? Our eye has several parts that work together so that we can see. The eye is about as big as
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a table tennis ball and sits in a little hollow area called the eye socket in the skull. Only a part of
(pages 233–234)
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the eye is visible on the outside. Some of the main parts of the eye are shown in Fig. 16.15.
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Discuss how we can see different • Eyelids: They are the outermost protective parts of the eye. They act as ‘shutters’
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objects with our eyes – both distant and protect the eyes against the external environment.
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and near objects. • Sclera: This is the white part of our eye.
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Talk about where the eye is located and

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Cornea Retina
its structure. Eyelid
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Iris
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Pupil
Lens
&
Sclera
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Iris
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Sclera
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Optic nerve
Fig. 16.15 Structure of a human eye
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Concept Building 7E Elaborate, Engage

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How do we see objects in colour?

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Explain how wavelength determines colour of an object.

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Now, draw the table and ask the students to fill it.
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Object Colour of light reflected

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Clear Sky
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Bark of a tree
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Apple
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Banana
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Explain why snow is white and night is black.

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• Cornea: It is the clear outer part located at the front of the eyeball.
• Iris: It is the coloured part of the eye that regulates the amount of light entering the eye.
• Analysing
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• Pupil: It is the opening at the centre of the iris that allows light to enter the eye. The iris • Observing
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adjusts the size of the pupil and controls the amount of light that can enter the eye.
• Exploring
• Lens: It is the clear part of the eye behind the iris that helps to focus light, or an image, on
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the retina. The lens becomes flatter when we focus on a distant object, and it becomes more
curved when we focus on a nearby object.
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• Retina: It is the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye. The retina converts light or Life Skills
visual impulses into electrical impulses that are sent to the brain through the optic nerve.
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• Optic nerve: It is the largest sensory nerve of the eye. It carries impulses for sight from the • Critical thinking
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retina to the brain. • Self-awareness
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When light rays from an object pass through the cornea
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• Problem-solving
and pupil, and strike the lens of the eye, they bend and
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an inverted image is focused on the retina (Fig. 16.16).
Cells in the retina called rods and cones convert the
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Concept Building
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image into electrical impulses. Rods can detect very
7E Elaborate, Engage, Extend
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dim light. Cones detect colours in bright light. The

optic nerve carries these impulses to the brain which
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interprets it into the image we see. Our eye adjusts to

As Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing,
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the brightness of light that hits it. In bright light, the Collaboration
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size of our pupil decreases, and in dim light, the size of
How do our eyes detect light?
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our pupil increases.

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Fig. 16.16 Working of

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Blind spot: The spot where the optic nerve enters the human eye Do a role play in class where students
eye, there are no rods or cones. Thus, if light hits this play the role of different parts of
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spot, we are not able to see any image. This spot is known as the blind spot. the eye. With the help of Fig. 16.16,
describe how light reaches the retina.
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The entire area that a person is able to see when their eyes are fixed in one position is called field
of vision or vision field. This shows how wide an area our eye can see when we focus on a central Discuss rods and cones and how they
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point. Each of our eyes gives a 130° field of vision and with our two eyes, we can see nearly 180°. work in the light.
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Persistence of vision: This is a phenomenon whose cause is still being determined, but it is
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believed that the human eye and brain can only process around 10–12 separate images per second, Blind spot
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retaining an image for up to fifteenth or sixteenth of a second. If a subsequent image replaces it in

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Ask the students to sit in a line. Then

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this period of time, it will create the illusion of continuity. So, if still images of a moving object are
flashed on the eye at a rate faster than 15–16 images per second, then the eye perceives this object as ask them to try looking to their left
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moving. This illusion of movement is called persistence of vision. Cartoon films we see are created and right and identify their classmates.
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using this phenomenon by presenting a sequence of still images in quick succession of around 24
pictures per second that the viewer interprets as a continuous moving image.
Ask them how many they could identify.
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What are some common vision problems? Then discuss how and why they could
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People with normal vision can clearly see objects close up or far away. They can also clearly not see beyond a line.
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see all colours of the visible light. However, many people have trouble seeing objects at certain
Introduce the concept of ‘blind spot’
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distances, and some have problems with seeing certain colours. Some common vision defects
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are described here.

and ‘line of vision’ to them.
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234 Persistence of vision

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Ask the students about their favourite

cartoon film.
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Ask them how they are made.
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Wait for them to come up with

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interesting concepts.
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What are the common vision problems?

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Then discuss ‘persistence of vision’.

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Call out students in class who wear spectacles.

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Ask them why they do so.

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As
Then ask the students to think of elders in their family who wear spectacles.
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Discuss how there can be many problems with vision.

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• Analysing Nearsightedness or myopia: Nearsighted people see nearby objects better than distant objects.
A nearsighted person can only see an object clearly if it is nearby. The eyes of nearsighted people
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• Observing cannot form a sharp image on the retina, of an object that is far away. Far away images look
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• Exploring blurred. In this condition, the image forms in front of the retina and therefore appears blurred.
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Nearsightedness is corrected by using eyeglasses fitted with concave lenses. This kind of lens
cause the incoming light rays from distant objects to form a sharp image on the retina.
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Life Skills Farsightedness or hypermetropia: Farsighted people see distant objects better than nearby
rs objects. A farsighted person can only see an object clearly if it is far away. The eyes of farsighted
• Critical thinking people cannot form a sharp image on the retina, of an object that is nearby. Nearby images look
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• Self-awareness blurred. In this condition, the image forms behind the retina and therefore appears blurred.
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Farsightedness is corrected by using eyeglasses with convex lenses. This kind of lens cause the
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• Problem-solving
incoming light rays from nearby objects to form a sharp image on the retina.
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Colour blindness: Colour blind people are not able to see certain colours or tell the difference
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Concept Building
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between some colours, usually between red and green. This is due to malfunctioning of certain
7E Elaborate, Extend cells in the retina that are sensitive to these colors. If one is colour blind, one would not be able
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to see the colour change from red to green or green to red at a traffic intersection. Our safety
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing As in this case depends on being able to see colours. For this reason, train engine drivers are made
to take the colour blindness test before they are allowed to drive. There is no cure for colour
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Near sightedness or myopia blindness, but special glasses and contact lenses are used to help the condition.
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Cataract: As one grows older, it is seen that in many people the lens of the eye loses its
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If there is a student with spectacles in

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transparency and starts to become opaque. When the lens becomes opaque, light rays are
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class, you can ask why they wear one. not able to pass through them. This condition is called cataract. Minor cases of cataract are
Then, discuss the concept of myopia.
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corrected using corrective glasses or contact lenses. However, if the cataract is in an advanced
stage, laser surgery or lens replacement surgery are used as treatment.
Then tell them about how it can INT
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be corrected. How should we take care of our eyes?

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We must take good care of our eyes so that we can continue to maintain our eye health
Far sightedness or hypermetropia and keep our vision sharp. Here are a few things that we could do to take care of our eyes.
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1. Avoid rubbing your eyes: Each time we touch or rub our eyes, dirt, dust and
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Ask the students if they have seen
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bacteria from our fingers can be easily transferred to our eyes. We must avoid rubbing or
their grandparents read the newspaper
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touching our eyes to prevent infection and irritation.

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keeping their newspaper close to their 2. Protect your eyes from the sun: Exposure to direct bright sunlight can damage the eyes.
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eyes when the read. We should wear sunglasses, when possible, to protect our eyes. Putting on caps and visors
also help in shading our eyes.
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Now, discuss the condition using

3. Stay hydrated: Taking in sufficient fluid is essential to our body’s overall well-being, including
the image.
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the eyes. Keeping ourselves hydrated prevents our eyes from getting dry and irritated.
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Discuss how it can be corrected. 4. Wash your eyes regularly: Splash clean water on your eyes twice or thrice a day to wash
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away any dirt and grime around the eyes. This prevents irritants such as dust from
Colour blindness
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damaging your eyes and water keeps your eyes clean as well.
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5. Keep proper distance when reading or using the computer: Computer monitors should
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Discuss how some people are not able be positioned at a proper distance, that is, at least an arm’s length away from the eyes and
to see certain colours or distinguish
Pr
235
between certain sets of colours.
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Then discuss the concept of colour

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blindness and how that can be Concept Building (pages 235–236) 7E Extend, Engage
a problem.
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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Analysing, Observing

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Cataract
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How should we take care of our eyes?

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Discuss about cataract and how

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it affects older people more. Have a discussion in class about taking care of the eyes.
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Discuss what it is and how that can

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Fill in the table based on that.

be corrected.
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Way to take care What/how it prevents

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Rubbing the eyes

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Sun protection
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Hydration
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Washing eyes
Reading from a distance
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a little below eye level. This keeps your eyes from getting strained. While reading books or
using a mobile phone, take care to keep your eyes not too close to them.
• Analysing
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6. Maintain proper lighting: Ensure that there is sufficient diffused lighting in your rooms. Very • Observing
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bright lights result in glare, which can strain the eyes. Similarly, dim light too can cause eye strain. • Exploring
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7. Eat healthy food: We must eat food rich in vitamin A as it helps keep our eyes healthy.
Deficiency of vitamin A causes night blindness, a disease in which a person is not able to see
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clearly in low light, especially during night. Good sources of Vitamin A are: carrot, pumpkin, Life Skills
green leafy vegetables, mango, papaya, eggs, milk, curd,
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cheese and butter.
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8. Have your eyes checked by an eye doctor: You discuss in class.
• Self-awareness
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should visit an eye doctor to have your eyes checked
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Different animals have eyes that • Problem-solving

if you find it difficult to read, or your eyes water
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are best suited to their survival.
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or if you get a headache. The doctor may prescribe Crabs have small eyes, but they are
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spectacles, if required, to correct any vision problem. placed high above the head so they
can see all around them.
9. Take time to perform eye exercises everyday: Simple
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eye exercises help to strengthen the muscles of the Find out interesting facts about the Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing
eyes of dragonflies, chameleons,
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eyes and help keep your eyes healthy. As domestic cats and eagles. The teacher can ask the students to
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What is visual impairment? find details about the eyes of crabs,

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People who have vision loss that cannot be corrected using spectacles dragonflies, chameleons, domestic cats
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or other methods are said to have a visual impairment. This means and eagles. Then fill the table.
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that a person’s eyesight cannot be corrected to a normal level.

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Such people are said to be visually challenged. They may have Living creature Special features
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partial vision loss or complete vision loss, that is, blindness. Visual
impairment can be due to several reasons. It can occur due to an Crabs
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injury to the eyes, severe eye infection or sometimes as an aftereffect Dragonflies

of a disease. Some people are born visually challenged. Such people
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make up for the lack of normal sight by using other senses as touch Fig. 16.17 Braille system Chameleons
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and hearing to identify things around them. It is seen that visually Domestic cats
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challenged people have a sharp sense of touch and hearing as compared
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to people without a visual impairment. Eagles

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English Alphabet: Punctuation:

To help visually impaired people read and write,
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there is a special system called Braille. It is

named after Louis Braille, the French inventor
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of this system. Braille is a system of raised dots

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that blind people can read (Fig. 16.17). It is read

As
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1 4 Numbers:
The space the dots
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2 5 occupy is known as
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Braille cell Decimal point

3 6
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Fig. 16.18 Braille six-dot cell Fig. 16.19 Braille alphabet, punctuation and numbers
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing, Critical thinking. Thought provoking

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What is visual impairment?

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Discuss about blind people.

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You can ask them to close their eyes with a blindfold and do their normal activities for 15 mins at least.
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Now ask the students to contemplate amongst themselves how blind people would be living.
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Discuss the various causes due to which people get blind.

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Also, how other sense organs become more sensitive for them.
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by touch, using fingers to feel the letters and symbols. Each symbol is made by arranging raised dots
• Analysing
within a six-dot Braille cell (Fig 16.18). Each letter of the alphabet, punctuation mark or number has
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• Observing its own special symbol (Fig 16.19) or symbols. To write in Braille, a special frame is used on which
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• Exploring dots are punched into using a pen called the stylus.
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Today, Braille is available in nearly every language and is used throughout the world. In
addition to this, devices such as portable Braille typewriter, audio dictionaries, computers
Life Skills
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equipped with software as well as special keyboards are now available, making it easier for
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• Self-awareness Section Review 3 7E Evaluate
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• Problem solving
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To describe various parts of human eye and identify their functions in order to explain how
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humans see object in presence of light.
Concept Building 7E Extend 1. Help Roma answer these questions.

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(a) This converts light or visual impulses into electrical impulses
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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Observing
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(b) This is the coloured part of the eye

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(c) The opening that allows light to enter the eye.

Braille As (d) This helps to focus light or images on the retina
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(e) This carries impulses from retina to the brain

Tell the class how blind people can
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To compare and contrast blind spot and field of view in order to explain how humans see
read and write.
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objects in the presence of light.

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2. Roma and Alex were standing side-by-side. Roma noticed that she could not see Alex’s face
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Discuss Braille using the image given completely without turning her head around to face him. What is the reason for this? Tick the
in the coursebook. correct option.
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(a) The face was outside the field of vision (b) No light was reflecting from the face
Discuss how it is read, its history and
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(c) Due to persistence of vision (d) Less distance between them

its development over the years. To recommend different measures for protecting your eyes when a problem is felt in order to
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establish the importance of eye care.

Also, talk about a Braille cell.
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3. Which of these activities should be avoided in order to protect our eyes from damage? Tick the
correct option.
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(a) Reading under proper light (b) Using suitable spectacles

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(c) Looking directly at the Sun (d) Washing off eyes with water
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Keywords
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7E Explain SVID
This section helps in the evaluation
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Reflection of light: When a light ray incident on Dispersion: Splitting of white light into
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of students. the surface of an object bounces back its constituent colours

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Let the students answer the questions Myopia: A condition in which a person can see Hypermetropia: A condition in which a
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nearby objects clearly and cannot see the distant person can see distant objects clearly and
on their own in the class.
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objects clearly cannot see nearby objects clearly

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Spectrum: Beam of colours : violet, indigo, blue,

The teacher can discuss the correct
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green, yellow, orange and red

answers, so the students know the
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correct answers. 237

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Help students to make a kaleidoscope. Discuss how this produces beautiful patterns of colours. Ask students to predict the
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pattern on the basis of their observations.

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21st Century Skills
21st
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Skills • Analysing
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1. In the given figure, AB is a plane mirror. Anya stands • Observing
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at P just on the side of a plane mirror as shown in the
figure. Can she see herself in the mirror? Also, can she • Exploring
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see the image of objects situated at Q, R and S?
A B
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D. SKILL CRAFT ANALYSIS & CREATING 1 2 - Life Skills
21st
1. Project Work rs
Century Creativity
Skills
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Much before cartoons were seen on TV, people used an optical • Self-awareness
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toy called thaumatrope. It is a disk with a picture on each side
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and two strings. When the strings are twisted quickly, the images • Problem-solving
appear to blend, an illusion created due to the persistence of
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vision. Make your own thaumatrope. Cut out a white cardboard
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circle. On one side, draw something on the left. On the other side, Puzzle Over 7E Engage
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draw something upside down on the right. Punch two holes in the sides of the circle, and thread
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string through either side. When you twist them, they spin, blending the images together. Have fun!
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21st
2. Connect to Life Century Global awareness
Skills
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• Ravindra Jain is an Indian music director who was born visually impaired. He joined the Indian Ask students to recall the laws of
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music industry, becoming one of the most notable music directors of the 1970s. reflection of light and apply it to arrive
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• Shekar Naik is an Indian blind cricketer, the former captain of India national blind cricket at the correct answer.
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team which won the first T20 World Cup Cricket Championship for blind in 2012. He has
32 centuries to his name.
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• Erik Weihenmayer is the first blind person to reach the summit of Mount Everest, Project Work 7E Extend, Engage
on May 25, 2001.
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Read more about such successful visually challenged people.

Creativity
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Talk to the class about what a
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thaumatrope is.
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explain the laws of reflection using a ray diagram and use a simple experiment to validate it.
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explain briefly the differences between regular and diffused reflection. Then divide the class into groups and
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list the characteristics of images formed by a plane mirror.

help them make thaumatropes.
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draw the internal structure of the human eye and briefly describe its parts.
list at least five ways to take care of our eyes. Then they can play with it in class.
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vis
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Super
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or k

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1. To study and verify the laws of reflection. 2. To demonstrate dispersion using a prism.
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Connect to Life 7E Extend

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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Global awareness, Civic literacy, Environmental literacy
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Talk about visually challenged people in the world. Ask the students to research on more celebrities, living or dead, who
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have or had visual impairment in their lives.

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Discuss them in the next class.

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Teacher’s Support
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SUPERVISED LAB WORK
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1. Aim: To study and verify the laws of reflection.
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Materials required: A small mirror, a white chart paper, a small cardboard box, a torch, pencil, ruler and
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a protractor.
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What to do:
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1. Place the white chart paper on the table and stand the mirror on one edge of the paper.
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2. Cut a small vertical slit on the box such that when light is shone through it, it will leave the box as a
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thin beam.
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3. You will be able to see the incident ray and reflected ray quite clearly. Mark on the chart paper, the
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‘normal’, perpendicular to the surface of the mirror. Have a student draw over the beams of light to
mark the incident ray and the reflected ray.
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4. Using a protractor, have another student note the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection.
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5. Change the direction of the beam by moving the box. Note the angle of incidence and angle of
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reflection each time. Try this out with at least three different directions, including one straight on the
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normal.
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Observation: The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. In the case where the beam of
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light is on the normal, the reflected ray also lies on it.

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Conclusion: This verifies the law of reflection that states that the angle of incidence is equal to the
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angle of reflection. This also shows that the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal at the point of
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incidence lie on the same plane.

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2. Aim: To demonstrate dispersion using a prism.

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Materials required: A glass prism, a white cardboard screen or a white wall, a torchlight with black
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paper tapped on it, after cutting a small slit for light to pass through.
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What to do:
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1. Take a glass prism and place it on a table in a darkened room.

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2. Place a white cardboard screen at some distance from the prism or move the table close to a
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white wall.
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3. Shine the torchlight such that a fine beam of light falls on one face of the pyramid. Have the students
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record the observation.

Observation: The beam of white light splits on entering the glass prism and forms a broad patch of
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seven colours on the white screen placed on the other side of the prism or on the wall.
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Conclusion: The formation of the spectrum (the band of seven colours) shows that white light is
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made up of seven colours. The seven colours of the spectrum of white light are: Violet, Indigo, Blue,
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Green, Yellow, Orange and Red. The splitting up of white light into seven colours on passing through a
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transparent medium like a glass prism is called dispersion of light.

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Worksheet 1
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(a) Objects that give out light. …………...…………...
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(b) Ray that bounces off after hitting the plane mirror. …………...…………...
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(c) Reflection that does not give sharp images. …………...…………...
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(d) An image that appears to be behind the mirror. …………...…………...
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(e) The principle on which a kaleidoscope works. …………...…………...
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(f) Name given to the range of colours that we can see. …………...…………...
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(g) The white part of the eye. As …………...…………...

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(h) The spot where the optic nerve enters the eye. …………...…………...
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(a) An imaginary line drawn perpendicular to the surface of a plane mirror. i. Mirror
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(b) A surface that produces regular reflection. ii. Solar Cooker

(c) Submarines use it. iii. Iris
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(d) It reflects the bulk of the sunlight that falls on it. iv. Blindness
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(e) The coloured part of the eye that regulates the amount of light entering the eye. v. Normal
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(f) They detect dim light. vi. Concave lens

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(g) They are used to correct myopia. vii. Rods

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(h) Complete vision loss viii. Periscope

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3. Answer the following questions:

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(a) State the laws of reflection.

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(b) In the image given below, which point depicts the image formed? Would its position change if the eye moves further away?
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(c) Given that the angle between two mirrors is 60°. How many images will they form of the same object?
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(d) How does a kaleidoscope work?

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(e) Mr. Dhawan was standing at a traffic light and did not realise that the light had turned green until people started honking behind
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him. Was there a problem with his vision? Can it be cured?

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(f) ‘Eating carrots is good for the eyes.’ Why?

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(g) What causes visual impairment?

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4. Project Work
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(Skills instilled: Technology literacy, lnformation literacy, Thought provoking, Multiple intelligence)
Students will research the uses of plane mirrors. They will make a chart which includes ray diagrams regarding various uses of mirrors.
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Worksheet 2
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1. Write true or false.rs
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(a) Moon is a luminous object.
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(b) Laws of reflection hold for convex mirrors.
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(c) When all the colours of light are reflected, the object looks black.
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(d) Eyelashes act as ‘shutters’ in the eye.
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(e) Optic nerve is the largest sensory nerve of the eye.
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(f) Farsighted people see nearby objects better than distant objects.
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(g) Cornea is the clear outer part located at the front of the eyeball.
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(h) 400 nm to 700 nm is the range of visible light.

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(a) A ..................... of light is a narrow beam of light that travels in a straight line.
(b) ..................... reflection allows us to see a sharp image of the object as a reflection.
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(c) In a plane mirror, when the left of the object appears to be the right of the image and vice versa it is called ..................... inversion.
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(d) A kaleidoscope works on the principle of ..................... reflections.

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(e) When white light shines on a leaf, only green light is ..................... .
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(f) ..................... light contains all of the colours of visible light.

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(g) ..................... is the opening at the centre of the iris that allows light to enter the eye.
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(h) This splitting of light into its constituent colours is known as ..................... of light.
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(a) A ray of light hits a plane mirror at an angle of 90°. What will happen to this ray after reflection?
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(b) Why is a periscope used in a submarine?

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(c) What is the principle on which cartoon pictures were developed?

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(d) Why are eyeglasses with convex lenses used for correcting farsightedness?
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(e) Who uses the Braille system and why?

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(f) Pooja was facing difficulty in reading as her eyes felt dry and irritated. What solution would you suggest to her?
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(g) How does the shape of the eye lens change when viewing distant and near objects?
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(Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Creativity)

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Ask the students to make a kaleidoscope using bangles, small rectangular mirrors and a cardboard roll. They can then display their
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work in class.
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17
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STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
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21st Century Skills
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• Observing
17 STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
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• Analysing
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• Exploring
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Life Skills
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CHAPTER PREVIEW As
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• Celestial objects • Critical thinking

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• Constellations • Communication
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• Solar system
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• Satellites
Warm-up 7E Explore, Engage
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thinking
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Wha
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Ask students to list and name the

you will learn
things they can see up in the sky.
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• Learn about celestial objects Talk about objects present in the
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• Learn about types of

constellations
sky which we cannot see or see on
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• Learn about the solar system some rare occasions.

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• Know about satellites

• Understand the phases of
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the moon
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Why
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Our Earth is a life-sustaining planet,

WARM-UP 7E Engage
and it is a part of solar system. The
Moon is our nearest neighbour in If we look at the night sky on a clear night, we will find it
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space, and it affects the Earth in teeming with numerous twinkling stars. On a full moon
many ways. night, we can see the big and bright Moon too. Sometimes
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It is important to learn about various we can also see a shooting star.

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objects found in space to better Do you know the names of all these objects that we see in
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understand the planet we live on. the sky?

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Ask students about the planet known to have life on it. What do they know about that planet and other heavenly bodies
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that are there up in the sky?

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Tell them the importance of this chapter.

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21st Century Skills
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• Observing What are celestial objects?
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• Analysing A clear night sky has numerous twinkling stars, the luminous moon and several planets. The
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moon is the brightest object in the night sky. Objects such as stars, the planets, the Moon and
other objects found in space are together called celestial objects. The study of celestial objects
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Life Skills and the associated phenomena is called astronomy. This includes the study of objects we can
see with our naked eyes such as the Sun, the Moon and stars as well as objects that we can see
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• Critical thinking only through advanced telescopes and other instruments. The people who study astronomy are
• rs
Thought provoking called astronomers. With advancement in technology, highly evolved instruments and devices
have been developed that help astronomers learn more and more about space and the celestial
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objects found in space. Let us learn about some of these celestial objects.
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Concept Building
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What are stars?

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7E Explore, Explain
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A celestial body which emits heat and light of its own is called a star. A star is an extremely
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hot, dense mass of gases. As these gases burn, a star gives off visible light. So, stars are
Skills instilled: Critical thinking, luminous bodies, that is, objects that give out light. Light given off by stars allows other
Analysing
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objects in space to be seen. Look It Up!

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What are celestial objects? As It is observed that stars appear to move from east to west. This is due Search online for
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to the Earth’s rotation. However, there is one star that appears almost answers and discuss
Ask students to look at the list of in class.
stationary to us from the Earth. This is the Pole Star (also called
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objects they made in the Warm-up Dhruv tara or Polaris), named so because it is in the direction of the Just like we can
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observe a North Star,

activity. Explain the meaning of North Pole. It is also called the North Star. The Pole Star is situated
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why do we not observe

celestial objects by referring to the list in line with the Earth’s axis of rotation in the Northern Hemisphere. a South Star?
Since it is in line with the Earth’s rotational axis, so, from the Earth,
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as examples. Discuss the meaning of

it appears as if the star is not moving.
astronomy and astronomers. Ask them
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to find about the various instruments Test It Yourself! 7E Explore, Explain

Pole star
that astronomers use to study space
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At home or in class, stand right under a stationary ceiling fan. Look up at the North
central disc of the fan on which the blades are attached. Have a person switch 23.5° pole
and celestial bodies.
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Sun’s rays
on the fan at medium speed. As you continue to look at the central disc, you
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will find that it rotates, but its position is stationary compared to the blades
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which change their position as they rotate. This is because the axis of rotation
Concept Building 7E Elicit, Explain
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of the fan is its central disc. Similarly, since the Pole Star is in line with the
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Earth’s axis of rotation, it appears stationary when viewed from the Earth.
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What are stars?

Sun: At night we can see many stars in the sky. But during the day, only one star is visible, and
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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Analysing that star is the Sun. Most of the energy that reaches our planet, including light and heat, comes
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from the Sun. The Sun appears white to the human eye—it only looks yellow or orange when
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Ask students what they know about its rays are being scattered by the Earth’s atmosphere during sunrise and sunset. Our Sun is a
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stars. Help them name some stars. dynamic, active and constantly changing star. It was formed about 4.5 billion years ago and is
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Ask the name of the star that appears believed that it will shine for another 4.5 billion years. The Sun is the closest star to the Earth,
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stationary to us. about 150 million kilometres from the Earth. Most other stars that we see in the night sky are
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much bigger than the Sun. They look like tiny specks in the sky because they are at a very great
Sun distance from us.
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Divide the class into three groups. Let

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one group talk about the appearance Look It Up! 7E Explore, Engage
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of the Sun. Let the second group talk

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about features and the third group talk

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about the formation of the Sun. Ask students to search about the existence of the South Star and discuss their
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findings in the class. Discuss the answer with the students that there is no
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Test It Yourself! 7E Explore south star.

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Perform the activity in the class by

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switching on the fan and ask the

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students to record their observation.

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Explain the concept of the axis of

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rotation and why the Pole Star appears

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stationary to us.
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Distances in space: Celestial objects are several
Real-life Connect! 7E Extend • Observing
thousands of kilometres away from the Earth.
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As the North Star always appears in the • Analysing
Therefore, we cannot measure distances in
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same place in the sky, it has served as a
space in kilometres. Astronomers often measure navigational tool for centuries. If one is facing
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distances in space in light years. A light year is the the North Star, one is facing North! The
distance travelled by light in one year. Light travels North Star is also known as the Steering Life Skills
Star, the Lodestar and the Ship Star.
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at a speed of 300,000 km per second. With this
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speed, light travels a distance of 9.5 × 10 km
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in one year, that is, 9.5 trillion km in a year. This distance is called one light year distance. • Thought provoking
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The speed of light seems really fast, but the stars in space are so far away that it takes a lot of
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time for their light to reach us. The Sun’s light takes about 8.3 minutes to reach us, and so, it
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is sometimes also said that the Sun is 8.3 light-minutes away from the Earth. The next closest
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star to us, the Proxima Centuari, also known as Alpha Centauri C, is about 4.3 light years away.
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Other stars that we can see with our eyes are farther, some even thousands of light years away.
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That is why they appear as tiny specks of light. Unlike the Sun, the rest of the stars are so far
Analysing
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away that they can only be studied by analysing the light they emit to know about the star’s
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temperature, the chemical elements the star contains, etc.

Distances in space
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Section Review 1
As 7E Evaluate Ask students the following questions:
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• Why do stars appear like twinkling

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To list commonly seen objects in the sky.
specks to us?
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1. Sarthak lists out stars, planets and the Moon as few objects he could see in the night sky. What
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are these objects collectively known as?

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• Can we measure the distance

(a) Astral bodies (b) Celestial bodies (c) Comets (d) Asteroids
between these celestial bodies and
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2. Help Sarthak describe what celestial objects are. Tick the correct option.
(a) Natural objects that are found in space
the Earth in km?
• Which is the closest star to the
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(b) Artificial objects that are sent far into space

(c) Artificial objects that revolve around the Earth earth? Explain the concept of
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(d) Natural objects that revolve around the Earth light year.
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What are constellations?

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What are constellations?
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Long ago, people saw shapes in the patterns of stars in the Ask students if they have ever observed
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Our next closest star

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night sky. They named these star patterns after characters Proxima Centauri patterns formed by stars. Talk about
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in myths, or stories, or after the animals they resembled. is located in the

constellations and asterism. Show
Such groups of stars forming recognisable patterns in the sky are constellation of Centaurus,
pictures of constellations.
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the Centaur.
called constellations. From the Earth, a constellation, therefore,
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looks like spots of light arranged in a particular shape against

the night sky. Although the cluster of stars in a constellation might look very close to each
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Real-life Connect!
other from the Earth, they are actually separated by considerable distances, and there are
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numerous stars between them which are too faint or too distant to be seen. Not all the stars
7E Explore, Extend
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of a constellation are visible. The visible stars make a pattern called asterism which is used to
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identify a constellation. There are 88 known constellations. Let us look at four constellations:
Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, Orion and Cassiopeia. Thought provoking
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Discuss the importance of the
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North Star.
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Do You Know? 7E Explore,Extend

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Talk about the next closest star to the Earth after the Sun. Show a picture of Analysing
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the constellation in which it is located.

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21st Century Skills
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• Observing Ursa Major: Ursa Major is one of the well-known and easy to locate
constellations in the Northern Hemisphere. Ursa Major means Big
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• Analysing
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Bear in Latin. The group of seven stars on the ‘lower back’ and ‘tail’
form the Big Dipper or the Plough, which makes up roughly half of
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the Ursa Major constellation. The ladle-shaped group of stars is one North Star
Life Skills of the most visible and easily distinguishable asterism in the sky.
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The two stars at the front of the Big Dipper point to the star Polaris
rs or the North Star as shown in Fig. 17.1.
• Thought provoking Fig. 17.1 Ursa Major and
Ursa Minor: Ursa Minor means Small Bear in Latin. This Ursa Minor
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constellation is located near Ursa Major in the Northern Hemisphere
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and is most recognisable by the Little Dipper, a group of stars that look
Concept Building
like a miniature version of the ladle-shaped Big Dipper. Another famous
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7E Explain, Elicit feature of this constellation is Polaris, known as the North Star which is
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located at the end of the Little Dipper’s handle as shown in Fig. 17.1.
Orion: The constellation Orion, also known as the Great Hunter,
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Analysing
is also a highly visible and easily recognisable pattern in the night
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Constellation As sky. It is visible from all parts of the world. Orion is recognisable Fig. 17.2 Orion
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by three bright stars which form a belt-like pattern, known as

Ask students to look at the pictures of
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Orion’s Belt.
the constellations on page 244.
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Cassiopeia: Cassiopeia is a constellation located in the upper portion

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Talk about some recognisable features of the Northern Hemisphere and was one of the first constellations
discovered by Greek astronomers in the second century. Cassiopeia
of these constellations and their relative
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forms a W shape and is composed of five very bright stars, making it

alignment in the night sky. Ask them to easy to find and view in the night sky.
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try and spot these in the night sky. Fig. 17.3 Cassiopeia
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Little Dipper (Ursa Minor)
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Sirius is the brightest star in the sky. It is

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Greater Dog. Sirius is sometimes called

the Dog Star. It is relatively close to the Polaris (North Star)
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Earth (8.6 light years). If this star was

placed next to Earth’s sun, Sirius would
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Big Dipper
outshine it more than 20 times over! (Ursa Major) Cassiopeia
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ANM
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Search online for answers and discuss

in class. Fig. 17.4 The relative
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Find out the names of two famous paintings constellations in the

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Ask students to find out facts about Sirius.

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Look It Up! 7E Explore, Elicit

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Skills instilled: Critical Thinking, Analysing

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Ask students to find about two famous paintings that refer to stars and
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constellations. Answer: The starry night and landscapes with clerks.

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Section Review 2 7E Evaluate • Observing
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To categorise the name of commonly known group of stars in order to explain that • Analysing
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constellations are a group of stars with a recognisable shape.
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Sarthak’s teacher drew the following images on the blackboard. Help Sarthak
identify these constellations. Tick the correct option. Life Skills
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(a) A is Ursa Major; B is Orion (b) A is Orion; B is Ursa Minor
(c) A is Cassiopeia; B is Ursa Major (d) A is Orion; B is Cassiopeia
A. B. • Critical thinking
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IVID
What is a solar system?
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The Sun and the celestial bodies that revolve around the Sun form the solar system.
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This includes planets and their satellites, dwarf planets, comets, asteroids and other similar Skills instilled: Critical thinking,
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space objects. Our solar system formed about 4.6 billion years ago. The Sun is at the centre Analysing
of our solar system and is the most massive object in our solar system. The Sun has enough
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mass that its gravitational pull holds the planets and other objects in the solar system (Fig. 17.5). This section helps in evaluating if
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Our solar system consists of eight planets. The four planets closest to the Sun—Mercury, Venus,
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Earth and Mars—are called the terrestrial planets because they have solid, rocky surfaces. These
are also called inner planets. The other four planets are called outer planets. Two of the outer exercise on their own in class. Then,
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planets beyond the orbit of Mars—Jupiter and Saturn—are known as gas giants; the more distant discuss the answers so that students
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Uranus and Neptune are called ice giants. Pluto and Ceres are called dwarf planets. can verify their responses. If students
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Jupiter
Venus
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Mars Neptune
Analysing
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Sun
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Mercury
Saturn
What is a solar system?
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Asteroid belt
Ask students to refer to the list of
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Earth celestial bodies they made in the

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Uranus
Warm-up activity. Tell students that, in
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simple words, our solar system means

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Fig. 17.5 Solar system

the Sun and its family where Sun is
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What are planets?

the head of the family. All the celestial
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Planets are celestial bodies which revolve around the Sun. They do not produce their
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bodies in the list are a part of the solar

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own light but reflect the light of the Sun that falls on them. Therefore, unlike stars, planets
do not twinkle. A planet revolves around the Sun in a definite path called its orbit.
system which include the planets and
their satellites, comets, asteroids and
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dwarf planets. Ask students to name
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the planets and dwarf planets.

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What are planets?

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Define the term ‘planet’ and explain its features. Ask students to observe the picture of planets of the solar system in the
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book and note their order from the Sun.

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Share a simple trick with students on how to remember the name of the eight planets in order from the Sun. Make
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them memorise the following line: My very efficient mother just served us nuts. In this line, the first letter of each word
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corresponds to the name of the planets in sequence.

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Explain the movements of planets—rotation and revolution—and axis. Discuss the concept of period of rotation and
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revolution. Give examples of satellites and planets.

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• Observing Since all planets move in their separate orbits,
they do not collide with one another while Do You Know? 7E Extend
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• Analysing Distances between planets are enormous.
revolving around the Sun. Besides revolving
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A unit used to measure these distances is
around the Sun, a planet also rotates on its own the astronomical unit. The abbreviation for
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axis. The time taken by a planet to complete one astronomical unit is AU. An astronomical
Life Skills rotation is called its period of rotation. unit equals 150 million km, which is the
average distance from the Earth to the Sun.
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• Critical thinking Some planets have their own satellites or moons
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Thought provoking that revolve around them. A celestial body revolving around another celestial body is called its
satellite. Moon is the Earth’s satellite, as the Moon revolves around the Earth. Satellites are also
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referred to as moons. We will learn about Earth’s Moon later in this lesson.
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Let us now take a look at the celestial objects in our solar system, starting with the planets.
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Travelling away from the Sun, the first group of planets we would meet are the inner planets—
Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
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Analysing
What are the inner planets?
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Ask students what they understand

Mercury (Budh): Mercury is the planet closest to the Sun and the smallest planet. As
by the term astronomical unit (AU).
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Ask them to find out which is bigger,

As Mercury is so close to the Sun, it is hard to directly observe it from the Earth. However, it
can be seen as a bright spot of light in the sky before sunrise and just after sunset. It has a
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lot of craters on its surface. Craters form when meteorites strike a planet’s surface.
astronomical unit or light year.
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Mercury has no true atmosphere. Its small size and low gravity allow gases to escape
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into space and so it has no atmosphere. It is so close to the Sun that Mercury has
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extreme temperatures. The surface can reach temperatures as high as 425 °C during
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Fig. 17.6 Mercury

the day and fall to −180 °C at night. Mercury has no moon.
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Venus (Shukra): Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is sometimes called the
Earth’s twin. Its size and mass are similar to Earth’s. It is the brightest planet in the sky
and is mostly seen just before sunrise or just after sunset. Although it is not a star, it is
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also called the morning star or the evening star. The surface of Venus is surrounded
by thick clouds. The clouds trap solar energy, causing surface temperatures to average
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around 472 °C. So, though it is further away from the Sun than Mercury, it is the
hottest planet of the solar system. Like Mercury, Venus too has no moon. Fig. 17.7 Venus
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Earth (Prithvi ): The Earth is the third planet of our solar system and we live on it.
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This is the only known planet which has ideal conditions for life. The Earth has an
atmosphere that allows life to exist on its surface. As far as scientists know, the Earth
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is the only planet that supports life. Earth’s surface temperatures allow water to exist
as a solid, a liquid and a gas. Also, ozone in the Earth’s atmosphere works like a screen
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to limit the harmful rays from the Sun reaching the Earth’s surface. From space, the
Earth appears bluish-green, due to the reflection of light from water and landmass on
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its surface. The Earth takes 365.25 days to complete one orbit around the Sun, which
is one Earth year. It takes 24 hours to rotate about its own axis. The occurrence of Fig. 17.8 Earth
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different seasons is a result of Earth’s axis of rotation being tilted 23.45 degrees with
respect to the plane of Earth’s orbit around the Sun. It has one natural satellite, the Moon.
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Mars (Mangal ): Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun. It is the second smallest planet in
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our solar system, about half the size of the Earth. It is sometimes called the red planet. The
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red colour of Mars is caused by iron oxide in the soil. Mars is also referred to as the cold
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planet and has a very thin atmosphere. Polar ice caps on Mars seem to be made of frozen
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water and frozen carbon dioxide. Like the Earth, Mars experiences seasons due to the tilt of
its rotational axis. Mars has two moons.
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246 Fig. 17.9 Mars

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Concept Building 7E Elicit, Explain

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What are inner planets?

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Draw the following diagram on the board to

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help students identify the inner planets and

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the gas giants. The diagram is rough and not

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to scale.
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Use the information given in the book to

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Inner planets or
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discuss the features of each planet. Terrestrial planets

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Outer planets or Gas giants

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Asteroid
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Several spacecrafts have made missions Look It Up! 7E Elicit
• Observing
to Mars, and from these missions
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Search online for answers and discuss in class.
scientists have learned that there might • Analysing
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1. What is the Mangalyaan?
once have been flowing water on Mars.
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2. The names of most planets come from Roman
Moving further away from Mars, we and Greek mythology. Find out how the planets of Life Skills
come across the asteroid belt. our solar system got their names.
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What is the asteroid belt?
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The asteroid belt separates the solar system’s planets into two groups—the inner planets and
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the outer planets. It is an area between Mars and Jupiter in which many asteroids travel around
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the Sun. Asteroids, sometimes called minor planets, are believed to be rocky remnants left
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over from the early formation of the solar system. They are pieces of rocks made of minerals
Concept Building
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7E Explain, Elicit
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similar to those that formed the rocky planets and moons. The asteroid belt might also be part
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of larger objects that collided in space.
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Most asteroids are irregularly shaped. In fact, these asteroids might have become a planet if it
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Analysing
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weren’t for the giant planet, Jupiter. Jupiter’s huge gravitational force might have prevented a
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small planet from forming in the area of the asteroid belt. The first and the largest asteroid to
What is the asteroid belt?
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be discovered in our solar system is Ceres, which is now classified as a dwarf planet.
Explain what asteroids are. Show the
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What are meteors, meteorites and comets?
diagram of inner planets and outer
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Meteors or ‘shooting stars’ are bits of interplanetary material falling through the Earth’s
planets again to the students and
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atmosphere and heated by friction as they streak across the sky. Sometimes, the numbers of
meteors are very large and are termed as meteor showers. Meteor showers are usually named explain the asteroid belt to students.
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after a star or a constellation that is close to where the meteors appear in the sky.
What are meteors, meteorites
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Chunks of rock and metal from asteroids and other

planetary bodies that survive their journey through and comets?
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the atmosphere and fall to the ground are called

Ask students if they have heard
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meteorites. One of the most intact impact

about the belief of making a wish
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craters is the Barringer Meteorite Crater (Fig.
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after seeing a shooting star. If given

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a chance, what wish would they like
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A comet is a large body of ice and rock that

to make? Explain what meteors and
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revolves around the Sun. Each comet has a tiny

frozen part, called a nucleus, containing icy chunks—
meteor showers are. Ask students
to search the internet to find out
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frozen gases with bits of embedded dust. A comet warms

Fig. 17.10 Barringer meteorite crater about incidents where asteroids have
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up as it nears the Sun and causes the comet’s ice to change to

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gases. Solar winds blow gas and dust away from the comet. struck any planet. Show the picture
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Integrated
From the Earth, this large amount of gas and dust appears
Language Check
Pedagogy English of Haley’s Comet and explain the
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as a luminous long tail. A comet thus appears as a bright structure of comets to students.
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Find out the meaning of the word

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head with a long tail. The length of the tail grows in size
‘meteoric’ in the English language.
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as it approaches the Sun. This tail is always directed away

from the Sun. Look It Up! 7E Engage, Explore
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Technology literacy
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7E Explore Ask students to look for these answers

Language Check
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on the internet and discuss them in

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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Analysing the class.

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Ask students to search the word ‘meteoric’ in their dictionary and use the Mangalyaan is the artificial satellite
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word in a sentence of their own. sent by India known as MOM (Mars

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Mercury was named after the Roman

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god of travel. Venus was named after

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Mars was the Roman god of War.

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Jupiter was the king of the Roman

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gods, and Saturn was the Roman god

of agriculture.
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• Observing What are dwarf planets?
In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) officially set the following definition to
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• Analysing
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classify any celestial object as a planet. A planet is a celestial object that meets all three of these
criteria:
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Life Skills 1. The celestial object is in orbit around the Sun.
2. The celestial object has a nearly spherical shape.
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3. The celestial object has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit of smaller objects.
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Thought provoking The IAU, therefore, defines a dwarf planet as a celestial body in direct orbit of the Sun that is
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massive enough for its shape to be controlled by gravitation (i.e., is nearly spherical), but that
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unlike a planet has not cleared its orbital region of other objects.
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Concept Building (page 248)
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7E Explain, Elicit Pluto (Fig 17.16) is so small that its gravity is not strong enough to clear
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smaller objects from its orbit. Therefore, since 2006, astronomers have
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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, considered Pluto a dwarf planet and not a regular planet. Astronomers
Thought provoking have located several other dwarf planets in the solar system, including
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Ceres and Eris. There may be several more dwarf planets awaiting to
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What are outer planets? As be discovered!

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Fig. 17.16 Pluto

Ask students to refer to the diagram INT
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of the inner planets and outer planets.

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Explain that the planets beyond the

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To outline and illustrate the planets of the solar system in order to correctly identify
asteroid belt are known as outer them.
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planets or gas giants. Explain the 1. Fill in the blanks.

distinctive features of all outer planets. (a) The Outer planets are: , , , .
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(b) The Inner planets are: , , , .

Divide the class into three groups and
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(c) The two planets that do not have any moon are: , .
conduct a small quiz in the class. Name (d) The asteroid belt is located between the orbits of these planets: , .
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one feature of each planet and let the (e) The least dense planet in our solar system is .
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students guess the name of the planet.
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To identify the names of different celestial bodies in the solar system in order to explain the
constituting bodies of a solar system.
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For example, Ganymede is the moon

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2. Which characteristics make asteroids a part of the solar system?

of which planet? Titan is the moon of
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(a) Its revolution around the Sun (b) Its rotation on its own axis
which planet? (c) Its distance from the Sun (d) Its huge size
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To differentiate between asteroids, comets and meteors in order to identify the celestial body.
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3. Which of these is a characteristic of a comet and a meteor? Tick the correct options.
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Concept Building
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(a) Small-sized objects that revolves around the Sun

7E Explain, Engage (b) Bright shiny object in the day sky
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(c) Bright head with a long tail in the sky

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(d) Bright streaks across the sky

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What are dwarf planets? 249

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Discuss the answers to the following

questions with students:
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• How do we classify a celestial body

Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Thought provoking, Problem-solving
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as a planet?
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• What are dwarf planets? This section helps in evaluating if students have understood the concepts
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• Which of the above criteria do taught so far. Let students complete the exercise on their own in class. Then,
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dwarf planets not satisfy? Give discuss the answers so that students can verify their responses. If students
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have doubts, revisit the respective section to clarify concepts.

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examples of dwarf planets.

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What are satellites? Integrated
Pedagogy
English
• Observing
Language Check
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A celestial body revolving around another celestial body • Analysing
Find out the meaning of the word
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is called the latter’s satellite. The celestial body around ‘satellite’ in the English language.
which a satellite revolves is generally a much larger body
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than its satellite. So, we can also say that the Earth is a satellite of the Sun, as it is a smaller Life Skills
celestial body that revolves around the larger celestial body, the Sun. Satellites are of two
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types—natural satellites and artificial satellites. • Critical thinking
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What is a natural satellite? • Thought Provoking
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A natural satellite is an object that orbits a body larger than itself and
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which is not human-made. Such objects are often called moons. In fact,
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Concept Building
any large object that orbits around a planet is called a moon (with a small
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7E Explain, Elicit
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‘m’). The Earth has one moon called the Moon (with a capital ‘M’).
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Moon (Earth’s natural satellite): The Moon is a rocky body that orbits Skills instilled: Critical thinking,
the planet Earth. It is believed that the Moon was formed when a very
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Problem-solving
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large asteroid struck Earth 4.5 billion years ago. The debris from the
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impact clumped together to form our natural satellite, the Moon. This Fig. 17.17 Moon
What are satellites?
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shared formation explains why the Earth and the Moon are made up of
many of the same elements. Most satellites are small compared to the planet they orbit, but Earth’s Explain what satellites are and
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Moon is large in comparison. It is about one-fourth the size of the Earth. differentiate between planets and
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satellites. Draw the following diagram

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The Moon’s surface has many depressions called craters. As the Moon Moon
does not have much of an atmosphere, or any liquid water or vegetation, A on the board.
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so lunar craters do not erode and their appearance does not change. This Earth
B
means that by studying it, scientists can learn more about the history of Satellite
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the Moon. It has mountainous regions, too. The mountainous areas of

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the Moon are called lunar highlands. The Moon also has dark and flat
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regions called maria. C

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The Moon rotates as well as revolves, just like the Earth. It takes the Natural satellite Artificial satellite
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Fig. 17.18 Side of the Moon
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Moon 27.3 days to rotate once on its axis. This is the same amount during its revolution around
the Earth due to its rotation
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of time it takes the Moon to revolve once around the Earth. Because
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these two motions take the same amount of time, the same side of the What is a natural satellite?
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Moon always faces the Earth. So, even though the Moon rotates on its axis, the same side is
Explain the meaning of natural
always visible from the Earth. The side of the Moon that faces the Earth is called the near side.
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The side of the Moon that faces away from the Earth is called the far side.
satellites. Ask students what they know
about the Earth’s natural satellite—the
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The Moon does not have its own source of light. The surface of the Moon reflects the light Moon. Discuss the formation of the
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of the Sun. Just as half of the Earth experiences day and the other half experiences night, half
Moon, craters, lunar highlands and
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of the Moon is lighted while the other half is dark. As the Moon revolves around the Earth,
maria. Explain the revolution of the
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different portions of its lighted side can be seen from the Earth. This is why, from the Earth,
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the Moon appears to change its form or shape, also known as phases of the Moon. Moon around the Earth and the near
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side and far side of the Moon. Ask

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250 students to compare the time taken for

completing one revolution by Earth
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around the Sun and revolution by the

Moon around the Earth.
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Language Check 7E Engage

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Skills instilled: Critical thinking Phases of the Moon

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Ask students to look up the word satellite in their dictionary and discuss its Ask students about the phases of the
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meanings in class. Moon. Talk about the terms ‘amavasya’

and ‘purnima’. Explain the concept of
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phases of the Moon and discuss the

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Do You Know? 7E Elicit various phases.

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Show a globe to students and ask them to spot their continent and country.
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Ask them about the hemisphere where their country lies. Explain the phases
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of the Moon in that hemisphere.

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• Observing What are artificial satellites?
An artificial satellite is a human-made body
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• Analysing
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placed in orbit round the Earth or another planet
in order to collect information about it or for
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communication purposes. The first artificial
Life Skills satellite was Sputnik, a Russian space probe that
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• Critical thinking lifted off on October 4, 1957. Today, thousands
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• Thought provoking many uses. Communication satellites transmit
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radio and television programs to locations around
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the world. Other satellites collect scientific data.
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Concept Building
Weather satellites constantly monitor the Earth’s
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7E Explain, Elicit global weather patterns. Satellites are used in
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navigation including the Global Positioning
Skills instilled: Critical thinking System (GPS). The location search we use on
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our mobile phones is made possible due to the

What are artificial satellites? Fig. 17.20 Artificial satellite
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artificial satellites that are moving above the Earth.

Ask students if they have seen any
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India has built and launched several artificial satellites. Indian Space Research Organisation
movie about artificial satellites. (ISRO), is responsible for designing, building, launching and operating these satellites. The first
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What did they like about that movie? artificial satellite launched by India was Aryabhata on April 19, 1975. Some Indian satellites are:
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Discuss which country was the first • APPLE: First experimental communication satellite
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to send its satellites to space. Explain • INSAT-1A: First operational multipurpose communication and meteorology satellite
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what artificial satellites are and give a • IRS-1A: India’s first operational remote sensing satellite
few examples. • Kalpana-1: First meteorological satellite built by ISRO
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• CartoSat-1: Earth observation satellite

Discuss the purpose of launching
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satellites into space.

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To explain the cause of different phases of the Moon.

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Section Review 4 7E Evaluate 1. Sarthak observed the different phases of the Moon. What causes the shape of the Moon
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to change?
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(a) Rotation of the Earth on its own axis (b) Rotation of the Moon on its own axis
Thought provoking (c) Revolution of the Moon around the Sun (d) Revolution of the Moon around the Earth
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To describe artificial satellites in order to correctly classify them as human-made

This section helps in evaluating if celestial bodies.
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students have understood the concepts 2. Sarthak read that Aryabhata was the first human-made satellite launched by India. It was used
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taught so far. Let students complete the for tracking and transmitting signals while orbiting round the Earth. What type of celestial body
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is Aryabhata?
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(a) Artificial, as it was the first satellite (b) Natural, as it was sent into the space
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(c) Natural, as it revolves around the Earth (d) Artificial, as it was a human-made satellite
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Experiential Learning (page 253) 7E Engage, Elaborate

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Skills instilled: Thought provoking, Creativity

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Encourage students to prepare an interesting story about the imaginary space journey across the solar system and beyond. Tell
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them some rules that should be followed while writing a story such as draw the pictures of planets with pencils or oil colours.
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&
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• Observing
(a) Describe how the Earth is different from the other planets of the solar system.
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• Analysing
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(b) Explain with a diagram why only one face of the Moon is visible from the Earth.
(c) Describe in a sentence each the eight phases of the Moon as viewed from the Earth.
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Scientific
Life Skills
C. PUZZLE OVER Proficiency Adaptive reasoning PROBLEM-SOLVING - 1 2
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1. A star is seven light years away from the Earth. Assume that it suddenly brightens up today.
When do you think will this change be visible to us on the Earth?
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2. If the distance between the Earth and the Sun is doubled, what effect will it have on the life
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on the Earth?
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Puzzle Over 7E Explore, Engage

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21st Skills instilled: Critical thinking,
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Technology literacy
Skills
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Since the launch of Sputnik in 1957, several countries have launched artificial satellites into space. Explain the two questions to the
Find out how many artificial satellites are revolving around the Earth including space debris.
students and ask them to find the
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21st
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Make a presentation on ‘Future impact of space junk’ and discuss in class.
answers. Discuss the questions in
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2. Connect to Life Century Critical thinking

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A very large asteroid impact 65 million years ago, which created the 300-kilometre-wide
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Chicxulub crater on the Yucatán Peninsula, is thought to have contributed to the extinction of
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about 75 percent of marine and land animals on Earth at the time, including the dinosaurs! Can Project Work 7E Explore, Engage
asteroids lead to extinction of living things on the Earth? Support your findings with pictures.
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(Make a PowerPoint presentation or a report.) Skills instilled: Critical thinking,

Technology literacy
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Life
Ask students to get into groups of
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I can: three and search the internet for

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information on various satellites

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define and describe the celestial objects that are a part of our solar system.
orbiting around the Earth. Help them
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define a constellation and write a few sentences about Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, Orion and Cassiopeia.
make a PPT on the topic ‘Future
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describe the phases of the Moon using a diagram.

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differentiate between natural and artificial satellites. impact of space junk’ and present it in
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the class.
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ed L a
vis
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Super
Connect to Life 7E Engage, Extend

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or k

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Thought provoking
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1. To demonstrate that the North Pole appears to be 2. To demonstrate why we can only see one face of the
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stationary from the Earth. Moon from the Earth.

Ask students to make a report on
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the topic ‘Can asteroids lead to the

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255 extinction of living beings on Earth?’

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Ask them to support their findings

with pictures and include instances of
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the impact of asteroids on Earth.

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Teacher’s Support
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SUPERVISED LAB WORK
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1. Aim: To demonstrate that the North Star appears to be stationary from the Earth.
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Materials required: An umbrella, some coloured paper, white paper, glue and scissors.
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What to do:
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1. Cut out 6 to 7 stars using coloured paper and a large star using the white paper.
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2. Stick the coloured stars along the inside edge of the open umbrella and the white star through the
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central rod of the umbrella.
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3. Slowly rotate the umbrella by twisting the central rod. Have students observe the coloured stars as
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well as the white star.
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Observation: All the stars on the inner edge of the umbrella appear to move but the white star does not
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appear to move.
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Conclusion: In this activity, the central rod of the umbrella is like the axis of rotation of Earth and the star
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fixed at its top end is like the North Star. Since the North Star is in line with the Earth’s axis of rotation, it
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appears stationary when viewed from the Earth.
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2. Aim: To demonstrate why we can only see one face of the Moon from the Earth.
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Materials required: A stick or white powder to draw a circle on the ground (if performing outdoors) or
coloured chalk (if performing indoors).
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What to do:
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1. Divide the class into pairs.

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2. Draw a circle of about 1m diameter on the ground, if outdoors, or on the classroom floor, if indoors.
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3. Have one student of a pair stand at the centre of this circle.

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4. Have the other student of the pair stand on the edge of the circle.
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5. Have both the students move such that the student at the edge is always facing the student at the
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centre of the circle.

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6. Have all the pairs perform this activity one-by-one.

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Observation: The student at the edge can always see the face of the student at the centre and never
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can see his/her back.

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Conclusion: The moon revolves around the Earth in a similar manner. This activity is not an exact
simulation as both the students would need to rotate and revolve at the same time! However, this gives
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the students an experience of the movements. Earth orbits the Sun once every 365 days (a year) and
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spins on its axis once every 24 hours (a day). The Moon orbits Earth once every 27.3 days and spins on
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its axis once every 27.3 days. This means that although the Moon is rotating, it always keeps one face
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toward us. This kind of rotation is known as synchronous rotation. This is why we always see the Moon’s
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nearside from the Earth.

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Worksheet 1
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(a) The study of celestial objects and the associated phenomena is called .......................... .
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(b) There is one star that appears almost stationary to us from the Earth which is called .......................... .
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(c) Stars form recognisable patterns in the sky called .......................... .
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(d) The Sun and the celestial bodies that revolve around the Sun form the .......................... .
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(e) The time taken by a planet to complete one rotation is called its .......................... .
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(f) A celestial body revolving around another celestial body is called the latter’s .......................... .
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(g) The mountainous areas of the Moon are called .......................... .
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(h) The side of the Moon that faces away from the Earth is called the .......................... .
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(a) It has no true atmosphere. i. Earth

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(b) It has several broad rings made up of hundreds of smaller rings. ii. Jupiter
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(c) The only planet known to support life. iii. Neptune

(d) Voyager 2 is the only spacecraft to have visited this planet so far. iv. Mercury
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(e) Its appearance is a tapestry of colourful clouds, bands and spots. v. Venus
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(f) It is the eighth planet from the Sun. vi. Saturn

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(g) It is also called Morning Star. vii. Mars

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(h) Red planet viii. Uranus

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(a) What are celestial objects?

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(b) What are stars? Give two examples of stars.

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(c) Identify the constellations and write a short note on each.

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i. ii.
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(d) Name the inner planets and the outer planets of the solar system.
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(e) What are asteroids?

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(f) What are comets?

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(h) What are dwarf planets? Explain with examples.

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(g) What are artificial satellites?

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4. Project Work
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(Skills instilled: Technology literacy, Critical thinking, Innovation)

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Earth is a part of the solar system which is present in the Milky way galaxy. According to research, there are countless other galaxies in
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the universe. Create a PowerPoint presentation about the origin of our universe and presence of more planets in other galaxies. Support
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your answer with the research of various scientists.

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Worksheet 2
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1. Name the following.rs
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(a) People who study astronomy. ..........................
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(b) This constellation means Big Bear in Latin. ..........................
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(c) This constellation is also known as the Great Hunter. ..........................

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(d) This constellation is W shaped and is composed of five very bright stars, making it easy to find and view in the night sky.
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..........................
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(e) This is the brightest star in the sky. ..........................

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(f) This is the brightest planet. ..........................

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(g) This is the second smallest planet in the solar system. ..........................
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(h) It is a large body of ice and rock that revolves around the Sun. ..........................
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(a) Neptune is the last of the big gas planets with rings around it.
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(b) Satellites have light of their own.

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(c) The Pole Star is situated in line with the Earth’s axis of rotation in the Northern Hemisphere.
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(d) The Moon is the closest star to the Earth.

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(e) A light year is the amount of light that travels in a year.

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(f) The visible stars make a pattern called asterism which is used to identify a constellation.
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(g) Sirius is also known as Fish Star.

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(h) Pluto and Ceres are known as dwarf planets.

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(a) What are planets? Name all the planets.

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(b) What is a satellite? Explain the types of satellites.

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(c) What is the asteroid belt?

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(d) What are meteors?

(e) What are the criteria that a celestial object has to fulfil to be classified as a planet?
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(f) Identify the planets and write a short note on each of them.
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i. ii.
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(g) What are lunar highlands and maria?

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(h) What are the eight phases of the Moon? Explain any two of them.
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(Skills instilled: Technology literacy, Critical thinking, Innovation)

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Various artificial satellites have been sent into space for different purposes. Create a chart with a list of all the Indian satellites that
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have been sent in space and mention their objectives.

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Unit 7 | Natural Resources
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18
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POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER
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21st Century Skills
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Unit 7 | Natural Resources
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• Observing
18 POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER
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• Analysing
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• Exploring
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Life Skills
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CHAPTER PREVIEW As
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• Air pollution • Critical thinking

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• Global effects of air
• Communication
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pollution—acid rain
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and global warming

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• Water pollution
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Wha Ask students to make a list of
you will learn
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things that can cause trouble in

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• Learn about the sources and

effects of air pollution
breathing. Then talk about air
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pollution.
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• Know about acid rain and

global warming
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• Learn about sources and

effects of water pollution
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• Learn about what we can do

to reduce pollution
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Why
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Human activities are destroying the

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environment in many ways. The air

WARM-UP 7E Engage
we breathe and the water we drink
is full of pollutants. The air we breathe today is full of smoke and dust and
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It is important to learn about the other harmful things. Similarly, the water bodies around us
are filled with plastic bottles and other rubbish. Humans
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causes and effects of air and water

pollution, and what each one of us are largely responsible for the state of our environment
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can do to reduce our impact on the today.

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environment. Do you know the extent of human impact on air and water?
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260
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Activity Corner 7E Explain, Elicit, Extend

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As

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Ask students to bring pictures showing air and water pollution. Ask them to segregate the pictures of air pollution and
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water pollution. Divide the class into two groups. Give one set of pictures to each group. Ask them to weave a story around
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these pictures and present them in class.

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21st Century Skills
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When harmful substances are released into the environment, it leads to pollution. Pollution
• Analysing
adversely affects natural resources such as air, water and soil. So, the addition of unwanted
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• Observing substances in a concentration that has an adverse effect on organisms as well as the environment
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• Technology literacy is called pollution. A substance that causes pollution is called a pollutant. We can say that
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pollutants contaminate the environment. Contamination is the process of making a pure
substance impure. Pollutants accumulated in the environment over a period of time can be a
Life Skills
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serious threat to its inhabitants. Let us take a look at the causes and effects of air pollution and
water pollution.
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Critical thinking
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• Problem-solving What is air pollution?
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The air around us is a mixture of many gases. The various gases present in air are nitrogen
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Real-world Connect! (78.08%), oxygen (20.95%) and other gases (0.97%). Oxygen from air is taken in during
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respiration and carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by the majority of organisms. The
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7E Engage, Explain
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carbon dioxide is taken up by plants to manufacture food. This inter-relationship maintains
the balance of gases in the atmosphere. Air
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21st
Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical Century Global awareness
pollution occurs when gases, dust particles, Skills
thinking, Health literacy
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As fumes (or smoke) or odour are introduced into

Real-world Connect!
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Explain what World Health the atmosphere in a way that makes it harmful
Today, air pollution has emerged as a global
to humans, animals and plants. This disrupts
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Organisation (WHO) is. Then explain public health problem and is identified as a
the balance in nature. A substance in the air that
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how air pollution has been identified major environmental health hazard by the
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can be adverse to humans and the environment is World Health Organisation (WHO).
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as a major environmental health known as an air pollutant.

hazard by the WHO.
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What are the sources of air pollution?

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Air pollution can be caused due to

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natural sources such as forest fires

(Fig. 18.1), volcanic eruptions and dust
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from dust storms. Sometimes, even

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pollen grains of flowers can cause

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air pollution. However, the major

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source of air pollution is human

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activity. Activities such as increasing

use of fossil fuels in power plants,
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industries, transportation, mining,

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construction of buildings, etc., has

Fig. 18.1 Sources of air pollution
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led to severe air pollution that we

see today. This includes gases emitted by motor vehicles as well as smoke emitted by factories
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and thermal power plants. Use of refrigerants as well as aerosols also causes air pollution. In
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rural parts of India, a major source of air pollution is the burning of wood, coal and dung cakes
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as fuel.
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261
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Concept Building 7E Engage, Explore

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Other gases
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1%
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Oxygen
Explain the terms pollution, pollutant, and contamination. 21% Nitrogen
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78%
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What is air pollution?

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Show the pie chart and explain the composition of air. Next, discuss how oxygen
and carbon dioxide are circulated in air. Introduce the term air pollution.
br
As
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What are the sources of air pollution? COMPOSITION OF AIR

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Ask students to observe and describe the pictures given on page 261. Ask them to identify the source of air pollution in
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each case.
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IVID
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What are the effects of some major air pollutants? • Analysing
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Some of the major air pollutions and their effects are given below. • Observing
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Sulphur dioxide (SO2): SO2 is a colourless, non-flammable gas. Once released into • Exploring
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the atmosphere, SO2 is converted to compounds such as sulphates. SO2 is produced
naturally by volcanic activity. Burning of fossil fuels (e.g., coal, petroleum) and biomass
Life Skills
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containing sulphur produce SO2. It causes irritation in the eyes as well as leads to respiratory
tract diseases such as asthma and bronchitis. High concentration of sulphur dioxide in the
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atmosphere dissolves in rain drops to form sulphuric acid which causes acid rain leading to • Critical thinking
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discolouration and deterioration of buildings. • Self-awareness
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Nitrogen oxides: A few oxides of nitrogen, such as nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2O) and
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nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are produced by natural processes such as forest fires and lightning as
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well as from thermal power stations, factories, automobiles and aircrafts (due to burning of coal
and petroleum). They reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood, and are known to cause eye
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irritation and skin cancer.
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Carbon dioxide (CO2): Carbon dioxide is one of the major gases which contributes towards
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air pollution. It is mainly produced during the combustion of fuel in factories, power stations,
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as well as burning fuels in households. This leads to a rise in atmospheric temperature or
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global warming due to the greenhouse effect. Due to global warming, the increased surface
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temperature is believed to be causing the melting of glaciers resulting in flooding of coastal
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areas of several countries across the world.

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Carbon monoxide (CO): CO is a colourless and odourless gas. It is produced as a result of

incomplete combustion of fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and wood charcoal. Automobiles using
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diesel and petroleum are the major sources of carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is more
dangerous than carbon dioxide. It is a poisonous gas which causes severe respiratory problems.
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When it reaches the blood stream, it replaces oxygen due to its high affinity for haemoglobin. This
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shortage of oxygen, in mild cases, causes headache and dizziness, but in extreme cases leads to
unconsciousness, and even death. These effects, arising from the presence of carbon monoxide in
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the body, are referred to as carbon monoxide poisoning. Concept Building (pages 262–
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Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC): These gases are released mainly from air-conditioning systems and 263) 7E Elicit, Explain, Elaborate
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refrigeration. When it rises in the atmosphere, each CFC molecule can destroy thousands of ozone
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molecules. Even though use of CFCs has decreased, CFCs can remain in the upper atmosphere for Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing,
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ss
many decades. Critical thinking

Suspended particulate matter (SPM): These are solid or liquid particles suspended in the
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air. SPM consists of dust, fumes and smoke. Sources of airborne particulate matter include road What are the effects of some major
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dust, agricultural activities, vehicle exhaust, wood burning, smoke from forest fires and dust from
air pollutants?
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construction activities. SPM stays suspended in air for a very long time and leads to poor visibility,
lung damage and respiratory problems. Make a list of all the air pollutants on
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the board. Ask students which of those

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Ozone (O3): Ozone is not emitted directly into the air, but created by chemical reactions in the
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atmosphere. It is an important chemical in the upper atmosphere where it blocks ultraviolet pollutants they have heard of. Discuss
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radiation. However, it can have harmful effects on human health at ground-level. Ozone makes each pollutant and its effects.
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262
Make a table like this on the board.
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Discuss the points as you fill the table.

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Air pollutant Nature Where it is found Effects of the environment

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Sulphur dioxide
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Nitrogen oxides
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Carbon dioxide
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Carbon monoxide
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Chlorofluorocarbons
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Suspended particulate matter

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Ozone
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Ammonia
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Lead
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our eyes itch, burn and water. At the ground level, vehicles
• Analysing Do You Know? 7E Explain
and industries are the major sources of ozone emissions.
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Domestic air pollutants:
• Observing
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Ammonia (NH3): Ammonia is highly reactive and does Smoke from cigarettes, beedi,
• Exploring not remain for long in the atmosphere. However, emissions cigar and other such objects
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of NH3 occur over very large areas. Exposure to high using burning tobacco,
burning of coal, firewood,
concentrations of ammonia in the environment can cause
cow dung cakes, kerosene oil
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Life Skills irritation to eyes, nose and throat as well as skin. Ammonia and liquefied gases are major
rs gas emitted by rotting agricultural wastes and fertiliser domestic pollutants. Common
• Critical thinking factories is a common source of air pollution. Ammonia in pollutant gases emitted during
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the domestic burning of coal,
• Self-awareness vehicle emissions, when combined with nitrogen and sulphur
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kerosene oil, firewood, cow
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compounds, contributes to smog in major cities. It’s easy to
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• Communication dung cakes, etc., are carbon

smell ammonia given its strong odour. monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide
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m
(CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2),
Lead (Pb): Lead is an elemental heavy metal found naturally
etc. The pollution due to these
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Do You Know? in the environment as well as in manufactured products. Lead pollutants causes suffocation,
can be released directly into the air, as suspended particles. eye and lung diseases.
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Lead that is emitted into the air can be inhaled or can be

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical As ingested, primarily through contact with contaminated soil or other surfaces. In the past, lead was
am
thinking, Observing added to petrol, paints, water pipes, fertilisers and used in many industrial processes. When leaded
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fuel is burned, the lead becomes airborne. Depending on the level of exposure, lead can adversely
Discuss if smoke is released in homes
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affect nervous system, kidney function, immune system, reproductive and developmental systems
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too. Talk about pollution caused by and cardiovascular system. Nowadays, lead has been phased out from automobile fuels.
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household activities. Discuss how this

pollution is harmful to the health of
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living beings in the surroundings.

What is smog?
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One distinct type of air pollution found in and around cities

is smog (Fig. 18.2). A combination of pollutants and natural
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Real-world Connect! conditions leads to the formation of smog. The term ‘smog’
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7E Elaborate is derived from the words ‘smoke’ and ‘fog’. Smog is common
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in big cities with a lot of industry and traffic. Smog is made
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical up of many chemicals including nitrogen oxides, sulphur
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thinking, Information literacy dioxide, carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds
(chemicals released from petrol, paints and many Fig. 18.2 Smog in Delhi
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Ask students to research on the cleaning solvents), but the two main components Real-world Connect! 7E Elaborate
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London smog and the Los Angeles

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of smog are particulate matter (PM) and ground-

Sulphurous smog, also called ‘London smog,’
smog. They can share their findings level ozone (O3).
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results from a high concentration of sulphur

As
in the next class. Smog is harmful when inhaled, with the severity oxides in the air and is caused due to burning of
am
fossil fuels such as coal. Photochemical smog,

of it depending on the amount inhaled, the
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also known as ‘Los Angeles smog,’ is commonly

types of pollutants contained in it, as well as the produced by vehicle emissions in contact
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individual’s age. Smog can cause eye, nose and with sunlight—mostly from burning petrol
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throat irritation, aggravation of respiratory or and diesel.

heart disease and in some cases, death.
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263
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Concept Building 7E Elicit, Explore, Explain

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What is smog?
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e
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Show pictures of a cold, foggy winter morning. Discuss what fog is. Explain how fog combines with smoke to form smog.
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Discuss how fog is detrimental to our health. Ask students to find out about places which experience smog frequently.
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What is AQI? Look It Up! 7E Elicit
• Analysing
s
National Air Quality Index (AQI) was launched in • Observing
es
discuss in class.
India on 17th October 2014 to disseminate information
to the general public on air quality in an easily What is the Bhopal Gas Tragedy? • Exploring
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understandable form. The measurement of air quality
is based on the following eight pollutants.
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Life Skill
• Particulate matter (size less than 10 µm) or (PM10), i.e., 10 to 2.5 micron sized particles
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• Particulate matter (size less than 2.5 µm) or (PM2.5), i.e., under 2.5 micron sized particles
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• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) • Ozone (O3) • Self-awareness
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• Sulphur dioxide (SO2) • Ammonia (NH3) • Problem-solving

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• Carbon monoxide (CO) • Lead (Pb)
m
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AQI has six categories of air quality which refers to various associated health impacts, as given Concept Building
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in Table 18.1.
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Table 18.1 AQI categories with index values, colour codes and associated health impacts
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AQI Colour codes As

Associated Health Impacts Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
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Good (0–50) Minimal impact thinking, Observing

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Satisfactory May cause minor breathing discomfort to sensitive people
What is AQI?
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(51–100)
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Moderately May cause breathing discomfort to people with lung disease such
polluted (101–200) as asthma, and discomfort to people with heart disease, children
Discuss how air pollution has become
a major cause of concern for India.
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and older adults

Poor (201–300) May cause breathing discomfort to people on prolonged exposure, Then introduce the term AQI.
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and discomfort to people with heart disease

Ask students to recall about air
Very Poor May cause respiratory illness to the people on prolonged
rs
(301–400) exposure; Effect may be more pronounced in people with lung

pollutants discussed earlier and make
a list of those that are used to
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and heart diseases

measure AQI.
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Severe (401–500) May cause respiratory impact even on healthy people, and serious
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health impacts on people with lung/heart disease; Health impacts

Using the table, discuss how AQI works.
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may be experienced even during light physical activity

m
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ss

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To analyse the problem of air pollution in order to explain why it is a threat to human beings.
br
As
1. Aadya learnt that if air is contaminated with unwanted substances, it is said to be polluted.
am
Which of these places would most likely have polluted air?

(a) Village (b) Forest (c) Industrial area (d) Residential area
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264
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Section Review 1 (pages 264–265) 7E Evaluate

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This section helps in evaluating if students have understood the concepts taught so far. Let students complete the exercise
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on their own in class. Then, discuss the answers so that students can verify their responses. If students have doubts, revisit
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the respective section to clarify concepts.

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21st Century Skills
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• Observing To identify commonly known air pollutants in order to examine their harmful effects.
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• Analysing 2. Complete the given table.
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• Exploring Air pollutants Source Harmful effects
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Sulphur dioxide Burning of fossil fuels
Nitrogen oxides Burning of fossil fuels
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Life Skills Carbon monoxide Severe respiratory problems, carbon
• rs
Critical thinking monoxide poisoning
Ammonia Rotting agricultural wastes
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• Teamwork
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Ozone Chemical reaction in the atmosphere
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7E Explain, Elaborate What are some global effects of air pollution?
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical As at two specific harmful effects of air pollutants that have a world-wide effect.
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thinking, Observing 1. Acid rain or acid precipitation 2. Global warming

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What are some global effects of What is acid rain?

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air pollution? Normally, rainwater has a pH (a figure expressing how acidic or alkaline a solution is) of 5.6, that
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is, it is weakly acidic. When the pH of the rainwater drops below 5.6, it is called acid rain or acid
Share this snippet in class: ‘Since 1880, precipitation. Acid rain is a by-product of a variety of human activities that release the oxides
average global temperatures have
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of sulphur and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil in power
increased by about 1° Celsius.’ stations and furnaces or petrol and diesel in motor engines are some of the activities that produce
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sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.

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Acid rain is harmful for agriculture, trees and plants as it dissolves and washes away nutrients
this could have happened. Explain that
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needed for their growth. It causes respiratory ailments in humans. When acid rain falls and flows
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acid rain and global warming are two as ground water to reach rivers, lakes, etc., it affects plant and animal life in aquatic ecosystems. It
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major effects of air pollution. corrodes water pipes, resulting in the leaching of heavy metals such as iron, lead and copper into
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the drinking water. Acid rain damages buildings and other structures made of stone or metal.
What is acid rain? Acid rain is responsible for severe environmental destruction across the world and is seen to occur
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Talk about the joys of playing in the most commonly in the North Eastern United States, Eastern Europe and increasingly in parts of
br
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China and India. The Taj Mahal in India is an example of how acid rain has affected monuments.
rain. Then tell the class why they
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should not play in the first showers. Effect of acid rain on the Taj Mahal: The air around the city of Agra, where the Taj Mahal is
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located, contains fairly high levels of sulphur and nitrogen oxides. This is mainly due to a large
Discuss acid rain and its harmful
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number of industries and power plants situated around the area. The resulting acid rain reacts
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effects. Tell students how the colour

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with the marble of the Taj Mahal causing it damage. As a result, the monument is being slowly
of the Taj Mahal is changing to pale disfigured, and the white marble is turning yellow and losing its shine.
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yellow. Explain that is caused due to 265
acid rain.
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Concept Building (pages 266–267) 7E Engage, Explain, Elaborate

Real-world Connect!
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical What is global warming?

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thinking
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Use the picture given on page 266 to explain the greenhouse effect.
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(Page 266)
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Make a list of the greenhouse gases. Talk about burning of fossil fuels and
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Show a map of Uttar Pradesh to class how they increase the carbon dioxide content in the air. Then discuss global
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and highlight the Taj Trapezium Zone warming and its effects on the Earth.
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in that. Then tell them more about it.

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One of the most important greenhouses gases is
Look It Up! 7E Elicit • Analysing
carbon dioxide. Over the past century, there has
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been a drastic increase in the amounts of fossil fuels Search online for answers and discuss • Observing
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being burned and this has led to an increase in the in class.
• Exploring
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percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. 1. What is the Kyoto protocol?
It is believed that the atmosphere may be trapping 2. What is “Clean India” programme?
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more heat to make the Earth warmer. A rise in Life Skills
the Earth’s average temperature, possibly caused by an increase in greenhouse gases is called global
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warming. Data collected over a 100-year period indicate a 1oC rise in the Earth’s temperature. It • Critical thinking
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is still not conclusive if this is due to human activities or if it is a natural part of Earth’s weather • Self-awareness
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patterns. However, it is predicted that if these trends continue, the average global temperature will
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increase to a level which may lead to melting of polar ice caps and flooding of low-lying areas all • Problem-solving
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over the Earth. Scientists agree that the Earth’s rising temperatures are fueling longer and hotter
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heat waves, more frequent droughts, heavier rainfall and more powerful ocean storms. Increase
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in the global temperature increases the incidence of tropical diseases such as dengue, malaria, Look It Up! 7E Extend
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yellow fever, sleeping sickness, etc.
id

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How can we control air pollution? As thinking, Environmental literacy

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Having learnt about acid rain and global warming, it is very important for us to understand how Ask students to look up about Kyoto
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we can control air pollution. Air pollutants move wherever the wind carries them. This makes protocol and Clean India programme.
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them difficult to control. Following are the measures one could adopt to control air pollution:
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Then have a fun question-answer

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1. Drive less: Take a walk, ride your bicycle or take public transportation to get around. Using
public transport or carpooling is an easy way of contributing to less air pollution.
session where students will ask each
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other questions and discuss the answers.

2. Cleaner cooking stoves: Improved stoves for cooking, such as smokeless chullahs, have high
thermal efficiency and reduce emission of pollutants including smoke. Globally, solid fuels,
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such as wood, charcoal, dung and crop residues, are used in cooking and heating, which can
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cause indoor air pollution to reach extremely high levels, especially if there is a lack of adequate
ventilation. Use of wood and dung cakes should be replaced by cleaner fuels such as biogas.
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3. Better waste management: Proper disposal and recycling of paper, plastics, metals and
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organic materials can help prevent harmful chemicals from being burned. Do not pollute Concept Building (pages 267–
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the environment by burning crackers, waste, plastic, wood, leaves, etc.

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4. Installing specialised devices: Devices such as filters, electrostatic precipitators, and dry
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scrubbers limit what comes out of the chimneys of factories into the air. Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
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5. Controlling vehicular emission: In cities like Delhi, motor vehicles need to obtain Pollution thinking, Problem-solving
Under Control (PUC) certificate at regular intervals. This ensures that levels of pollutants
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emitted from vehicle exhaust are not beyond the prescribed legal limits. There is also a move to How can we control air pollution?
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encourage vehicles to run on cleaner fuel such as Compressed Natural Gas (CNG).
Make a list of ways to control air
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pollution and explain what each means.

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1. Drive less
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267 2. Cleaner cooking stoves

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3. Better waste management

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4. Installing specialised devices like filters, electrostatic precipitators, and dry scrubbers
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5. Controlling vehicular emission

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6. Plant more trees

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7. Save electricity
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8. Refuse, Reduce, Reuse and then Recycle!

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Divide the class into eight parts and allot one point to each group. Ask them to discuss and explain how these can control
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air pollution.
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6. Plant more trees: Trees absorb many
• Analysing
pollutants from the air. Van Mahotsava Real-world Connect! 7E Extend
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• Observing in India is an event in the month of July
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• In order to prevent and control air pollution, the
• Exploring when thousands of trees are planted all Parliament of India enacted the Air (Prevention and
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across the country. Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
7. Save electricity: Turn off electric • Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), is a
statutory organisation under the Ministry of
Life Skills
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devices when they’re not in use. Do not
Environment & Forests (MoEF) that has been
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• Critical thinking generation and water purification ambient air quality.
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• Self-awareness contributes to burning of fossil fuels.
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The good news is that reducing air pollution has many benefits. Actions to reduce air pollution
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also help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and, in turn, combat the climate change they cause.
Real-world Connect!
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7E Extend Section Review 2 7E Evaluate
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical To elaborate the formation and effects of acid rain in order to explain the reasons for
thinking, Environmental literacy

As discolouration of the marble of monuments (Taj Mahal).
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1. The white marble of the Taj Mahal is seen to turn yellow in recent times. Which of these factors
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would have contributed towards the yellowing of the marble? Tick the correct option.
Talk about Air (Prevention and Control
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(a) Proximity to Yamuna river (b) Presence of smog in winters

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of Pollution) Act, 1981 and Central

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(c) Proximity to Mathura oil refinery (d) Effect of prolonged exposure to sunlight
Pollution Control Board (CPCB). To explain the effect of greenhouse gases on the planet in order to explain potential reason
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for rising temperature of the planet.

2. According to a study, globally, the concentration of methane, nitrous oxide, and carbon
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dioxide are increasing in the atmosphere with time. Based on the findings of the study, what
will be the most likely change to be observed on the Earth? Tick the correct option.
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(a) The sea level on the Earth would fall.

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(b) The amount of salt in oceans would increase.

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(d) The surface temperature of the Earth would decrease.

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To suggest alternate mechanism to lower carbon emission in order to suggest steps to curb
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taught so far. Let students complete the the air pollution.

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3. Lipika wants to write a short note on how to reduce air pollution. Which of the below methods
discuss the answers so that students should she write about? Tick the correct option(s).
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can verify their responses. If students (a) Ban all kinds of transport (b) Encourage carpooling
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have doubts, revisit the respective (c) Use unleaded fuel (d) Use leaded fuel
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What is water pollution?
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We know that about three fourths of the Earth’s surface is covered by water. However, very
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little of it is available for consumption. Water is essential for the existence of all life forms.
Concept Building (pages 268– All organisms need water. Plants need water to make food from sunlight. Some animals,
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270) 7E Engage, Explain 268

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Critical thinking
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What is water pollution?

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Ask the class to make a list of all the uses of water. Then define water pollution, surface water and groundwater.
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What are the sources and effects of water pollution?

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Make a table like the following on the board. Fill it as you discuss water pollutants.
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Water pollutant What is contains Where it is found Ill-effects

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Sewage pollutants
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Industrial pollutants
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Agricultural pollutants
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Radioactive and thermal pollutants

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Radioactive and thermal pollutants: Sometimes water bodies are polluted by accidental • Analysing
leakage of waste material from uranium and thorium mines, nuclear power plants and
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industries, research laboratories and hospitals which use radioisotopes. Radioactive materials • Observing
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enter human body through water and food, and may be accumulated in blood and certain vital • Exploring
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organs. They cause tumours and cancer. Sometimes, water from a nearby river or lake is used
to cool machines in factories and nuclear power plants. Then, the heated water is released back
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into the river or lake. Pollution occurs because hot water contains less oxygen than cool water. Life Skills
Also, organisms that live in water are sensitive to temperature changes. Fish and other aquatic
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organisms can get affected by a sudden change in water temperatures. Water should ideally be • Critical thinking
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cooled before being released into a water body. • Self-awareness
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In addition to these, crude oil and other petroleum products • Problem-solving

may get into water by accidental spillage from ships, tankers or
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oil pipelines. Oil slick which floats on the water surface severely
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Look It Up!
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affects the ecosystem of the ocean. Besides these accidental spills, 7E Extend
sometimes oil refineries, oil exploration sites and automobile
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service centres cause water pollution when their waste materials Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical
thinking, Health literacy
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are poured into water bodies. In recent years, water bodies have
As Fig. 18.5 Water pollution
become the dumping ground of great amounts of plastic material.
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Ask the class to look up about Minamata

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Keeping in mind the extent of water pollution and its harmful effects, several plans have been disease and the ‘Namami Gange
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put into place. The Ganga Action Plan is one of them. Programme’ and make a poster on any of
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Ganga Action Plan (GAP): Ganga is a perennial river which Look It Up! 7E Elicit the two. Put up the posters in class and
originates as a stream called ‘Bhagirathi’ from Gaumukh in Search online for answers and ask other classes to come visit and read
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the Gangotri glacier. Ganga river basin is the largest amongst discuss in class. the posters to learn about the disease.
the river basins in India and the fourth largest in the world. 1. What is the Minamata disease?
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Along the river basin reside over half a billion people. The 2. What is the ‘Namami Gange
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river Ganga drains eight states of India. Nearly all the sewage, Programme’?
industrial waste, runoff from chemical fertilisers and pesticides
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used in agriculture within the basin, and large quantities of solid waste, including thousands of
270) 7E Engage, Explore, Extend
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animal carcasses and hundreds of human corpses are dumped in the river every day. Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing,
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Recognising the magnitude of the water pollution in the river Ganga, the Government of India, Critical thinking, Thought provoking
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in 1985, set up the Central Ganga Authority to plan and implement an action plan to safeguard
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the river. The objectives of the GAP were then formulated—to abate pollution and improve What are the sources and effects of
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water quality, to conserve biodiversity and develop an integrated river basin management
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approach, to conduct comprehensive research to further these objectives, and to gain

water pollution?
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experience for implementing similar river clean-up programs in other polluted rivers in India. Talk about oil spills.
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How can we control water pollution? Ask the class to find about oil spills
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caused in the Arabian Sea and Bay

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Some of the ways in which we can control water pollution are as given.
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of Bengal.
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1. There should be a ban on washing of clothes and bathing animals at river banks.
2. Industries should install Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) to control the pollution at source. Discuss the Ganga Action Plan and
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270 ask the students how it could help

reduce water pollution.
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Concept Building (pages 270–271) 7E Elicit, Explain, Elaborate

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Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking, Problem-solving, Environmental literacy

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How can we control water pollution?

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Have a discussion on ways to control water pollution. Encourage students to come up with their own suggestions.
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Make a list of all the ways suggested.

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Add to the list with whatever is not covered.

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3. All towns and cities must have Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) that clean up the
• Analysing
sewage effluents.
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• Observing 4. Improper use of fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides in farming should be stopped and
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• Exploring organic methods of farming should be adopted, wherever possible. Practices to reduce soil
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erosion should also be in place.
IVID
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Life Skills What is potable water?
•
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Critical thinking Water that is fit for human consumption is called potable water. It is also known as
drinking water and comes from surface water and groundwater sources. Water used for
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• Self-awareness cooking and drinking should be clean and pure. This water is therefore treated to levels
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• Problem-solving that meet standards for consumption. The water that is supplied to our households undergoes
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water treatment at water treatment plants. Potable water should ideally be transparent,
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colourless and odourless. It should contain sufficient amount of mineral salts and should be
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Concept Building free from harmful chemicals and microorganisms. In our homes, we use the following methods
to make the water potable.
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Boiling: This is the most common and easiest way to purify water. The simplest method to
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Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing, As purify water is to boil it for about 15 to 20 minutes. High temperatures destroy bacteria and
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Critical thinking viruses, but it cannot remove the heavy contaminants.

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Using water purifiers: In most urban households, we will find
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What is potable water?

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water purifiers (Fig. 18.6). The water that is supplied to our homes
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Help students recall about some is passed through domestic water purifiers that have filters and
diseases caused by contaminated water. activated charcoal along with a source of ultraviolet radiations.
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Impurities are removed by the filters, the activated charcoal

Then discuss how the water we drink removes organic impurities and the microorganisms are killed
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Fig. 18.6 Water purifier

is safe. Define the term potable water. by the radiations. This makes the water safe for drinking and
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cooking.
Ask students how water can be
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Chlorination: In rural households, we use water taken Look It Up! 7E Extend

made potable.
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from wells or water tanks. These are usually disinfected by
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Then explain the processes of boiling, adding chlorine tablets. Potassium permanganate as well as discuss in class.
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using water purifiers and chlorination. iodine in small quantities are also sometimes used to kill
Find out some traditional water
germs in water taken from wells.
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purifying methods used in our

How can we save water? country.
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How can we save water?

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thinking, Environmental awareness With growing population, several parts of the world are facing water shortages. The United
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Nations has declared March 22 as World Water Day to stress the importance of conserving
Talk about World Water Day. Discuss
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water resources and spreading awareness about the challenges we face today. We each can in
ways to save water.
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our own little way help save water.

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1. Turn off the tap while brushing our teeth. 2. Take shorter baths.
3. Turn off the shower while applying soap.
Look It Up! 7E Extend
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271
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thinking
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Ask students how water was purified Section Review 3 (page 272) 7E Evaluate
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long, long ago. Skills instilled: Analysing, Critical thinking, Problem-solving

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Wait for all the creative answers. This section helps in evaluating if students have understood the concepts
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Then ask them to research and discuss taught so far. Let students complete the exercise on their own in class. Then,
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their findings in class the next day. discuss the answers so that students can verify their responses. If students
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have doubts, revisit the respective section to clarify concepts.

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Puzzle Over (page 274)

Experiential Learning (page 273)
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7E Engage, Evaluate
7E Engage
&

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thinking, Thought provoking Encourage students to get information about the AQI of their cities and collect
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data on daily basis. Mention a time or date (like after one or two weeks) to submit
Discuss about air pollution and
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a graph of AQI on the basis of the table which they have maintained.
connect the severity of air pollution
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D. SKILL CRAFT ANALYSIS & CREATING 1 2 3 • Analysing
21st
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1. Research/Activity Century Observation
• Observing
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Skills
Pollution check, periodically, is necessary in India. Visit a nearby petrol pump to find out how is it done. • Exploring
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21st
2. Discuss and Answer Century Thought provoking
Skills
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An industrial unit decides to change its water hose, water taps, and other faucets with the ones Life Skills
with latest technologies. The new fixtures have automatic on-off option and are installed with
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timers. How do you think will the new equipment help the industrial unit? • Critical thinking
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3. Connect to Life
21st
Century Problem-solving
• Self-awareness
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• Problem-solving
Do not wait for others to do it for you. Do this yourself! Make a list of things that YOU can
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do to reduce air and water pollution as well as save water. Make a presentation on ‘I change to
change my environment’.
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7E Elicit, Explore
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Life
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I can: As Skills instilled: Analysing, Observing,

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define air pollution and water pollution. Problem-solving

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briefly describe the sources and effects of at least three air pollutants.
Show students Pollution Under
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define acid rain and explain briefly how it is harmful.

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Control certificate of any vehicle. Ask

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define global warming as a consequence of increase in greenhouse gases.

them to inspect a similar certificate for
describe a few ways in which air and water pollution can be controlled.
their parents’ vehicles.
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Ask them to find out why and how it

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is made. They can share their findings

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in class.
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Discuss and Answer

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7E Elicit, Explain, Elaborate

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Skills instilled: Observing, Teamwork,

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Give the class two scenarios.

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1. An industrial unit with a new

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water hose, water taps, and other
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1. To make a water filter using a bottle, sand and gravel. 2. To show how to plot AQI graphs of one’s city to see
the quality of air over a period of time.
faucets with an automatic on-off
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option installed with timers.

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275 2. An industrial unit with old water

hose, water taps, and other faucets
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that have to be operated manually

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Connect to Life 7E Extend without timers.

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Skills instilled: Critical thinking, Civic literacy, Responsibility and initiative Divide the class into two and ask them
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to present what will happen in the two

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Divide the class into groups. Each group can discuss the topic ‘I change to change scenarios.
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my environment’ among themselves and make a presentation showing the actions

Then discuss which is better and why.
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they will take to change the environment for the better.

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SUPERVISED LAB WORK
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1. Aim: To make a water filter using a bottle, sand and gravel.
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Material required: A plastic bottle, a cutter or fine scissors, some fine cloth, sand and gravel, and muddy
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water (mix some fine mud to a glass of water and stir well)
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What to do:
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1. Take a plastic bottle and cut it into 2 halves along the centre. Use the upper half as a funnel by
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putting it upside down into the lower half.
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2. Place the fine cloth inside the mouth of the ‘funnel’. Make thick layers of fine sand followed by gravel.
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3. Pour most of the muddy water into the ‘filter’, leaving some aside to use as reference.
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4. Leave the setup aside for an hour or so. Compare the water in the lower part of the bottle to the
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muddy water that was poured in.

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Observation: The water that passed through the ‘filter’ was clearer than the muddy water poured in.
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Conclusion: As the muddy water passes through gravel, sand and cloth, each layer ‘catches’ particles,
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while the clear liquid passes through. This is a physical method of removing impurities and does not
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purify water or make it potable.

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2. To show how to plot AQI graphs of one’s city to see the quality of air over a period of time.
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Materials required: SAFAR-AIR app

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What to do:
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1. Have the student download the SAFAR-AIR app or visit the Central Pollution Control Board website.
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2. Check the daily AQI details of the area around the school by picking data from the monitoring centre
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in your city that is closest to the school.

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3. Give the students a start date and have them record the data for 15 days.
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4. Have the students draw a graph with AQI number of the Y-axis and the dates on the X-axis.
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Analyse the data and discuss the graph with the students.
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Conclusion: The SAFAR (System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting and Research) is a project of the
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Ministry of Earth Sciences, Govt. of India having the distinction of developing India’s first-ever Air Quality
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Forecasting system SAFAR for Metro cities.

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Note: This activity is valid for those cities that are covered by the SAFAR-AIR app. Students may be
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encouraged to create a similar graph for the area around their home.
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Worksheet 1
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1. Name the following.
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(a) A substance that causes pollution.
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(c) Full form of AQI.
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(d) Colour code for poor AQI.
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(e) An event in the month of July when thousands of trees are planted all across the country.
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(f) Oxygen deficiency in a water body caused by algae and other water plants living in the water.
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(g) World Water Day. As

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(h) Disease caused due to sewage water.

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(a) 78.08% composition of air i. Global warming

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(b) Dust, fumes and smoke ii. Surface water

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(c) A rise in the Earth’s average temperature, possibly due to iii. Controls water pollution
increase in greenhouse gases
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(d) Water present beneath Earth’s surface in underground spaces and iv. Central Pollution Control Board
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in the fractures of rocks
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(e) Any water body found on the Earth’s surface v. Suspended particulate matter
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(f) ETP vi. Methane

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(g) A statutory organisation under the Ministry of Environment & Forests vii. Groundwater
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(h) A greenhouse gas viii. Nitrogen

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(a) State some natural sources of air pollution.

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(b) What are the effects of the presence of sulphur dioxide in the air?
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(c) What are the eight pollutants that are monitored for calculating AQI?
(d) What are the ill effects of acid rain?
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(e) How does the greenhouse effect replicate in the environment?

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(f) What are radioactive pollutants and how do they harm us?
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(g) State some ways to save water.

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4. Project Work
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Visit any place where water pollution can be monitored. Note your observations, make a PowerPoint presentation on the same and
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Worksheet 2
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(a) In rural parts of India, a major source of air pollution is the burning of wood, coal and dung cakes as fuel.
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(b) National Air Quality Index (AQI) was launched in India on 18th October 2014.
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(c) Rainwater has a pH of 5.6 and is normally alkaline.
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(d) The river Ganga drains eight states of India.

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(e) Boiling water destroys bacteria and viruses, but it cannot remove heavy contaminants.
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(f) Rural households use water taken from wells or water tanks that are usually disinfected by adding lead.
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(g) Industrial wastes include toxic metals like chromium, arsenic, lead and mercury.
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(h) PUC ensures that levels of pollutants emitted from vehicle exhaust are not beyond the prescribed legal limits.
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(a) ...................... reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood.

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(b) ...................... is an elemental heavy metal found naturally in the environment as well as in manufactured products.
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(c) The two main components of smog are ...................... ...................... and ground level ....................... .
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(d) About ...................... of the solar energy reaching the Earth is absorbed by the Earth’s surface.
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(e) Use of wood and dung cakes should be replaced by cleaner fuels such as ....................... .
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(f) ...................... ...................... which floats on the water surface severely affects the ecosystem of the ocean.
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(g) STP stands for ...................... ...................... ....................... .

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(h) ...................... ...................... involves collection of rainwater in storage tanks for reuse or putting back into the soil to
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recharge groundwater.
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(a) What happens during carbon monoxide poisoning?

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(b) ‘Ozone is a boon as well as a bane.’ Explain the statement.

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(c) In which range is AQI considered severe? What are the adverse effects in this range?
(d) If global warming continues undeterred, what will be its ill effects on the earth?
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(e) Why do some water bodies appear green when run-off from agricultural lands drained on them?
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(f) What are the objectives of the Ganga Action Plan?

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(g) What is thermal pollution and how does it affect aquatic animals?
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(Skills: Critical thinking, Self-awareness, Environmental literacy)

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Make a project on the major air pollutants in your city. Propose ways these can be reduced and also how awareness can be spread
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among the people about their harmful effects.

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Sample Paper 1
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A. Choose the correct answer.
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1. Which of the following is not a fertiliser?

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(a) Urea (b) Compost (c) Potash (d) NPK
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2. Which of these fibres is stronger than steel wire?
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(a) Nylon (b) Rayon (c) Silk (d) Wool

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3. A sperm is …………….. . As
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(a) double-celled (b) multi-celled (c) single-celled (d) without cell

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4. Which one of these is not a microorganism?
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(a) Termite (b) Bacteria (c) Fungi (d) Protozoa

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5. …………….. are the building blocks of life.

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(a) Tissues (b) Bacteria (c) Nucleus (d) Cells

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B. Fill in the blanks.

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1. Kharif crops can also be called …………….. crops.

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2. Chlorella is an example of
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3. Testosterone is produced by the …………….. in males.
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4. Non-metals react with …………….. to form acidic oxides.

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5. Substances that do not catch fire easily in the presence of air are called …………….. substances.
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C. Write True or False.

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1. Vector-borne diseases spread through air.

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2. Menstrual cycle in females ends by the age of 30 years.

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3. Tissue is the building block of life.

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4. Clothes made from pure polyester are easy to wear.

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5. Creating an artificial habitat is a threat to wildlife.

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D. Answer the following in brief.

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1. What is the full form of AIDS? Explain what the disease is.
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2. Define ductility and name two metals which are ductile.

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3. Write any two differences between the plant cell and the animal cell.
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4. Manure is better for soil than fertiliser. Why?

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5. What is the impact of plastics on our environment? Is it good or bad? Support your answer with reasons.
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E. Answer the following in detail.

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1. Differentiate between the two methods of reproduction. Also give two examples each.
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2. Why is nucleus the most important part of a cell?

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3. What is a reactivity series? Why can copper not displace iron from iron sulphate solution?
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4. Explain the different types of combustions?

5. ‘Forests play a protective and a productive role’. Justify the statement.
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Sample Paper 2
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1. What are the positively charged particles of atoms called?

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(a) Protons (b) Electrons (c) Neutrons (d) Insulators
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2. Which force is needed for pedalling the bicycle?
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(a) Magnetic (b) Muscular (c) Kinetic (d) Frictional

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3. Which one is the luminous zone of the candle flame?
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(a) Outermost zone (b) Middle zone (c) Innermost zone (d) Wax
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4. Which of these metals remains liquid at room temperature?
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(a) Gold (b) Mercury (c) Iron (d) Aluminium

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5. Oxides of nitrogen and sulphur combine with water and result in:
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(a) greenhouse effect (b) depletion of ozone layer

(c) acid rain (d) global warming
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B. Fill in the blanks.

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1. Carbon monoxide is an air …………… .

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2. Water can be purified at home by …………… it.
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3. The brightest star of the night sky is …………… .

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4. The rubbing of cloth with a metallic stick is the method of charging by …………… .
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5. The working of SONAR is based on the principle of …………… .

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C. Write True or False.

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1. All industrial areas must send their used water to water treatment plants.
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2. Ozone depletion may lead to global warming.

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3. An echo is the reflection of sound many times.

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4. Frictional force is a type of non-contact force.

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5. Converging lens is used to cure long-sightedness.

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D. Answer the following in brief.

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1. What is the SI unit of pressure?

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2. Give an example each of percussion, stringed and wind instruments.

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3. Which planets are regarded as the outer planets of the solar system?
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4. Define electric current.

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5. What diseases can be caused if we drink polluted water?

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E. Answer the following in detail.

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1. What are the three ways to charge a body? Explain.

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2. What are the characteristics of images formed by a plane mirror?

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3. What causes earthquakes? Elaborate.

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4. How can we maximise friction?

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5. What are comets? Why do their tails point away from the Sun?
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ANSWER KEYS
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ANSWER KEYS
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Coursebook Answers
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Section Review 1 B. SUBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
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1. (a) Rabi crops: Guava, oranges, cauliflower

1. Field A-Maize, Field B-Wheat
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Kharif crops: Maize, groundnut, cotton
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2. Field A-July, Field B-October
(b) Preparation of soil, selection and sowing of seeds,
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3. Field A-September, Field B-April
improving soil fertility, irrigation, crop protection,
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Section Review 2 harvesting, and storage are the major steps of

agricultural practices.
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1. (d) 3, 7, 6, 2, 6, 4, 1 As (c)
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2.
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Manure Fertiliser
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Manure Fertiliser
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It is a natural substance. It is a chemical substance.

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It is formed by the It is formed in factories by
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It is formed by the decomposition It is formed in factories by decomposition of plant and using chemicals.
of plant and animal remains and using chemicals. animal remains and
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waste material. waste material.

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It adds organic matter or humus It does not add organic matter It supplies small quantities of It supplies large quantities of
to the soil. or humus to the soil. nutrients to the soil. nutrients to the soil.
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It supplies small quantities of It supplies large quantities of It does not cause land pollution In excess, it causes soil and
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nutrients to the soil. nutrients to the soil. or water pollution. water pollution.
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It does not cause land pollution In excess, it causes soil and

(d) Sprinkler irrigation
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or water pollution. water pollution.

• It is useful on uneven land and sandy soil.
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Section Review 3 • Perpendicular pipes having rotating nozzles on their

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tops are joined to the main pipe at regular intervals.

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(a) Using good animal husbandry practices

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• When water is pumped through the main pipe

under pressure, it escapes from revolving nozzles
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Chapter Review
and is sprinkled on the crops.
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A. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS Drip irrigation

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1. (a) i. Sowing seeds, (b) i. Compost, (c) ii. Pea, • It is useful in areas with water scarcity.
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(d) iv. Dhekli, (e) ii. Paddy • Pipes with very small holes are used to deliver
2. (a) Weeding, (b) Harvesting, (c) Threshing, water drop-by-drop near the roots of plants
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(d) Winnowing, (e) Granaries, silos (e) Raising animals on a large scale for meat, fibre, milk,
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3. or other products including their day-to-day care

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is called animal husbandry. Meat, milk, egg or milk

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Rabi crops Kharif crops products are the foods that come from animal sources.
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(a) They are winter i. They are rainy season 2. Answer the following in detail.
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season crops. crops. (a) i. Preparation of soil: The preparation of soil is the
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(b) These crops grow in cold ii. These crops grow in hot first step before growing a crop. Soil preparation
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involves ploughing or tilling and levelling.

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and dry conditions. and humid conditions.

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• Ploughing or tilling: The process of loosening

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(c) They are sown during iii. They are sown during
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October–November June–July months and turning the soil is known as ploughing

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months and harvested and harvested during or tilling.

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during March–April September–October • Levelling: After ploughing is over, big lumps of

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months. months. soil called crumbs may remain in the soil. The
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crumbs need to be crushed to level the soil.

(d) One example is: orange iv. One example is: mango
This process is known as levelling.
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4. (a) Maize is a kharif crop sown in rainy season; mustard is ii. Weeding: Unwanted plants that grow alongside
a rabi crop sown in winter season. useful crops are called weeds. Amaranthus
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(chauli), Chaenopodium (bathua) and Parthenium

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(Gajar ghass) are some common weeds. The driven by biogas, diesel, or electricity are also used to
growth of weeds in crop field is harmful because pump water to fields.
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they compete with the growing crop plants for 1. Moat (pulley-system)- Water from a well is
nutrients, water, space and light. The process of pulled using pulleys and sent to fields through
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removing weeds from crop fields is called weeding.
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water channels.
Weeding can be done manually or by using
2. Chain pump- It consists of two wheels connected
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chemicals called weedicides or herbicides.
by chains. Buckets are connected to the chain. As
• Manual weeding: This can be done by pulling the wheels move, the buckets fill with water and
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the weeds out by hand or by cutting them close are transferred to small channels leading to fields.
to the ground with the help of implements.
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Ploughing also helps in removing large number
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or a large vessel is tied to a pole. By placing a
of weeds as this process uproots majority of
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heavy weight at the other end of the pole, water
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them. Weeds which appear during the growth

can be drawn up for irrigation.
of crop plants are removed manually by using a
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trowel (khurpa). 4. Rahat system- It is also called the water wheel. A
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wheel with several large buckets is placed near the
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• Weedicides: In larger fields, where manual
water source. The wheel is turned by using a lever
weeding is not practical, weeds can be controlled
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system driven generally by animals. This pulls the

by using chemicals. These chemicals that are used
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As water up into water channels.

to kill weeds are called weedicides or herbicides.
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These chemicals affect the weeds without (d) Process of harvesting:

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harming the crops. They are diluted with water When the crop is ready, the wheat, paddy and corn
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and sprayed over the fields. 2,4-D ethyl ester and fields turn golden yellow. This indicates that the crops
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Butachlor are some examples of weedicides. are mature and ready to be cut and gathered. The
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iii. Threshing: After the crop is harvested, the grains cutting and gathering of crop after it is matured is
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are separated from the rest of the plant. The called harvesting. There are two methods of harvesting.
process of separating the grain from the crop plant It is either done manually or by using motorised
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is called threshing. This is carried out manually machines. In small fields, crops are manually harvested
or by making oxen or buffaloes trample over the by cutting close to the ground, using a cutting tool
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cut crop or sometimes with the help of a machine called the sickle. In large fields, crops are harvested by
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called thresher. These days, a machine called motorised machines called harvesters.
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combine is used for both harvesting and threshing. After the crop is harvested, the grains are separated
from the rest of the plant. The process of separating
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iv. Winnowing: After threshing, grains are separated

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from its outer covering called chaff. The process the grain from the crop plant is called threshing.
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of removing seeds from the chaff is known as These days, a machine called combine is used for both
winnowing. This can be done manually with harvesting and threshing.
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the help of wind or even by using a winnowing The reason for using “combine” is that it is a single
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machine. Winnowing by wind involves the gentle machine, which can do both work (harvesting and
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dropping of the grain and chaff mixture from a threshing). Time is saved and physical efforts
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height. The grains being heavier fall vertically become less.

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down, while the chaff being lighter gets blown (e) The consequences of not protecting food grains during
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away by the wind and falls at a distance.

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storage are:
(b) The three precautions while sowing seeds are: Crops are generally harvested once a year, but they
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1. Seeds must be sown in soil that is moist and airy. are required for consumption throughout the year. To
They should not be sown in dry soil or in soil make them available throughout the year, they must
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flooded with water. be stored properly. If we don’t protect the grain then
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2. Seeds must be sown at an appropriate distance whole year’s consumption will not be possible. And
we have to import the grains from other countries to
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from each other. If they are sown too close, it

complete our food grain needs.
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will lead to overcrowding of plants. The growing

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plants will then not get enough water, sunlight

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C. PUZZLE OVER
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and nutrients. If sown too far, there will be

wastage of cultivable soil. 1. (c) Both the tools are helpful for tilling the soil.
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3. Seeds must be sown at the proper depth in the If Ram and Shyam exchange these tools, then Shyam
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soil. If sown too deep in the soil, they may not be would till his field faster than the other because plough
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able to germinate properly. If sown or scattered is used in larger fields. But Shyam’s field is small and
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on the top of the soil, they may be eaten up by now he is using plough so he will cultivate the field
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birds or fly away in the wind. faster than Ram.

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(c) Traditional irrigation systems: In traditional

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methods, water is lifted up by different methods from D. SKILL CRAFT

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the well, tube well, canal or other water sources to 1. Tell the students to use some plastic pipes and make a
deliver it to the fields. Human or animal labour is
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working model of irrigation.

used in these methods. Some traditional methods 2. Tell the students to make groups. A student can act like a
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of irrigation are moat (pulley-system), chain pump, mango and other students would tell the origin, common
dhekli and rahat (water wheel). In some places, pumps
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name, colour, harvesting method and health benefits, etc. 4. Tell the students about the spoiling of food grains. Also,
one by one. discuss with them how can we conserve it. Make a project
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3. Make a healthy discussion with the students about to find the ways which are responsible for spoiling it. Run a
traditional agricultural practices in India. Divide the campaign for a week in which students can make villagers
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aware about the proper storage of grains.
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students into different groups and ask them to brainstorm
about traditional agricultural practices in India better than
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modern methods. Give them fertilisers and manure as a
topic for debate.
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Chapter 2: Microorganisms
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Section Review 1 3. (a) Antibodies, (b) Immunisation, (c) Nitrogen Cycle,
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(d) Dehydration, (e) Food preservation
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4. (a) COVID-19
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Single-celled Single-celled Single- As Single or B. SUBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. (a) Microorganisms are useful to us in the following ways:
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celled or multi-celled
multi-celled
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• To make curd and cheese: A bacterium, called
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An example is An example is An example is An example is Lactobacillus, helps in converting milk to curd.

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Lactobacillus Amoeba Spirogyra Agaricus The production of cottage cheese (paneer) and
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processed cheese also involves the use of bacteria

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2. (b) Help the virus to reproduce like Lactobacillus and Streptococcus.

• To make bread: A fungus, called yeast, helps in
Section Review 2
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making soft and spongy bread.

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1. (a) Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections. • To make antibiotics: Medications that destroy or slow
down the growth of bacteria are called antibiotics.
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2. (b) By producing suitable antibodies to increase immunity

Penicillin, streptomycin, and tetracycline are some
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3. (d) They fix atmospheric nitrogen to make nitrogen
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compounds in the soil. examples of common antibiotics.

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• To make vaccines: A medication that provides

Section Review 3 protection (immunity) against a specific disease
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1. (c) They can cause disease. is called a vaccine. A vaccine is made of either
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a dead or a weakened disease-causing microbe.

2. (d) All known viruses are pathogens. In humans, vaccination has helped develop
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3. immunity against diseases such as polio,

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chickenpox, measles, smallpox and COVID-19.

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Diseases Plant or animal Causative

(b) The process by which sugar present in food is
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microorganism
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converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide with the

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Foot and mouth Animal Virus help of microorganisms is called fermentation. Some
disease examples of fermentation that we see in our homes are
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Late blight Plant Fungus the forming of curd, the souring of idli and dosa batter
and in the preparation of dhokla and bhatura.
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Citrus canker Plant Bacterium

(c) Medications that destroy or slow down the growth of
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Smut Plant Fungus bacteria are called antibiotics. They are also known
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Anthrax Animal Bacterium as antibacterial because antibiotics are mostly used

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to treat diseases caused by bacteria. However, some

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Section Review 4 antibiotics are used to treat certain fungal infections.

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(d) Chemical Preservatives: Sodium benzoate and

1. (b) Sodium benzoate; it prevents the action of
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potassium metabisulphite
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microorganisms
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Natural Preservatives: Salt, Sugar, Oil

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2. (c) Ice and salt stop the growth of bacteria by reducing

the temperature as well as the moisture content. (e) Some microbial diseases of plants are:
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1. The Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) affects the

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Chapter Review leaves of the tobacco plant.

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A. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS 2. Citrus canker caused by bacteria affects citrus plants.
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1. (a) i. Vaccine, (b) iii. Rhizobium, (c) COVID-19, 3. Yellow vein mosaic disease of okra is caused by
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a virus.
(d) i. Female Anopheles mosquito, (e) iv. Sugar
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2. (a) A microorganism or microbe is an organism that

2. (a) Pathogens, (b) Fermentation, (c) Antibiotics, is too small to be seen with naked eyes. Four major
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(d) Vaccine, (e) Nitrogen fixation categories of Microorganisms are:

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1. Bacteria: They are very small, single-celled These pathogens may enter the body of a healthy
organisms. They are one of the smallest and most person while breathing this air and he/she may
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primitive organisms on the Earth. Examples are: also get common cold. Diseases that are spread
Lactobacillus and Rhizobium through air are called airborne diseases. Examples
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of air-borne diseases are common cold, influenza,
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2. Protozoa: They are a group of animal-like, single-
celled microorganisms. Like most animals, they chickenpox, mumps and tuberculosis.
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can move from place to place with the help of ii. Water: When a person drinks unclean water
locomotory organs such as pseudopodia, cilia (contaminated water) pathogens enter the body
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or flagella. Examples of protozoa are Amoeba, and cause diseases. Typhoid and cholera are
Euglena and Paramecium.
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3. Algae: They are a group of plant-like organisms. iii. Direct contact: When a healthy person comes
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Like most plants, they contain the green in direct contact with an infected person, the
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pigment, chlorophyll and can produce food by pathogens enter the body of the healthy person
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photosynthesis. They may be single-celled or and cause disease. Conjunctivitis (pink-eye) is a
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multi-celled organisms. Examples of algae are common example of such direct contact disease.
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filamentous algae and Spirogyra. AIDS is spread through direct contact with
contaminated needles.
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4. Fungi: Fungi are plant-like organisms that do not

contain the green pigment chlorophyll. Unlike (g) If we know about the reason for the microbial growth,
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plants, they do not produce their own food. then we can employ suitable measures to inhibit their
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Instead, they either grow on dead organic matter growth. For example, we know that microorganisms
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as saprophytes or on living organisms as parasites. grow in warm, moist environment, so we use methods
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They may be small and single-celled, or large and like heat and cold treatments, dehydration, etc. To
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multi-celled. Examples of fungi are bread inhibit their growth. So, if we know the reason for the
mould, yeast. microbial growth appropriate preventative measures
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(b) All known viruses cause diseases and are harmful can be taken.
to humans, animals and plants. Disease-causing (h) Methods by which microbial growth in food can be
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microorganisms are called pathogens. Hence, all prevented are:

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viruses are pathogens. Examples of viruses are the 1. Using chemical preservatives: Substances that
common cold virus causing the common cold,
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help preserve food are known as preservatives.

Influenza virus causing influenza (Flu), Human
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Sodium benzoate and potassium metabisulphite are
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Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) causing Acquired examples of chemical preservatives which are used
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Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).

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as preservatives in squashes, sherbets, and ketchups.

(c) In nature, bacteria such as Rhizobium have the ability
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2. Using natural preservatives: Natural preservatives

to fix atmospheric nitrogen. The process by which include salt, sugar, oil and vinegar. We use
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free atmospheric nitrogen is converted into nitrogen common salt to preserve meat and fish in the form
compounds is called nitrogen fixation. During this
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of salted meat and salted fish. Sugar is used as a

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process, nitrogen is converted into a form that can be preservative in jams and jellies. Oil and vinegar are
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used by plants. When these plants are eaten by animals, used in preserving pickles and chutneys.
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this converted nitrogen passes on to the animals. When

3. Heat and cold treatments: Microorganisms can
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plants and animals die, other bacteria living in the soil

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be killed or inhibited by high temperatures as

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break down the dead bodies and release the nitrogen

well as low temperatures. Milk is boiled to kill
back into the air, thus, completing the cycle. This
microorganisms and keep milk from getting
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cycling of nitrogen, through the atmosphere, soil and

spoilt soon. Low temperature inhibits the growth
living organisms is called nitrogen cycle.
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of microorganisms. Thus, when food like eggs,

(d) Microbial diseases that can spread from an infected cheese, cooked food, fruits and vegetables are kept
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person to a healthy person through air, water, food or in a refrigerator, they remain fresh for a longer
physical contact are called communicable diseases.
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period. We preserve some food by placing them

When a person suffering from the common cold
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at temperatures below 0°C. Food kept in deep

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sneezes, pathogens are released into the air. These freezers becomes frozen and can be kept from
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pathogens may enter the body of a healthy person

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being spoilt for many months. Meat and fish are

while breathing this air and he/she may also get a generally preserved using deep freezers.
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common cold. Diseases that are spread through the

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4. Dehydration: Since microorganisms grow in

air are called airborne diseases. Examples of air-borne
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moist conditions, removing water content from

diseases are common cold, influenza, chickenpox,
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food helps prevent spoilage. The removal of

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mumps and tuberculosis

water from food material is called dehydration.
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(e) When a female Anopheles mosquito bites a person Sun-drying is the most common method
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suffering from malaria, the pathogen, a protozoan of dehydration in our homes. In factories,
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called Plasmodium enters its body along with the

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dehydration is done by using special dehydrators.

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blood. When the same mosquito bites a healthy Many vegetables and fruits can be preserved by
person, the pathogen may enter his/ her body and that dehydration. Sun-dried tomatoes, dried herbs and
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person may also get infected with malaria. dehydrated fruits such as raisins and figs are some
(f) i. Air: When a person is suffering from common examples of dehydration.
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C. PUZZLE OVER • Polio: Polio was an infectious disease caused by
1. (a) By converting them into useful humus a virus.
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• Cholera: Cholera is a bacterial disease that usually
D. SKILL CRAFT spreads through contaminated water.
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1. (a) The bread looks spoilt. 3. The plant waste and soil were converted into manure
due to the presence of microorganisms. Microorganisms
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(b) We keep the bread uncovered so it will be in direct
touch with air. decompose organic matter which forms humus. Humus
increases the soil’s fertility. Microorganisms cannot act on
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(c) The bread was spoiled due to the presence of the plastic and so it was not converted to manure.
microorganism in the air.
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(d) If we had kept bread in the refrigerator then it would
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have stayed fresh for a longer duration since the Disease Vaccine
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growth of microorganisms would have been prevented.

If we had kept bread in the Sun, it would have lost its Tuberculosis BCG vaccine
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moisture and would have become dehydrated. Hepatitis B Hepatitis B vaccine
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2. Some diseases of the microorganism that have large-scale Polio Polio drops
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outbreaks were:
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Measles MMR vaccine

• Smallpox: Smallpox was an infectious disease caused
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by a virus.
As COVID-19 Covishield/CoVaxin
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Study Guide 1
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Developing Scientific Vocabulary Recalling Concepts

1. Crop 2. Rabi 1. (c) October.
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3. Ploughing or tilling 4. Broadcasting 2. (a) Groundnut

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5. Crop rotation 6. Microorganism 3. (a) Gunny bags

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7. Bacteria 8. Protozoa 4. (c) Insect

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9. Algae 10. Fungi 5. (d) Protozoa

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6. (a) Lactobacillus
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Interpreting Graphics
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1.
Agricultural practices
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1. Preparation 2. Selection 3. Improving 4. Irrigation 5. Crop protection

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of soil and soil fertility

sowing of
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seeds Traditional Modern 6. Harvesting

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Ploughing Broadcasting Fertilisers Moat, Chain Sprinkler

pump, Dekhli irrigation and
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Levelling Seed drill Crop rotation

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and Rahat Drip irrigation

7. Storage
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2.
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Microorganisms are useful Microorganisms are harmful

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1. in Baking industry to make bread 1. by causing foot and mouth disease in animals
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2. in Medicine to make antibiotics and vaccine 2. by spoiling food

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3. in cleaning the environment 3. by causing Late blight in potatoes

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4. in agriculture by Nitrogen fixation 4. by causing chicken pox in Humans

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Thinking Critically therefore deprive crop plants of essential inputs. As a result,
the growth and yield of the crop are adversely affected.
1.
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Kharif crops Rabi crops 4. Crop rotation is the practice of planting different types
of crops sequentially on the same plot of land to improve
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These crops grow during These crops grow during
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the rainy season. the winter season. soil fertility. When the maize or the wheat crop is grown
in the field, it takes away a lot of nitrogen from the soil
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They are sown at the They are sown at the start leaving the soil nitrogen deficient. When a groundnut crop
start of the rainy season of the winter season during is cultivated on the same field, the nitrogen-fixing bacteria
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during June–July and are October–November and present in the root nodules of the groundnut plants enrich
harvested by the end of
rs are harvested at the end of the soil with nitrogen compounds and increase its fertility.
the rainy season during the winter season during As a result, nutrients in soil get replenished over time.
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September–October. March–April.
5. Viruses behave like non-living things most of the time.
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Kharif crops thrive in hot, Rabi crops thrive in cold However, when they find suitable living cells, they can
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humid, and wet conditions. and dry conditions. undergo reproduction like living things. Therefore, they
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Examples of kharif crops Examples of rabi crops are can neither be called living things nor non-living things.
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are paddy (rice), maize and wheat, barley and mustard. Examples of viruses are the common cold virus causing the
common cold, Influenza virus causing influenza (Flu) and
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groundnut.
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) causing Acquired
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2.
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Manure is a natural fertiliser formed by the breakdown Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
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or decomposition of plant and animal remains, and waste 6. The process by which sugar present in food is converted
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material and supplies nutrients in small quantities, and into alcohol and carbon dioxide with the help of
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organic matter such as humus in large quantities. Chemical microorganisms is called fermentation. A fungus, called
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fertilisers are manufactured in factories but are rich in a yeast, helps in making soft and spongy bread. Yeast is
particular plant nutrient (such as nitrogen, phosphorus or added to a mixture of flour, salt, sugar, and water to form
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potassium). Human-made fertilisers have plant nutrients a dough. When kept covered in a warm place for a few
in large quantities and in a concentrated form that is easily hours, the yeast in the dough converts sugar to alcohol
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absorbed by plants. So, human-made fertilisers help in and carbon dioxide. As more and more carbon dioxide is
quickly improving the fertility of the soil. Therefore, a produced, the bubbles of carbon dioxide gas fill the dough
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farmer should ideally use a combination of manure and and increase its volume.
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chemical fertilisers. 7. Medications that destroy or slow down the growth of

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3. Unwanted plants that grow alongside useful crops are bacteria are called antibiotics. They are mostly used to
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called weeds. The growth of weeds in a crop field is treat diseases caused by bacteria. Common cold cannot be
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harmful because they compete with the growing crop treated with antibiotics because it is a viral infection caused
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plants for nutrients, water, space and light. Weeds generally by viruses.
grow quickly, absorb more nutrients and water, and
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Chapter 3: Synthetic Fibres and Plastics

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Section Review 1 Section Review 2

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Synthetic fibres Thermoplastics

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Natural fibres Thermosetting plastics

Less expensive More expensive Plastics that can be heated to Plastics that once heated and
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Readily available Not readily available mould and remould repeatedly moulded cannot be remoulded
are known as thermoplastics. are known as thermosetting
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Strong and durable Weak and less durable plastics or thermosets.

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Does not wrinkle easily Gets easily wrinkled These generally have a These generally have a cross-
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Lightweight and soft Heavy and not so soft linear arrangement of their linked arrangement of their
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monomers. monomers.
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Less absorbent More absorbent

Example of thermoplastic is Example of thermoset is
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Melt on heating Does not melt on heating Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC). Bakelite.
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Feels hot and uncomfortable in Feels cool and comfortable in

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summer summer
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Easy to maintain Need maintenance

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Section Review 3
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Strong Inexpensive Water resistant Shock resistant Lightweight Thermal Electrical

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insulation insulation
Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes
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Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

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Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes

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Section Review 4 2. (a) Nylon
Nylon is the first fully processed synthetic fibre. Today,
(c) Plastics cause land and water pollution.
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nylon has become one of the most commonly used
Chapter Review synthetic fibre.
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Uses:
A. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Nylon is used in making ropes, socks, toothbrushes,
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1. (a) i. Bakelite, (b) ii. Melamine, car seatbelts, sleeping bags, curtains etc.
(c) iii. Bakelite, (d) i. Thermoset
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2. A nylon fibre is stronger than a steel wire;
2. (a) Nylon, rs (b) Thermoplastic, therefore, it is used in making ropes for rock
(c) Thermosetting, (d) PET climbing and parachutes.
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3. Natural fibres: Wool, cotton and silk Rayon
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Synthetic fibres: Nylon, polyester, rayon and acrylic Rayon is a man-made fibre, but it is not considered
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fully synthetic as it is obtained by the chemical
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Thermosetting plastics: Melamine and bakelite
treatment of cellulose collected from wood pulp which
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Thermoplastics: Plexiglas, PET, PVC, Teflon and polystyrene is a natural resource. Thus, it is considered as a semi-
4. (c) Fig. A is a thermoset and Fig. B is a thermoplastic synthetic fibre.
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Uses:
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B. SUBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS As 1. Rayon is used to make home furnishing products

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(a) Properties of rayon such as bed sheets, curtains, blankets etc.

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• Rayon can be dyed in various colours and can be 2. It is also used in making diapers, sanitary products,
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woven like natural silk fibre. bandages and gauze for dressing wounds.
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• It is cheaper than silk. Polyester

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Uses of rayon Polyester (poly + ester) means many ester groups. It is

• Rayon fibres are used to make clothing such as sarees, sold under various names, polycot, polywool, etc.
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shirts, dresses, scarves, etc. Uses:

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• Some rayon fibres are used for making home 1. Polyester fabrics are used to make suits, jackets,
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furnishings including bed-sheets, blankets and curtains and anything that you can wear for casual,
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Properties of polyester business or formal occasions.
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• Polyester are easy to wash and do not get wrinkled 2. It is also used to make blankets, rugs, upholstery
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easily thereby making them suitable for dress materials. and curtains.
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• They are strong, elastic and lightweight. Acrylic

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Uses of polyester Acrylic is a cheaper substitute of wool. Therefore, the

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clothes made from acrylic are cheaper than the clothes

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• Polyester fabrics are used to make suits, jackets, and

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anything that you can wear for casual, business or made from wool.
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formal occasions. Uses:

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• They are also used to make blankets, rugs, upholstery 1. Acrylic is lightweight, soft and retains heat. It is
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and curtains. wrinkle resistant, shrink resistant and

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(b) Advantage of synthetic fibres: Synthetic fibres are water resistant.

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stronger than the various natural fibres like wool and silk, 2. Acrylic is used for making sweaters, shawls
so they can take up heavy things easily. and blankets.
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Disadvantage of synthetic fibres: Synthetic fibres are not (b)

comfortable to wear during summer as they do not
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absorb sweat. Thermoplastics Thermosetting plastics

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(c) Thermosets: Bakelite and Melamine The plastics in which monomers The plastics in which long-
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Thermoplastics: Polyvinyl Chloride and are arranged linearly and polymer chains are cross-linked
have no cross-links are called with one another are called
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Polytetrafluoroethylene
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thermoplastics. thermosetting plastics.

(d) Bakelite is extensively used in electrical switches because of
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Thermoplastics can be melted These plastics when moulded

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its electrical insulation properties.

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and reshaped when heated. once cannot be softened

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(e) Properties of plastics

by heating.
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• Plastics are lightweight and strong.

Examples of thermoplastics Bakelite and melamine
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• They are poor conductors of heat and electricity. are polyethylene, polystyrene, are some examples of
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Hence, they are good insulators. polyvinyl chloride, thermosetting plastics.

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Uses of plastics polytetrafluoroethylene,

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• Plastics are used for storing food items as they are light polymethyl methacrylate,
weight, easy to handle and non-reactive. polyethylene terephthalate, etc.
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• Covering of electrical wires and handles of screw

(c) Reasons why plastic waste are today a threat to the
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drivers are made by plastics as they are the poor

environment.
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1. Materials which are not easily decomposed of plastic bags in their shops. All initiatives have
by natural processes such as the action in common an aim to change consumer behaviour
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of microorganisms are said to be whether through education or creating incentives to
non-biodegradable. reduce the amount of plastic bags used.
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2. Most plastics do not biodegrade, but instead Garbage, also called solid waste, is generated by people at
slowly break down into small fragments known home, at! work, on vacation well, everywhere! Based on
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as microplastics. Such materials accumulate in the the research students form a hypothesis on plastic waste.
environment, do not degrade for hundreds of years
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and are, therefore, not environment friendly. C. PUZZLE OVER
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3. The same properties that make plastics so 1. (b) Polyester
useful—their durability and resistance to
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degradation—also make them nearly impossible D. SKILL CRAFT
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for nature to completely break down. 1. Students should find and create a list of materials that are
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(d) Over the last decades’ environmental movements replaced by plastics over a period of time.
have triggered research into the use and effects of
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2. Students should read and search about ‘The Great Pacific
plastic bags which has inspired campaigns, education Garbage Patch’ on the internet.
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and initiatives from various perspectives. In some

countries the governments have acted to minimize 3. Students should identify and create a list of the materials
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the use. In other countries individual retailers have that can be used as safe alternatives over plastic products.
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committed themselves to the reduction of the use

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Chapter 4: Metals and Non-metals

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Section Review 1 (b) i. Tensility ii. Sonority iii. Lustre

(c) When a copper vessel is exposed to moist air for long,
1. (b) Aluminium 2. Metal bottle (the first picture)
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it reacts with oxygen, carbon dioxide and moisture,

3. and develops a green-coloured coating of copper
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hydroxide and copper carbonate.

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Metals Non-metals
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They are hard and lustrous. They are soft and dull.
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(Copper) (Moist air) (Copper (Copper

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They are non-malleable and

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They are malleable and ductile. hydroxide) carbonate)

non-ductile.
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They are good conductors of They are poor conductors of (d)

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heat and electricity. heat and electricity.

Basic oxides Acidic oxides
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One example is: iron. One example is: carbon.

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Metals react with oxygen in Non-metals react with oxygen

the air to form metal oxides or to form non-metal oxides or
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Section Review 2
basic oxides. acidic oxides.
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1. Beaker 2 – Iron 2. None of these

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These oxides are generally basic These oxides are generally

Section Review 3 in nature. acidic in nature.
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1. Copper is a good conductor of electricity. A solution of these oxides turns A solution of these oxides will
red litmus paper to blue. turn blue litmus paper to red.
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2. Metals are sonorous in nature.

(e) Reactivity series of metals is a list of metals arranged
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3. Aluminium is highly malleable in nature.

in the decreasing order of reactivity.
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Chapter Review 2. (a) Ductility:

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A. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS The property by which metals can be drawn into wires
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is called ductility. Ductile materials like aluminium

1. (a) iii. Metal hydroxides, (b) iv. Metal salts,
and copper are used to make electrical wires. Due
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(c) iv. Calcium, (d) ii. CO2 to this property, metals are used in making gold and
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2. (a) Malleability, (b) Non-metals, silver chains and tungsten filaments inside bulbs.
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(c) more, (d) blue, red Conductivity:

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3. (a) Phosphorous, (b) Diamond, The property by which metals allow heat and
electricity to pass through them easily is called
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(c) Rust, (d) Displacement reaction,

conductivity. Due to this property, aluminium and
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(e) Chlorine
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copper are widely used in making cooking utensils as

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4. Elements X and Y could be: Aluminium, Sodium and Iron. well as electrical wires.
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Tensility:
The property by which metals can stretch to hold large
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1. (a) Metals: Aluminium, copper, magnesium and sodium. and heavy objects without breaking is called tensility.
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Non-Metals: Oxygen, carbon, sulphur and phosphorus.

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Due to this property, metals are used in building Reaction with bases Some metals react Non-metals react
suspension bridges. with strong bases with bases to form
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(b) i. Magnesium on heating, burns in air (oxygen) with to form a salt and complex reactions.
a dazzling white light to form magnesium oxide.
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release hydrogen gas.
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Magnesium + oxygen Magnesium oxide
(e) Displacement reaction:
ii. Zinc reacts with sodium hydroxide to form
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sodium zincate and hydrogen. A reaction in which a more reactive metal displaces
the less reactive metal from its salt solution.
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Zinc + Sodium hydroxide
Sodium Zincate + Hydrogen For example, when zinc metal (silvery white) is placed in
rs a copper sulphate (blue) solution, the blue solution turns
iii. When copper reacts with water, no reaction occurs
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colourless and the zinc metal turns reddish brown.
as copper is less reactive than hydrogen.
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Copper + Water No Reaction Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu

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(Zinc) (Copper sulphate) (Zinc (Copper)
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iv. When iron reacts with copper sulphate solution, it
forms iron sulphate solution and copper metal. sulphate)
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Iron + Copper sulphate Iron sulphate + Copper Zinc being more reactive than copper, displaces
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it in the copper sulphate solution. The colourless

(c) solution indicates the formation of zinc sulphate and
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Physical property Metals

As Non-metals the reddish-brown colour on the zinc metal is the
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deposition of copper.
Hardness Almost all metals Most non-metals are
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are hard. soft.

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C. PUZZLE OVER
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Tensility Metals have high Non-metals have 1. (b) Iron

tensility. low tensility.
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Conductivity Metals are good Non-metals are bad D. SKILL CRAFT

conductors of heat conductors of heat
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1. Anna needs a potholder to take down the cooking pot from

and electricity. and electricity. the gas stove as metals are good conductors of heat. To take
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Ductility Almost all metals Most non-metals are down the pot without the use of the potholder, the handle
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are ductile. non-ductile. of the pot should be covered with non-metal as they are
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bad conductors of heat.
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(d)
Property of metals: Metals are good conductors of heat
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Chemical property Metals Non-metals Property of non-metals: Non-metals are bad conductors
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Reaction with Metals react with Non-metals react of heat

2. i. Iron pillar of Delhi: It is made of a rust-resistant
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oxygen oxygen in to form with oxygen to form

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metal oxides or non-metal oxides or composition of metals.

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basic oxides. acidic oxides. ii. Golden Temple: It is made of hundreds of kilograms of
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Reaction with water Metals react with Non-metals are pure gold.
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water to form metal mostly non-reactive 3. i. Calcium builds bones and teeth.
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hydroxide and with water. ii. Magnesium helps to regulate blood pressure and
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hydrogen. blood sugar.

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Reaction with acids Metals react with Non-metals iii. Sodium and potassium balance fluids in the body.
acids to form metal generally do not
iv. Zinc helps in the process of blood clot.
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salt and hydrogen react with acids.

gas.
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Chapter 5: Coal and Petroleum

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1. (d) Solar energy 2. (a) Coal (a) Turn off her car engine at traffic red lights.
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Section Review 2 Petroleum; Exhaustible; They will get completely used up

in time and we will not get more until natural processes
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1. (c) Coke 2. (a) Coal tar 3. (b) Coal gas regenerate them, in a few million years.
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Chapter Review
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Section Review 3
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1. (b) Oil and gas have different densities. A. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
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2. (c) LPG, Petrol, Diesel 1. (a) Sunlight, (b) Anthracite, (c) Coal tar,
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3. (b) Buses and cars now use CNG as fuel (d) Carbon dioxide, (e) Bitumen
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2. (a) carbonisation, (b) reservoirs, (c) Destructive distillation of coal:
(c) Liquified Petroleum Gas, The process of heating coal in the absence of air is
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(d) Petroleum Conservation Research Association, called destructive distillation of coal. The main products
(e) methane obtained by this process are coke, coal tar and coal gas.
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3. (a) Peat, (b) Destructive distillation, Fractional distillation of petroleum:
(c) Reservoirs, (d) Fractional distillation, The process of separating oil into different fractions is
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(e) Compressed Natural Gas called fractional distillation. In this process fractions
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of petroleum having different boiling points cool
4. Types/products of coal: Coal tar, Coal gas, Coke,
and condense at different heights of the fractionating
Anthracite, Lignite
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Types/products of petroleum: Bitumen, Lubricating oil,
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are petroleum gas, petrol, naphtha, paraffin, diesel,
Kerosene, Petrol, Diesel
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lubricating oil, fuel oil and bitumen.
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5. (b) Gas and oil are lighter than water and these three (d) Natural gas is a cleaner fuel as it does not cause much
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substances do not mix. air pollution and is thus a good alternative to petrol and
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diesel for running vehicles. Due to this reason natural gas
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B. SUBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS is a green fuel.
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1. (a) Exhaustible: Forest, wildlife and fossil fuels. (e) 1. By switching to energy-saving home appliances
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Inexhaustible: Air, wind and sun. As with the Energy Star label, which is placed on
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(b) Coal is formed from plants and is called fossil fuel. products that meet high-efficiency standards.
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They are exhaustible because they take millions of 2. By turning off the lights when leaving a room for
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years to be formed. more than 15 minutes.

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(c) Peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite. 3. By using LED light bulbs, which are highly
(d) Petroleum gases: They can be processed into Liquified efficient and thus decrease energy consumption.
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Petroleum Gas (LPG), which is used as a portable fuel

for domestic and commercial cooking. C. PUZZLE OVER
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Petrol: It is used as a common fuel for most automobiles. 1. (a) coke, (b) bitumen, (c) kerosene,
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Naphtha: It is used as a solvent in the paint and (d) diesel, (e) lubricating oil
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soap industries.
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D. SKILL CRAFT
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Kerosene/Paraffin: It is used in aircraft as aviation fuel.

1. Students can make a model of water turbine using
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Diesel: It is used as fuel in heavy motor vehicles

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cardboard, corks, scissors, craft knife, pins, and running

and generators.
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water. For this, they need to make five to six slits

Lubricating oil: It is used for the lubrication of lengthwise in the cork. Cut out rectangular pieces of
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moving parts of machines in the form of grease and cardboard the same length as and a bit wider than the cork.
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wax. These will be the blades of the turbine. Slide the blades into
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Fuel oil: It is used as fuel in large ships as marine diesel. the cork slits to form a propeller. Make a small cardboard
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Bitumen: It is used for surfacing roads and as a frame by cutting a strip of cardboard, and bending it into
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a “U” shape. Poke a pin into each end of the cork through
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waterproofing material.
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the cardboard frame. Hold the turbine model underneath

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(e) 1. Natural gas is mostly used as a domestic or a running tap (or use a jug of water over a bucket). Water
industrial fuel. turbines are generally considered a clean power producer,
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2. Natural gas can also be compressed and used to as the turbine causes essentially no change to the water.
fuel vehicles in the form of Compressed Natural They use a renewable energy source and are designed to
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Gas (CNG). operate for decades. They produce significant amounts

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2. (a) Fossil fuels include coal, petroleum (oil) and natural of the world’s electrical supply and thus reduce the use of
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gas. These are called fossil fuels because they are fossil fuels.
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formed from the remains of plants, animals and other 2. Ask the students to use the Internet and visit www.aqi.in to
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living things that lived long time ago. These remains obtain the data.
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over time slowly changed in form to become different

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Causes of air pollution:

kinds of fossil fuels. Coal is formed from plants.
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Petroleum and natural gas are formed mainly from • Burning of fossil fuels.
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• The gases emitted from vehicles.

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microscopic organisms such as algae.

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(b) Not conserving exhaustible resources such as forests • The gases emitted from factories and industries.
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has lead to wiping out of many species of animals and Air pollution control measures:
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plants. It has also created an imbalance of gases in

• Prefer public modes of transport to travel from one
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the atmosphere and resulted in global warming. Also,

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place to another.
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excessive use of fossil fuels has led to their depletion. It

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would now take millions of years for them to replenish • Petrol and diesel should be replaced by CNG as fuel
again. Our future generations may not be able to use for vehicles.
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these fossil fuels. • By minimising and reducing the use of fire and
fire products.
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3. 4.
Positive sides of renewable Negative sides of renewable Long-term effects Short-term effects
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energy energy • Lower running cost. • No noise pollution.
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• Renewable energy never • High capital costs. • Low maintenance cost. • Easy to drive.
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runs out. • Energy storage is difficult. • Cleaner environment • Convenience of charging
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• Do not contribute to global • It is impacted by at home.
warming. environmental conditions
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• A cheaper form of
electricity. rs
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Chapter 6: Combustion and Flame

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Section Review 1 (b) There are three main types of combustion
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i. Rapid combustion: In a combustion reaction,
1. (a) A computer
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when external heat is applied, and a substance

2. (b) Paper is combustible, but water is non-combustible. burns in a short span of time releasing heat and
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Section Review 2
As light, it is called rapid combustion. Example:
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burning of a matchstick.
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1. (b) Oxygen in the glass used up completely ii. Explosive combustion or Explosion: In a
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2. (d) Use a carbon dioxide extinguisher combustion reaction, when external heat is
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applied, and a substance burns in a very short

Section Review 3 span of time releasing heat, light and sound with
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(d) It is the hottest zone. the liberation of gaseous compounds, it is called

explosive combustion or explosion. Example:
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bursting of firework.
Chapter Review
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iii. Spontaneous combustion: In a combustion

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A. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS reaction, when a substance burns to release

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heat and light without the application of an
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1. (a) iii. Explosive combustion, (b) ii. Spontaneous combustion, external source of heat, it is called spontaneous
(c) ii. Carbon dioxide, (d) ii. Higher than its ignition
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combustion. Example: Forest fires due to the heat

temperature, (e) i. Hydrogen of the Sun or lightning strikes
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2. (c) (a) Explosive Combustion or Explosion

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Combustible Non- Solid Liquid Gaseous (b) Rapid Combustion

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combustible fuel fuel fuel

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(d) The conditions required for a combustion reaction are

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Paper, Wood, Water Wood, Kerosene LPG the following:

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Coal, Kerosene Coal, oil, Petrol There must be fuel to burn, that is, the presence
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oil, Petrol, of combustible substances. For example, if we take

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substances such as water, sand or stones and heat them

Diesel, LPG, Sand, Stone Cow Diesel CNG in the presence of air or oxygen, they will not burn.
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CNG, Cow dung This is because they are non-combustible substances.

dung cakes, cakes So, the presence of a combustible substance is a
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Wax necessary condition for combustion to take place.

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There must be air to supply oxygen, that is, the

3. (a) Yes, the fuel used is inflammable. LPG and Kerosene presence of a supporter of combustion: For example,
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oil have very low ignition temperatures and, therefore, if we take a combustible substance such as paper and
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can catch fire easily. heat it in the presence of air or oxygen, it will burn.
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(b) Different substances have different ignition However, if we immediately cover it and block the
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temperatures. So, different placements of wick/ supply of oxygen, it will stop burning. So, the presence
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burning area control them to catch fire and burn at of a supporter of combustion such as oxygen is a
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necessary condition for combustion to take place.

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different temperatures.
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(c) All of them use inflammable fuel. Lamp and diya contain There must be heat or ignition to start the
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oil and LPG contains gas. This is to support burning. combustion process, that is, attainment of ignition
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temperature: A combustible substance starts to

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B. SUBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS burn only after it has attained a certain minimum
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temperature. It will not burn as long as its temperature

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1. (a) Combustible substances: Substances which burn in

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the presence of air or oxygen are called combustible is lower than its ignition temperature. Substances that
substances. Example: LPG. have very low ignition temperatures and, therefore, can
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catch fire easily are known as inflammable substances.

Non-combustible substances: Substances that do Petrol is an example of an inflammable substance.
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not burn in oxygen or air are called non-combustible

substances. Example: Water. e. A combustible substance starts to burn only after
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The temperature at which a particular substance burns and other living organisms may die due to the
in the presence of air is called its ignition temperature. action of carbon monoxide.
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2. (a) Types of fuels:
C. PUZZLE OVER
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Solid fuels Liquid fuels Gaseous fuels
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1. (c) The calorific value of LPG is higher than wood and
Fuels that exist in Fuels that exist in Fuels that exist in kerosene, so she should use the LPG stove.
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solid state at room liquid state at room gaseous state at room
temperature are temperature are temperature are D. SKILL CRAFT
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called solid fuels. called liquid fuels. called gaseous fuels. 1. History of Fuel: The first known use of fuel was the
Wood and coal are
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million years ago. Edwin Drake dug the first crude oil well in
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examples of are examples of are examples of
Pennsylvania in 1859 and distilled the oil to produce kerosene
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solid fuels. liquid fuels. gaseous fuels.
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for lighting. Throughout most of human history, only fuels

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(b) A substance starts to burn only after it has attained derived from plants or animal fat were used by humans.
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a certain minimum temperature. The temperature Gasoline is a fuel made from crude oil and other petroleum
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at which a substance burns in the presence of air liquids. We use fuel for heating, cooking, electricity, and in
is called its ignition temperature. A combustible
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our vehicles. Fuel can be used by individuals or commercial

substance will not burn as long as its temperature spaces, and is always used in our everyday lives.
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is lower than its ignition temperature. Therefore,
Some of the modern fuels are CNG (Compressed natural
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ignition temperature is important to the process

gas) and LPG (Liquefied natural gas). Gasoline or petrol is
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of ignition.
the most common fuel used in cars today. This specialized
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(c) Heat produced by 5.2 kg of fuel = 286000 kJ.

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fossil fuel is designed for four-stroke engines like the ones

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The calorific value of fuel is the amount of heat found in common cars.
produced by the complete combustion of 1 kg
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Gas is one of the most important fuels in the global heat

of fuel. and energy market. Its importance is unlikely to change
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The heat produced by 1 kg fuel = 286000/5.2 = over the next few decades due to the relatively large gas
55000 kJ/kg. reserves. LPG and biogas can be used in addition to natural
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Hence, the calorific value of the fuel is 55,000 kJ/kg. gas as fuel for gas heaters.
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(d) A good fuel should have the following characteristics: 2. As there is no gravity in outer space, the hot air will not
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move up and air will come to the flame from all directions,
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1. Readily available and reasonably cheap

the flame would expand in a uniform way. Hence, the
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2. Burns efficiently in air candle flame will be spherically shaped in outer space
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3. Moderate ignition temperature instead of its tear-drop shape on earth.

4. High calorific value 3. The purpose of the sand bucket is to try to immediately
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5. Its combustion should be controllable douse fire in case of an emergency. If there is fire, sand can
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be thrown over it to cut the contact of fuel from the air so

6. Its products of combustion should not be harmful.
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that the fire cannot extend further and be put off. Water
(e) Carbon dioxide and other harmful products are cannot be used in this case as petrol is lighter than water
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released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are and will float over water.
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burned. As fuel consumption increases, the harmful

4. It completely depends on the type and location of the fire,
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effects on the environment also increase.

it may be extinguished by: stamping it out, or smothering
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Looking at the consumption of these fuels we can it with dirt, sand or a blanket, by applying water, using an
hypothesise that: appropriate extinguisher or unplugging power, if electrical.
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1. Due to increased unburned carbon particles in Some of these methods are disastrous’ if wrongly used.
the environment Asthma and other respiratory
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If it's a grease fire (pan caught fire in the kitchen area).

diseases which are caused by these pollutants, First, turn the stove off then just cover the pan with a lid
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will increase that can completely cover it. Now due to a lack of oxygen,
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2. When fuels burn incompletely, they release carbon the fire will be put off in 20–30 seconds. Don't use a water
monoxide gas into the atmosphere. This gas is extinguisher or water on a grease fire.
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very dangerous as it is poisonous in nature. People

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Study Guide 2
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1. Fibres 2. Synthetic 3. Petrochemicals 1. (c) Wool 2. (b) Rayon

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4. Sonority 5. Ductility 6. Malleability 3. (a) Bakelite 4. (c) Sulphur

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7. Natural 8. Inexhaustible 9. Lignite 5. (a) Malleability 6. (d) Magnesium

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10. Non-combustible 11. Explosion 12. Extinguishers 7. (c) Sunlight 8. (c) Kerosene
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9. (a) Coal 10. (d) Coal

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1.
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Synthetic fibres
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Rayon Ac rylic Ny lon Poly ester
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Thermosetting plastics Plastics Thermoplastics
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Examples: Bakelite, Melamine Examples: Polyethylene, PVC, Polystyrene
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2.
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Hard, lustrous, malleable, ductile, sonorous and
Physical properties
good conductor of heat and electricity.
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Metals As
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Metals react with oxygen in the air to form basic

Chemical properties
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oxides. They react with water to form metal
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hydroxide and hydrogen.

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Elements
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Soft, non-lustrous, non-malleable, non-ductile,

Physical properties non-sonorous and poor conductor of heat
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and electricity.
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Non-metals
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Non-metals react with oxygen in the air to form

Chemical properties
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acidic oxides. They are mostly non-reactive
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with water.
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3.
Natural resources
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Inexhaustible natural resources Exhaustible natural resources

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Air Forests
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Wind Wildlife
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Examples:
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Coal, petroleum (oil)

Sun
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Fossil fuels and natural gas

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4.
Combustion
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Doesn’t require external heat Require external heat

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As
am
&
Spontaneous
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Rapid Explosion
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Examples: Burning of white Examples: Burning of a matchstick Examples: Bursting of fireworks and
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phosphorous and forest fires and cooking gas burning of rocket fuel
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Thinking Critically Oil well
1. (a) Rayon can be easily dyed in a variety of colours and
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can also be woven into fabric. It is highly absorbent
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and doesn’t crease easily.
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(b) Nylon is one of the strongest synthetic fibres and
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is said to be stronger than steel wire of the same
thickness. It is elastic and lightweight.
Impervious
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(c) Polyesters are strong, elastic and lightweight. rock
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(d) It is lightweight, soft and retains heat. It is wrinkle- Oil Water
resistant, shrink-resistant and water-resistant and is
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cheap than wool.
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(e) PVC is lightweight, tough and weatherproof.

5. Fossil fuels are formed from the remains of plants, animals
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2. Aluminium is hard, lustrous, sonorous, malleable, ductile and other living things that lived long ago. These remains
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and a good conductor of electricity and thus follows all
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over time slowly changed in form to become different
the properties of metals due to which it is considered as kinds of fossil fuels. The process of the formation of
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metal whereas graphite is soft, non-lustrous, non-sonorous, fossil fuels requires millions of years. Dead vegetation
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non-malleable and non-ductile and thus follows all the

As and animals buried deep inside the earth require high
properties of non-metals due to which it is considered as
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temperatures and pressure to form fossil fuels, which

non-metal. cannot be done in the laboratory.
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3. According to chemical reactivity, metals are arranged in

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6. If we do not use fossil fuels judiciously, then all glaciers will

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a series known as the activity series of metals. It is a list melt and we all will get submerged in water.
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of metals arranged in decreasing order of reactivity. It is

also called the reactivity series of metals. The most active 7. In the LPG stove, complete combustion takes place
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metals are at the top of the list. The least active metals resulting in a clean blue flame whereas in the case of a
wood stove due to incomplete combustion flame produced
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are at the bottom. When a more reactive metal reacts

with a less reactive metal’s salt solution, a displacement is yellow in colour.
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reaction occurs. 8. In candles, incomplete combustion is useful to occur

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4. Petroleum or crude oil reservoirs are found beneath the because without it there would be hardly any light whereas
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land or ocean floor. Petroleum is lighter than water, so it in LPG stove, we want complete combustion to occur
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floats over water. Natural gas is lighter than petroleum, so because it liberates more heat energy and less harmful
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products.
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it is found above petroleum and is the first one to come out

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while drilling the oil well.

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Chapter 7: Conservation of Plants and Animals

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Section Review 1 Chapter Review

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1. (a) Decrease in the number of plants and animals

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2. (a) Decrease in the level of groundwater

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1. (a) iv. all of these (b) ii. Pollution

3. (b) Trees help prevent soil erosion. (c) i. Reforestation (d) iii. Afforestation
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Section Review 2 (e) iv. Red Data book

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2. Endangered: Tiger, Giant panda, Blue whale, Snow leopard,

1. (d) increases the forest area Tasmanian devil, Rhinoceros, Asian elephant, African wild
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2. dog, Baobab tree, Green pitcher plant, Rafflesia plant

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National park Wildlife sanctuary Gaseous fuels Extinct: Tasmanian tiger, Saint Helena olive, Dinosaur,
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Dodo, Passenger pigeon, Great auk

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Human activities not Human activities Government owned

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3. (a) Wildlife (b) Extinct

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allowed such as grazing of

animals allowed. (c) Endemic species (d) National Park
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Over 100 national Over 500 wildlife (e) Migration

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parks in India sanctuaries in India. 4. (d) both (a) and (c)

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Example: Jim Corbett Example: Periyar Example: Great

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National Park Wildlife Sanctuary Nicobar Biosphere
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1. (a) The large-scale destruction of forest due

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Section Review 3 to natural or human-made cause is

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called deforestation.
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1. (c) Endemic species

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2. (d) All of these

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Two types of deforestation (d) It is very important to monitor and track endangered
• Natural deforestation species to know the occurrence, distribution and status
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of wildlife for their protection and preservation.
• Human-made deforestation
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(b) When new trees are planted in an area where there C. PUZZLE OVER
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were no trees before, to create a new forest, it is called
1. Tribal people depend on the forest for their livelihood.
afforestation.
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They get food, clothes, shelter, wood, medicine, etc. in
(c) Conservation is the management of biodiversity, return for this they conserve the resources of forests,
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that is, managing all living things that are a part of prevent from habitat loss of wild animals, hunting of
an ecosystem. It involves the use and preservation of
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resources without overexploiting or wasting them.
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(d) Main objectives of IUCN are: D. SKILL CRAFT
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• To encourage international cooperation 1. Encourage students to collect all the necessary details
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which will help them to create a poster.
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• Provide scientific knowledge and tools to guide
conservation action. 2. Panchmarhi Biosphere Reserve, India
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(e) Two ways by which we can conserve trees are: • It is a non-use conservation area.
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• By reducing the use of paper • It was created in 1999 by the Government of India for
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• By planting trees As the protection and preservation of wildlife.

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2. (a) Causes of deforestation • It is located in Satpura range of Madhya Pradesh state.

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• Natural causes such as droughts, floods, storms, • It consists of Satpura national park along with Bori and
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Panchmarhi wildlife sanctuary.

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forest fires, due to lightning.

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• Human-made causes such as agriculture, • Flora – Wild mango and Sal, teak.
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requirement of wood, urbanisation and • Fauna – Bison, Indian giant squirrel, flying squirrel,
cattle overgrazing. Wolf, leopard.
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(b) Four consequences of deforestation are • Panchmarhi word comes from Hindi word ‘Panch’
which means five and ‘Marhi’ means cave – the
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• Desertification: The rapid loss of topsoil and loss

of plant life on productive land. famous Pandav caves which were built by five
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Pandava brothers of the Mahabharatha era.

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• Disturbing the balance of atmospheric gases: Trees
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maintain the level of carbon dioxide and oxygen 3. Need for Conservation
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by photosynthesis. • Population increases day by day, to fulfil the

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• Greenhouse emissions: Carbon dioxide is a requirement of the people we exploit natural resources
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greenhouse gas which leads to global warming. which create harmful effects on the environment,
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which in turn harm human life.

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• Floods: Due to deforestation water is not absorbed in

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the ground which cause excess water. • Cutting down of trees for the establishment of
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industries causes air pollution, water pollution and soil

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(c)
pollution. In metro cities, schools are frequently closed
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Wildlife sanctuaries National parks Biosphere reserves whenever there is a spike in air pollution.
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These are areas that These are areas These are the area 4. Dear Human,
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are established for that are established that are established We are animals who are on the endangered list due to
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the protection of to protect plants, to protect the entire your activities. You have destroyed our home to fulfil your
particular species, animals and their biodiversity of the requirements. You used us for commercial purposes. Due
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especially species of natural habitats. area, including the to the high rate of pollution, we are not able to live in our
wild animal. tribal people who natural environment. You are responsible for the spread of
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live in that area. diseases. We animals request all humans to not destroy our
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habitat and let us live in peace in our natural environment.

Example: Asola Bhatti Example: Gir Forest Example: Nilgiri
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Animals in the endangered list

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Chapter 8: Cell: Structure and Function

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Unicellular: Amoeba, Paramecieum, Yeast, Euglena, Bacteria Part of the cell Structure function Structure function
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Multicellular: Humans, Giraffe, Rat, Shark, Lily plant, Mushroom,

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Mango tree Nucleus Spherical and Nucleus controls all

generally located in cell’s activities and
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the centre of the cell. is the control centre

of the cell.
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Chromatin fibres A thin thread-like Change into 3. (a) Cell membrane, (b) Organelles, (c) Golgi complex or
structure found in chromosomes apparatus, (d) Nucleolus, (e) Cellulose
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the nucleus. during 4. (c) The onion is multicellular because it is made of
many cells.
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cell division.
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Endoplasmic Thin-walled Transporting B. SUBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
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reticulum tube found in the material across the
cytoplasm. cell. Synthesis of 1. (a) Cell: The structural and functional unit of a living
organism.
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proteins and fats.
(b) The main parts of cell are:
Golgi complex Tube-like structures
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found in the and other materials i. Cell membrane
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cytoplasm. in the cells. ii. Cytoplasm
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Cell membrane The flexible It allows all material iii. Nucleus

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boundary that to move in and
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(c) Cell organelles are special and well-organised
separates the out of the cell. It also structures that can be found in living cells.
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cells from its gives shapes to the Two organelles seen in an animal cell is
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surroundings. cell.
i. Centrosome
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Lysosomes Small round bodies They help to break

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containing chemicals down foreign
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called enzymes materials in the cell. (d) 1. Nucleolus 2. Mitochondria

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3. Lysosomes 4. Centrosome
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Ribosomes Small round body They help in

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either floating free the synthesis of (e) Functions of the cell wall in plant cell are:
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in the cytoplasm proteins. i. Cell wall protects the cell contents.

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or attached to ii. Cell wall provides rigidity, strength and

the Endoplasmic protection.
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reticulum.
2. (a) Unicellular organism
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Nucleolus Small round It helps in the A unicellular organism, like Amoeba, captures and
body found in the synthesis of
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digests food, respires, excretes, grows and reproduces.

nucleus. ribosomes.
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In multicellular organisms, similar functions are

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Section Review 3 carried out by groups of specialised cells forming

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different tissues. For e.g., humans, animals etc.

Parts of a cell Found in plant cells Found in animal
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cell (b) i. Cell Membrane: If a cell loses its cell membrane,

the outer components flood into the cell,
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Golgi apparatus Yes Yes and there is no longer a mechanical barrier

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Nucleus Yes Yes to exchange material from the surrounding

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environment via diffusion or osmosis. As a result,

Cell wall Yes No
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the protoplasmic material will disappear and the

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Mitochondria Yes Yes

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cell will eventually die.

Large vacuole Yes No ii. Nucleus: The nucleus controls all of the cell
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Lysosomes No Yes organelles. So, if it is removed there will be

no organisation in the cell. The cell will not meet
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Cell membrane Yes Yes its essential requirements and therefore it will die.
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Endoplasmic Yes Yes iii. Mitochondria: Mitochondria is known as the

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reticulum powerhouse of cell. It produces ATP as a source of

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Plastids Yes No energy. If the mitochondria are missing from the

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cell, the energy metabolism of the cell get reduced.

Chromatin fibres No Yes
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iv. Endoplasmic reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum

Centrosomes No Yes is essential for the survival of the cell. The cell won’t
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Nucleoplasm No Yes be able to produce new lysosomal enzymes, plasma

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membrane proteins, Golgi apparatus proteins, or

Ribosome Yes Yes
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proteins necessary for extracellular secretion without

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Nuclear membrane No Yes rough ER.

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v. Lysosomes: If there are no lysosomes present

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Chapter Review in the cell, foreign bodies will attack and harm
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the cell. Aside from that, the cell organelle

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A. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS that is not working, and even if the cell is dead
and not working, will spoil other cells because
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1. (a) iv. Microscope, (b) iii. Lysosome, (c) ii. Nucleus,

(d) ii. Mitochondria, (e) i. Cell wall nothing will be digested due to the absence of
the lysosome.
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2. (a) Organs, (b) Multicellular, (c) Mitochondria,

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(d) Ribosomes, (e) Cell wall

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(c) Differences 2. i. Name of the process by which cells absorb material
through the plasma membrane?
Plant cell Animal cell
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(a) Osmosis (b) Egestion
1 Plastids Present Absent
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(c) Endocytosis
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2 Cell wall Present Absent ii. Which of the following amino acid is the most basic?
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3 Cell shape Square or Round or irregular (a) Tyrosine (b) Glycine
rectangular
(c) Alanine
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4 Lysosomes Absent Present iii. Cell theory does not apply to:
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Similarities (a) Viruses (b) Microbes
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(c) Algae
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Plant cell Animal cell
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iv. A cell without a cell wall is referred to as

1 Cytoplasm Present Present
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(a) Protoplast (b) Apoplast
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2 Ribosomes Present Present (c) Tonoplast
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3 Golgi apparatus Present Present v. Choose a foodborne toxin
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4 Cell membrane Present Present (a) Diphtheria toxin (b) Cholera toxin
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Ribosomes
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Lysosome
Nucleus
vi. What cell organelles are involved in the formation of
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Nucleolus lysosomes?
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Mitochondrion
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Rough endoplasmic reticulum (a) Vacuoles (b) Golgi apparatus

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Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (c) Mitochondria

Chlo- Vacuole
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roplast 3. A single cell represents a unicellular organism. They can

Golgi apparatus Centrioles
Cell wall Cell membrane perform all of the functions required for life, whereas the
Cytoplasm
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multicellular organism is made up of many different or

(d) Plastids, found in plants and some parasites, are specialised cells, each with its own function.
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of endosymbiotic origin. Plastids provide essential (a) A single cell of a unicellular organism, such as an
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metabolic and signalling functions, such as the Amoeba, performs both vital life activities (such as
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photosynthetic process in chloroplasts. respiration, metabolism, repair, and assimilation)

and organismic level activities (such as food intake,
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C. PUZZLE OVER exchange of respiratory gases, excretion, and

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1. (d) The cell wall in plants is rigid. reproduction), whereas multicellular organisms have
the division of labour that allows them to do different
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D. SKILL CRAFT work.

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1. A microscope is an instrument used in basic and applied (b) As a result, unicellular organisms can exist
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science to observe microscopic cells. The function of the independently and perform all of the essential
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microscope is to enlarge, magnify and capture the image of functions of life.

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the microscopic cells. The principle of a simple microscope

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4. We all should work together as a team. This makes the

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is that when a specimen is placed within the focus of work better and easy to complete.
the microscope, a virtual, erect and magnified image is
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obtained at the shortest distance of vision distinct from the

eye placed on the lens.
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Chapter 9: Reproduction in Animals

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Asexual Sexual reproduction Budding Binary fission

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reproduction Number of parents Single parent Single parent

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Two individuals of Bud formation- Organelles

Number of parents Single parent
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different sexes repeated cell replication- nucleus

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Characteristics of Non-identical division- bud elongation and

Identical
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offspring Sequence of events maturation- new divisions- cytoplasm

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bud detachment- division- identical

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Amoeba and Humans and lions

Two examples
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Hydra independent daughter cell

offspring formation
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Parents divides to Section Review 4
Effect on parent Parent is unaffected
form offspring
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Male Female
Examples Hydra Amoeba
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Section Review 3 Produce male gamete called sperm Produce female gamete
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1. called egg or ovum
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Internal fertilisation External fertilisation
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Fusion of sperm and ovum takes Fusion of sperm and ovum
female. Female gamete is released by the ovaries.
place inside the body. takes place outside the body.
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Less number of eggs are Large number of eggs are
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produced at a time. produced at a time. Fertilisation occurs in the oviduct (fallopian tube)
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The female parent lays The female parent lays
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fertilised eggs or gives birth to unfertilised eggs. The zygote divides to form the single nucleus and it gets implanted in
live offspring.
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the uterus.
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Examples: Butterflies, snakes, Examples: Fish, crabs, starfish

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hens and humans, dog and frog As

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The cell of the embryo become differentiated and a fully formed foetus
2. is developed.
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Oviparous animals Viviparous animals

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Owls, Frog, Fish, Ostrich, Humans, Cow, Elephant, After the complete development is over, the female gives birth to the baby.
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Snakes, Butterfly, Duck Giraffe, Lion

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Chapter Review
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1. (a) ii. Snake, (b) i. Fish, (c) ii. Caterpillar, (d) i. Cow, (e) i. Sexual
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2.
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Sexual reproduction Oviparous Viviparous External Internal fertilisation Asexual

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fertilisation reproduction
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Frog, butterfly, human, Frog, fish, Cat, elephants, Fish, frog Butterfly, mosquito, Amoeba, hydra,
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duck, lion, giraffes, Cat, hen, snake, human, dog snake, hen, Cat, cow, bacteria, Dolly the
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snake, elephants, dog cow, lion human, elephants, dog, sheep, Paramoecium
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lion, giraffes
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3. (a) offspring, (b) Oviparous, (c) Metamorphosis, (d) In human, the gestation period is the development of
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(d) Fertilisation, (e) Zygote young ones from the time of conception until birth.
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4. (a) Egg, Tadpole, Froglet, Adult frog (e) Zygote: The diploid cell formed by the fusion of male
and female gametes, after fertilisation.
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Embryo: The embryo is the initial stage of the
1. (a) In Hydra, a small outgrowth called bud forms on the
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development of multicellular organisms. The zygote

side of parent cells. Bud forms at parent cells because after repeated cell division forms an embryo.
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of repeated cell division at one specific location. This

Foetus: From eight weeks after fertilisation when
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bud is attached to the parents’ bodies till it is fully

cell division takes place and all body parts have been
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mature. Once matured it detaches from its parent body

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developed and can be identified is called foetus.

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as an independent offspring. It is asexual reproduction

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because a small part of the body of the parent 2. (a) i.

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organism forms an outgrowth or bud which then

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Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

becomes a new individual.
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The type of reproduction in The type of reproduction in

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(b) The series of major changes by which a larva becomes

which offspring is produced by which offspring is produced
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an adult is called metamorphosis. The butterfly is a

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single parents. by the involvement of two

great example of metamorphosis as it undergoes a
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individuals from different sexes.

series of sudden morphological, physiological and
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behavioural changes i.e. from a tiny egg to a caterpillar The offspring is identical to the The offspring may look similar
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parents. to their parents but are not

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to a pupa to a beautiful butterfly.

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(c) In humans, the correct sequence of events during identical.

fertilisation is gamete formation, fertilisation (fusion Examples: Amoeba and Hydra Examples: Humans and Lions
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of gametes), zygote formation and embryo formation.

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ii. in which most of the cells become specialised cells
that work as a tissue. The third process is cellular
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differentiation in which cells change so that they can
In this type of fertilisation, In this type of fertilisation, perform a specific task. Cells arrange themselves into
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the fusion of male and female the fusion of male and female specific organs to carry out the life processes. From
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gametes takes place inside gametes takes place outside eight weeks after fertilisation when cell division takes
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the body. the body. place and all body parts have been developed and can
Male gametes are released Large numbers of gametes are be identified is called foetus.
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inside the female body. released in surroundings.
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Less number of eggs are A large number of eggs are
1. (d) Sperm cells are male gametes while ova are female
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produced at a time because produced at a time because
gametes.
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the chances of survival of eggs the chances of survival of eggs
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are more are less.

D. SKILL CRAFT
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Examples: Butterflies, snakes, Examples: Fish, crabs, starfish
1. Hydra has tentacles and a little growth on
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hens and humans, dog and frog
one side of its body known as a bud. On
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a few Hydra, a little bulb-like projection
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(b) An asexual reproduction that is artificially induced

to create an organism genetically identical to another known as the bud grows. This is called
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organism is called cloning. Genes, cells, tissues, and budding.
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even whole animals can all be cloned. Prokaryotes 2. • IVF is a laboratory procedure in
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create genetically identical cells by binary fission and which sperm and egg are fertilized
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budding. In eukaryotes such as humans, all cells which outside the body. In vitro fertilisation
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undergo mitosis are clones, such as skin cells. The only (IVF) is the treatment for infertility.
exceptions are gametes that undergo meiosis. • IVF is a series of procedures used to prevent fertility
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(c) No, the series of major changes by which a larva and assist with the conception of child.
becomes an adult is called metamorphosis. Humans
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• During IVF mature eggs are retrieved from ovaries and

do not go through metamorphosis because parts of fertilised by sperm in a lab. After fertilisation, fertilised
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the body are same in adult from the time of birth. egg is transferred to the uterus.
In humans, no changes take place in parts after
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birth. While in metamorphosis parts of the body are • One cycle of IVF takes three weeks.
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different in adults from the time of birth. • The procedure can be performed by using couples’
own gametes or by gametes of both sexes and embryos
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(d) Structure of sperm

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by known or unknown donors.

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Middle • IVF was initially introduced by Patrick Steptoe and

Tail
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Head Robert Edwards in the 1970s to treat female infertility

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caused by damaged or blocked fallopian tubes.
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• When the first IVF was conducted, the egg was removed
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from the ovary after a normal ovulatory cycle. This egg

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Mitochondria Nucleus was fertilised and implanted back into the uterus.
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• On October 3, 1978, India’s first test tube baby was

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Structure of ovum born. Her name is Kanupriya Agarwal. She is now

45 years old and lives in Mumbai with her family.
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3. The first in vitro fertilised child, Louise Joy Brown, was

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born on July 25, 1978, in Manchester, England. IVF

births are a regular practice today, despite being very
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experimental at the time. IVF raises a number of additional

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ill-use, including:
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• The method is also known to have distorted sex ratios,

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Nucleus which results in gender inequality.

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• Selective breeding and eugenic screening made possible

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by IVF treatments may ultimately produce designer

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children with traits specifically tailored to their parents’

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choices. This will amount to containing natural diversity

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among human beings.

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(e) There are three different processes in the development • Problems with undesired and orphaned embryos arise.
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of an embryo. First is growth in which a number of

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cells increases. The second process is development,

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Chapter 10: Reaching the Age of Adolescence
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Section Review 1 (b) Secondary sexual characteristics are the physical
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characteristics that develop during puberty which
Only in males Only in females In both distinguish the males from the females but are not
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directly involved in the process of reproduction.
• Facial hair appears • Development of • Growth of hair
(c) Deficiency disease caused due to the lack of thyroxine
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breasts in genital areas
• Broader shoulders is Goitre.
• Sperm production
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• Widening of hips • Change in Deficiency disease caused due to the lack of insulin is
voice
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begins • Ovulation occurs Diabetes.
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• Activation
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(d) Hormones produced by ovaries: progesterone and
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• Increased • Increased of sweat and oestrogen.

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production of production of
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sebaceous Hormones produced by testes: testosterone.
testosterone estrogen glands
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• Adam’s apple • Menstruation (e) Ovulation: After attaining puberty, every month one
• Growth of of the ova of either ovary matures and is released every
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appears starts body 28 days. This is called Ovulation.

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As Menarche: The first period or menstrual flow after

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Section Review 2 attaining the puberty is knows as Menarche.

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Menstruation: The unfertilised egg is removed along
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1. (c) Development of Adam’s apple

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with the thick, blood-rich lining of the uterus out of

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2. (c) Oestrogen—maturation of ova the vagina. This process is called Menstruation.

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2. (a) Endocrine glands are also called ductless glands

Section Review 3 because the hormones secreted by them are released
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(d) A has just stopped her periods so she is in menopause, directly into the blood instead of any ducts or tubes as
and B is in the middle of her period and so she is done in exocrine glands. The hormones secreted are
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undergoing menstruation. carried along with the blood to the target site where
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they perform their function.

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Section Review 4
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(a) To get proteins, fats, vitamins and carbohydrates in the Gland Location Function
required amount.
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Pituitary At the base TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone)

Gland of the brain controls the growth and functions of
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Chapter Review the thyroid gland.

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A. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS GH (Growth Hormone) controls the

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growth and development of the body.

1. (a) i. Thyroid, (b) i. Menarche, (c) iv. Menopause,
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Thyroid At the base Thyroxine regulates the rate of

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(d) iii. Menstruation, (e) ii. Menstruation

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Gland of the throat metabolism and respiration. It also

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2. (a) ii. Oestrogen, (b) iv. Growth hormone, plays an important role in growth
(c) vi. Testosterone, (d) i. Insulin, and development of the body.
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(e) v. Progesterone, (f) vii. Adrenaline, Adrenal One on Adrenaline (flight or fight hormone)
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(g) iii. Thyroxine Gland top of each prepares the body to respond to a
3. (a) Adolescence, (b) Pancreas, (c) Progesterone, kidney potentially stressful or dangerous
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situation.
(d) Sex chromosomes, (e) Sex chromosomes
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Pancreas Near the Insulin regulates the blood sugar

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4. Day 14
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liver level
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Testes Lie within Testosterone is responsible for

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the scrotum the production of sperm cells, the
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1. (a) The major changes that take place during puberty are:
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of the male growth spurt and the development

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• Increase in height
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body of secondary sexual characteristics

• Change in body shape in boys.
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• Change in voice Ovaries Lie in the Oestrogen is responsible for the

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• Increased activity of sweat and sebaceous glands pelvic region production of ova, the growth spurt
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• Maturation of reproductive organs of the female and the development of secondary

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body sexual characteristics in girls.

• Appearance of secondary sexual characteristics
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• Emergence of body and facial hair Progesterone is responsible for the

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• Mental, intellectual and emotional stability reproductive cycle in females as well

as milk-production after the birth of
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(c) Menstruation occurs when the inner lining of the • Poor health during adolescence can have negative
uterus is ruptured or removed and the fertilisation impacts on an individual’s future health and well-
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does not take place. being. For example, adolescents who experience
The menstrual cycle in females is: poor reproductive health may be at risk for
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unintended pregnancies, sexually transmitted
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• After attaining puberty, every month one of the
infections, and other health problems that can have
ova of either ovary matures and is released every
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long-term consequences.
28 days. This is called Ovulation.
• Promoting adolescent health can also have positive
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• The lining of the uterus becomes thick before
impacts on society as a whole. Adolescents who
ovulation to implant the fertilised egg. If the
rs are healthy and well-adjusted are more likely
egg is not fertilised, then this lining is ruptured
to contribute to their communities and achieve
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and removed out of the vagina along with the
success in their personal and professional lives.
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unfertilised egg. This is called Menstrual flow.
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• Finally, promoting adolescent health is important

• This occurs on the 14th day of ovulation and
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because it is a fundamental human right. All
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generally lasts for about 3 to 5 days.
adolescents have a right to live healthy, fulfilling
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• After the menstrual flow, the uterus again starts lives, and it is the responsibility of society to
preparing itself to receive the fertilised egg. If the ensure that they have the resources and support
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egg is not fertilised, then again the menstrual flow is they need to do so.
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experienced. As (f) Adolescence is a time when the body is undergoing

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(d) Human beings have one pair of sex chromosomes that rapid changes, so, it is very important to provide
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determines the sex of the foetus. Females have a set the appropriate nutrients to the adolescent. This
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of XX chromosomes whereas males have a set of XY can be done by eating a balanced diet with the
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chromosomes. This means the sperm of the male will

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right proportion of carbohydrates, proteins, fats

carry either X chromosome or the Y chromosome. and minerals. Adolescent girls, since they start
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The sperm will fertilise with the egg having only menstruating at this stage, need to have food rich in
X chromosome. Thus, ultimately the chromosome zinc, calcium and iron along with a balanced diet.
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carried with the sperm of the male will determine the

Trends like dieting or fasting must be avoided during
sex of the baby.
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this stage as it will do more harm than good to the body.

(e) There are several reasons why it is important
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to promote the overall health and well-being of C. PUZZLE OVER

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adolescents, including their reproductive health:

1. (b) childhood and adulthood
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• Adolescence is a critical period of physical,

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2. (b) by sharing the syringe with an infected person

emotional, and social development. Ensuring that
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adolescents are healthy and well can help them to

thrive and reach their full potential. D. SKILL CRAFT
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1. What I eat in a day- Milk, cheese, yogurt, tofu, orange

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juice, breakfast cereals, bread, milk, meat, chicken, whole

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grains and green vegetables.

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Weekly Meal Plan

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MEAL MON TUE WED THUR FRI SAT SUN

BREAKFAST Dosa and Poha with lots Dal Chilla Suji Upma Stuffed Paratha Omelette and Stuffed Paratha
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Chutney of vegetables Toast

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SCHOOL Banana and Fruit salad Apple and Oats and juice Apple and nuts Fruit salad Healthy green
LUNCH nuts with seeds walnut muffins with seeds and salad
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nuts
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SCHOOL Mix vegetable Dal Paratha Paneer Broccoli and Paneer cutlet Vegetable Arbi tikkis
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LUNCH sandwich sandwich chickpea cutlet stuffed paratha

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LUNCH Dal fry, Green leafy Aloo beans Ghee roast Khichdi/ Chapati with Rava-idli with
vegetable and vegetable, vegetable, dosa, Sambhar, Curry-rice green-peas sambhar and
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chapati chapati, salad chapati, curd Chutney korma chutney

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rice
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EVENING Fruit salad Fruits with Baked Steamed corn Fruit salad Dry fruits and Cottage cheese
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SNACK nuts and seeds makhanas chaat nuts with seeds and
nuts
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DINNER Mixed Moong dal, Bean curry Chapati, Chicken and Idli with Oven-baked
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vegetable, curd vegetable and with chapati, potato-carrot potatoes sambhar and chicken with
and chapati chapati rice and dal masala and chutney salad and
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curd buttermilk
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(Note: This is suggestive)

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2. The consumption of drugs and alcohol gives a temporary and promotes health and care of needy people and
feeling of happiness and excitement. People get attached communities. Its main functions include:
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to these feelings produced by drugs and alcohol and start • To provide relief and help to the victims of any
consuming them even when it is not required. Hence, the calamity (fire, flood, famine, earthquake, tsunamis,
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prolonged use of drugs and alcohol makes the body used
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etc.)
to it and increases its tolerance level. As a result, a higher
• To obtain and supply blood for the victims of war and
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dose of drugs or alcohol is required to get such feelings
other calamities (natural and man-made)
of happiness and excitement. This cycle, thus, keeps
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on repeating until it leads to drug addiction or alcohol • To provide first aid in accidents up to the maximum
addiction. rs extent.
The ill-effects of consuming drugs and alcohol are: • To educate people in accident prevention by arranging
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ambulance services.
• Immediate physical effect observed in an adolescent is
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extreme rough behaviour. However, a very high dosage • To take care of maternal and child welfare centres.
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might lead to death in extreme cases. 4. Akshit and his friends were sitting on their seats while
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• Also, a person suffering from alcohol or drug abuse travelling in a bus. A pregnant lady boarded the bus. Akshit
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commonly becomes dull, antisocial, depressed, tired, immediately got up to give her his seat. This teaches
us that-
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aggressive, devoid of motivation, etc.

• One should have compassion towards the other.
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• Excessive drug consumption leads to the transmission

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of many dangerous diseases like AIDS if the same • One should understand the changes a woman undergo
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syringe is shared among multiple people. during pregnancy and different problems faced by her.
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• Alcohol usage ultimately leads to the failure of vital • One should understand that due all the changes it
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organs like the liver and kidneys which leads to painful becomes really uncomfortable for pregnant women to
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death of a person. stand for a long period of time.

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3. Red Cross Society is a voluntary organisation providing

relief in critical times of disasters, emergencies
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Study Guide 3
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1. Deforestation 2. Desertification 1. (b) National Park 2. (c) Dodo

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3. Habitat 4. Cytoplasm 3. (a) Asiatic Lion 4. (b) Cell

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5. Tissues 6. Cell 5. (a) Micrometre 6. (b) Zygote

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7. Lifespan 8. Sperm, Ovum 7. (a) Sexual 8. (c) Embryo

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9. External 10. Hormone 9. (a) Amoeba 10. (d) Puberty

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11. Pituitary 12. Ovulation 11. (c) Pituitary 12. (d) Pancreas
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13. (d) Endocrine glands 14. (b) Ovulation

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1.
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Causes Deforestation Consequences

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1. Droughts 1. Desertification 5. Floods

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2. Floods 2. Droughts 6.
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Landslides
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3. Storms 3. Loss of habitats

7. Leading to greenhouse
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4. Human activities 4. Disturbing the balance emissions

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of atmospheric gases
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2.
Cell
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Cytoplasmic organelles
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Animal cell Plant cell

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1. Mitochondria
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum
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1. Centrosome 3. Ribosome 1. Cell wall

2. Lysosome 2. Plastids
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4. Golgi complex or apparatus

5. Vacuoles 3. Large vacuole
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3.
Types of reproduction
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Asexual Sexual
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Examples: Male Female
1.
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Binary fission.
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Example: Amoeba
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Sperm Ova
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2. Budding
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Example: Hydra
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Example: Frogs
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Example: Human beings
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4. As
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1. An egg develops in the ovary.

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4. The egg is not fertilised and so 2. The egg moves to the

the lining of the womb and the egg is shed as fallopian tube and the lining of the womb
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menstrual blood. thickens.

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3. The egg reaches the uterus

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The lining continues to thicken.

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Thinking Critically 6. i. Cells of green plants contain plastids called

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chloroplasts. These contain the green pigment

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1. The process of planting trees in a forest where the number chlorophyll that helps plants make food.
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of trees has been decreasing is called reforestation. When

new trees are planted in an area where there were no trees ii. Plant cells have non-green plastids called chromoplasts
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before, by creating a new forest, it is called afforestation. which give colour to flowers and fruits.
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Since in both cases forests are either being created or 7. Reproduction allows organisms to pass on their traits or
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restored, these can lead to the conservation of forests. characteristics to their offspring. The biological process by
which organisms give rise to their own kind, that is their
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2. Species of plants and animals found in a specific

geographical area are called endemic species. Their numbers offspring, is called reproduction. Young ones of living
organisms are called offspring. All organisms reproduce. If
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are greatly reduced across the world. They are the most
vulnerable of all and, therefore, those in the greatest danger reproduction did not happen, animals and plants would die
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of extinction, which can be due to natural causes or human after completing their lifespan and there will be no offspring
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activity. Thus, it is important to protect these species. to replace them. Thus, life would not exist on earth.
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8. Reproduction allows organisms to pass on their traits or

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3. If there would be no trees in hilly areas, then the rate of

occurrence of floods and landslides quadrupoles. characteristics to their offspring. The type of reproduction
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in which the offspring are produced from a single

4. Most cells are extremely small and can only be seen under parent is called asexual reproduction. Since this kind of
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the microscope, Hence, due to their small size cells were

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reproduction involves a single parent, it results in offspring

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not observed until microscopes were invented.

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that is an exact copy or is identical to each other as well as

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5. Living organisms are made of many organs and each organ to the parent.
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is made of specialised structures known as tissues. Tissues 9. In the case of external fertilisation, a large number of eggs
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are made up of cells. Cells are, therefore, the basic units are produced because the chance of survival of all the eggs
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from which an organism is made. Just like a brick is a basic is very less as the eggs are laid in an environment where
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building block of a house, cells are building blocks of a

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they are prone to various dangers whereas in the case of

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body. These tiny building blocks work together to perform internal fertilisation, less numbers of eggs are produced
all the functions of a body. Thus, the cell is the structural as the chance of survival of the eggs is more as they are
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and functional unit of a living organism. protected inside the body of the parent with a sufficient
supply of nutrients.
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10. Adolescence: The period of life, when the human body Change in voice Develop deep Develop a high-
undergoes changes, leading to reproductive maturity, is voice pitched and
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called adolescence. It begins around the age of 10 and lasts soft voice
up to 19 years of age.
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Development of Testes and The uterus and
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Puberty: Puberty is the period during which adolescents
reach sexual maturity and become capable of reproduction. sex organs penis develop ovaries enlarge
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It is only a small part of the larger stage of adolescence. completely
Females start puberty around the ages of 10 to 11, and In boys, the voice box or larynx increases in size. The
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males around the ages of 11 to 12. larynx protrudes outwards in the neck region and is called
11. Changes
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Adam’s apple. As the voice box grows, the voice in boys
can sometimes go from high to low or from low to high
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During Puberty
due to which the voice of adolescent males cracks. This
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Increase in height Rate of growth Grow faster in ‘cracking’ of voice eventually stops and their voices deepen,
increases in initial stages once the larynx has fully grown.
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later stages
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Change in body Becomes more Becomes curvier
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proportions muscular with as hips widen with

wide shoulders slender shoulders
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Chapter 11: Force and Pressure

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1. (a) A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting

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1. (a) Pull (b) Push

from the object’s interaction with another object. Two
(c) Pull (d) Push examples of force are pushing the pedal of the bicycle
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2. (a) A batsman hitting a cricket ball and pulling the door open or pushing it shut.
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(c) Bucket and the hand (b)

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Section Review 2 Balanced forces Unbalanced forces

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If two balanced forces act If two unbalanced forces act in

1. (c) It increases the speed of the box.
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in opposite directions on an opposite directions on an object,

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2. (b) The force applied makes a stationary object move. object, the object will not the object will move in the
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3. (d) The shape of the balloon changes move. direction of the greater force.
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4. (a) Its shape changes. Net or resultant force is zero. Net or resultant force is greater
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than zero.
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Section Review 3
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1. (d) (c) There are two general effects of force.

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i. Force can change the state of motion of an object –

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2. (a) ; because here gravitational force is acting which is a

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non-contact force. 1. It can make a stationary object move: When

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3. (b) ; because rubbing the balloon gives it an electric we sit on our bicycle and push the pedal, the
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charge that sticks it to the wall. bicycle starts to move.

2. It can change the speed of a moving object:
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Section Review 4 When we start pedalling faster, the speed of

the bicycle increases.
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1. (b) 20 N/m2 2. (b) 50 N

3. It can change the direction of a moving object:
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3. (b) The water exerts pressure to the top of the balloon.

When we turn the handlebar as we pedal, the
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Chapter Review direction of motion of the bicycle changes.

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4. It can make a moving object stop: When we

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A. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS press the brakes, the bicycle stops.

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1. (a) ii. Muscular force, (b) ii. Contact force,

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ii. Force can change the shape of an object-Force can

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(c) iii. The two surfaces touch each other, be used to change the shape and size of an object.
When a potter takes a ball of clay and shapes it on
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(d) iii. Electrostatic force

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the potter’s wheel, force is being used to change

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2. (a) Interaction, (b) Zero, (c) Friction,

the shape and size of the clay.
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(d) Pressure, (e) Greater

(d) Liquid pressure increases with depth. In this case
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3. (a) Muscular force, (b) Gravitational force,

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water pressure increases with depth, the lower portion

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(c) Muscular force, (d) Frictional force, of the dam has greater water pressure exerted upon it.
Dams are, therefore, made stronger and thicker at the
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(e) Magnetic force

bottom than at the top to withstand the high pressure.
4. Forces are in opposite directions. So, net force = 65N – 35
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N = 30 N
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2. (a) Forces can be broadly divided into two main types— (c) Properties of liquid pressure: Liquids such as water
contact forces and non-contact forces. exhibit certain properties related to pressure.
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i. Contact forces: Forces which are exerted when two i. Water exerts pressure on the walls of the
objects are in actual (physical) contact with each container that holds it. Liquid pressure increases
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other are said to be contact forces. They are of two with depth. As pressure increases with depth, the
types- muscular and frictional. pressure exerted by the deep waters of the sea is
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1. The force exerted by our muscles to push much greater than at the sea level. Thus, deep-
or pull an object is called muscular force. sea divers wear diving suits specially designed to
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Examples are pushing a door to open it, playing protect themselves against high pressures.
rs football, walking, chewing food, breathing, etc. ii. At the same depth, liquids such as water exert equal
pressure on all sides. If we take a bottle, make holes
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2. Frictional force or friction is the force that
in it at the same level and fill it with water. We will see
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opposes the motion of two surfaces that are in
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contact. Rough surfaces have more friction than water shooting out with equal pressure from all the
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holes, covering almost the same distance in each case.
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smooth surfaces. For example, when you kick a
ball on the ground, it moves a long way before it This shows that at the same depth, water exerts equal
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stops. If you hit the same ball with the same force pressure on all sides.
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on a rough carpet, it will barely move. iii. The pressure of a fluid depends on the height of
the column of water above the place where you
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ii. Non-contact forces: Forces which are exerted

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when two objects are not in actual (physical) measure the pressure. If we pour the same amount of
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contact with each other are said to be non-contact water into two cylinders, one cylinder being wide and
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forces. Gravitational force, electrostatic force and shallow, and the other being tall and narrow. We will
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notice that the pressure will be greater at the bottom

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magnetic force are examples of non-contact forces.

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of the tall, narrow cylinder. Now let’s pour different

1. The force with which an object pulls other
amounts of water into two cylinders of the same size.
objects towards itself is called the gravitational
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Here, the pressure will be greater in the cylinder

force or gravity. It is the force that holds the
with the taller column of water. This shows that a
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Earth, the Sun, and the stars together and keeps

taller column of liquid will have greater pressure on a
the planets in their orbits. Examples are fruits
surface than a shorter column.
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falling from trees, water flowing downward

(d) Atmospheric pressure is defined as the pressure exerted
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from a tap and a ball thrown up falling down.

on an object by the weight of the air above it. We will take
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2. The force that attracts a charged object to

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a plastic suction cup and stick it to a clean and smooth

another object is called the electrostatic force.
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surface such as a wall. Now, we will try to remove the

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Crackling sound of fibres of an acrylic sweater

suction cup by pulling straight at it. We will notice that
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when you take it off, rubbed plastic combs

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it will not come off. Next, we will try to pull it sideways

and rulers attracting pieces of paper, etc., are
by introducing a gap in it. In this case, the cup will easily
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examples of electrostatic forces.

come off. When we push the cup in place, the air is forced
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3. The force that attracts a magnetic substance out creating a vacuum inside. Atmospheric pressure will
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to a magnet is called the magnetic force. The push against the air outside the cup, forcing it to stay in
closer a magnet is to the object or another
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place. When we introduce a gap, air fills the cup, breaking

magnet, the stronger the force. Magnet
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the vacuum and the suction cup will fall off.

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attracting coins, metal clips and another

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magnet are examples of magnetic forces. C. PUZZLE OVER

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(b) The major characteristics of force are as follows: 1. (d) F1 + F2

i. Force requires interaction between objects: For
(b) 10 N/cm2
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a force to come into play, it is important that there 2.

are at least two objects that interact with each
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other. If there is no interaction between objects, D. SKILL CRAFT

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there is no force acting between them. A ball will 1. A manometer is an instrument used for measuring the
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liquid pressure. It is used to measure the pressure in

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move only if it is kicked, i.e. force is applied.

water pipelines as well as gas pipelines. A manometer is
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ii. Force has magnitude: The magnitude of a force is

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its size or strength with which it acts on an object. a U-shaped tube which contains a liquid. One arm of the
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Sometimes, the strength is less when passing a football U-shaped tube is open while the other arm is connected to
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to a team member or the strength may be more when the vessel whose pressure is to be measured. The difference
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kicking to score a goal. in liquid levels in the manometer shows the pressure
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applied. (Elaborate on these using images while making the

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iii. Force has direction: All force has direction. To report.)

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change the direction of the moving ball, we will

2. A bed of nails has lots of points that are close together
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have to kick the ball in a particular direction.

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When we kick the ball, we apply a certain force forming a large surface area for the magician’s body to
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cover. If it was one nail, a tremendous amount of pressure

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to change the direction of the moving ball. The

magnitude and direction of a force are equally is exerted on the nail’s tiny point. As a result, the point can
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important. When force is applied to push in a go straight through the skin. But hundreds of nails support
direction, the object moves in the direction in the weight of his body instead of just one. Thus, his body
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which the force is applied. does not exert enough pressure on any one nail for it to
penetrate the skin.
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3. Students can talk about examples like playing cricket, using a straw, using a sharp/blunt knife, syringes used by
opening and closing doors, flying a kite, drinking water doctors, etc.
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Chapter 12: Friction
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Section Review 1 (c) Friction is affected by a number of factors. Two of them are:
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i. The nature of the surfaces in contact. When we use
1. (c) ; the frictional force is acting between the floor and the
force to push a box, it seems hard to move the box. If
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box and resisting the motion of the box.
we pour some soapy water on the floor, we will find
2. (d) ; forward, opposite
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3. 1; the first suitcase has wheels and rolling friction is less
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ii. The force with which the two surfaces press on each
than sliding friction.
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other. A heavy box is difficult to move on a thick rug,
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whereas a plastic cup can be easily moved on a smooth

Section Review 2
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table. This is because more of the irregular edges on
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1. (a) ; allows for rolling friction to act on the wheels. the rug that the heavy box faces more friction, and
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2. (c) ; a streamlined body minimises fluid friction (also thus more force is required to move it.
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known as drag). (d) The force exerted by fluids that resist the motion of objects
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As that move through them is called fluid friction. This is also

Section Review 3 called drag or drag force. When we run or cycle fast, we
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1. (b) ; marble begins to roll and thus decreases the friction, feel as if air is pushing us back. This is an example of drag
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static friction, decreases exerted by air.

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2. (b) Water decreases the friction between the object and the 2. (a) There following are the explanations for the causes of
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water slide. friction.

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i. Objects may look smooth but show irregular edges

Chapter Review when observed under a microscope. It is believed
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that friction happens when the rough edges of one

A. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS surface interlock with the rough edges of another
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1. (a) iii. Both i and ii, (b) iii. From left to right, object, and some of the object’s energy is used to
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break off those rough edges to keep the object

(c) iii. Streamlined shape, (d) iv. Friction
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moving. Although rough surfaces have more friction,
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(e) ii. Making the surface smooth even completely smooth objects have some friction.
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2. (a) Rolling Friction, (b) Static Friction, (c) Fluid Friction,

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(d) Fluid Friction/Drag, (e) Sliding Friction

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3. (a) Reduce Friction, (b) Increase Friction,

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(c) Reduce Friction, (d) Reduce Friction,

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(e) Increase Friction, (f) Reduce Friction Force

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4. Air – Fluid friction

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Tyre – Static/Rolling Friction Friction

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Gear and chain – Rolling/Sliding Friction

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Weight – Static Friction

Gravity
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B. SUBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS ii. The other explanation is that friction is the result
of the molecules in both objects being attracted to
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1. (a) Frictional force or friction is the force that opposes the

motion of two surfaces that are in contact. If we try each other. When two surfaces come in contact,
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to move a big box across the ground, we need to exert their atoms and molecules pull each other to
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a pushing force on the box. It is difficult to push the themselves. When such surfaces are moved,
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box along the ground as it feels as if there is something breaking of these forces between them causes
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pushing against you. This force that pushes against resistance to motion or friction.
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your pushing force is the force of friction exerted by (b) The factors that affect fluid friction are as follows:
the ground.
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i. Speed of the object: The faster the speed at which

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(b) an object moves in a fluid, the greater will be the

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frictional force experienced by it. For example,

Static friction Sliding friction Rolling friction
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an aircraft flying at a greater speed experiences

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The frictional force The force of friction The frictional force greater friction due to air than the same aircraft
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that prevents two between two objects that slows down the flying at a slower speed.
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surfaces that are in when they are speed of the rolling

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ii. Size of an object: The larger the object, the greater

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contact from sliding sliding over each object. is the fluid friction it feels when moving through
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past each other. other. fluids. This means that a larger aircraft will feel more
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This is greatest This is less than static This is the least drag due to air as compared to a smaller aircraft.
amongst the three. friction but more amongst the three. iii. Shape of the object: Since air and water offer
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than rolling friction. great resistance to movement, it is important

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to have a shape that can travel through these Without friction, the car would be skidding
fluids with the least resistance. An object that is on the road causing accidents.
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shaped to travel through air or water with as little 3. Friction between paper and pencil enables us
resistance as possible is said to be streamlined. So, to draw and write on paper. If there was no
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an object that is streamlined will be able to pass
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friction, the pencil would keep slipping and we
through fluids with less resistance as compared to would not be able to write or draw anything.
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an object that is not streamlined. The shape of a
4. Friction between the hands and an object
bird and a fish are examples of a streamlined body
helps us hold the object easily by providing
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seen in nature.
a grip. If our hands are soapy, it is difficult to
iv. Nature of the fluid: All fluids do not show
rs hold a glass bottle as friction is less because
the same amount of fluid friction or drag. The of the soap.
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thicker the fluid, that is, the more viscous it
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5. Friction between a matchstick and a
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is, the more the drag exerted by the fluid. The

matchbox helps us produce a spark of fire.
thinner the fluid, that is, the less viscous it is, the
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If the edge of the matchbox was smooth, it
lesser the fluid friction exerted by the liquid. For
would be very difficult to light a matchstick.
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example, an object dropped in a jar of honey will
sink slowly as it experiences a much larger drag 6. Friction between the brakes and the bicycle
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than an object dropped in a jar of water. This is helps it slow down and stop, when we
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because honey is more viscous than water. apply brakes. If there was no friction, the
bicycle would continue to move fast even
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(c) Disadvantages of frictions are as follows:

when we press the brakes leading to a
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i. Wear and tear: possible accident.
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1. Friction between the shoes and the ii. Disadvantages of friction

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ground can cause wear and tear, leading to

1. Wear and tear: Friction between the shoes
the soles of shoes getting worn out.
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and the ground, tyre and ground, brake and

2. Friction between the surface of the road bicycle, all can cause wear and tear, leading
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and the tyre causes tyres to get worn out to the soles of shoes, trye treads and brake
due to wear and tear. When the tyres get shoes getting worn out respectively.
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worn out, it can lead to skidding. So, tyres

2. Generation of heat: Friction between
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should be replaced at regular intervals.

machine parts results in generation of
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3. Friction between the brakes and the

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heat in addition to them wearing out. This

bicycle results in brakes getting worn out requires regular replacement of high-
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in time. So, the brake plates should be friction parts. Sometimes if the friction
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regularly changed.
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generated is more, machine parts can

ii. Generation of heat: get overheated and can even damage the
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Friction between machine parts results in machine or reduce its lifespan.

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generation of heat in addition to them wearing 3. Expenditure of energy: When we need to

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out. This requires regular replacement of high- move something and it encounters friction,
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friction parts. Sometimes if the friction generated we need to expend more energy to overcome
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is more, machine parts can get overheated and friction. This results in waste of energy.
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can even damage the machine or reduce its

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4. Generating noise: When machine parts

lifespan. move against each other, the resulting
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iii. Expenditure of energy: friction can sometimes generate noise. For

When we need to move something and it instance, the door hinges that creak is caused
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encounters friction, we need to expend more due to the friction of the moving parts.
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energy to overcome friction. This results in So, we have seen how friction is a necessity due to its
waste of energy. For instance, when we push a usefulness and an evil due to its harmful effects.
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heavy box across the floor, it requires a great

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deal of energy. Automobiles expend energy in C. PUZZLE OVER

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the form of extra fuel to overcome friction. For

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1. (c) Sandpaper as it offers greater friction due to its

example, when a car is being driven in very rough surface.
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windy conditions, it results in expenditure of

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extra fuel as more fuel is required to overcome air 2. He should use a cart with wheels. This will reduce friction
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resistance. as rolling friction is less than sliding friction.

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(d) Friction is a necessary evil. Friction is necessary D. SKILL CRAFT

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in many daily applications as it prevents slipping or

1. (a) Skiing and friction – Students can talk about sliding
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sliding. But it can sometimes be a hindrance because it

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resists motion. friction and how ice reduces friction between surfaces.
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(b) Slippery surface vs Sticky surfaces – Students can

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i. Advantages of friction:
compare on the basis of the fact the sticky surface
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1. Friction between the feet and the ground would offer greater friction than slippery surface.
allows movements like standing, walking, etc.
(c) Skydiving and friction – Students can talk about fluid
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2. Friction between the surface of the road and friction and streamlining the body while diving.
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tyres of vehicles allows vehicles to move.

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2. The spring balance opposes the force of gravity acting on 3. Students can talk about examples like skating, driving a car
the object with the force of the extended spring. (Elaborate on a rainy day, applying brakes of the bicycle, writing with
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on it.) a pencil, bird flying in the sky, drilling a nail, etc.
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Chapter 13: Sound
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1. (a) Sound is a form of energy that is made by an object
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1. (d) A guitar string being plucked
when it vibrates. A vibration is the to- and-fro
2. (a) rs
air (b) Membrane (c) Vibrating surface of the bell movement of an object or parts of an object. We can
(d) Vibrating string
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observe vibrations when we pluck the strings of a
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3. (b), (c), (d) guitar or a sitar or beat a drum. This makes the air
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around the object vibrate and when the vibrations of

Section Review 2
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the air reach our ears, we hear it as sound.
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(b) Two everyday examples of sound produced due to
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1. (a) Larynx
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2. (c) The lungs force air through the slit of the vocal cords vibrations are:
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id
and the vocal cords vibrate producing sound. i. Ringing a bicycle bell: If you were to ring a bicycle
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As bell, it makes a loud sound. Gently touching the bell

Section Review 3 with your fingertips makes you feel the vibration.
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1. (b) Loudness changes with amplitude ii. Sound of thunder: When there is a very loud thunder,
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(d) Pitch change with frequency the windowpanes start to rattle. This is because the
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vibrations of the thunder are so strong that the sound

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2. (b) The loudness of the sound increased

waves make the windowpanes vibrate too.
3. (d) It has a frequency above 20 kHz.
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(c)
Section Review 4 Stringed Wind instruments Percussion
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1. (c) Lack of hearing instruments instruments

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2. (a) Soft music played at low volume did not cause noise Musical instruments Musical instruments Musical
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pollution. in which a string in which vibrations instruments in

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vibrates to produce are created by which vibrations

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(c) Soft music played very loud can cause noise pollution.
sound blowing air are produced by
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(d) Very loud music was unpleasant to hear

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striking the surface

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Chapter Review of the objects

A vibrating string The vibrating air The stretched
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produces sound in a produces sound in a membrane or the
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1. (a) ii. Guitar, (b) iv. Amplifies sound,

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sitar, guitar, etc. trumpet, flute, etc. vibrating surface

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(c) i. Iron, (d) iii. Loudness, (e) i. Frequency produces sound in

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2. (a) F (b) T (c) T (d) T, (e) F a dholak, drum, etc.

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3. (d) i. Amplitude: It refers to the maximum distance moved

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Musical Vibrating part Type of instrument by a particle on the medium from its rest position.
Thus, amplitude is the distance from either rest to
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instrument
crest or rest to trough.
Sitar String Stringed
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Flute Air Wind

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Drum Stretched membrane Percussion

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Harmonica (mouth Air Wind

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organ)
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Xylophone Wooden bars Percussion

ii.Frequency: It is the number of complete back-and-
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forth vibrations or oscillations of a particle of the

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4. (a) False. For high pitch sound the waveforms are closely
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packed, i.e., have highest frequency. Waveform 2 is not medium made each second. It refers to how often the
particles of the medium vibrate when a wave passes
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the one which is most closely packed.

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through the medium.

(b) True. For high pitch sound the waveforms are closely
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packed i.e., have highest frequency. Waveform 4 is the (e) The frequencies of sound waves are placed into three
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one which is most closely packed. range categories.

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(c) False. For loudest sound the waveform should be the i. Infrasound: The sound with frequency less than
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tallest i.e., have the highest amplitude. Waveform 1 20 Hz is called infrasound. Such waves are inaudible to
human ear. The waves of an earthquake are infrasound
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does not have the highest amplitude.

in nature.
(d) True. For low pitch sound the waveforms have a low
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frequency. Waveform 3 has the lowest frequency.

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ii. Acoustic sound: The waves with frequencies between vibrates when sound waves strike it and it passes on
20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz) are called acoustic the vibration to the middle ear.
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sound. Such waves are audible to the human ear and ii. The middle ear: When the eardrum vibrates, it
include all the sounds we hear around us such as transmits vibrations to three small, connected
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musical instruments.
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bones—the hammer, anvil and stirrup. The bones
iii. Ultrasound: The waves with frequencies above 20,000 amplify the vibrations. Our middle ear is thus
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Hz are called ultrasound. Such waves are also inaudible a sound amplifier. The stirrup vibrates a second
to human ear. Animals such as dogs produce and hear membrane called the oval window, the beginning
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ultrasound. of the inner ear.
2. (a) rs
Our throat has a part called the larynx. It is also called iii. The inner ear: The inner ear is filled with fluid.
the voice box. It is located at the upper end of our Vibrations in the fluid are transmitted to the
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windpipe or trachea. Two vocal cords are stretched cochlea, which is shell-shaped and has cells that
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across the larynx in such a way that it leaves a narrow turn the vibrations into electric impulses. These
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slit between them for air to pass through. When we cells generate impulses containing information
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speak, we push air from our lungs through the slit and about the sound. The inner ear is thus the sound
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the vocal cords vibrate, producing sound. There are analyzer. These impulses are carried by the
muscles attached to the vocal cords. These muscles can auditory nerves and the message is passed on to
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make the vocal cords tight or loose. It is with the help the part of the brain that is responsible for hearing.
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of these muscles that we can make different sounds. That is how we hear sounds.
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The muscles in the throat also help people vary their Semicircular
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sound—from loud to soft and from shrill to deep. The canals Auditory
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length and thickness of our vocal cords help determine

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nerves
the sound of our voice. Shorter, thinner vocal cords
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vibrate giving out a different sound as compared Ear

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to longer or thicker vocal cords. This explains why canal

children, whose vocal cords are still growing, have
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higher voices than adults. During adolescence when

children are growing, the larynx also grows. This is the
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reason why in teenage boys the voice ‘cracks’, as the

Cochlea
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vocal cords are adjusting to the growing larynx. Stirrup

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Eardrum
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(b) Any substance or material that a wave can travel Anvil

through is called a medium. Sound waves travel
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because of the movement of particles such as particles Outer ear Middle Inner ear
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of the air. If there are no particles, sound waves ear

cannot travel. Thus, the vibrating object must be in Human
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contact with some material that will carry or transmit ear

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the sound. This means sound waves can travel only

(e) Unwanted or disturbing sound that affects the health
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through a medium, or sound requires a medium for

and well-being of humans and other organisms is
its propagation, that is, for travelling from one point to
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considered to be noise pollution.

another. Sound cannot travel through vacuum. There
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are no particles in a vacuum, such as outer space. i. Sources of noise pollution:

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Therefore, we cannot hear sound in outer space. 1. Traffic on roads, especially the constant
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(c) When sound travels through a solid, it causes the honking of vehicles. This is the largest source
particles in the solid to vibrate and the vibrations of noise pollution in cities.
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travel through the solid like they do through the air. 2. Use of loudspeakers and bursting of crackers
The particles in solids are arranged closely, so that it during festivals and weddings.
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is generally easier for sound waves to travel through 3. Construction work such as buildings and
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solids than through gases. So, the waves have more road repair work, especially where drills and
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energy when they reach your ears, and more energy

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heavy machinery are used.

means a louder sound. Generally, it is seen that sound
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ii. Harmful effects of noise pollution:

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waves travel fastest in solids and slowest through

1. Constant exposure to loud noise can damage
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gases. This is because in solids, the particles are closely

ss
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packed; in liquids, they are loosely packed and in the hair cells in the cochlea. Damage of hair
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gases, they are very loosely packed. The closer the cells can lead to hearing impairment as we
mammals cannot make new hair cells.
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particles are, the faster the sound propagates

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through them. 2. Exposure to loud noise can also cause

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(d) Our ears help us hear sounds. The human ear is made high blood pressure, heart disease, sleep
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of three main parts disturbances and stress. These health

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i. The outer ear: Our outer ear is shaped roughly problems can affect all age groups.
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like a funnel. This shape helps collect sound waves. 3. Depression and anxiety are also some of the
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Our outer ear is thus the sound collector. It collects harmful side effects of noise pollution.
sound waves and directs them into the ear canal. At iii. Controlling noise pollution:
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the end of the ear canal is a membrane that stretches 1. Keep the volume of your television, radio or
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across the ear canal, the eardrum. The ear drum music system low.
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2. While using headphones, keep the volume as low D. SKILL CRAFT
as possible. 1. A jaltarang can be made using cups filled with water
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3. Try to avoid going to areas that are too noisy. If up to different levels and then tapping it with small
that is not possible, then use earplugs when you wooden sticks.
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are in a noisy area because it reduces the overall 2. Students can research on Apps like Google’s Live
noise of the surroundings. Transcribe, Roger Voice, TextHear, etc.
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3. Students can research and share their results in the form
C. PUZZLE OVER
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of a table and explain how and when some places can
1. Sound travels through air and does not travel through be avoided.
vacuum. rs
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2. String B should have vibrations greater than 30 per second
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in order to produce a higher frequency sound than string A.
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Study Guide 4
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1. Magnitude and direction 2.

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Barometer 1. (c) Zero 2. (d) Magnitude
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3. Muscular 4. Greater 3. (c) Newton 4. (c) Less than at sea level
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5. Streamlined 6. Viscosity 5. (d) Rolling friction 6. (a) Making the surface rough
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7. Lubricants 8. Friction 7. (a) Fluid friction 8. (c) Flute

9. Static 10. Anvil 9. (a) Larynx 10. (d) vacuum
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11. Hertz 12. Loudness 11. (a) 343 m/s 12. (a) Inaudible sounds
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Force
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Effects of force Types of forces

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Contact Non-Contact
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1. Force can change the state of

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forces forces
motion of an object.
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2. Force can change the shape

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of an object. 1. Muscular force 1. Gravitational force

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2. Frictional force 2. Electrostatic force

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3. Magnetic force
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2.
Sound waves are types of
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longitudinal waves
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Regular sound waves are

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known as
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Amplitude Frequency
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Help create musical

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instruments
Pitch
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Loudness
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Percussion instruments Stringed instruments Wind instruments

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Examples: Examples: Examples:

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1. Ghatam 1. Guitar 1. Harmonica

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2. Dholak 2. Violin 2. Trumpet

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Thinking Critically the greater will be its amplitude and thus louder will be
the sound.
1. Pressure is defined as the force per unit area acting on a
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8. Sound is produced by vibrating objects resulting in
surface.
pressure variations in sound-transmitting medium whereas
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If P is the pressure, F is the force and A is the area, then
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hearing allows one to identify and recognize objects in
pressure is expressed as, the world based on the sound they produce, and hearing
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Force F makes communication using sound possible. In humans,
Pressure = or P =
Area A the sound is produced by the larynx and heard with the
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2. If mountaineers do not carry oxygen cylinders with them, help of the ear.
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they will face breathing problems, hypoxia and dizziness 9. Sources of noise pollution:
as at higher altitudes the atmospheric pressure is very less.
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• Use of loudspeakers and bursting of crackers during
Due to less pressure, amount of oxygen decreases as the
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festivals and weddings.
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altitude increases.
• The noise of aircraft taking off and landing, especially
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3. Force (F) = 50 N in areas around airports.
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Pressure (P) = 250 Pa • Traffic on roads, especially the constant honking of
Force Force 50 N vehicles.
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0.2 m2
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Pressure = or Area = =
Area Pressure 250 Pa Harmful effects of noise pollution:
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4. As
If we move an object already in motion, friction acting • Constant exposure to loud noise can damage the hair
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on it will be kinetic friction which is very less than static cells in the cochlea.
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friction acting on the stationary object. So, it will be easier • Exposure to loud noise can also cause high blood
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to move a moving object.

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pressure, heart disease, sleep disturbances and stress.

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5. Friction is called a necessary evil because it is necessary for • Noise affects brain responses and people’s ability to focus.
many daily applications as it prevents slipping or sliding
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but since it resists motion it can sometimes be a hindrance. Controlling noise pollution:
6. Take two surfaces, a wooden table and a glass sheet and • Keep the volume of your television, radio or music
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two pieces of cloth of the same material. Now rub a piece system low.
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of cloth on both surfaces one by one. Since a wooden table • People using loud machinery should use protective gear.
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has more friction due to the rough surface, a piece of cloth • We must plant trees and plants around us as they help
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gets more damaged when rubbed on it as compared to the to absorb sound to a great extent.
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one rubbed over the glass sheet. From this, we can infer
• Continuous honking of vehicles should be stopped as
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that greater friction causes increased wear and tear.

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it causes a lot of noise.

7. When the drum is struck with a lot of energy sound will
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be louder because in this case more energy is transferred

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to the drum and the sound. The more energy a sound has,
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Chapter 14: Chemical Effects of Electric Current

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Section Review 1 5.
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(c) Salt solution

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Section Review 2
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1. electrolyte, electrolysis 2. (c) , oxygen B. SUBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

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Section Review 3 1. (a) Materials in which electric charges can move easily are
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called good conductors of electricity. Metals such as

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1. (a) , copper sulphate, copper, sulphate, copper, iron nail

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copper and aluminium are good conductors of electricity.

2. (b) , iron easily rusts if exposed to air
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(b) Three uses of electrolysis are:

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Chapter Review i. Electrolysis is used commercially to separate

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sodium chloride into sodium and chlorine.

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ii. Electrolysis is used in water to separate oxygen

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1. (a) iv. LED, (b) ii. Electrolytic cell, (c) ii. Anode, from hydrogen. The hydrogen gas released can be
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(d) iii. Cathode, (e) iii. Electroplating used for making hydrogen fuel.
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2. (a) F (b) F (c) T (d) T (e) F iii. Electrolysis is used in mining to extract metal or
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3. (a) Good, (b) Poor, (c) Electrode, other valuable material from its natural ore.
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(d) Weak, (e) Strong (c) The process in which one metal is coated over another
by the process of electrolysis is called electroplating.
4. (a) Ions, (b) Electrolyte, (c) Electrolysis,
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Three uses of electroplating are:

(d) Chromium
i. Jewellery makers electroplate silver and gold on
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less expensive metals. A thin layer of precious

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metal is often coated on jewellery to make it more electrolyte. On passing electricity, salt water dissociates
lustrous and attractive to potential buyers. into sodium ions (Na+) and chloride ions (Cl−), each
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ii. The long life of steel and iron is due to of which helps conduct electricity. In this case, the
electroplating. They are plated with other metals chlorine ions flow to the anode, hydrogen ions flow to
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the cathode and the resulting solution forms sodium
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like zinc, nickel or chromium which prevent
the base metal from getting corroded. Hence, hydroxide (NaOH). This is how a strong electrolyte
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electroplating acts as a protective barrier for helps make a weak electrolyte stronger.
the metals and protects them from different (c) The iron key to be electroplated is placed at the
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atmospheric conditions. cathode. Copper to be used for coating is placed at
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iii. Nickel plating is done on a metal surface to reduce the anode. Copper sulphate solution is used as the
friction in materials such as electric conductors. It electrolyte. When electric current is passed through
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reduces the chances of early wear and tear of the electrolyte, copper sulphate gets dissociated into
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the metal. copper ions and sulphate ions. The copper ions being
positively charged move to the cathode. A thin layer
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2. (a) An arrangement or a device that uses electrical
of metallic copper thus gets deposited on the iron
energy to produce a chemical reaction in a
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key. As more and more copper gets dissociated from
conducting liquid or electrolyte is called an
the copper sulphate solution, the copper ions in the
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electrolytic cell. For electrolysis to take place, we

electrolyte are continuously replenished by the copper
need to make an electric current flow through the
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water using electrodes. An electrode is something
at the anode. The net result is the effective transfer of
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copper from the anode to the cathode.

that conducts or carries electricity through the
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electrolyte, water in this case. The electrode which Key
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+ –
is connected to the positive terminal of the battery
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gets positively charged, called anode. The electrode

which is connected to the negative terminal of the
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battery gets negatively charged, called cathode. When

water is used as an electrolyte in an electrolytic Metal
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cell, and graphite rods are used as electrodes, the spoon

electrons flow from one electrode to the other. This
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(cathode)
helps in creating a circuit and a free flow of electrons.
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Flattened
Formation of bubbles at the ends of the electrodes Copper
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copper
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sulphate
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show that the process of electrolysis is taking wire

place. Since like charges attract and unlike charges solution
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(anode)
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repel, the positively charged hydrogen ions flow to (electrolyte)

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the cathode and this results in hydrogen gas (H₂)

bubbles. Similarly, the negatively charged oxygen
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ions flow to the anode and form bubbles of oxygen

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gas (O₂). For electrolysis to take place, the electrodes

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are required to be at constant opposite polarity

throughout the process. This is possible by using a C. PUZZLE OVER
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direct electric current (DC).

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1. Household circuits run on alternating electric current

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(AC). Electrolysis cannot take place with an alternating

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+ - Oxygen
Hydrogen electric current (AC), because when we pass an AC
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current, the polarity of the electrodes will keep changing

and the ions will not be attracted towards any particular
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electrode, creating disruption in the ionisation process.

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D. SKILL CRAFT
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1. Students can create a simple LED circuit using LED,

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battery, wires, plug, key and electrolytic solutions. Each

time they can change the electrolyte to apple juice, soft
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An electrolytic cell drink, vinegar, RO water, tap water and soap solution.
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Then they can compare the conductivity of each looking at

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(b)
the intensity with which the LED glows.
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Strong electrolyte Weak electrolyte 2. We cannot coat metals like nickel or chromium over plastic
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A strong electrolyte conducts A weak electrolyte conducts or wooden objects using electroplating as plastic and
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electricity very well. electricity to a lesser extent than wooden objects are poor conductors of electricity.
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a strong electrolyte. 3. Students can research on the Environment Protection

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Examples of strong electrolytes Examples of weak electrolytes Act, 1986, that aims to establish a sufficient protection
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are copper sulphate solution, are tap water, rainwater, lime system for the environment. It gives the power to the
sodium chloride solution, juice etc. central government to regulate all forms of waste and to
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hydrochloric acid, etc. tackle specific problems that may present themselves in
different regions of India. Then they can present their
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Since water is a weak electrolyte, table salt (sodium report in class.

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Study Guide 5
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1. Current 2. Electroplating 1. (b) Metals 2. (a) Copper sulphate solution
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3. Charges 4. Bad 3. (b) Distilled water 4. (b) Electrolysis
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5. Electrolyte 5. (c) Salt increases the electrical conductivity of water.
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Conducting liquids are liquids that Conduct electricity.

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They are also called electrolyte.
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Weak electrolytes As Strong electrolytes

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1. Tap water 1. Copper sulphate solution

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2. Rainwater 2. Hydrochloric acid
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3. Lime juice 3. Sodium chloride solution

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Electrolysis
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1. Anode
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2. Cathode
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Uses
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3. Battery
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1. Separating 2. Rust removal 3. Electrolysis

hydrogen and
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oxygen in water
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1. Gold and silver plated on Jewellery

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Uses 2. Chromium plated on Car parts and metal taps

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3. Copper plated on Cutlery and cooking pots

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Thinking Critically 3. Good conductor Poor conductor

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1. Light Emitting Diode or LED allows a very small current to Materials in which electric Materials in which electric
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pass through it and glows even when a weak current flows charges can move easily are charges cannot move easily
in the circuit. The longer terminal of the LED is always called good conductors of are called poor conductors
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connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the electricity. of electricity.
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shorter terminal is connected to the negative terminal of

Electrons are not held Electrons are held tightly by
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the battery.
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tightly by the atoms of the the atoms of the object and

2. To verify which substances are good conductors and poor
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object and can move easily. cannot move easily.

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conductors of electricity, we can use a conduction tester.

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The substance is placed between two clips to complete Examples of conducting Examples of non-
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the circuit. If the light bulb glows brightly, the substance liquids are rainwater, conducting liquids are
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is a good conductor of electricity. If the light bulb glows seawater and lime juice. distilled water, cooking oil
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and sugar solution.

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very lightly or does not glow at all, the substance is a poor

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conductor of electricity.
4. Pure water is free of impurities due to which it is a poor
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conductor of electricity. On the other hand, tap water

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contains some impurities which make it a good conductor

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of electricity.
5. Water is a good conductor of electricity. The person gets
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an electric shock when it comes in contact with the water

which is used to extinguish the fire. Due to this reason,
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water is not used to extinguish an electric fire.

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Conduction tester circuit

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Chapter 15: Some Natural Phenomena
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Section Review 1 each other out. This makes the atom electrically
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neutral. It has no overall electric charge.
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1. (b) They had like charges
(d) Focus is the point of origin of the earthquake. The
2. (a) Conduction,
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seismic waves travel out in all directions from the
(b) The charge on the sphere will be positive charge. The focus. The focus is usually deep inside the Earth. The
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uncharged object will acquire the same charge as that of epicentre is the point on the Earth’s surface directly
the charged object it is in contact with.
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3. (d) The aluminium foils inside the bottle repel 2. (a) We use an electroscope to test whether an object has
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each other. charge or not. It was invented in 1748 by a French
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physicist, Jean Nollet. It can detect static electric

Section Review 2 charges. One type of electroscope is a glass beaker
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with a metal rod inside it (Fig. 15.6). The metal rod
1. (b) Lightning
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connects to a knob at the top of the beaker. There are
2. (d) Lightning two metal branches, or leaves, at the bottom of the
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3. (a) metal rod. This is called a metal-leaf electroscope.

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As When the electroscope is not charged, the leaves hang

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straight down. When the electroscope is charged, the

leaves repel each other, or spread apart. The greater
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the charge, the greater is the separation between the

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leaves. When the leaves have a charge, positive or

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negative, they repel each other and spread apart. An

electroscope whose leaves are spread apart indicates
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Section Review 3
that the object that touched it was charged.
1. (d) Movement of the plates
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(b) The three ways in which the objects can be

2. (b) They are situated above a plate boundary charged are:
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i. Charging by friction- This process of charging

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Chapter Review two objects by rubbing them against each other

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is called charging by friction. It is also known as

A. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS triboelectric charging. Rubbing a piece of nylon
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1. (a) iii. Static electricity (b) iv. Seismic waves on paper, rubbing a rubber balloon against a
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sweater and combing your hair with a plastic

(c) iv. All of these (d) iv. Neutral
comb are examples of charging by friction.
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2. (a) negative (b) electrostatic

ii. Charging by conduction- The process of charging
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(c) electric discharge (d) Lithosphere an uncharged object by touching it to a charged

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3. (a) Richter Magnitude Scale (b) Epicentre object is called charging by conduction. The
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(c) Inner Core (d) Seismograph uncharged object will acquire the same charge
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as that of the charged object it is in contact with.

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+ +
4. (a) + + + + + + + + This means that if the charged object is positively
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When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, positive charges charged, the uncharged object in contact with it
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will be developed on the glass rod. The two objects will acquire a positive charge.
are oppositely charged. When they are rubbed against iii. Charging by induction- The process of charging
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each other, glass rod loses electrons and become an uncharged body by bringing a charged body
near it but not in contact with it is called charging
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positively charged as the free electrons of glass rod are

less tightly bounded. The silk cloth gains electron and by induction. When charging by induction, the
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becomes negatively charged. neutral object always takes on the charge opposite
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to that of the charged object near it. This means

that if a positively charged object is brought close
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1. (a) Static electricity is the electric charge at rest on an to a neutral object, the neutral object becomes
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object. It tends to stay on the surface of an object, negatively charged by induction.

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(c) An earthquake is the sudden quake or shaking of

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rather than flow away quickly. ‘Static’ comes

from the Greek word ‘statikos’, meaning causing the Earth that causes extensive damage to life and
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to stand. property, wherever it strikes. Earthquakes can cause

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(b) Tall buildings may be struck by lightning so they have floods, landslides and tsunamis. An earthquake is the
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a lightning conductor on the roof. When lightning vibration of the Earth caused by the sudden release
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of this stress energy, usually located at a fault that

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strikes a lightning rod, the electric charges move safely

involves the movement of blocks of rocks. Earthquakes
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to the ground from the rod through the wire. Thus, by

moving the electric charges to the ground, the lightning may be small vibrations that no one notices. Or they
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rods prevent lightning from damaging buildings. may be enormous vibrations that cause a great deal of
damage. Most earthquakes result from rocks moving
(c) An atom has the same number of protons and
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over, under or past each other along fault surfaces.

electrons. So, the positive and negative charges cancel
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Precautions to be taken during earthquake if you C. PUZZLE OVER
are indoors: 1. (a) Balloons before being rubbed with wool: The balloons
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• Take shelter under a large table and stay there till have both negative and positives charges; the balloons
the shaking stops. neither repel nor attract each other.
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• Stay away from tall and heavy objects that may fall
on you.
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• Stay away from glass windows as they may shatter
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due to the earthquake.
• Do not stay under doorways as they may not be
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strong enough.
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• If you are in bed, stay in bed and protect your
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head with a pillow. (b) Balloons after being rubbed with wool: The balloons
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acquire negative charge, and therefore repel each other.

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• Find a clear spot, away from buildings, trees and
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overhead power lines. Drop to the ground and
stay there till the shaking stops.
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• If you are in a car or a bus, do not come out. Ask the

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driver to drive slowly to a clear spot. Do not come
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out of the vehicle till the tremors have stopped.

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(d) The interior of the Earth is made up of three
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concentric layers: Crust, Mantle and Core. Each layer D. SKILL CRAFT
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has its own chemical composition. 1. Inspect your buildings and the neighbourhood building to
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i. The Earth’s crust is the outermost layer where we check the lightning conductor.
live, consisting mainly of silicon and aluminium. Some measures to stay safe during natural disasters are:
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The crust is of two types: a continental crust that

(a) The buildings in the earthquake prone zones should be
varies in thickness between 20 km and 90 km, and
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designed to withstand major tremors.

an oceanic crust that varies in thickness between 5
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km and 10 km. (b) Emergency supplies to last at least 2–3 days should be
kept ready.
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ii. The mantle is the thickest of Earth’s layers and takes

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up 83 per cent of the Earth’s volume. It extends down (c) All the fire-fighting equipment should be ready.
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to about 2900 km from the crust to the Earth’s core (d) Food items should be stocked up at home.
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and is largely composed of dark, dense, igneous rocks (e) Go to open areas but away from trees, telephone poles
containing iron and magnesium. The upper part of and building.
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the mantle and the crust make up the lithosphere,

2. Students can get into groups and do a role play to sensitise
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which is broken up into pieces called ‘plates’.

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people about the safety measures to be taken when an

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earthquake happens. Students can show a scene at home, or

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Crust may be in a car and enact. The following points can be helpful:
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Precautions to be taken during earthquake if you are indoors:

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Mantle • Take shelter under a large table and stay there till the
shaking stops.
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Outer core
• Stay away from tall and heavy objects that may fall on you.
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Inner core
• Stay away from glass windows as they may shatter due
to the earthquake.
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• Do not stay under doorways as they may not be strong

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enough.
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• If you are in bed, stay in bed and protect your head

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with a pillow.
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iii. The core has two layers: an inner core and an • Find a clear spot, away from buildings, trees and
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outer core. The core is mostly iron with some overhead power lines. Drop to the ground and stay there
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till the shaking stops.

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nickel, and takes up 16 per cent of the Earth’s total

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volume. The temperature in the outer core is so • If you are in a car or a bus, do not come out. Ask the
high that iron and nickel are found in a molten driver to drive slowly to a clear spot. Do not come out
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state. The inner core, although it has the same

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of the vehicle till the tremors have stopped.

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high temperature as the outer core, is so deep

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3. Let the students prepare an earthquake emergency kit. It

down that it is acted upon by so much pressure can contain various items like flashlight, first-aid kit, some
that iron and nickel remain as solids.
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non-perishable food items, few pairs of clothes, masks, etc.

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Chapter 16: Light
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Section Review 1
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1. i. The light source gives out rays of light.
ii. Some of the light rays strike Roma.
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iii. The light rays reflect off of Roma in all directions.
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iv. Some of the reflected light rays hit the mirror.
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v. Some of the reflected light rays hit Roma’s eyes.
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vi. The light rays reflect off of the mirror in all directions.
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vii. Roma sees her image in the mirror
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2. (b) 60°
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3. The picture shows a diffused reflection as the surface is (a) Calculation of Angle of incidence:
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uneven. When the surface is uneven, the normal at the Angle AOB = 30°
point of incidence is different for different rays.
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Since, Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection

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Section Review 2 As Angle of incidence = 30°/2 = 15°

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1. (b) This characteristic is known as lateral inversion. (b) Angle of reflection = 15°
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2. (b) Due to multiple reflection of light
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1. (a) In the following diagram.

Section Review 3 Ray OA is the incident ray. Ray OB is the reflected ray.
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1. (a) Retina
OB is the normal. Angle AON is the angle of incidence
(b) Iris and angle BON is the angle of reflection.
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(c) Pupil
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(d) Lens A N B
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(e) Optic nerve

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2. (a) The face was outside the field of vision

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3. (c) The face was outside the field of vision

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Chapter Review
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(b) Difference between Regular reflection and Diffused

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A. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS reflection:

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1. (a) ii. Virtual, behind the mirror and of the same size as
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Regular reflection Diffused reflection

the object
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1. Objects having a smooth 1. Objects with irregular or

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(b) iii. Incident ray

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surface, such as mirrors, uneven surfaces, such as walls,

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(c) ii. 55° reflect all the light rays at the reflect the light rays in different
(d) iv. Retina same angle, that is, parallel directions, that is, parallel
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(e) i. Vitamin A incident rays remain parallel incident rays do not remain
after they are reflected. parallel after they are reflected.
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2. (a) Lateral
(b) Ray 2. Regular reflection allows 2. Diffused or irregular
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us to see a sharp image as a reflection does not give sharp

(c) Angle of incidence
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reflection. images and thus prevents us

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(d) Cataract from seeing images reflected

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(e) Visible off such surfaces.

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3. (a) Reflection of light

(c) The image in a plane mirror is different from the object
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(b) Dispersion of Light that forms it in form of lateral inversion. The left of the
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(c) Cornea object appears to be the right of the image and vice versa.
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(d) Blind Spot (d) Characteristics of the image formed by plane mirrors are:
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(e) Braille i. The image formed is upright. This means that the
image is erect, and not inverted.
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4. Incident Ray is AO. Reflected ray is OB. The normal ray

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is ON. ii. The image formed by a plane mirror is the same

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size as that of the object.

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iii. The distance of the object from the mirror is equal

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to the distance of the image from the mirror, that

is, object distance is equal to image distance.
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(e) We can take care of our eyes in the following ways: v. Lens: It is the clear part of the eye behind the
i. Avoid rubbing your eyes: Each time we touch iris that helps to focus light, or an image, on the
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or rub our eyes, dirt, dust and bacteria from retina. The lens becomes flatter when we focus
our fingers can be easily transferred to our eyes. on a distant object, and it becomes more curved
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We must avoid rubbing or touching our eyes to when we focus on a nearby object.
prevent infection and irritation.
vi. Retina: It is the light-sensitive tissue at the back
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ii. Protect your eyes from the sun: Exposure to of the eye. The retina converts light or visual
direct bright sunlight can damage the eyes. We
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impulses into electrical impulses that are sent to
should wear sunglasses, when possible, to protect
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our eyes. Putting on caps and visors also help in
shading our eyes. vii. Optic nerve: It is the largest sensory nerve of the
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eye. It carries impulses for sight from the retina to
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iii. Stay hydrated: Taking in sufficient fluid is
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essential to our body’s overall well-being, the brain.

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including the eyes. Keeping ourselves hydrated (c) Flowchart to show how light travels through our eyes
prevents our eyes from getting dry and irritated.
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2. (a) Two mirrors are kept perpendicular to each other. A Light rays from an object pass through the
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ray AO strikes one mirror at an angle of 60° to the cornea and pupil.
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normal. Ray diagram is as below: As

A
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Inverted image is focussed on the retina.
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Cells in the retina called rods and cones convert the

O image into electrical impulses. Rods can detect very
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dim light. Cones detect colours in bright light.

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Optic nerve carries these impulses to the brain

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If ray AO strikes one mirror at an angle of 60°, the angle which interprets it into the image we see.
of reflection will also be 60°. The reflected ray OM will
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be the incident ray and fall on the second mirror. The

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incident ray will strike at an angle of 30°. The reflected

ray MB will make an angle of 30° with the normal. The Eye adjusts to the brightness of light
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two rays AO and MB will be parallel to each other. that hits it.
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(b) Diagram of human eye:

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(d) The differences between Nearsightedness and

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Farsightedness are:
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Nearsightedness Farsightedness
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(Myopia) (Hypermetropia)
Cornea Retina
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1. Nearsighted people see 1. Farsighted people see distant

Iris nearby objects better than objects better than nearby
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distant objects. objects.

Lens
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2. A nearsighted person can 2. A farsighted person can

only see an object clearly only see an object clearly
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if it is nearby. The eyes of if it is far away. The eyes of

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nearsighted people cannot farsighted people cannot

form a sharp image on the form a sharp image on the
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Sclera
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Optic nerve retina, of an object that is far retina, of an object that is

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away. Far away images look nearby. Nearby images look

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blurred. blurred.
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3. Nearsightedness is corrected 3. Farsightedness is corrected

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i. Sclera: This is the white part of our eye.

by using eyeglasses fitted by using eyeglasses with
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ii. Cornea: It is the clear outer part located at the with concave lenses. convex lenses.
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front of the eyeball.

4. This kind of lens cause the 4. This kind of lens cause the
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iii. Iris: It is the coloured part of the eye that regulates incoming light rays from incoming light rays from
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the amount of light entering the eye. distant objects to form a nearby objects to form a
sharp image on the retina. sharp image on the retina.
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iv. Pupil: It is the opening at the centre of the iris that

allows light to enter the eye. The iris adjusts the
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C. PUZZLE OVER D. SKILL CRAFT
Anya cannot see herself in the mirror as she is not in the line of 1. Students have to make a thaumatrope with the help of
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sight of the mirror. Yes, she can see the objects at Q, R and S. instructions given in the book.
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2. Read more about Ravindra Jain, Shekhar Naik and Erik
QO
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RO SO Weihenmayer.
Anya
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Chapter 17: Stars and the Solar System
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Section Review 1 of gases. As these gases burn, a star gives off visible
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As light. Sun is the only star which is visible during the

1. (b) Celestial bodies day and is the closest star to the Earth. Most of the
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2. (a) Natural objects that are found in space energy that reaches our planet, including light and
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heat, comes from the Sun. Our Sun is a dynamic,

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Section Review 2
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active and constantly changing star.

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1. (d) A is Orion; B is Cassiopeia (c) The asteroid belt is a belt of asteroids that separates
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the solar system’s planets into two groups—the inner

Section Review 3 planets and the outer planets. It is an area between
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1. Fill in the blanks: Mars and Jupiter in which many asteroids travel
around the Sun.
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(a) Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

(d) A natural satellite is an object that orbits a body larger
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(b) Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars than itself and which is not human-made. Such objects
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(c) Mercury, Venus are often called moons. An artificial satellite is a

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(d) Mars, Jupiter human-made body placed in orbit round the Earth or
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(e) Saturn another planet in order to collect information about

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it or for communication purposes. The first artificial

2. (a) Its revolution around the Sun satellite was Sputnik, a Russian space probe that lifted
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3. (c) Comet off on October 4, 1957.

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(d) Meteors 2. (a) The Earth is considered to be the most unique planet
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and is different from the other planets in numerous

Section Review 4
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ways. This is the only known planet which has ideal

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1. (d) Revolution of Moon around the Earth. conditions for life. The Earth has an atmosphere
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that allows life to exist on its surface. Earth’s surface

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2. (d) Artificial, as it was a human-made satellite.

temperatures allow water to exist as a solid, a liquid
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and a gas. Also, ozone in the Earth’s atmosphere

Chapter Review works like a screen to limit the harmful rays from
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the Sun reaching the Earth’s surface. From space, the

A. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS Earth appears bluish-green, due to the reflection of
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1. (a) b. West to east light from water and landmass on its surface. The
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(b) i. Iron Oxide occurrence of different seasons is a result of Earth’s

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axis of rotation being tilted 23.45 degrees with respect

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(c) iii. Meteor

to the plane of Earth’s orbit around the Sun. It has one
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(d) ii. Sputnik

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natural satellite, the Moon.

(e) iv. Jupiter
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(b) The same side of the Moon

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2. (a) Light Year (b) Big Dipper Moon is always visible

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from the Earth because of A

(c) Meteor shower (d) Dwarf Planets
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the rotation of the moon

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Earth
3. (a) F (b) T B
on its own axis and the
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(c) F (d) T revolution of the Moon

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around the Earth takes the

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D
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B. SUBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS same amount of time. It

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1. (a) Celestial objects are the objects which are found in takes the Moon 27.3 days C
space. Example: Stars, Planets. to rotate once on its axis.
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(b) A celestial body which emits heat and light of its own This is the same amount of time it takes the Moon
to revolve once around the Earth. So, even though
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is called a star. A star is an extremely hot, dense mass

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the Moon rotates on its axis, the same side is always viii. Waxing Gibbous: The waxing gibbous phase is
visible from the Earth. The side of the Moon that between a half moon and a full moon.
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faces the Earth is called the near side. The side of
the Moon that faces away from the Earth is called the C. PUZZLE OVER
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far side.
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1. One light year is the distance travelled by the light in one
(c) The different shapes of the Moon that we see at year. Since, the star is seven light years away from earth, the
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different times of the month are called the phases brightness will be visible after seven years.
of the Moon. When we have a full view of the 2. If the distance between the Sun and the Earth is doubled
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completely illuminated side of the Moon, that phase then life cannot sustain on the Earth. The Earth is on the
is known as a full moon. When the Moon reaches
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a point in its orbit when we do not see any part of distance is doubled, then there will be less sunlight reaching
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the Moon illuminated. This phase is called a new the Earth and the plants and animals cannot sustain due to
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moon. During the new moon, the side facing the extreme weather conditions.
Earth is dark. When the Moon appears to be getting
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bigger, it’s ‘waxing’ and when it looks like it’s getting D. SKILL CRAFT
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smaller, it’s ‘waning’. The eight phases of the moon
are described below: 1. According to research, there are 4,852 active artificial
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satellites orbiting the Earth as of January 1, 2022. the

i. First Quarter: We see the first quarter phase as a United States Space Surveillance Network was tracking
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half moon. As more than 15,000 pieces of space debris larger than
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ii. Waxing Crescent: We see the waxing crescent 10 cm (4 inches) across. It is estimated that there are about
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phase as a thin crescent of light. 200,000 pieces between 1 and 10 cm (0.4 and 4 inches)
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across and that there could be millions of pieces smaller

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iii. New Moon: We cannot see the Moon when it is

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a new moon. than 1 cm. There is lot of space junk and is likely to
iv. Waning Crescent: We see the waning crescent increase and double by 2030. The space junk can also
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phase as a thin crescent of light. hamper our future scientific discoveries.

2. Asteroids, sometimes called minor planets, are pieces of
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v. Third Quarter: We see the third quarter moon as

a half moon, too. rocks made of minerals similar to those that formed the
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rocky planets and moons. The collision of an asteroid as big

vi. Waning Gibbous: The waning gibbous phase is
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as 300 km can be responsible for the extinction of species.

between a half moon and a full moon. Images can be added for supporting the answer.
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vii. Full Moon: We can see the Moon completely

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illuminated during a full moon.

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Study Guide 6
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As

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1. Conduction 2. Seismic 1. (a) Electric discharge 2. (d) Outer core

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3. Angle of reflection 4. Star 3. (b) Epicentre 4. (d) Neutral

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5. Cassiopeia 6. Orbit 5. (a) Lightning conductor 6. (a) Eye

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7. Solar system 8. Comet 7. (d) Reflection 8. (d) Satellites

9. (b) Ursa Major 10. (d) East to West
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11. (c) Constellation 12. (b) Ursa Major

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1.
During thunderstorm, water droplets in The positive charges move to the top parts of the cloud and
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clouds get charged negative charges move to the lower parts of the cloud.
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Sudden static charge between the cloud and the ground

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leads to lightning followed by thunder. Charges get accumulated up over time.

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2.
Solar system
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Inner planets Outer planets Asteroid belt is in between

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Mercury, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Mars and Jupiter

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Earth and Mars Uranus and Neptune

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3.
Reflection of light
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Irregular reflection Regular reflection
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Example: Wall Example: Plane mirror
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1. Upright
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2. Same size as object
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3. Virtual image
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4. Image distance is same as object distance
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5. Shows lateral inversion
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Thinking Critically
As rough causing light waves to bounce off in many different
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directions and most of these light waves don’t bounce back

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1. When you charge a balloon by rubbing it on your hair and to the human eye so they can be interpreted.
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bringing it close to a wall, the balloon will stick to the wall.

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6. The angle of incidence i = 90 − 35 = 55°

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The extra electrons on the balloon due to charging makes

it negatively charged. This will repel the electrons in the From the laws of reflection, the angle of reflection r = i = 55°
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area of the wall close to the balloon. The electrons in the 7. While reading a book, the ciliary muscles contract. This
wall move away from the balloon, creating a positively increases the curvature of the eye lens. The eye lens then
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charged area on the wall. The negatively charged balloon becomes thicker. This enables us to see nearby objects
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is attracted to the positively charged area of the wall and clearly whereas while looking at the sky in the distance,
sticks to it. Thus, when charging by induction, the neutral the muscles are relaxed, and the lens becomes thin. This
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object always takes on the charge opposite to that of the enables us to see distant objects clearly.
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charged object near it. 8. Inner planets:

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2. The places where the edges of different tectonic plates meet

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1. These planets are closest to the sun.

are called plate boundaries. At their boundaries, plates can
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2. These include Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars

move apart, come together or slide past each other. This
3. These are called terrestrial planets because they have
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constant movement of the plates creates forces that affect

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the Earth’s surface at the boundaries of the plates. The solid, rocky surfaces.
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movement puts stress on rocks near the edges of the plates. Outer planets:
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An earthquake is the vibration of the Earth caused by the 1. These planets are away from the sun.
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sudden release of this stress energy, usually located at a

2. These include Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
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fault that involves the movement of blocks of rocks. Thus,

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earthquakes occur in places on the Earth that lie near the 3. Two of the outer planets beyond the orbit of Mars—
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boundaries of tectonic plates. Jupiter and Saturn—are known as gas giants; the more
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3. Sudden static discharge between the cloud and the ground distant Uranus and Neptune are called ice giants.
is seen as lightning. As the discharge travels through the 9. Mercury is closer to the Sun but it has a very thin
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air, it generates a great amount of heat, believed to be atmosphere and all the heat trapped goes out into space,
while Venus with its much thicker atmosphere holds all the
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around 25,000°C. This large amount of heat causes the air

molecules to rapidly expand. This expansion causes a loud heat it gets. Thus, Mercury is closer to the Sun, yet Venus
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sound, the thunder. This is why lightning is accompanied has a higher temperature than Mercury.
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by thunder. 10. Meteors or ‘shooting stars’ are bits of interplanetary

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4. Grass appears green because Chlorophyll absorbs light at material falling through the Earth’s atmosphere and heated
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two wavelengths, both red and blue while reflecting green. by friction as they streak across the sky.
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The flower appears red because it reflects the red colour Chunks of rock and metal from asteroids and other
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and absorbs the rest.

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planetary bodies that survive their journey through the

atmosphere and fall to the ground are called meteorites.
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5. We can see a clear image of a tree in a lake on a calm day

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but not on a windy day because on a calm day due to a A comet is a large body of ice and rock that revolves
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smooth surface regular reflection occurs and light waves around the Sun. A comet warms up as it nears the Sun and
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bounce off the surface and most of them reflect into our causes the comet’s ice to change to gases.
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eye which will then be interpreted as sight by the mind

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but on a windy day the water is not calm and the surface is
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Chapter 18: Pollution of Air and Water
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Section Review 1 vapour. About 75 per cent of the solar energy reaching
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the Earth is absorbed by the Earth’s surface. The rest
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1. (c) Industrial Area of the heat radiates back to the atmosphere. Some
2. of the heat is trapped by such gases known as
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greenhouse gases.
Air pollutants Source Harmful effects
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(b) A rise in the Earth’s average temperature, possibly
Sulphur dioxide Burning of fossil Irritation in eyes, caused by an increase in greenhouse gases is called
fuels
rs Asthma, Bronchitis, Acid global warming. Over the past few years, there has
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rain been a drastic increase in the amounts of fossil fuels
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being burned and this has led to an increase in the
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Nitrogen oxides Burning of fossil Reduce the oxygen-
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fuels carrying capacity of percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. It is

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blood, eye irritation, skin believed that the atmosphere may be trapping more
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heat to make the Earth warmer.
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cancer
Carbon Incomplete Severe respiratory (c) Water pollution is due to the following pollutants:
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monoxide combustion of fossil problems, carbon i. Sewage Pollutant: Consumption of polluted water
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fuels, automobiles As
monoxide poisoning by sewage pollutant could result in diseases such
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using diesel and as typhoid, cholera, gastroenteritis and dysentery.

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petroleum ii. Industrial Pollutant: These are highly toxic and
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can damage the growth of crops and the polluted

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Ammonia Rotting agricultural Irritation to eyes, nose,

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wastes throat, skin water is unsafe for drinking.

iii. Agricultural Pollutant: The presence of
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Ozone Chemical reaction in Ozone makes our eyes

the atmosphere itch, burn and water agricultural pollutants like manure, pesticides,
fertilisers in humans even in minute amounts
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CFCs Air conditioning Destroy thousands of can cause hormonal imbalance and may lead
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system and ozone molecules to cancer.

refrigeration
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2. (a)
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Section Review 2 Air pollutants Source Harmful

effects
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1. (c) Proximity to Mathura oil refinery

Sulphur dioxide Burning of fossil Irritation in
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2. (c) The glaciers and polar ice would start to melt. fuels eyes, Asthma,
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3. (b) Encourage carpooling and (c) Use unleaded fuel Bronchitis, Acid
Rain
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Section Review 3
Nitrogen oxide Burning of fossil Reduce the
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1. (d) Boiling water fuels oxygen-carrying

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2. (e) All of these capacity of

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3. (a) Chlorine tablets blood, eye

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irritation, skin
cancer
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Chapter Review Carbon Incomplete Severe

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A. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS monoxide combustion of fossil respiratory

fuels, Automobiles problems,
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1. (a) iii. Carbon monoxide

using diesel and carbon
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(b) i. smog petroleum monoxide

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(d) iii. Carbon dioxide

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(e) ii. Chlorine tablets (b) Polluted air can affect the humans in many ways:
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i. Sulphur dioxide present in air causes irritation

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2. (a) Carbon monoxide (b) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

in the eyes as well as leads to respiratory tract
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(c) Acid Rain (d) Eutrophication

diseases such as asthma and bronchitis.
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3. (a) Pollutant (b) Smog

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ii. Nitrogen oxide reduces the oxygen-carrying

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(c) Global Warming (d) Potable Water capacity of blood, and are known to cause eye
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4. (a) F (b) T irritation and skin cancer.

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(c) F (d) T iii. Increase in Carbon dioxide can lead to the

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increase in the temperature of the Earth.

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iv. Carbon monoxide causes several respiratory

1. (a) Greenhouse gases are the heat trapping gases like problems. When it reaches the bloodstream,
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and water
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it replaces oxygen due to its high affinity for i. Boiling: This is the most common and easiest way
haemoglobin. This shortage of oxygen, in mild to purify water. The simplest method to purify
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cases, causes headache and dizziness, but in water is to boil it for about 15 to 20 minutes. High
extreme cases leads to unconsciousness, and temperatures destroy bacteria and viruses, but it
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even death. cannot remove the heavy contaminants.
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v. Suspended particulate matter: SPM stays ii. Using Water Purifiers: The water that is supplied
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suspended in air for a very long time and leads to our homes is passed through domestic water
to poor visibility, lung damage and respiratory purifiers that have filters and activated charcoal
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problems. Ozone makes our eyes itch, burn along with a source of ultraviolet radiations.
and water.
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vi. Ammonia: Exposure to high concentrations of charcoal removes organic impurities and the
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ammonia in the environment can cause irritation microorganisms are killed by the radiations. This
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to eyes, nose and throat as well as skin. makes the water safe for drinking and cooking.
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iii. Chlorination: In rural households, we use water
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vii. Lead: Lead can adversely affect nervous system,
kidney function, immune system, reproductive and taken from wells or water tanks. These are usually
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developmental systems and cardiovascular system. disinfected by adding chlorine tablets. Potassium
permanganate as well as iodine in small quantities
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viii. Smog can cause eye, nose and throat irritation,

are also sometimes used to kill germs in water
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aggravation of respiratory or heart disease and in

As taken from wells.
some cases, death.
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(c) Greenhouse effect is a process in which the Earth’s

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C. PUZZLE OVER
atmosphere traps the heat from the Sun and prevents
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1. National Air Quality Index (AQI) was launched in India

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it from escaping into outer space, leading to the

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on 17th October 2014 to disseminate information to the

warming of the Earth’s surface. The Earth probably
general public on air quality in an easily understandable
would have been too cold for life to exist in the
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form. Government and other agencies regularly monitor

absence of the greenhouse effect. About 75 per cent
the AQI of various locations. It is very important for the
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of the solar energy reaching the Earth is absorbed

citizens as it creates awareness in the people by classifying
by the Earth’s surface. The rest of the heat radiates
the air quality. It also expresses the associated health
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back to the atmosphere. Some of the heat is trapped

hazards and imposes restrictions for the welfare of the
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by gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, ozone,

people. It regularly monitors the AQI and disseminates
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chlorofluorocarbon compounds (CFCs) and water
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information to the general public so that they can take the

vapour in the atmosphere. These heat-trapping gases
necessary precautions.
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which are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide

and water vapour are known as greenhouse gases.
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Greenhouse effect and the increase in the greenhouse D. SKILL CRAFT

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2. The new water faucets and fixtures with the latest

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gases has led to many adverse consequences such as

global warming and increase in the sea level. technology will ensure that there is minimal wastage of
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Some of this heat water by the industrial units. The new fixtures with on-off
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energy encounters timers will ensure that there is no leakage and dripping
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Some of the Sun’s energy gas molecules of water.

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reflects back into space. This heat energy rises, that scatter it and 3. There are various ways in which we can contribute to the
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and some escapes reflect it back

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changes in our environment and protect it. The following

Earth’s atmosphere. towards Earth.
points can be used in the presentation:
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So
(a) Do not leave the tap on while brushing.

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(b) Use a bucket and mug instead of showers.

rad
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(c) Avoid bath tubs, jacuzzi and shower panels.

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(d) Adopt carpooling and using public vehicles.

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(e) The wastewater coming out of the RO purifiers can be

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Some of the Sun’s energy is used for washing utensils.

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absorbed by Earth’s surface, and

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(f) Use buckets to wash cars.

converted to heat energy.
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(g) Organise tree plantation drive. Encourage your friends

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to plant a tree on their birthdays.

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(d) Water that is fit for human consumption is called

potable water. We follow the following methods to (h) Gift plants to your friends as presents.
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make water potable at home:

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Study Guide 7
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1. Pollutant 1. (a) Nitrogen and phosphorous
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2. Taj Mahal 2. (b) Collection of rainwater in storage tanks for reuse or
putting back into the soil to recharge groundwater
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3. Carbon dioxide
4. SPM rs 3. (a) Sulphur 4. (a) Lead
5. Ammonia 5. (c) Water vapour
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1. Pollution
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Air pollution Water pollution
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Sources of pollution:
As Sources of pollution:
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1. Sewage pollutants
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1. Forest fires, Burning of fossil fuels (NO2 )
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2. Burning of fossil fuels (SO2 ) 2. Industrial pollutants

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3. Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels (CO) 3. Agricultural pollutants

4. Radioactive and thermal pollutants
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4. Chemical reactions in the atmosphere (O3 )

5. Rotting agricultural wastes (NH3)
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6. Burning of leaded fuel (Pb)

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7. Combustion of fuel (CO2)

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8. Road dust, agricultural activities, vehicle exhaust, wood burning, smoke

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from forest fires and dust from construction activities (SPM)
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9. Air-conditioning systems and refrigeration (CFC)

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Thinking Critically (c) Combustion of fuel results in the production of carbon

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1. The addition of unwanted substances in a concentration dioxide which leads to global warming.
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(d) Air-conditioning systems and refrigeration results in

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that has an adverse effect on organisms as well as the

CFCs production which depletes the ozone layer.
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environment is called pollution. A substance that causes

pollution is called a pollutant.
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(e) Chemical reactions in the atmosphere create ozone

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Burning of fossil fuels has led to an increase in the molecules in the lower atmosphere which makes our
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percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which eyes itch, burn and water.
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results in a rise in the Earth’s average temperature, called 4. The major source of air pollution is human activity.
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global warming. An increase in the global temperature Activities such as increasing the use of fossil fuels in power
increases the incidence of tropical diseases such as dengue, plants, industries, transportation, mining, construction
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malaria, yellow fever, sleeping sickness, etc. of buildings, etc., have led to severe air pollution. This
includes gases emitted by motor vehicles as well as smoke
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2. The first impact of pollution on our bodies is usually

seen in our eyes. Pollution triggers an allergic reaction in emitted by factories and thermal power plants. The use of
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the eyes such as severe itching, redness, discharge, eyelid refrigerants as well as aerosols also causes air pollution. In
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rural parts of India, a major source of air pollution is the

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swelling, inability to open eyes, vision problems and risk of

infection. burning of wood, coal and dung cakes as fuel.
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The respiratory System and Lungs being the first line of 5. Manure, fertilisers, pesticides, wastes from farms, etc.,
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defence for the body to deal with air and its pollutants are drained as run-off from agricultural lands. The water
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body receiving large quantities of phosphates and nitrates

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are the most affected human organ when concerned with

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air Pollution. from fertilisers or manures becomes rich in nutrients.

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3. (a) Burning of fossil fuels produces sulphur dioxide This means that as more and more organic matter enters a
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which causes irritation in the eyes as well as leads water body, more and more nutrients are released from the
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bronchitis. it. The algae and other water plants living in the water
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(b) Forest fires result in the production of oxides of leads to oxygen deficiency in the water body. Such a water
nitrogen which reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity
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body is said to be eutrophied and the process is called

of the blood and are known to cause eye irritation and eutrophication.
skin cancer.
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Test paper 1
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A. 1. (d) Zinc 2. (c) Dark zone F. 1.
Manure Fertiliser
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3. (b) LPG 4. (d) Mitochondria
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5. (c) Adrenal gland 6. (a) Zygote
7. (c) Nucleus 8. (a) Compost It is formed by the It is formed in factories by
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decomposition of and using chemicals.
9. (c) Female Aedes mosquito 10. (c) Bakelite plants and animal remains
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B. 1. Broadcasting 2. PVC 3. Kerosene
It adds organic matter or It does not add organic
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4. Estrogen 5. Organ
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humus to the soil. matter or humus to the soil.

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C. 1. F 2. T 3. T It supplies small quantities It supplies large quantities of
of nutrients to the soil. nutrients to the soil.
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4. T 5. F
It does not cause soil or In excess, it causes soil and
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D. Bacteria: E coli, Lactobacillus, Rhizobium 2. i. Antibiotics should only bewater

water pollution. takenpollution.
under the guidance
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Protozoa: Amoeba, Euglena, Paramoecium As of a skilled physician.

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Fungi: Penicillium, Yeast, Agaricus ii. Antibiotics must be administered in the correct dosage
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Algae: Chlamydomonas, Filamentous algae, Spirogyra and at the appropriate time.
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Viruses: Common cold virus, Influenza virus, Human 3. i. Using a steel lunch box instead of a plastic box.
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Immunodeficiency Virus ii. Using bags made of cotton or jute or recycled paper
when you go shopping.
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E. 1. Dermatophytes 4. Exhaustible natural resources are not renewable. They will

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2. Fibres that are human-made are called synthetic fibres. get completely used up in time and we will not get more until
natural processes regenerate them, in a few million years.
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3. i. Shiny metals such as silver and gold are often used for
decorative objects, jewellery and coins. 5. Since adolescence is a time when the body is undergoing
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ii. Strong metals such as iron are used to build bridges, rapid and dramatic changes, it is very important to provide
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ships, buildings and heavy machinery. the right nutrients to the adolescent. Eating a balanced
diet with the right proportion of carbohydrates, proteins,
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iii. Good conductors of heat and electricity such as copper fats and minerals is important. Adolescent girls, since they
are used for electrical wiring.
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start menstruating at this stage, need to, in addition to a

4. i. Give colour to flowers and fruits balanced diet, have food rich in zinc, calcium and iron.
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ii. Helps in photosynthesis Dieting during adolescence is not a good idea as it will do
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5. i. Natural deforestation more harm than good to the rapidly growing body.
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ii. Human-made deforestation

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Test paper 2
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A. 1. (a) Amplitude 2. (a) Lightning conductor 3. The resultant force is described as the total amount of
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3. (b) beyond the retina 4. (c) Liquids force acting on the object or body along with the direction
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of the body.
5. (a) Larynx 6. (a) Ciliary muscles
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4. Iris
7. (b) Silver 8. (d) None of these
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9. (a) Venus 10. (c) Rotating drum

an object by the weight of the air above it.
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B. 1. Air 6. Pluto is so small that its gravity is not strong enough to

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clear smaller objects from its orbit. Therefore, since 2006,

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2. Boundaries astronomers have considered Pluto a dwarf planet and not

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3. Artificial (Communication) a regular planet.

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4. Static
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5. Insulators or poor conductors of electricity D. 1. Acid rain is harmful for agriculture, trees and plants as
it dissolves and washes away nutrients needed for their
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6. Friction growth. It causes respiratory ailments in humans. When

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acid rain falls and flows as ground water to reach rivers,

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C. 1. Myopia and Hypermetropia lakes, etc., it affects plant and animal life in aquatic
2. i. Irregularities on the surfaces in contact
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ecosystems. It corrodes water pipes, resulting in the

ii. the force with which the two surfaces press on each other. leaching of heavy metals such as iron, lead and copper into
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the drinking water. Acid rain damages buildings and other

structures made of stone or metal.
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2. The rigid upper part of the Earth’s mantle and the crust— Disadvantages:
the lithosphere—is not smooth. It is broken into sections i. Friction between the shoes and the ground can cause
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called tectonic plates. At their boundaries, plates can move wear and tear.
apart, come together or slide past each other. This constant
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ii. Friction between machine parts results in the
movement of the plates creates forces that affect the Earth’s
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generation of heat
surface at the boundaries of the plates. The movement puts
iii. It results in waste of energy
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stress on rocks near the edges of the plates. An earthquake
is the vibration of the Earth caused by the sudden release of iv. The resulting friction can sometimes generate noise.
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this stress energy, usually located at a fault that involves the Increasing friction by making the surfaces rough, by
movement of blocks of rocks.
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3. i. Communication satellites transmit radio and contact provides better grip and slow down the vehicles
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television programs to locations around the world. when required.
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ii. Some satellites collect scientific data. Decreasing friction by applying lubricants, by the
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streamlined shape of an object, by using wheels and ball
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iii. Weather satellites constantly monitor the Earth’s global
weather patterns. bearings reduces wear and tear, waste of energy, noise and
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heat generated.
iv. Artificial satellites are used in navigation including the
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Global Positioning System (GPS). 3. Chemical effects of electric current: When electricity
is passed through a conducting solution, the molecules
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4. As
Braille is a system of raised dots that blind people can
of the solution dissociate, or break down, into ions. Ions
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read. It is read by touch, using fingers to feel the letters and

are atoms or groups of atoms with a positive or a negative
symbols. Each symbol is made by arranging raised dots
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charge. These ions cause electrical conduction through
within a six-dot Braille cell. Each letter of the alphabet,
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the liquid.
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punctuation mark or number has its own special symbol

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or symbols. To write in Braille, a special frame is used on Depending on the metal used as electrodes and the type
which dots are punched into using a pen called the stylus. of electrolyte used, the chemical effects of electric current
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could be any of the following kinds.

5. Charge is a physical property of an object. An object can
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have a positive charge, a negative charge or no charge at all. • Production of gases shown by the formation of bubbles
The movement of electric charge determines if an object is • Change in the colour of the electrolyte indicating a
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a good conductor or a poor conductor of electricity. change to the electrolyte

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6. The force exerted by fluids that resist the motion of objects • Deposition of a layer of metal on the electrodes
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that move through them is called fluid friction. This is also An electrode is something that conducts or carries
called drag or drag force. It depends on the speed of the
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electricity through the electrolyte.

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object, size of the object, shape of the object and nature of

Electrolysis of water:
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the fluid.
• The process of decomposition of a chemical compound
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E. 1. Every push or pull we exert results in a force being applied in a solution when an electric current passes through it
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is called electrolysis.
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to some objects. To get something to move, it must either

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be pushed or pulled. A push or a pull on an object is • One molecule of H2O is made up of two hydrogen (H)
known as force. When we stop pedalling a bicycle, it comes atoms and one oxygen (O) atom. If we pass electricity
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to rest after some time because of the pull applied on the through water, it will dissociate into hydrogen and
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brakes and frictional force between ground and the tyre of oxygen.
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the cycle. When water is used as an electrolyte in an electrolytic cell,

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2. Friction: Frictional force or friction is the force that and graphite rods are used as electrodes, the electrons flow
opposes the motion of two surfaces that are in contact. from one electrode to the other. This helps in creating a
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It is also a contact force. circuit and a free flow of electrons. Formation of bubbles
at the ends of the electrodes show that the process of
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Causes:
electrolysis is taking place. Since like charges attract and
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i. Irregularities on the surfaces in contact

unlike charges repel, the positively charged hydrogen ions
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ii. the force with which the two surfaces press on each other.
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flow to the negative electrode or cathode and this results

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Advantages of friction: in hydrogen gas (H2) bubbles. Similarly, the negatively

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i. Friction between the feet and the ground allows charged oxygen ions flow to the positive electrode or anode
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movements like standing, walking, etc. and form bubbles of oxygen gas (O2).
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4. Groups of stars forming recognisable patterns in the

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ii. Friction between paper and pencil enables us to draw

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and write on paper. sky are called constellations. There are 88 known
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constellations.
iii. Friction between a matchstick and a matchbox helps
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us produce a spark of fire. Orion:

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iv. Friction between the hands and an object helps us • Orion is recognisable by three bright stars which form
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a belt-like pattern, known as Orion’s Belt.

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hold the object easily by providing a grip

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• It is also known as the Great Hunter.

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• It is highly visible and easily recognisable pattern in the 5. According to the laws of reflection:
night sky. • The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
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reflection.
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• The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray all
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lie on the same plane.
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Orion
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Cassiopeia:
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• Cassiopeia is a constellation located in the upper
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portion of the Northern Hemisphere and was one
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of the first constellations discovered by Greek
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astronomers in the second century.
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• It forms a W shape and is composed of five very bright

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stars, making it easy to find and view in the night sky.
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Laws of reflection
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Cassiopeia
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Evaluation Sheets
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STEAM Worksheet 1
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TASK: Individual assessment
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SKILLS: Problem-solving, analysis, synthesising information, interpretation, creativity, self-direction, planning, scientific method
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OBJECTIVE: To enable the students:
Assessment should be based on the following:
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• to do simple experiments, using things available at home. • 2 marks for collecting the right materials.
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• to broaden their problem-solving skills
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• 2 marks for setting up the apparatus.
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• to collect, organise, and display the information
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• 2 marks for modifying the set up.
• to enhance their knowledge through extended learning • 3 marks for observing all the changes and
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• to develop information collection skills recording all of them systematically.

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to enhance their knowledge about various materials used • 1 mark for timely submission of details.
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Total marks: 10
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WHAT TO DO:
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• Students should be aware of the process of combustion and the role of oxygen in it.
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• Students should be sure of knowing the steps to be followed.

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REMEDIAL MEASURES:
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• Students may need help in collecting materials to carry out the activity.
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• Students may need help while drawing a specific plan and following it.
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• Students will need help while setting up, lighting the matchstick and placing the tumbler on a lighted candle.
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ANSWER KEY*
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SCHEME FOR DOING:

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Ideate: Plan out the steps to be carried out and observations to be made.
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Sketch: Students come up with their own ideas about how to plan it.
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PROJECT EXTENSION/CASE STUDY:

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Plan: Steps to follow:

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1. Take a candle of the appropriate size you desire, so that is smaller than the height of the glass tumbler.
2. Place a plate on the table and add some water to it.
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3. Once ready, put a small candle firmly on the plate with water and light it. Study the flame and see if you can see the zones of the flame.
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4. Under the guidance of an adult, place a glass tumbler on the lighted candle and note the time and change, if any, in the flame of the
candle and the water of the plate
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5. Once done, record all the observations made.

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6. You may repeat the activity by placing a glass cover open on both sides and then make your observations and compare with the
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previous step of this activity.

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7. Removing the plate filled with water, do the same activity to see the effect on a lighted candle placed on a table, if the tumbler is kept
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slightly raised from the level of the candle.

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Create: Students will create their own steps to be followed for doing the activity and also for the small variations suggested and make
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their observations.
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Test: To note the sudden rise in level of water inside the tumbler after it covers the lighted candle along with the smoke is the challenge.
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Improve: To check for the rise in level of water inside the tumbler, add some colour to water and then notice the change. It will be easier now.
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*These are sample answers. Answers may vary, so accept all valid responses.
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STEAM Worksheet 2
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• to learn the art of making a brochure
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• 3 marks for collecting relevant information
• to broaden their problem-solving skills
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• to collect, organise, and display the information • 1 mark showing its location on the map
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• to enhance their knowledge through extended learning of India and its details
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• to develop information collection skills • 1 mark for selecting an appropriate shape

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and design of the brochure
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• to enhance their knowledge about various materials used
• 2 marks for the layout and presentation
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WHAT TO DO: of information systematically
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• Students should be aware of the need to protect and conserve the animals in their • 2 marks for adding ‘in-situ conservation
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natural surroundings. As practices’

• 1 mark for timely submission of details
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Total marks: 10
REMEDIAL MEASURES:
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• Students will need help in planning the layout of the brochure so that pictures and information can be displayed effectively.
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ANSWER KEY*
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SCHEME FOR DOING:

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Ideate: Plan out the steps to be carried out and use the internet for the relevant information and pictures.
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Sketch: Students come up with their own ideas about the design, shape and layout.
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1. Take an A3-sized coloured pastel sheet and fold it into two halves lengthwise. Carefully fold it again thereby dividing it into a few
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equal parts.
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2. Once ready, allocate a space to the content you would like to showcase. In the first space, write the name, place a picture of the site, its
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total area and the number of species inhabiting it.

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3. Take a map of India and show the location of the chosen sanctuary on it and also indicate the possible ways of transport that are
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available to reach the sanctuary.

4. Arrange the information and pictures collected from the Internet, on different spaces so created on the sheet and check for the
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presentation and visual appeal of the layout. Take advise from your parents.
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5. Once the brochure layout is approved, using a glue stick, start pasting the pictures and writing or pasting the information about the
animal along with its common and scientific name and also if it is an endemic/endangered/flourishing species.
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6. In the last space available, state the need for conserving and preserving the flora and fauna, in-situ, allowing them to also live and grow
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in their natural habitat.

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Create: Students will create their own steps to be followed for doing the activity and presenting it to the best of their creativity.
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Test: To see how information about a certain area can be displayed effectively in a systematic and concise manner.
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Improve: To check for other ways such as shape, sizes, designs, of making a brochure.
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STEAM Worksheet 3
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• to learn the concept of force and also to experience it in daily life. • 2 marks for collecting relevant information
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• to broaden their problem-solving skills about the catapult and its working
•
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to collect, organise, and display the information • 2 marks for collecting all the materials
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• to enhance their knowledge through extended learning • 2 marks for planning it out as a game
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• to develop information collection skills with simple rules

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• 3 marks for putting it all together and
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• to enhance their knowledge about various designing a simple catapult and see the
mechanism of the lever put to use. making it work
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WHAT TO DO:
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Total marks: 10
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• Students should be aware of the effects of force on objects.

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• Students may need help in collecting materials needed for the activity.
• Students may need help in drawing out a specific plan and implementing it.
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ANSWER KEY*
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SCHEME FOR DOING:

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Sketch: Students come up with their own ideas about the layout.
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1. Take 20 popsicle sticks paint them in three different colours and let them dry.
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2. Make your designs to decorate any three sticks using sketch pens.
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3. Make three stacks of five sticks each of the same colour, placing the decorated stick at the top of each stack and sticks them using glue stick.
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4. Now, place one plastic spoon lengthwise on each stack, starting mid-way. Secure it with a rubber band in place.
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5. Using a glue stick, tightly secure the sticks of the same colour together. Alternatively, you can also use rubber bands to fasten them.
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6. Take 2 sticks each of the same colour, join them only at one end with a rubber band, tightly. Thus, preparing three such pieces
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7. Very carefully, insert one of the stacks prepared in Step-3, into this, mid-way.
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8. Now make small balls by crumpling wastepaper to fit the size of the spoon.
9. Check the structures so prepared by placing a ball into the spoon, holding the base with one hand, pressing it down and releasing it
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with a jerk. Notice how far the paper ball goes.

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Test: To see how the distance travelled by the paper ball is affected by altering the position of the rubber band
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Improve: To enhance the stability of the catapult, see if the base can be made differently.
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STEAM Worksheet 4
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• to learn the concept of how to generate current
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• 2 marks for collecting relevant information
• to broaden their problem-solving skills about the chemical effect of current
•
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to collect, organise, and display the information • 2 marks for collecting all the material
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• to enhance their knowledge through extended learning • 3 marks for making the correct
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• to develop information collection skills connections

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• to enhance their knowledge about various vegetables that can be used to produce • 2 marks for trying to use an LED instead of
current. the clock
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WHAT TO DO:
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Total marks: 10
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• Students should be aware of the ability of some vegetables to be able to emit

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electric current.
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REMEDIAL MEASURES:
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• Students will need help in planning the layout of the activity.

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ANSWER KEY*
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SCHEME FOR DOING:

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1. Take 2–3 medium to large-sized potatoes.

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2. Very carefully, insert the zinc strip on one end of the potato and do the same at the other end with the copper strip and another. Repeat
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the same with the second potato.

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3. Take an alligator clip and attach one end to the zinc strip while the other to the copper strip in the next potato.
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4. Check the clock, there will be no display. Taking the red wire of the digital clock representing the (+ve end), connect to the copper
strip and the other end to the zinc strip.
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5. Now check the clock display, you will immediately notice digits visible on the display. This is an indication that your set-up is correctly
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connected and electrical charge has been produced that caused the display to be visible.
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Test: To see how an LED can be used instead of a digital clock and how to connect more potatoes with each other to light a bulb.
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Improve: To check by using more potatoes.

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STEAM Worksheet 5
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TASK: Team of two
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OBJECTIVE: To enable the students: Assessment should be based on the following:
• to learn the concept of charge flow and its neutralisation due to earthing • 2 marks for collecting relevant information
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• to broaden their problem-solving skills about the lightning conductor
•
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to collect, organise, and display the information • 2 marks showing the correct shape and
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position of the lightning rod
• to enhance their knowledge through extended learning
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• 2 marks for selecting an appropriate
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• to develop information collection skills

depth for placing the ground plate
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• to enhance their knowledge about various devices that are used to protect buildings
• 2 marks for the complete arrangement of
against the natural electric charge.
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the device
WHAT TO DO: • 1 mark for timely submission of assessment
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Total marks: 10
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• Students should be aware of the need to protect tall buildings from lightning when
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it strikes the Earth.
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REMEDIAL MEASURES:
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• Students will need help in planning the making of the model, cutting out cardboard, fixing the skyward extension with spikes, straw
and wire at the appropriate place and making an earth plate.
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ANSWER KEY*
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SCHEME FOR DOING:

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Sketch: Students come up with their own ideas about the design, shape and layout.
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1. Take a big shoebox or cutout and join the parts of a cardboard sheet to make a rectangular box representing a tall building. Cover it
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with a coloured pastel sheet and draw lines to represent the multi-storied building with windows.
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2. Once ready, wrap a toothpick with kitchen foil creating three sharp pointed ends arising from it. Fix it to the top of the building. This
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is the lightning rod.

3. Now, take the copper wire and pass it through the straw, with a little extension on each side.
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4. Fix this straw to the side of the building and attach the wire extension to the toothpick and wrap it with adhesive tape.
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5. Prepare a rectangular cardboard piece and cover it with a sheet of paper and put it below the surface of the building. Now connect this
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to the wire extension emerging from the straw. Cover the wire with adhesive tape.
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6. Now match this with the picture available on the Internet.

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Test: To see how information can be collected on the basis of the height of the building and about a certain area and material to be used
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can be displayed effectively in a very concise manner for effective usage.

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Scientific Proficiency Worksheet 1
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SKILLS: Researching, observing, brainstorming, building, communicating, iterating
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OBJECTIVE: To enable the students: • 2 marks for researching and writing the
• to observe the varying types of fuels available on the earth use of fractional distillation
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• to understand that they are in limited stock and cannot be formed again • 2 marks for identifying the pictures
•
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to collect information about exhaustible and non-exhaustible resources • 2 marks for brainstorming about the
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‘Green Vehicles’ as pollution less vehicles
• to enhance their knowledge through extended learning.
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• to develop information collection skills different layers of the earth to show

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• to enhance their knowledge by observing different techniques available to extract where oil reserves are found
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various products of petroleum
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• 1 mark for communicating
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• 1 mark for iterating
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Students should know the significance of the world of coal and petroleum as fuels. Total marks: 10
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• Students should make a note of things of everyday life that work on the heat produced by fossil fuels.
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REMEDIAL MEASURES:
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• Students may need help in finding information regarding places in India/World where oil reserves are available.
• Students may need help in understanding about the process of formation of fossil fuels.
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ANSWER KEY*
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A. Oxygen and ground water are two essential renewable resources which may become exhaustible. They may happen if we use them
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faster than they are renewed or if we intervene with their natural method of renewal.
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B. The given picture show the fractional distillation of crude oil or petroleum. It is used to separate the constituents of petroleum such as
petroleum gas, petrol, kerosene, diesel, lubricating oil, etc.
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C. Green Vehicles such as electric automobiles are powered by alternative fuel or electricity and not by gasoline or diesel. They do not
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emit polluting gases in air. They are an asset to the environment as they are environment-friendly.
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D. S. No. Name of the products Use

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(i) Coke as a fuel

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(ii) Coal gas for cooking and lighting

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(iii) Coal tar to make medicine, paints, pesticides, explosives, perfumes etc
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(iv) Ammonium compounds to make nitrogenous fertilisers

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E. Students will make their own model using the material available at home and draw a labelled sketch to show the location of the oil
reserves in the Earth’s crust.
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F. Biofuel can be defined as solid, liquid or gaseous fuel made from biomass (i.e., dead plants and animal material). It is eco-friendly as it
can be produced from one or many carbon sources that can be replenished rapidly.
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Scientific Proficiency Worksheet 2
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SKILLS: Researching, observing, brainstorming, building, communicating, iterating
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OBJECTIVE: To enable the students: • 2 marks for researching and writing
• to observe the varying types of tectonic plates in this world the correct name of the place where a
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massive earthquake occurred
• to understand the impact of the movement of these in causing an earthquake
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• to collect, organise, and understand the information on the history of massive
about the movement of the plates
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earthquakes in the world
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• 2 marks for the correct comparison
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• to enhance their knowledge through extended learning about tectonic plate movements
between an earthquake and the Tsunami
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• to develop information collection skills
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• 2 marks for making a model of
• to enhance their knowledge about Tsunami
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the seismograph.
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• to understand the reason behind these huge waves • 1 mark for communicating.
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• 1 mark for iterating.

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WHAT TO DO: As Total marks: 10

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• Students should know the significance of the world as a united land mass and later
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its separation.
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• Students should make a note about the best practices involved in making building and setting up homes.
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REMEDIAL MEASURES:
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• Students may need help in finding information regarding the measurement of an earthquake.
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• Students may need help in making the model.

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ANSWER KEY*
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A. Latur in Maharashtra, India in 1993.

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B. Image II: The land surface will split and will move away from each other creating a gap.
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Image III: The land surface will shift up and down creating a difference in the levels.
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C. A Tsunami is the huge wave of water created due to an earthquake deep in the oceans that causes spreads rapidly across.
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Earthquake is caused by the shift in the tectonic plates of the earth, causing big/small tremors.
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D. Tremors on the Earth’s surface are caused by:

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1. Nuclear explosions deep inside the Earth.

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2. Volcanic eruptions
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3. Impact of a meteor’s collision with the Earth

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E. Students will make their own models using the material available at home (a small and heavy ball, a thread, clips, cylindrical container,
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white sheet of paper, a pen, Cardboard from a shoe-box, etc.) and draw a labelled sketch to show how it looks.
F. Earthquake resistant low-rise buildings with a strong foundation to strength and stability to the structure.
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Wall hangings, paintings, mirrors, fans, lights, etc. must be properly fixed on the walls.
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Drawer latches should be strong and firm. Crockery should be kept on lower shelves.
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ANSWER KEYS
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Worksheet Answers
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rs Chapter 1: Crop Production and Management
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Worksheet 1
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1. (a) Kharif crop (b) Rabi crop (c) Ploughing (d) Broadcasting (e) Irrigation
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(f) Harvesting (g) Apiculture (h) Milch animals
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2. (a) ii (b) iii (c) vi (d) viii (e) vii (f) iv (g) v (h) i
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3. (a) When plants of the same kind are grown or cultivated at one place on a large scale, they are called a crop.
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(b) The series of activities performed by farmers, in a particular sequence, over a period of time are known as agricultural practices.
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The steps involved in agricultural practices are: preparation of soil, selection and sowing of seeds, improving soil fertility,
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irrigation, crop protection, harvesting and storage.

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(c) The benefits of ploughing are as follows:

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i. It allows the roots of plants to penetrate deeper into the soil so that the growing plants are held more firmly to the ground.
ii. It helps to create spaces in the soil that allow the roots of plants to breathe easily.
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iii. It brings up the nutrient-rich soil to the top so that plants can use these nutrients to grow.
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iv. It also uproots and helps in the removal of undesirable plants called weeds.
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(d) Natural fertilisers are fertilisers which are formed by the breakdown or decomposition of plant and animal remains, and waste
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material. Manure is an example of natural fertilisers.

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(e) Three examples of human-made fertilisers are urea, ammonium sulphate and superphosphate.
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(f) In the dhekli system, a rope and bucket or a large vessel is tied to a pole. By placing a heavy weight at the other end of the pole,
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water can be drawn up for irrigation.

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(g) Unwanted plants that grow alongside useful crops are called weeds. Examples: Amaranthus (Chauli) and Chenopodium (Bathua)
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4. Arrange for a trip to a nearby field. Encourage students to observe the agricultural processes being carried out carefully and present the
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information collected in the form of a PowerPoint presentation.

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Worksheet 2
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1. (a) ii. Seed drill (b) ii. Drip (c) ii. is a weed (d) iii. Manure (e) iv. Sprinkler
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(f) ii. pisciculture (g) i. nutrients in small quantity (h) iii. Improving soil fertility
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2. (a) v (b) vi (c) iv (d) vii (e) viii (f) i (g) ii (h) iii
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3. (a) On adding manure to the soil,

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• the water holding capacity of the soil increases,

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• soil becomes porous due to which the exchange of gases easily takes place,
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• the growth of friendly microorganisms increases in the soil which add further humus in the soil, and
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• the texture of the soil improves.

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(b) In drip irrigation system, pipes are placed on the ground along the sides of plants. These pipes are fitted with emitters at regular
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distances. The water from emitters or drippers drips slowly directly near the plant roots and water the crops.
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(c) A chemical substance which has the potential to kill weeds without damaging the main crops is called a chemical weedicide.
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2,4-D is an example of a chemical weedicide.

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(d) The preparation of soil involves loosening and turning of soil. This process is called ploughing or tilling. Tools used in this process
are called agricultural implements. These are:
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i. Plough: A plough is used for tilling, adding fertiliser, removing weeds and turning the soil.
ii. Hoe: A hoe is used for cutting weeds and turning the soil.
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iii. Cultivator: In a large farm, ploughing can be done by a tractor-driven cultivator to save time and effort.
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(e)
Natural fertilisers Human-made fertilisers
(a) Organic substances produced from (a) Inorganic substances made up of chemical
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decomposed plants and animal wastes salts
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(b) Manually prepared in the fields. (b) Synthesised in factories.
(c) Add humus to the soil. (c) Do not add humus to the soil.
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(d) Less rich in nutrients than fertilisers. (d) Rich in a particular nutrient and help in the
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growth of a healthy plant
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(e) Comparatively less expensive. (e) Comparatively more expensive
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(f) A seed drill is an advanced sowing tool which is attached at the back of a tractor. The advantages of a seed drill are:
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• It sows seeds at equal distance and depth.

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• It covers seeds with soil after sowing and thus seeds are prevented from being eaten by birds.
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• It saves time and labour.
(g) In traditional methods of irrigation, water is lifted from the nearby water sources and carried to the fields. Cattle or human labour
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are mainly used in this method. Traditional methods are cheaper but less efficient. Moat (pulley-system), chain pump, dhekli and
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rahat (lever system) are the main traditional ways of irrigation.
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4. Excessive use of chemical fertilisers can lead to the soil losing its natural fertility and can cause land as well as water pollution. Yes,
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continuous use of chemical fertilisers can cause cancer.

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Chapter 2: Microorganisms
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Worksheet 1
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1. (a) decompose (b) nitrogen (c) 0 °C (d) Bacteria, fungi (e) food preservation
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(f) water (g) Fungal (h) water

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2. (a) iv (b) vi (c) viii (d) i (e) ii

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(f) iii (g) v (h) vii

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3. (a) The process by which free atmospheric nitrogen is converted into nitrogen compounds is called nitrogen fixation.
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(b) Microorganisms cause harm in two ways:

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i. Some microorganisms cause diseases in humans, animals and plants.

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ii. Some microorganisms cause spoilage of food.

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(c) Microbial diseases that can spread from an infected person to a healthy person through air, water, food or physical contact are
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called communicable diseases. Examples of communicable diseases are common cold, chickenpox, cholera and tuberculosis.
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(d) Two ways of preservation of food are:

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i. Using chemical preservatives.

ii. Exposing food to high temperatures that kill most microorganisms. For example, milk is boiled to kill microorganisms in it
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and keep it fresh for a longer time.

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(e) Bacteria and fungi can grow on food and spoil them. Microorganisms growing on food sometimes produce toxic substances
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leading to food spoilage. Rotting of fruit and vegetables and growth of mould on bread are examples of food spoilage.
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(f) The method of pasteurisation was developed by a scientist named Louis Pasteur.
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(g) Vaccination is also known as immunisation. Vaccination is a medication given orally or through an injection to provide immunity
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against a specific disease.

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(h) This picture shows spoilage of food caused by microbes. Bacteria and fungi can grow on food and spoil them. Microorganisms
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growing on food sometimes produce toxic substances leading to food spoilage.

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4. Answer will vary. Accept all suitable answers.

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Worksheet 2
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1. (a) F (b) T (c) T (d) F (e) T (f) T (g) T (h) F

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2. (a) v (b) iv (c) i (d) vii (e) ii (f) iii (g) viii (h) vi
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3. (a) Bacteria are very small, single-celled and most primitive organisms on the Earth. They do not have chlorophyll, so they cannot
produce their own food.
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(b) A microscope is an instrument that uses lenses to enlarge small objects to make them appear large.
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(c) Microorganisms are found almost everywhere. Some live individually and some live in groups or colonies. They are found in the
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hottest deserts, coldest polar regions, salty sea water, freshwater streams, hot water springs, volcanic eruptions and even inside our
bodies.
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(d) Microorganisms are of four types:
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There is another type of microorganism called viruses.
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(e) Lactobacillus and Rhizobium are two examples of bacteria.
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(f) Protozoa are single-celled microorganisms. They can move from place to place with the help of locomotory organs such as
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pseudopodia, cilia or flagella. They are found in freshwater bodies like ponds and lakes and saltwater bodies like sea and soil.
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(g) Viruses are microscopic organisms. We need an electron microscope to see viruses. Viruses are neither living things nor non-
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living things. They behave like non-living things most of the time. However, when they find suitable living cells, they are capable
of undergoing reproduction like living things. All viruses are parasitic. Viruses are found as parasites in both plants and animals.
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(h) The picture shows Agaricus (mushroom) which is an example of fungi.

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4. A vaccine is made of either a dead or a weakened disease-causing microbe. When a vaccine is introduced into the body of a
healthy person, the body produces substances called antibodies that fight against these microbes. These antibodies continue to
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remain in the body and protect us from future infections by the same microbe. The body is then said to have developed immunity
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against the disease.

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Chapter 3: Synthetic Fibre and Plastics

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Worksheet 1
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1. (a) thermoplastics (b) thermosets (c) Bakelite (d) polyester, nylon

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(e) lightweight (f) poor (g) microplastics (h) steel, plastic

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2. (a) v (b) iv (c) i (d) viii (e) vii (f) ii (g) iii (h) vi
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3. (a) Human-made fibres are called synthetic fibres.

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(b) We get synthetic fibres from petrochemicals.

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(c) Rayon fibres are used to create clothing items such as sarees, shirts, blouses and dresses.
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(d) Polyester is used to make blankets and curtains.

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(e) Rayon is the first human-made synthetic fibre.

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(f) Acrylic fibre is used as a substitute for wool.

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(g) There are two types of plastic: thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics or thermosets. Examples of thermoplastics: polyethylene,
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polyvinyl chloride.
(h) The picture shows plastic waste. Plastic waste such as used water bottles, bottle caps, food wrappers and polythene grocery bags
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accumulate on land causing land pollution.

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4. Answers will vary. Arrange for students to present their PPTs.

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Worksheet 2
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1. (a) F (b) T (c) F (d) F (e) T (f) T (g) T (h) T

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2. (a) Rayon, nylon (b) Surgical gowns, sarees

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(c) Sweaters, gloves (d) Umbrellas, camera cases

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(e) Thermoplastics, thermosetting plastics or thermosets (f) Disposable cutlery, CD and DVD cases
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(g) Handles of cooking utensils, switches (h) Laminates, floor tiles

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3. (a) Rayon fibre is called artificial silk.

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(b) Two disadvantages of synthetic fibre are:

i. They do not allow air circulation. ii. They are non-biodegradable products.
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(c) Two properties of plastic are:
i. Plastics are lightweight and strong. So, they are used to manufacture automobile parts, building materials and travel bags.
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ii. Plastics are shock or impact resistant. So, they are used in manufacturing safety helmets and sports gear.
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(d) Bakelite was the first thermoset plastic that was synthesised from synthetic components. It is extensively used in the electrical
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industry for making switches.
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(e) Most plastics do not biodegrade, but instead slowly break down into small fragments known as microplastics.
(f) Materials which are not easily decomposed by natural processes such as the action of microorganisms are said to be
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non-biodegradable.
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(g) The 3Rs are effective methods to protect the environment from the hazards of plastics (or other pollutants). They are: Reduce,
Reuse and Recycle.
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i. Reduce means using plastics only where it is absolutely necessary.
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ii. Reuse means reusing plastic items instead of throwing them away.
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iii. Recycling means reprocessing plastic items to create new products.
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(h) The picture shows melamine kitchenware. Melamine is a type of plastic.
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4. Ivansh can use 3Rs to improve the management of plastic waste. He can also take following steps:
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(a) Use bags made of cotton or jute or recycled paper when he goes shopping.
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(b) Use a steel lunch box instead of a plastic box.

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(c) When travelling, carry a few bottles of water instead of buying bottled water.
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(d) Use glass or ceramic plates and glasses instead of plastic plates and glasses.
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(e) Reuse a plastic container to store things instead of throwing it away.

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(f) Use metal clothespins to hang clothes instead of plastic ones.

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(g) Use glass straws instead of plastic straws or not use straws at all.
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Chapter 4: Metals and Non-metals

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Worksheet 1
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1. (a) C + O2 → CO2 (d) CuSO4 + Fe → FeSO4 + FeSO4 + Cu

CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 (e) ZnSO4 + Ag → No reaction
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(b) 4Ag + 2H2S + O2 → 2Ag2S + H2O (f) 2Fe + 6HCl → 2FeCl3 + 3H2
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(c) 2Cu + O2 → 2CuO (g) 2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O → 2NaAlO2 + 3H2

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CuO + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2O (h) 4Fe + 3O2 + nH2O → 2Fe2O3.nH2O

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2. (a) v (b) vi (c) viii (d) ii (e) vii

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(f) iv (g) i (h) iii

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3. (a) Zinc does not react with water. Hence, a coating of molten zinc is done to protect iron objects from rusting.
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(b) Sodium and magnesium

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2Na + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2

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Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2
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(c) Ca + H2O → CaO + H2

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The gas released is hydrogen. The presence of hydrogen can be detected by bringing a lit matchstick to the mouth of the test tube.
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It produces a pop sound.

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(d) This can be done by performing an experiment of burning of magnesium ribbon. For this, take a magnesium ribbon and clean it
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with sandpaper. Now, hold this ribbon with the help of a pair of tongs and bring it near the mouth of Bunsen burner. Magnesium
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ribbon burns with a dazzling sound. Collect the residue so produced in a China dish and pour a few drops of distilled water
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onto it. Now, dip a red litmus paper in the China dish. The turning of red litmus to blue litmus confirms the basic nature of
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magnesium oxide.
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(e) The tendency of an element to react with other substances to form compounds is known as its reactivity. The more the reactivity,
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the more is its tendency to react and form compounds. The arrangement of metals in a series in order of decreasing reactivities is
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called the reactivity series of metals. It is also called activity series of metals. In this series, the most reactive metal is placed at the
top whereas the least reactive metal is placed at the bottom.
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K Potassium
Na Sodium
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Ca Calcium
Most reactive
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Mg Magnesium
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These metals are more Al Aluminium
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reactive than hydrogen. C Carbon
Zn Zinc
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Fe Iron
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Pb Lead
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H Hydrogen
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Cu Copper
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Ag Silver Least reactive
These metals are less
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reactive than hydrogen. Au Gold
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Pt Platinum
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C and H are non-metals but added for comparison

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(f) Copper reacts with oxygen, carbon dioxide and moisture and develops a green-coloured coating of copper hydroxide and copper
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carbonate. Due to this reason, copper vessels acquire a full green coating with the passage of time.
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Copper Water Carbon Oxygen Copper Copper

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dioxide hydroxide carbonate

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(g) Metals Non-metals

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Metals are hard. Non-metals are generally soft.

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They are lustrous. They are generally non-lustrous.

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They are sonorous. Most of them are non-sonorous.

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They have high tensile strength. They have low tensile strength.
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They are highly ductile. They are non-ductile.

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Worksheet 2
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1. (a) lustrous (b) soft (c) good (d) Mercury

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(e) Diamond (f) Iodine (g) tungsten (h) sonorous

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2. (a) F (b) T (c) F (d) T (e) F (f) T (g) T (h) T

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3. (a) i. Shiny metals such as silver and gold are used for decorative objects, jewellery and coins.
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ii. Strong metals such as iron are used to build bridges, ships, buildings and heavy machinery.
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(b) i. Nitrogen is used to manufacture fertilisers and to preserve the freshness of packaged food.
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ii. Hydrogen is used in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid as well as hydrogenated fats used in cooking.
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(c) 4Fe + xH2O + 3O2 2Fe2O3.xH2O

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(Iron) (Moist air) (Rust)

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(d) Metals react with oxygen in air to form metal oxides or basic oxides. These oxides are generally basic in nature, that is, a solution
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of these oxides turns red litmus paper to blue.

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Examples:
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i. On heating, magnesium burns in air (oxygen) with a dazzling white light to form magnesium oxide.
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2Mg + O2 2MgO
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(Magnesium) (Oxygen) (Magnesium oxide)

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ii. Sodium reacts vigorously with oxygen present in air to form sodium oxide.
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2Na + O2 2NaO
(Sodium) (Oxygen) (Sodium oxide)
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(e) i. Ductility: The property by which metals can be drawn into wires is called ductility. Due to this property, metals are used in
making gold and silver chains, tungsten filaments inside bulbs and electrical wires made of aluminium and copper.
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Most non-metals are non-ductile. They are brittle in nature and cannot be drawn into thin wires.
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ii. Malleability: The property by which metals can be beaten into thin sheets is called malleability. Due to this property, metals
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are used in making intricate gold and silver jewellery and decorative articles, and in making thin sheets of silver, aluminium
and tin for various uses. Most non-metals are non-malleable.
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(f) When one element replaces or displaces another element in a compound, the reaction is said to be a replacement reaction or a
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displacement reaction. In a displacement reaction, a metal can replace any other metal below it in the activity series, but not the
one above it. rs Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu
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(Zinc) (Copper sulphate) (Zinc sulphate) (Copper)
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When a more reactive metal reacts with the salt solution of a less reactive metal, then the displacement reaction takes place.
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Fe + CuSO4
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FeSO4 + Cu
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(Iron) (Copper sulphate) (Iron sulphate) (Copper)
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When a less reactive metal reacts with the salt solution of a more reactive metal, then the displacement reaction does not take place.
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Fe + ZnSO4 No displacement reaction

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(Iron) As(Zinc sulphate)

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(g) In a displacement reaction, a metal can replace any other metal below it in the activity series, but not the one above it. In the
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activity series, silver lies below copper, so it can be replaced by copper but iron lies above copper, so copper cannot replace iron
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from its salt.

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(h) When magnesium reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to form magnesium sulphate and release of hydrogen gas.
Mg + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2
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(Magnesium) (Sulphuric acid) (Magnesium sulphate) (Hydrogen)

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4. The element mercury is present in thermometers. It is the only metal which is liquid at room temperature. It is highly sensitive even
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to a fraction of change in the temperature of the body. So, when the body temperature changes, it expands resulting in fluctuation in
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thermometer reading. However, this expansion does not occur in non-metals. This is why non-metals are not used in thermometers.
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Chapter 5: Coal and Petroleum

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Worksheet 1
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1. (a) The Sun (b) Coal (c) crude oil (d) fractions
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(e) petroleum (f) last (g) methane (h) Petrol

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2. (a) v (b) iv (c) i (d) ii (e) viii (f) iii (g) vi (h) vii
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3. (a) Petroleum is lighter than water, so it floats over water.

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(b) Coal is usually found in layers, under the ground. These layers are called coal beds or coal seams.
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(c) Heating of coal in the absence of air is called destructive distillation.

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(d) Two ways of conservation of fossil fuel are:

i. Use public transportation as it reduces the number of cars on the road and therefore reduces the release of harmful pollutants.
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ii. Reduce, reuse and recycle plastics as they are made of petrochemicals.
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(e) The process of separation of oil into different fractions is called fractional distillation.
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(f) Diesel is used as fuel in heavy motor vehicles and generators.

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(g) Lubricating oil in the form of grease and wax is used for the lubrication of moving parts of machines.
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(h) The picture shows smoke produced by factories. Burning of coal, petroleum and natural gases releases harmful gases into the
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atmosphere.
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4. Encourage students to do thorough research for making their PPT.

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Worksheet 2
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1. (a) T (b) T (c) F (d) T (e) T (f) T (g) T (h) F

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2. (a) v (b) viii (c) vii (d) i (e) iii (f) iv (g) ii (h) vi
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3. (a) Anything that is found in nature and can be used by living things is a natural resource. Forests, water, minerals, soil, animals,
plants, fossil fuels and the air we breathe are natural resources.
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(b) Resources that can be replaced by natural processes are called inexhaustible or renewable natural resources. Air, wind and solar
energy are examples of inexhaustible natural resources.
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(c) Coal is a black or brown rock that is made up mostly of carbon and small amounts of sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen.
(d) Chemical reaction of carbon and oxygen is:
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Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Heat energy
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(e) Two uses of coal are:
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i. The most important use of coal is to generate electricity in thermal power plants.
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ii. Coal is a key ingredient in the manufacturing of steel and cement.
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(f) Two products of coal are coke and coal tar.
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(g) Oil is heated in a furnace and is sent to a distillation tower or fractionating tower, where it is separated into components. The
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different components that are separated out during this process are known as fractions.
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(h) The picture shows the extraction of petroleum.
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4. Answers will vary. Accept all suitable answers.

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Ronit can save fossil fuels by the following ways:
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(a) Reducing, reusing and recycling plastics as they are made of petrochemicals.
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(b) Switching to energy-saving appliances by using home appliances with the Energy Star label, which is placed on products that meet
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high-efficiency standards.
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(c) Turning off the lights when leaving a room for more than 15 minutes. The power saved reduces the demand of electricity, which in
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turn requires less output from power plants that burn fossil fuels.
(d) Using public transportation as it reduces the number of cars on the road and, therefore, reduces the release of harmful pollutants.
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Carpooling, riding a bicycle and walking also help in saving fossil fuels.
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(e) Using LED light bulbs which are highly efficient and thus decrease energy consumption.
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Chapter 6: Combustion and Flame
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Worksheet 1
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1. (a) Combustion (b) Combustible substance (c) Rapid combustion (d) Spontaneous combustion
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(e) Ignition temperature (f) Flame (g) Fuel (h) Calorific value
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2. (a) v (b) vi (c) viii (d) ii

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(e) vii (f) iv (g) i (h) iii

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3. (a) The chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give off heat and light is known as combustion. In a combustion
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reaction, a fuel is heated and reacted with oxygen to give out heat, water and carbon dioxide.
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(b) Substances which burn in the presence of air or oxygen are called combustible substances. Examples: paper, fabric, petrol, coal,
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wood, diesel, cow dung cakes, LPG and kerosene oil.

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Substances that do not burn in oxygen or air are called non-combustible substances. Examples: water, sand and stone
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(c) In a combustion reaction, when external heat is applied and a substance burns in a short span of time releasing heat and light, it is
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called rapid combustion.

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In a combustion reaction, when external heat is applied and a substance burns in a very short span of time releasing heat, light and
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sound with the liberation of gaseous compounds, it is called explosive combustion.

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(d) Water, sand and stone do not burn because they are non-combustible substances. So, the presence of a combustible substance is a
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necessary condition for combustion to take place.

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(e) The difference between explosive and spontaneous combustion is given below.
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Explosive combustion Spontaneous combustion

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In a combustion reaction, when external heat is applied, In a combustion reaction, when a substance burns to
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and a substance burns in a very short span of time releasing release heat and light without the application of an external
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heat, light and sound with the liberation of gaseous source of heat, it is called spontaneous combustion.
compounds, it is called explosive combustion
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Example: Burning of cracker Example: Burning of phosphorus at room temperature

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(f) When combustible substances such as wood or paper burn, in addition to a lot of heat energy, the combustion reaction mostly
leaves behind carbon dioxide and water. In most cases, heat is necessary to start the combustion reaction. Once started, the
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combustion reaction produces its own heat as long as conditions are available for combustion.
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(g) Combustible substances Non-combustible substances
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Fuel Sand
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Coal Stone
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4. Knowledge of fire safety measures is an important life skill. Encourage students to look for all relevant information.
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Worksheet 2
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1. (a) The chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give off heat and light is known as combustion.
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(b) Substances which burn in the presence of air or oxygen are called combustible substances.
(c) In a combustion reaction, when a substance burns to release heat and light without the application of an external source of heat, it
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is called spontaneous combustion.

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(d) Substances that have very low ignition temperatures and, therefore, can catch fire easily are known as inflammable substances.
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(e) The temperature at which a particular substance burns in the presence of air is called its ignition temperature
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(f) A flame is the visible part of a fire where combustion or burning takes place.
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(g) A material that undergoes combustion to give out heat energy is known as a fuel.
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(h) The amount of heat energy produced on the complete combustion of one kilogram of fuel is known as its calorific value.
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2. (a) iv (b) vii (c) ii (d) v

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(e) i (f) iii (g) viii (h) vi

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3. (a) Fuels that exist in solid state at room temperature are called solid fuels. Examples: wood, coal and cow dung cakes.
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(b) When a candle wick is lit, the heat produced from the flame melts the wax. The wick soaks up the molten wax. The heat of the
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flame vaporises the molten wax in the wick. This generates heat and more wax gets melted. This process continues till the candle is
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extinguished or the entire wax has been consumed.

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(c) A blue flame colour indicates complete combustion in which the substances burn mainly into carbon dioxide and water vapour.
Blue flame is said to be a non-luminous flame because it does not give out much light.
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(d) i. A material that undergoes combustion to give out heat energy is known as a fuel.
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ii. The amount of heat energy produced on the complete combustion of one kilogram of fuel is known as its calorific value.
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(e) A good fuel should have the following characteristics:

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i. It should be easily available and reasonably cheap.

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ii. It should burn efficiently in air.

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iii. It should have a moderate ignition temperature.

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iv. It should have a high calorific value.

v. Its combustion should be controllable.
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vi. Its products of combustion should not be harmful.

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(f) Two ways in which fire can be controlled are:

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i. By cooling it with a liquid such as water which reduces the heat or ignition temperature. Water is mostly used to extinguish
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fires as it is non-combustible and takes away the heat of the fire by cooling the burning material. It is suited to extinguish fires
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on wood, cloth, paper, some kinds of plastics and coal.

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ii. By ensuring that it does not have access to oxygen. Electric fires are generally extinguished using fire extinguishers. Fire
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extinguishers commonly contain carbon dioxide and are called carbon dioxide fire extinguishers.
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(g) Types of fuel are:

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i. Solid fuels: Fuels that exist in a solid state at room temperature are called solid fuels. Wood, coal and cow dung cakes are
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examples of solid fuels.

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ii. Liquid fuels: Fuels that exist in a liquid state at room temperature are called liquid fuels. Kerosene, petrol and diesel are
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examples of liquid fuels.

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iii. Gaseous fuels: Fuels that exist in a gaseous state at room temperature are called gaseous fuels. LPG and natural gas are
examples of gaseous fuels.
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(h) Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide rise high above in the atmosphere and react with oxygen, water vapour and other chemicals to
produce dilute solutions of sulphuric acid and nitric acid. When it rains, these fall on Earth as acid rain and cause damage to crops,
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water bodies, soil and objects such as buildings and statues.

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4. The conditions required for a combustion reaction are the following:
• There must be fuel to burn, that is, the presence of a combustible substance.
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• There must be air to supply oxygen, that is, the presence of a supporter of combustion.
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• There must be heat or ignition to start the combustion process, that is, the attainment of ignition temperature.
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Chapter 7: Conservation of Plants and Animals
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Worksheet 1 rs
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1. (a) Deforestation (b) Desertification (c) Habitat (d) Biodiversity
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(e) Ecosystem (f) Species (g) Reforestation (h) Wildlife

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2. (a) v (b) vi (c) viii (d) ii (e) vii (f) iv (g) i (h) iii
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3. (a) The large-scale destruction of forests due to natural or human-made causes is called deforestation. It is of two types: natural and
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human-made deforestation. As
(b) Desertification is the rapid loss of topsoil and loss of plant life. The roots of trees help in binding soil particles. When trees are
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destroyed, there is nothing to bind the soil which then becomes prone to being carried away by strong wind and moving water.
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This leads to soil erosion.
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(c) i. Biodiversity is a term used to describe the enormous variety of living things on the Earth.
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ii. An ecosystem is a geographic area that includes all living organisms as well as their physical environments such as climate, soil
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and temperature.
(d) Species of plants and animals found in a specific geographical area are called endemic species. The Asiatic lion, and the Nilgiri
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langur are two endemic species.

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(e) Wildlife sanctuaries are areas that are established for the protection of particular species, especially those of wild animals. Here,
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only some human activities such as grazing of animals and collecting firewood are allowed. Sanctuaries are either owned by the
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government or in some cases are privately owned. There are over 500 wildlife sanctuaries in India.
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The Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary and the Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary are two wildlife sanctuaries of India.
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(f) The differences between extinct and endangered species are given below.
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Extinct species Endangered species

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i. Species of living things that are no longer seen anywhere i. Species that are at risk of becoming extinct are called
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on the Earth are called extinct species. endangered species.

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ii. Species become extinct due to various reasons such as ii. Their numbers are greatly reduced across the world, and
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sudden change in their environment including climate they are found in small numbers today.
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change and deforestation

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iii. Examples: the Saint Helena olive and the Lepidodendron iii. Examples: the tiger, the giant panda, the blue whale, the
sea otter and the snow leopard.
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(g) Project Tiger was initiated in 1973 to help repopulate Royal Bengal Tigers in the Indian subcontinent. Owing to the efforts of
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Project Tiger, the number of tigers increased to close to 3000 individuals by 2018. India, at present, has around 75 per cent of the
tiger population amongst the 13 tiger range countries in the world. Project Tiger is one of the successful projects involving the
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conducting and surveying of the count of tigers, their hunting characteristics and their habitat under the Tiger Task Force.
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(h) a. National park

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b. Biosphere reserve
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c. Wildlife sanctuary
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d. Biosphere reserve
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4. Encourage students to be comprehensive and creative while making their PPT.

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Worksheet 2
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1. (a) Van Mahotsav (b) desertification (c) habitat (d) Biosphere reserves
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(e) endemic (f) migration (g) extinct (h) National parks

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2. (a) v (b) vi (c) viii (d) ii (e) vii (f) iv (g) i (h) iii
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3. (a) The main causes of human-made deforestation are: increase in human population, cutting of trees due to more demand of wood,
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increasing urbanisation and overgrazing.

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(b) During rains, trees help absorb the rainwater that falls on the ground. When trees are destroyed, water is not absorbed in the
ground and this excess water could cause floods.
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(c) i. Species of plants and animals found in a specific geographical area are called endemic species.
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ii. Wildlife sanctuaries are areas that are established for the protection of particular species, especially those of wild animals.
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(d) A species refers to a group of organisms which share common features that differentiate them from others, and which can
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interbreed with each other. Humans belong to the species Homo sapiens, where Homo is the genus. Mangoes belong to the species
Mangifera indica, where Mangifera is the genus.
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(e) Biosphere reserves are areas that are established to protect the entire biodiversity of the area, including the tribal people who live
in that area. Here, human activities are allowed but restricted to the outer zone of the reserve. Examples: Sunderbans Biosphere
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Reserve, Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve and Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve
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(f) The differences between endemic species and endangered species are given below.
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Endemic species Endangered species

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i. Species of plants and animals found in a specific ii. Species that are at risk of becoming extinct are called
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geographical area are called endemic species. endangered species.
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ii. They are only found in that particular habitat or ii. Their numbers are greatly reduced across the world,
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geographical area. As and they are found in small number today.

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iii. Examples: Asiatic lion, giant squirrel iii. Examples: the tiger and the giant panda
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(g) The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) is an international organisation established
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in 1948 that is today the global authority on the status of the natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it. Its aim is to
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encourage international cooperation and provide scientific knowledge and tools to guide conservation action.
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(h) a. endemic b. endemic c. endangered d. extinct

4. The movement of animals in large numbers from one place to another is called migration. Animals migrate from one place to another
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to overcome unfavourable conditions, for food, or to breed.

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Monarch butterflies migrate to avoid cold temperatures in the winter. These butterflies cannot survive freezing temperatures, so they
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fly from Canada all the way to Mexico, where they gather to keep warm over winter. Humpback whales migrate to warmer waters in
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winter. It is a journey that can take over 8,000 km each way, making it the longest migration of any mammal on the Earth.
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Chapter 8: Cell: Structure and Function

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1. (a) cell (b) tissues (c) Robert Hooke (d) longest cells
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(e) unicellular organism (f) Amoeba (g) Cell membrane

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2. (a) Long and thin (b) Cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus
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(c) Mitochondria (d) Nucleus

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(e) Ribosomes (f) Camillo Golgi

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(g) Prokaryotic cells (h) Plant cell

3. (a) Cell is defined as the structural and functional unit of a living organism.
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(b) Nucleus is a part of the cell that controls all the cell’s activities and is the control centre of the cell.
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(c) The part of the cell enclosed between the cell membrane and the nucleus is called cytoplasm.
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(d) Cell wall and plastids

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(e) A cell that has a well-defined nucleus is called a eukaryotic cell. Organisms that have such cells are called eukaryotes. All
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multicellular organisms are eukaryotes.

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(f)
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Ribosomes
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Lysosome
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Nucleus
Nucleolus
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Mitochondrion
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Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
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Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

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Centrioles
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Vacuole
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Golgi apparatus
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Cell membrane
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4. Help students do this work.

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Worksheet 2
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1. (a) F (b) T (c) F (d) T (e) T (f) T (g) F (h) F
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2. (a) iv (b) iii (c) v (d) vi (e) vii (f) i (g) viii (h) ii
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3. (a) Organisms that are made of many cells are called multicellular organisms.
(b) White blood cells can change their shape so that they can protect the body by easily moving to the place where harmful organisms
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are present and easily engulf them.
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(c) Tiny structures found in cytoplasm are called organelles which means ‘little organs’. Each organelle has a specific function that
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helps in the working of the cell.
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(d) Nucleoplasm is the fluid-like substance present inside the nucleus. It contains nucleolus and chromatin fibres.
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(e) i. In plant cells, cell wall is present. In animal cells, cell wall is absent.
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ii. In plant cells, centrosomes are absent. In animal cells, centrosome are present.
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(f) i. Amoeba ii. Red blood cells iii. Nerve cell
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4. Encourage students to show as many cell parts as possible in their models.

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Chapter 9: Reproduction in Animals

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Worksheet 1
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1. (a) Implantation (b) Ovum or egg cell in females; Sperm cell in males
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(c) Dolly the sheep (d) Shark

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(e) Tadpole (f) Chrysalis

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(g) Duck-billed platypus (h) Frogs, snakes, lizards, hens and ducks are examples of viviparous animals.
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2. (a) vi (b) iv (c) vii (d) ii (e) iii (f) i (g) v

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3. (a) The zygote after repeated divisions is called the embryo.

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(b) The series of major changes by which a larva becomes an adult is called metamorphosis.
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(c) The act of release of eggs by females and sperms by males in the same area, at the same time is called spawning.
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(d) Budding and binary fission are the two types of asexual reproduction.
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(e) Head, middle piece and tail are the parts of a sperm cell.
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(f) Adult hen sits on the eggs to keep them warm till they hatch. This process is called brooding.
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(g) Tadpoles are the larva of frogs. Tadpoles spend their time swimming in water, eating and growing. They breathe using gills.
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(h) The nucleus contains thread-like structures called chromosomes. Chromosomes help in transfer of characters from the parents to
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the offspring.
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4. Encourage students to research on the animals they see to get the required information.
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5. If a woman is unable to become pregnant, either she or the man may have problems with any part of their respective reproductive systems.
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In vitro fertilisation (IVF) is the most common and effective type of artificial reproductive technology to help women become pregnant.
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Worksheet 2
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1. (a) False (b) True (c) False (d) False

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(e) False (f) True (g) True (h) False

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2. (a) Internal (b) Internal (c) Internal (d) Internal

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(e) Internal (f) Internal (g) External (h) External

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3. (a) Hydra reproduces by budding and Paramecium reproduces by binary fission.

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(b) Humans are viviparous and hens are oviparous.

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(c) Butterflies undergo metamorphosis while hens do not.

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(d) Dolly was produced by an artificial mode of asexual reproduction while bacterium reproduces by binary fission type of
asexual reproduction.
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(e) The human male gamete is motile but the human female gamete is non-motile.
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(f) Duck-billed platypus and the echidna are unusual mammals because they lay eggs instead of giving birth to young ones.
(g) The development of the embryo inside the egg is called incubation. The embryo takes about 3 weeks to develop into a chick. This
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is called the incubation period. Adult birds sit on the eggs to keep them warm till they hatch. This is called brooding.
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(h) Some egg-laying animals keep their fertilised eggs inside the female body until the young ones are hatched from the egg. Such
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animals are called ovoviviparous animals. Some examples of ovoviviparous animals are sharks, rays, snakes, fishes and insects.
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4. No, a butterfly does not come out of a worm. A butterfly comes from a caterpillar. It starts its life as an egg. A very small caterpillar is
hatched from the egg. The caterpillar becomes a pupa or chrysalis. Inside the pupa, the caterpillar changes into a beautiful butterfly.
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Caterpillars and worms are not the same. Caterpillars move on three pairs of legs, while worms have no limbs at all. Worms move
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around by contracting their segments.
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Chapter 10: Reaching the Age of Adolescence

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Worksheet 1
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1. (a) Adolescence (b) Teenagers (c) Puberty (d) Adam’s apple

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(e) Oestrogen (f) Thyroid gland

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2. (a) iv (b) vi (c) ii (d) v (e) i (f) iii
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3. (a) The gender of a baby, whether a male or a female, is determined by the information carried in the chromosomes—the thread-like
structures found inside the nucleus of cells.
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(b) Reproductive health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease,
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in all matters relating to the reproductive system and to its functions and processes.
(c) The repeated use of harmful substances such as drugs, tobacco and alcohol is known as substance abuse.
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(d) People who use syringes to inject drugs into themselves stand the risk of transmitting the HIV virus that causes the deadly disease
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called Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). The HIV virus is transmitted from an infected person to a healthy person
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through contaminated syringes. It is also spread through sexual contact with an infected person.
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(e) Each human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. Out of these, one pair of chromosomes determines the gender or sex of an
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individual and is thus called sex chromosomes. The cells of females contain 22 plus a pair of X chromosomes (XX), whereas the
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cells of males contain 22 plus one X and one Y chromosome (XY).

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(f) Menarche is the first menstruation of the human female on the attainment of puberty’. It occurs between 10 and 15 years of age.
Menopause is the phase in the human females life when ovulation and menstruation stop. It occurs between 45 and 55 years of age.
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(g) Progesterone is responsible for the reproductive cycle in females as well as the production of milk after the birth of a baby.
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(h) The nucleus contains thread-like structures called chromosomes. These chromosomes help in transfer of characteristics from
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parents to offspring.
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4. Encourage students to ask questions to get factual information on drug abuse.

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Worksheet 2
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1. (a) True (b) True (c) False (d) False (e) False (f) True
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2. (a) Progesterone is responsible for the reproductive cycle in females as well as production of milk after the birth of a baby.
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(b) Testosterone is responsible for the production of sperm cells, the growth spurt and the development of secondary sexual
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characteristics in boys.
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(c) Thyroxin regulates the rate of metabolism and respiration and plays an important role in growth and development. The inability of
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the body to produce thyroxin may result in a disease called goitre, which causes swelling of the neck.
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(d) Adrenaline is also called the fight or flight hormone because it prepares the body to respond to a potentially stressful or dangerous
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situation. The changes brought about by adrenaline are generally very quick and last a short time. Some changes brought about by
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adrenaline are increase in heartbeat, blood pressure, blood sugar levels and energy levels of the body.
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(e) Insulin regulates the blood sugar level. The inability of the body to produce insulin in sufficient quantity may result in a disease
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called diabetes.
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(f) Oestrogen is responsible for the production of ova, the growth spurt and the development of secondary sexual characteristics in girls.
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3. (a) The menstrual cycle is the monthly series of changes a woman’s body goes through in preparation for the possibility of pregnancy.
Each month, one of the ovaries releases an egg—a process called ovulation. At the same time, hormonal changes prepare the
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uterus for pregnancy. In each cycle, rising levels of the hormone oestrogen cause the ovary to develop and release an egg. The
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uterus lining also starts to thicken. In the second half of the cycle, the hormone progesterone helps the uterus to prepare for
implantation of a developing embryo. If pregnancy does not occur, levels of oestrogen and progesterone fall, and the uterus lining
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comes away and leaves the body as a period (the menstrual flow).
(b) The sperm and ovum contain only one set of the pair of sex chromosomes. So, when sperms are formed, some sperms can have
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an X chromosome while some sperms can have a Y chromosome in their nucleus. When the ova are formed, all the ova will have
X chromosomes in their nucleus. When the ovum gets fertilised, the sex of the baby will depend on which sperm fertilises it. If a
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sperm carrying the X chromosome fertilises the ovum, the baby will be a girl, as the chromosome pair of the zygote will be XX. If
a sperm carrying the Y chromosome fertilises the ovum, the baby will be a boy, as the chromosome pair of the zygote will be XY.
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Therefore, it is the sex chromosomes of the male that determine the gender or sex of a baby.
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(c) It is the sex chromosomes of the male that determine the gender or sex of a baby. So, the belief in some societies that it is the
female who is responsible for the sex of her baby is scientifically incorrect.
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(d) Ovulation occurs when an egg is released from the ovaries to be fertilised. Menstruation is the bleeding that occurs after ovulation
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if the female does not get pregnant. At this time, mucus, blood and tissue flow out of the cervix and vagina every month.
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m
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(e) Reproductive health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease,
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in all matters relating to the reproductive system and to its functions and processes.
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(f) Adolescents need more nutrients than adults because they gain weight and height during this period. Inadequate intake can lead to
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delayed sexual development and slower growth.

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(g) Adolescents need to maintain personal hygiene by:

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• Bathing and changing clothes regularly.

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• Washing face regularly to avoid pimples.

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• Keeping the genital areas clean to avoid infections.

• Being aware of menstrual supplies such as sanitary pads and tampons, and on how best to use them.
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(h) The repeated use of harmful substances such as drugs, tobacco and alcohol is known as substance abuse. Alcohol, nicotine (present
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in tobacco products like cigarettes) and drugs such as cocaine and marijuana are examples of harmful substances.
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4. These symptoms are related to menstrual cycle. A menstrual cycle lasts from the first day of one period to the first day of the next
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period. Periods usually last about 5 to 7 days, although that can vary, too. Sometimes, young women have abdominal cramps, headache
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and tiredness as well as feel emotional during periods. These are all normal symptoms and are not signs of any illness or disease.
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Chapter 11: Force and Pressure

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Worksheet 1
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1. (a) force (b) magnitude (c) contact (d) pressure

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(e) more surface area (f) broad (g) repel

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2. (a) A ball thrown up falls down.

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(b) Playing
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(c) Crackling sound of fibres of an acrylic sweater when you take it off
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(d) Honey is viscous so it drags more fluid friction.

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(e) A magnet attracts nails.

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(f) Snowshoes
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(g) Drinking a liquid with the help of a straw.

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(h) Mercury barometer

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3. (a) A push or a pull on an object is known as force.

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(b) When two equal forces push in opposite directions, the object will not move. This is called balanced force.
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(c) The box will not move because the forces are balanced and their effects cancel each other out.
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(d) Pressure is defined as the force per unit area acting on a surface.
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(e) Types of forces
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Contact forces Non contact forces
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Acts when the bodies are in contact Forces acting when the bodies are not in contact
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Frictional forces
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4. On pressing the balloon with one pin, the balloon will burst as the pin will increase pressure from one side. But when the balloon will
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be pressed against many pins, the pressure will be equally distributed and balloon will not burst.
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Worksheet 2
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1. (a) True (b) True (c) False (d) False
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(e) True (f) True (g) True (h) True

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2. (a) iii (b) iv (c) i (d) vi (e) vii (f) ii (g) viii (h) v
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3. (a) The characteristics of force are as follows:

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i. Force requires interaction between objects.

ii. Force has a magnitude.
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iii. Force has a direction.

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(b) Pressure is calculated as force per unit area.

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P = F/A
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(c) The effects of force are as follows:

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i. Force can change the state of motion of an object.
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ii. Force can change the shape of an object

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(d) The force that attracts a charged object to another object is called electrostatic force.
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(e) Pressure = Force/Area

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Force = 20 N Area = 5 m2
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P = 20/5 = 4 N/m2 or 4 P
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(f) The figure shows that at the same depth, liquids such as water exert equal pressure on all sides.
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4. Burn strips of paper and drop burning strips quickly into the bottle. Quickly place the boiled egg on the mouth of the bottle, egg will be
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sucked in.
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The burning paper in the bottle heats the air inside the bottle which, in turn, expands and some of it escapes out of the bottle. When
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the flame goes out, the air inside the bottle cools and contracts, which takes up less space. This creates a low pressure inside the bottle
than the outside. The greater air pressure outside the bottle forces the egg to get sucked into the bottle.
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Chapter 12: Friction

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Worksheet 1
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1. (a) reduce (b) increase (c) static friction (d) static friction
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(e) more (f) Oiling (g) increase

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2. (a) Streamlined objects will be able to pass through fluid with less resistance.
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(b) because studs can stick to the cracks of the ground to increase friction, so that player does not fall or slip.
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(c) Groves makes the surface of the tyre rough so that the vehicle does not skid when moving.
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(d) because a smooth surface has less friction.

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(e) honey is viscous so it drags more fluid friction.

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(f) Larger objects has more fluid friction.

(g) Tyre and Road.
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(h) Rolling friction.

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3. (a) Friction is a force that opposes the motion of two surfaces that are in contact.
(b) There are four types of friction- sliding friction, static friction, rolling friction, and fluid friction.
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(c) Opposite direction
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(d) i. surface of the object
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ii. force with which the two surfaces press on each other.
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(e) The frictional force that slows down the speed of a rolling object is called rolling friction.
(f) i. Friction between feet and ground allows movement like standing or walking.
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ii. Friction between hand and object helps us to hold the object.
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(g) i. wear and tear
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ii. Generation of heat
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(h) Box
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Ground
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Force
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Friction
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Gravity
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Worksheet 2
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1. (a) False (b) True (c) False (d) True

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(e) True (f) True (g) True (h) False

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2. (a) Sliding friction (b) Static friction (c) Static friction (d) Rolling friction
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(e) Fluid friction (f) Sliding friction (g) Sliding friction (h) Fluid Friction
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3. (a) The force of friction between two objects when they are sliding over each other is called sliding friction.
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(b) The thicker the fluid, that is, the more viscous it is, the more the drag is exerted by the fluid.
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(c) Friction is a necessity due to its usefulness and evil due to its harmful effects
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(d) Friction happens when the rough edges of one surface interlock with the rough edges of another object and some of the object’s
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energy is used to break off those rough edges to keep the object moving.
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(e) The frictional force that slows down the speed of the rolling object is called rolling friction.
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(f) Rubbing hands will produce friction and friction will generate heat.
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4. Subject enrichment question.

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There are different ways to reduce friction like using artificial grass on wooden steps or polishing them, etc.
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Chapter 13: Sound

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Worksheet 1
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1. (a) Vibration (b) Larynx (c) Auditory nerves (d) 1480 m/s (e) Amplitude
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(f) Decibels (g) Sound Navigation and Ranging (h) Tinnitus

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2. (a) vii (b) vi (c) i (d) viii (e) ii

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(f) v (g) iv (h) iii

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3. (a) Two vocal cords are stretched across the larynx in our throat. They are stretched in such a way that it leaves a narrow slit between them
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for air to pass through. When we speak, we push air from our lungs through the slit and the vocal cords vibrate producing sound.
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(b) There is sound in outer space. But sound cannot travel through vacuum. There are no particles in a vacuum, such as outer space.
Therefore, we cannot hear sound in outer space.
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(c) Generally, sound waves travel fastest in solids and slowest through gases. This is because in solids, the particles are closely packed;
in liquids, they are loosely packed and in gases, they are very loosely packed. The closer the particles are, the faster the sound
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propagates through them.
(d)
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Compression Rarefaction
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The region where the medium is compressed. The region where the medium is spread out.
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High amplitude Low amplitude
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(e) When sound waves strike an object, it sometimes gets reflected from the object. A reflected sound wave is called an echo. Some
species of bats use sound waves to find their prey by the process of echolocation. It is the process of locating objects by making
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sounds and interpreting the sound waves that are reflected back. Bats can discover how far away and how big an insect is from the
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sound waves that bounce back.
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(f) Harmful effects of noise pollution are:

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• Constant exposure to loud noise can damage the hair cells in the cochlea leading to hearing impairment.
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• Exposure to loud noise can also cause high blood pressure, heart disease, sleep disturbances and stress.
• Depression and anxiety are also some of the harmful side effects of noise pollution.
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• Noise affects brain responses and people’s ability to focus.

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• Constant exposure to loud sounds can threaten the health of growing children and cause learning problems.
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4. In this question, students will visit the school and note their observations. They will then make and present their information in the
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form of a PowerPoint presentation to the class.

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Worksheet 2
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1. (a) True (b) False (c) True (d) False (e) True (f) True (g) True (h) False
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2. (a) Closer (b) Stethoscope (c) Faster (d) Wavelength

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(e) The threshold of hearing (f) Regular (g) Deafness (h) Sign language
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3. (a) Musical instruments in which vibrations are produced by striking the surface of the objects are known as percussion instruments.
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Examples are drum and cymbals.

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(b) There are muscles attached to the vocal cords. These muscles can make the vocal cords tight or loose. It is with the help of these
muscles that we can make different sounds. The muscles in the throat also help people vary their sound. Singers train these
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muscles to produce a range of different sounds - from loud to soft and from shrill to deep.
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(c) The inner ear is filled with fluid. Vibrations in the fluid are transmitted to the shell-shaped cochlea, where the vibrations are
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turned into electric impulses. The inner ear is thus the sound analyser. These impulses are carried by the auditory nerves and the
message is passed on to the part of the brain that is responsible for hearing. That is how we hear sounds.
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(d) The diagram shows longitudinal waves. Here sound travels in the same direction as the movement of particles of the
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medium. A longitudinal wave alternates between compression and rarefaction. The region where the medium is compressed
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is known as a compression and the region where the medium is spread out is known as a rarefaction. The amplitude of a
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longitudinal wave is the distance between the particles in the areas where it is compressed. The closer the particles are to
each other, the higher is the amplitude. The frequency of a longitudinal wave is the number of compressions and rarefactions
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made each second.

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(e) Acoustic sound Ultrasound

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The waves with frequencies between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. The waves with frequencies above 20,000 Hz.
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Audible to the human ear Inaudible to the human ear

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(f) Four ways to control noise pollution are: (answers can vary)
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• Keep the volume of your television, radio or music system low.

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• While using headphones, keep the volume as low as possible.

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• Use earplugs when you are in a noisy area because it reduces the overall noise of the surroundings.
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• It is best to avoid bursting crackers and using loudspeakers at festivals and weddings.
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(g) Hearing loss can affect the ability to develop communication, language and social skills. Because speech develops as the direct
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result of hearing, a person with a hearing loss may have defective speech also.
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4. Encourage students to make the collage and present it in class.

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Chapter 14: Chemical Effects of Electric Current
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Worksheet 1
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1. (a) Electric Current (b) Poor conductors of electricity
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(c) Light Emitting Diode (d) Ions
(e) Cathode (f) Sodium Chloride
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(g) Negative rs (h) An electrolytic cell
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2. (a) iii (b) vi (c) vii (d) viii
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(e) i (f) ii (g) iv (h) v

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3. (a) Sometimes, when the electric current is weak, the bulb of a conduction tester does not glow. In such cases, a Light Emitting Diode
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or LED is used in place of a bulb which glows even when a weak current flows in the circuit.
(b) Pure water, which is free of impurities, is a poor conductor of electricity. But tap water which contains some impurities is a good
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conductor of electricity. So, the presence of even minute impurities can make water a good conductor of electricity.
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(c) For electrolysis to take place, the electrodes are required to be at constant opposite polarity throughout the process. Electrolysis
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cannot take place with an alternating electric current (AC), because when we pass an AC current, the polarity of the electrodes will
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keep changing and the ions will not be attracted towards any electrode, creating disruption in the ionization process.
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(d) Depending on the metal used as electrodes and the type of electrolyte used, the chemical effects of electric current could be any of
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the following kind.

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i. Production of gases shown by the formation of bubbles

ii. Change in the colour of the electrolyte indicating a change to the electrolyte
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iii. Deposition of layer of metal on the electrodes

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(e) Nickel plating is done on a metal surface to reduce friction in materials such as electric conductors. It reduces the chances of early
wear and tear of the metal.
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4. The students would research on the topic and present his/her findings in class.
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Worksheet 2
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1. (a) True (b) True (c) False (d) False

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(e) True (f) False (g) False (h) True

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2. (a) Positive (b) Electrolysis

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(c) Cathode (d) Like, unlike

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(e) Copper (f) Weak

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(g) Conducting liquids (h) Good

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3. (a) Iron is electroplated with other metals like zinc, nickel or chromium to prevent it from getting corroded. Hence, electroplating acts
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as a protective barrier for iron and protects it from different atmospheric conditions.
(b) Since water is a weak electrolyte, common salt (sodium chloride) is sometimes added to make it a strong electrolyte. On
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passing electricity, salt water dissociates into sodium ions (Na+) and chloride ions (Cl−), each of which helps conduct
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electricity. In this case, the chlorine ions flow to the anode, hydrogen ions flow to the cathode and the resulting solution
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forms sodium hydroxide (NaOH).

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(c) During electroplating, the metal ions from the electrolyte get deposited on the cathode. As metal ions get dissociated from the
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electrolytic solution, they are continuously replenished by the metal at the anode. The net result is the effective transfer of metal
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from the anode to the cathode.

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(d) Chromium is used for electroplating because it does not corrode, resists scratches, and has a shiny appearance.
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(e) Tin cans are used for storing food for longer periods of time. These cans are made by electroplating tin onto iron. Tin is less
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reactive than iron. Thus, food does not come into contact with iron and is protected from getting spoilt.
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(f)
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Good conductor of electricity Poor conductor of electricity

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Materials in which electric charges can move easily Materials in which electric charges cannot move easily
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Electrons are not held tightly by the atoms of the object Electrons are held tightly by the atoms of the object and
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and can move easily cannot move easily

Examples are copper and aluminium Examples are plastics and wood
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4. Encourage students to make the collage and present it in class.

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Chapter 15: Some Natural Phenomena
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Worksheet 1
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1. (a) Electrostatic force (b) Negatively
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(c) Charging by friction (d) Electroscope
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(e) Lightning (f) Earthing
(g) Conductor rs (h) Earthquake
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2. (a) False (b) True (c) False (d) True
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(e) False (f) True (g) True (h) False

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3. (a) There is the vigorous movement of air currents, and water droplets in rain clouds collide with each other and get charged during
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thunderstorms. The positive charge moves to the top parts of the rain cloud, while the negative charges move to the lower parts of
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the rain cloud. As these charges get created, they get accumulated, causing a build-up of charges. The bottom of the cloud that has
a build-up of negative charges creates a temporary positively charged area on the ground. Air is a poor conductor, the discharge
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does not happen till there is enough build-up to overcome the poor conductivity of air, and then there is a sudden static discharge
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between the cloud and the ground. This discharge is accompanied by light, and we see it as lightning.
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(b) Lightning can cause damage and injury because it releases a very large amount of energy. Tall buildings, trees and people in open
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areas risk being struck by lightning. If lightning hits a tree or a building, it can start a fire.
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(c) This method involves no physical contact between the charged and the uncharged object. The process of charging an uncharged
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body by bringing a charged body near it but not in contact with it is called charging by induction.
(d) The loss of static electricity as the charge moves off an object is called electric discharge. Sparks are an example of an electric discharge.
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(e) The three methods to protect ourselves from thunderstorms are:

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• Try to go indoors as soon as you hear a thunderstorm. Find a safe and covered shelter such as your home, office, shopping
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mall or a hard-top vehicle with the windows rolled up.

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• If you are caught in an open outdoor area with no shelter in sight, immediately get off elevated areas such as hills, or open
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areas such as a field or a ground.

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• Do not take shelter under a tree as it is likely to conduct electricity in a thunderstorm.

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(f) Geographical areas that have a high probability of seismic activities or earthquakes are called seismic zones or earthquake belts.
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(g) The Richter Magnitude Scale is used to describe the magnitude of earthquakes based on the height of the lines on a seismogram.
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4. The other natural disasters that occur due to the movement of the tectonic plates are Tsunami, volcanic eruptions and
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natural disasters.
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Worksheet 2
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1. (a) Induction (b) Electric discharge (c) Spark (d) Grounding

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(e) Mantle (f) Plate boundaries (g) Seismologist (h) Core

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2. (a) Vibrations generated by earthquake iv. Seismic waves

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(b) Electric charge at rest on an object iii. Static electricity

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(c) Proton i. Positively charged particle

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(d) Outermost layer of the Earth viii. Crust

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(e) Scale to describe the magnitude of earthquakes vi. Richter Scale

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(f) Instrument used to measure seismic waves vii. Seismograph

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(g) Large break in rocks along which movement occurs ii. Fault
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(h) Large electric discharge v. Lightning

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3. (a) Everything around us is made of atoms. Atoms can be subdivided into three parts: Protons, Electrons and Neutrons. Protons are
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positively charged. Electrons are negatively charged and neutrons have no charge. The centre of an atom, the nucleus, has protons
and neutrons. Electrons revolve around the nucleus. Atoms of objects are held together by electric forces or electric charges. An
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atom is electrically neutral.

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Electron
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Proton
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Nucleus
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Neutron
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(b) The process depicted in the picture is charging by friction. When two objects are rubbed against each other, electrons are
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transferred from one material to the other. One material ends up with more electrons, so it now has an overall negative charge.
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The other material ends up with fewer electrons, so it now has an overall positive charge. This process of charging two objects by
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rubbing them against each other is called charging by friction.

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(c) We use a device called the electroscope to test whether an object has charge. It was invented by Jean Nollet. It can detect static
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electric charges. When the electroscope is not charged, the leaves hang straight down. When the electroscope is charged, the leaves
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repel each other, or spread apart. The greater the charge, the greater is the separation between the leaves. An electroscope whose
leaves are spread apart indicates that the object that touched it was charged. However, it does not indicate if the charge is positive
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or negative.
(d) Lightning is a large static discharge—a transfer of charge between two objects. It happens if there is a build-up of static electricity
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in clouds during heavy rain and thunderstorms. Tall buildings have a lightning rod or conductor on the roof as it might be struck
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by lightning. A lightning conductor is a pointed metal rod connected to the ground by a wire.
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(e) Interior of the Earth consists of three concentric layers: crust, mantle and core. Crust is the outermost layer of the Earth consisting
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mainly of silicon and aluminium. Mantle is the thickest of Earth’s layers and takes up 83 per cent of the Earth’s volume. It extends
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down to about 2900 km from the crust to the Earth’s core. Core has two layers: an inner core and an outer core. The core is mostly
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iron with some nickel and takes up 16 per cent of the Earth’s total volume. The temperature in the outer core is very high.
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(f) The rigid upper part of the Earth’s mantle and the crust—the lithosphere—is not smooth. It is broken into sections called tectonic
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plates or simply plates. Plates can be large sections of the Earth’s crust and upper mantle.
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(g) Two methods to protect ourselves during thunderstorms and lightning if we are indoors:
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• Unplug electric/electronic appliances connected to an electric outlet, as the main power supply may conduct a power surge
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during a lightning storm.

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• Avoid contact with water during a thunderstorm. Do not bathe, shower, wash dishes or have any other contact with water
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during a thunderstorm. Lightning can travel through plumbing.

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4. Encourage students to build an electroscope.

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Chapter 16: Light

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Worksheet 1
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1. (a) Luminous Objects (b) Reflected Ray

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(c) Diffused/irregular reflection (d) Virtual image

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(e) Principle of multiple reflection (f) Visible spectrum

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(g) Sclera (h) Blind Spot

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2. (a) v (b) i (c) viii (d) ii (e) iii (f) vii (g) vi (h) iv
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3. (a) The two laws of reflection are:

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• The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

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• The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray all lie on the same plane.
(b) Point P is where the image is formed. No, the position will not change as the distance of the object from the mirror is equal to the
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distance of its image from the mirror.

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360°
(c) The number of images = –1
angle between the mirrors
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360°
= – 1 = 6 – 1= 5
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60°
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(d) A kaleidoscope is made using three mirrors angled at 60° to each other to form a triangle that reflects the objects. These reflectors
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are surrounded by a tube. At one end of the tube is a collection of brightly coloured objects, held in place by a circle of glass or
plastic. At the other end, there is an eyehole. When we look through the eyehole and rotate the tube, the objects at the end of the
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kaleidoscope move and create endless patterns, where each pattern is unique.
(e) Mr. Dhawan was probably colour blind. Colour blind people find it difficult to see the colour change from red to green or
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green to red at a traffic intersection. There is no cure for colour blindness, but special glasses and contact lenses are used to help
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the condition.
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(f) Deficiency of vitamin A causes night blindness, a disease in which a person is not able to see clearly in low light, especially during
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night. Carrot being a good sources of vitamin A helps keep our eyes healthy.
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(g) Visual impairment can occur due to an injury to the eyes, severe eye infection or sometimes as an aftereffect of a disease. Some
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people are born visually challenged.
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4. Encourage students to carry out research, make a chart and present it in class.
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Worksheet 2
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1. (a) False (b) True (c) False (d) False (e) True (f) False (g) True (h) True
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2. (a) Ray (b) Regular (c) Lateral (d) Multiple (e) Reflected (f) White
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(g) Pupil (h) Dispersion

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3. (a) A ray of light hits a plane mirror at 90o means that the incident ray is travelling along the normal to reach the surface of the mirror.
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The angle of incidence here is zero. Since the angle of incidence is zero, the angle of reflection will also be zero. Thus, the reflected
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ray will also travel back along the normal.

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(b) For stealth purposes, a submarine cannot come to the surface of the ocean every time it wants to observe the surface. So,
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submarines make use of periscopes. A periscope uses two parallel mirrors facing each other to bounce light between them so that
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people in the submarine can look at things above the surface of water.
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(c) Persistence of vision is a phenomenon on which cartoon pictures were developed. The human eye and brain can retain an image
for up to fifteenth or sixteenth of a second. If a subsequent image replaces the previous image within this period, it creates the
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illusion of continuity. So, if still images of a moving object are flashed on the eye at a rate faster than 15–16 images per second,
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then the eye perceives this object as moving. Cartoon films present a sequence of still images in quick succession of around 24
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pictures per second that the viewer interprets as a continuous moving image.
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(d) The eyes of farsighted people cannot form a sharp image on the retina, of an object that is nearby. The image looks blurred as it
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forms behind the retina. Eyeglasses with convex lenses cause the incoming light rays from nearby objects to form a sharp image on
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the retina.
(e) Braille is a system that blind people can read. Visually challenged (blind) people have a sharp sense of touch and hearing. Braille is
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helpful to them as it is read by touch, using fingers to feel the letters and symbols.
(f) Pooja should keep herself hydrated by drinking enough fluids. Taking in sufficient fluids is essential to our body’s overall well-
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being, including the eyes. This prevents our eyes from getting dry and irritated.
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(g) The lens becomes flatter when we focus on a distant object, and it becomes more curved when we focus on a nearby object.
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4. Encourage students to make the kaleidoscope and present it in class.

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Chapter 17: Stars and the Solar System

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Worksheet 1
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1. (a) Astronomy (b) Pole Star

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(c) Constellations (d) Solar system

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(e) Period of rotation (f) Satellite

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(g) Lunar highlands (h) Far side

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2. (a) iv (b) vi (c) i (d) viii (e) ii (f) iii (g) v (h) vii
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3. (a) Stars, the planets, the Moon and other objects found in space are together called celestial objects. The study of celestial objects and
the associated phenomena is called astronomy.
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(b) A celestial body which emits heat and light of its own is called a star. A star is an extremely hot, dense mass of gases. As these
gases burn, a star gives off visible light. So, stars are luminous bodies, that is, objects that give out light. Examples: Sun, Proxima
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Centauri
(c) i. Orion: The constellation Orion, also known as the Great Hunter, is a highly visible and easily recognisable pattern in the night
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sky. It is visible from all parts of the world. Orion is recognisable by three bright stars which form a belt-like pattern, known as
Orion’s Belt.
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ii. Cassiopeia: Cassiopeia is a constellation located in the upper portion of the Northern Hemisphere and was one of the first
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constellations discovered by Greek astronomers in the second century. Cassiopeia forms a W shape and is composed of five
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very bright stars, making it easy to find and view in the night sky.
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(d) Inner planets of the solar system: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
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Outer planets of the solar system: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Pluto

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(e) Asteroids, sometimes called minor planets, are believed to be rocky remnants left over from the early formation of the solar
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system. They are pieces of rocks made of minerals similar to those that formed the rocky planets and moons.
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(f) A comet is a large body of ice and rock that revolves around the Sun. Each comet has a tiny frozen part, called a nucleus,
containing icy chunks— frozen gases with bits of embedded dust. A comet warms up as it nears the Sun and causes the comet’s ice
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to change to gases. Solar winds blow gas and dust away from the comet.
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(g) A dwarf planet as a celestial body in direct orbit of the Sun that is massive enough for its shape to be controlled by gravitation (i.e.,
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is nearly spherical), but unlike a planet it has not cleared its orbital region of other objects. Examples: Pluto, Ceres
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(h) An artificial satellite is a human-made body placed in orbit around the Earth or another planet in order to collect information
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about it or for communication purposes. Examples: Sputnik, Aryabhatta

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4. Help students create a PowerPoint presentation about the origin of our universe and presence of more planets in other galaxies.
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Worksheet 2
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1. (a) Astronomers (b) Ursa Major (c) Orion (d) Cassiopeia

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(e) Sirius (f) Venus (g) Mars (h) Comet

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2. (a) True (b) False (c) True (d) False (e) False (f) True (g) False (h) True
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3. (a) Planets are celestial bodies which revolve around the Sun in a fixed orbit. They do not produce their own light but reflect the light of the
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Sun that falls on them. There are eight planets in the solar system: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
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(b) A celestial body revolving around another celestial body is called its satellite. There are two types of satellites: natural and artificial.
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The Moon is a natural satellite as it revolves around the planet Earth. An artificial satellite is a human-made body placed in
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orbit around the Earth or another planet in order to collect information about it or for communication purposes. Sputnik and
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Aryabhatta are artificial satellites.

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(c) The asteroid belt separates the solar system’s planets into two groups—the inner planets and the outer planets. It is an area between
Mars and Jupiter in which many asteroids travel around the Sun.
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(d) Meteors or ‘shooting stars’ are bits of interplanetary material falling through the Earth’s atmosphere and heated by friction as they
streak across the sky. Sometimes, the numbers of meteors are very large and are termed as meteor showers. Meteor showers are
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usually named after a star or a constellation that is close to where the meteors appear in the sky.
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(e) A planet is a celestial object that meets all three of these criteria:
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i. The celestial object is in orbit around the Sun.

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ii. The celestial object has a nearly spherical shape.

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iii. The celestial object has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit of smaller objects.
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(f) i. Venus: Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is sometimes called the Earth’s twin. Its size and mass are similar to those
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of the Earth. It is the brightest planet in the sky and is mostly seen just before sunrise or just after sunset. It is also called the
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morning star or the evening star.

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ii. Uranus: Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun. It is one of the two ice giants of the outer solar system. Its atmosphere is
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made mostly of hydrogen with small amounts of helium and methane. Methane gives Uranus a bluish-green colour.
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(g) The Moon’s surface has many depressions called craters. It has mountainous regions too. The mountainous areas of the Moon are
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called lunar highlands. The Moon also has dark and flat regions called maria.
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(h) The eight phases of the Moon are first quarter, waxing crescent, new moon, waning crescent, third quarter, waning gibbous, full
moon, waxing gibbous.
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New moon: We cannot see the moon in the new moon.

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Waning gibbous: The waning gibbous phase is between a half moon and a full moon.
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4. Guide students to create a chart with a list of all the Indian satellites that have been sent in space and mention their objectives.
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Chapter 18: Pollution of Air and Water
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Worksheet 1
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1. (a) Pollutant (b) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) (c) Air Quality Index
(d) Orange (e) Van Mahotsav (f) Eutrophication
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(g) March 22 (h) Typhoid/cholera/gastroenteritis/dysentery (any of these)
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2. (a) viii (b) v (c) i (d) vii (e) ii (f) iii (g) iv (h) vi
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3. (a) Some natural sources of air pollution are: forest fires, volcanic eruptions, dust from dust storms and some kinds of pollen grains
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of flowers.
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(b) Sulphur dioxide causes irritation in the eyes as well as leads to respiratory tract diseases such as asthma and bronchitis. High
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concentration of sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves in rain drops to form sulphuric acid which causes acid rain leading
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to discolouration and deterioration of buildings.

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(c) The measurement of AQI is based on the following eight pollutants.
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• Particulate matter (size less than 10 µm) or (PM10), i.e., 10-to-2.5-micron sized particles
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• Particulate matter (size less than 2.5 µm) or (PM2.5), i.e., under 2.5-micron sized particles
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• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

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• Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

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• Carbon monoxide (CO)

• Ozone (O3)
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• Ammonia (NH3)
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• Lead (Pb)
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(d) Acid rain is harmful for agriculture, trees and plants as it dissolves and washes away nutrients needed for their growth. It causes
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respiratory ailments in humans. When acid rain falls and flows as ground water to reach rivers, lakes, etc., it affects plant and
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animal life in aquatic ecosystems. It corrodes water pipes, resulting in the leaching of heavy metals such as iron, lead and copper
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into the drinking water. Acid rain damages buildings and other structures made of stone or metal.
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(e) The picture shows a greenhouse. Flowers, vegetables and fruits are grown in a glass-covered area called a greenhouse. We are
surrounded by a blanket of air called the atmosphere, which has kept the temperature on the Earth constant. The glass in a
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greenhouse holds the Sun’s warmth inside. Similarly, the atmosphere traps the Sun’s heat near the Earth’s surface and keeps it
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warm. This is called the natural greenhouse effect.

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(f) The waste materials accidentally leaked from uranium and thorium mines, nuclear power plants and industries, research
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laboratories and hospitals which use radioisotopes are called radioactive pollutants. Sometimes, water bodies are polluted by of
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radioactive pollutants. Radioactive materials enter human body through water and food and may be accumulated in blood and
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certain vital organs. They cause tumours and cancer.

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(g) (Answers may vary.)

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• Turn off the tap while brushing teeth.

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• Take shorter baths.

• Turn off the shower while applying soap.
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• Turn off the tap and check that it is tightly closed after each use.
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• Wash fruits and vegetables in a bowl of water, instead of under the tap.
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• Practise rainwater harvesting at home.

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• Collect the wastewater from the RO to reuse for cleaning the floors or watering plants.
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• Wash cars using a bucket of water instead of a hose

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4. Take students to a place where water pollution can be monitored. Help them collect and present their information in the form of a
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PowerPoint presentation.
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Worksheet 2
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1. (a) True (b) False (c) False (d) True (e) True (f) False (g) True (h) True
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2. (a) Nitrogen oxides (b) Lead (c) Particulate matter, ozone (d) 75 per cent (e) Biogas
(f) Oil slick (g) Sewage Treatment Plant (h) Rainwater harvesting
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3. (a) Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas which causes severe respiratory problems. When it reaches the blood stream, it replaces
oxygen due to its high affinity for haemoglobin. This shortage of oxygen, in mild cases, causes headache and dizziness, but in
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extreme cases leads to unconsciousness, and even death. These effects, arising from the presence of carbon monoxide in the body,
are referred to as carbon monoxide poisoning.
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(b) Ozone is not emitted directly into the air but created by chemical reactions in the atmosphere. It is an important chemical in the
upper atmosphere where it blocks ultraviolet radiation. However, it can have harmful effects on human health at ground-level.
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Ozone makes our eyes itch, burn and water.
(c) AQI is severe in the range 401–500. The pollution levels may cause respiratory impact even on healthy people, and serious health
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impacts on people with lung/heart disease. Health impacts may be experienced even during light physical activity.
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(d) It is predicted that if these trends continue, global warming may lead to melting of polar ice caps and flooding of low-lying areas
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all over the Earth. Scientists agree that the Earth’s rising temperatures are fuelling longer and hotter heat waves, more frequent
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droughts, heavier rainfall and more powerful ocean storms. Increase in the global temperature increases the incidence of tropical
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diseases such as dengue, malaria, yellow fever and sleeping sickness.

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(e) Manure, fertilisers, pesticides, wastes from farms, etc., are drained as run-off from agricultural lands. The water body receiving
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these chemicals becomes rich in nutrients. As more and more organic matter enters a water body, more and more nutrients are
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released from the waste by the action of bacteria which start decomposing it. The algae and other water plants living in the water
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use these nutrients to rapidly grow and multiply. This leads to oxygen deficiency in the water body. Such a water body is said to be
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eutrophied and the process is called eutrophication. The presence of algae makes the water appear green.
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(f) The objectives of the Ganga Action Plan are:

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• to abate pollution and improve water quality
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• to conserve biodiversity and develop an integrated river basin management approach

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• to conduct comprehensive research to further these objectives

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• to gain experience in implementing similar river clean-up programs in other polluted rivers in India.
(g) Sometimes, water from a nearby river or lake is used to cool machines in factories and nuclear power plants. Then, the heated
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water is released back into the river or lake. Pollution occurs because hot water contains less oxygen than cool water. Organisms
that live in water are sensitive to temperature changes. Fish and other aquatic organisms can get affected by a sudden change in
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water temperatures.
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4. Guide students to make the project and present in class.

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Sample Paper Answers
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Sample Paper 1
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A. 1. (b) Compost, 2. (a) Nylon, 3. (c) single-celled, 4. (a) Termite, 5. (d) Cells
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B. 1. Monsoon, 2. Algae, 3. Testes, 4. Oxygen, 5. Non-combustible
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1. False, 2. False, 3. False, 4. False, 5. False
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D. 1. AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. It is a fatal sexually transmitted viral disease. It is caused by infection
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with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
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2. Ductility is the property by which a substance can be beaten into thin wires. Gold and silver are ductile.
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3. Plant cell contains cell wall, which is not there in animal cell. Plant cell contains chloroplast, which is also not there in animal cell.
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4. Manure is an organic substance that is obtained from dead or decaying animal and plant waste. Using manure replenishes the soil
and increases its fertility. Fertilisers are made artificially using chemicals.
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5. Plastics are commonly used these days. But, plastics are non-biodegradable, that is, they take hundreds of years to decompose. This
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poses a serious threat to our environment. A single plastic bag thrown on the road will stay there for years and years. Microorganisms
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cannot decompose plastic. When burnt, plastics release harmful gases in the environment, which causes pollution.
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E. 1. The process by which an animal (or a living organism) is able to produce young ones that resemble the animal (or the living
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organism) is called reproduction. There are two methods of reproduction: sexual and asexual. Sexual reproduction involves the
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fusion of both male and female gametes. In asexual reproduction, a single parent gives rise to the new individual.
Sexual Reproduction: In this method of reproduction, both the male and female parents are involved. Both the parents have
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reproductive organs. Male and female gametes fuse to form a zygote. This zygote develops into a new individual. For example,
humans, dogs and cats reproduce by sexual reproduction.
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Asexual Reproduction: In this method of reproduction, a single parent gives rise to the new individual. It does not involve
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the fusion of male and female gametes. The offspring produced by this method are the exact copies of their parent. Amoeba,
Hydra and yeast are some lower organisms that reproduce by asexual reproduction.
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2. Nucleus is a large, spherical body surrounded by inner and outer nuclear membranes called nuclear envelopes. These nuclear
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envelopes separate the nucleus from the cytoplasm. Nucleus is the most important structure of a cell and the most significant
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functions of a cell take place inside it. Nucleus is also referred to as the information and control centre of the cell. All the genetic
information is localised in the nucleus of the cell.
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There are also thread-like structures inside the nucleus called chromosomes. They contain DNA inside them which forms the
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hereditary material in many organisms. Each molecule of DNA contains genes in it. Genes are the hereditary characters that are
inherited from one generation to another. It is because of genes that a child resembles his or her parents.
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3. The arrangement of metals in the order of decreasing reactivity is called reactivity series of metals (or activity series of metals).
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In the reactivity series, the most reactive metal, that is, potassium, is placed at the top and the least reactive metal, that is, gold, is
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placed at the bottom. Copper cannot displace iron from iron sulphate solution because copper is less reactive than iron.
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4. The different types of combustions are:

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(a) Complete and Incomplete combustion: Some substance burn in the presence of oxygen whereas some do not. Based on this,
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combustion is categorised as complete and incomplete combustion. Complete combustion takes place when sufficient amount of
oxygen is available for the substance to burn and incomplete combustion takes place when amount of available oxygen is limited.
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(b) Rapid and Spontaneous combustion: Some substances, when heated, like petrol and kerosene, burn rapidly releasing
large amounts of heat and light. This is called rapid combustion. Whereas, some substances, when heated, such as sulphur
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and phosphorus burn have very low ignition temperature, so much so, that they may start burning without heating. The
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substances react suddenly and release a large amount of gases, therefore, resembling an explosion. Such process is called
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spontaneous combustion.
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5. The forests play protective and a productive role. This can be understood by the following points:
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A. Protective
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• The dense part of forests acts as shield by slowing down the wind speed and hence preventing topsoil from being eroded.
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• Trees protect the wildlife, as it provides food and shelter to wild animals.
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• Forests help in reducing air pollution and keep the city cool.
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• Forests help in maintaining the ideal underground water with increased absorption of water by the soil.
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B. Productive
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• Medicinal plants such as neem and aloe vera are the products of forests.
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• Industries such as rubber industry also depend on forest products.

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• Oils such as coconut and sandalwood are obtained from forests.

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• Wood, obtained from trees, is used for making paper, furniture, and even as a fuel.
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• A variety of food items are also obtained from forests.

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Sample Paper 2
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A. 1. (a) Protons, 2. (b) Muscular, 3. (b) Middle zone, 4. (b) Mercury, 5. (c) acid rain
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B. 1. Pollutant, 2. Boiling, 3. Sirius, 4. Friction, 5. Echo
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C. 1. True, 2. True, 3. True, 4. False, 5. True
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D. 1. The SI unit of pressure is Pascal (N/m2).
2. Tabla is a percussion instrument. Flute is a wind instrument. Violin is a string instrument.
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3. Planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are called outer planets because they are very far from the Sun.
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4. The flow of electric charges is known as electric current.
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5. Drinking polluted water causes many diseases such as cholera, typhoid, dysentery and polio.
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E. 1. The ways to charge a body can be broadly classified into three categories:
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(a) Charging by Induction
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(b) Charging by Friction
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(c) Charging by Conduction
Charging by Induction: The charging of a body by bringing it closer to a body which is already charged, without any physical
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contact, is called charging by induction. The body acquires an opposite charge in this way.
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Charging by Friction: When two bodies are rubbed against each other, they are said to acquire equal and opposite charges. This
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way of charging is called charging by friction. For example, after rubbing a silk cloth on a glass rod, the silk cloth is able to attract
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bits of paper towards it. This is because silk cloth gained some electrons to become negatively charged and the glass rod lost some
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electrons to become positively charged.

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Charging by Conduction: Charging a body by touching it to an already charged body is referred to as charging by conduction. In
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this method, the body to be charged acquires the same charge as the body which is charging it.
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2. The characteristics of the images formed by a plane mirror are discussed below:
• Upright: The image formed in a plane mirror is always virtually upright and is never inverted.
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• Lateral inversion: The property of plane mirror by virtue of which the left side appears to be the right side and vice versa is
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called lateral inversion. All images formed by a plane mirror show lateral inversion.
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• Size: The image formed by a plane mirror is always the same size as the object.
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• Distance from the object: The distance between the object and the mirror is the same as the distance between the image and
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the mirror.
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3. The crust of the Earth is made up of continental and oceanic crusts. Continental crusts form the great landmasses of the Earth
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and the oceanic crusts which lie below the widespread oceans are much thinner. The continental crust consists of plates that are
continuously moving, these plates are called tectonic plates. The plates float above the mantle. Some plates move apart, whereas
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some move towards each other. When the plates accidentally slip against each other, a lot of heat energy is released and the rocks
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crack sending shock waves called seismic waves in all directions. The point of origin of seismic waves is called seismic focus. The
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place on the Earth’s surface directly above the point where shock is felt is called epicentre of earthquake.
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4. Just like we can reduce friction, there are ways to increase it. Some of these methods are:
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• During rainy season, sand is spread on a slippery ground to increase friction.

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• Weightlifters, sportspersons, etc., apply chalk or powder on their hands to increase the grip of their hands.
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• Sport shoes and mountaineering shoes are also provided with spikes because they provide grip.
• Tyres of trucks, cars, etc., have ‘treads’, which increase friction and hence grip between the tyres and the road.
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5. A comet is a smaller heavenly body that revolves around the Sun. But compared in size with planets, the comet is so small that it
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takes almost 1000 years for a comet to complete one orbit around the Sun. The comet consists of a head which is a ball of bright
gases and a tail which is always pointed away from the Sun, because of the force of the solar wind. The tail of a comet only starts
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developing when it is approaching the Sun.

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'C 'C 'C

education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

© Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2023

no reproduction of any part may take place without the written

First published 2023

of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,

The photocopy masters in this publication may be photocopied or distributed

any way outside the purchasing institution.

acknowledgement in future editions of the book.

types of questions and analyse their responses.

Approach to the Student’s Book

objective of instilling a particular skill has been met.

Features to develop interest and understanding

questions meant to arouse the learner’s curiosity.

Why it is important to learn states why this chapter is being taught.

Warm-up is an opportunity for students to check what they already know.

Real-world Connect!: Snippets highlighting real-life applications of concepts learnt.

subject-enrichment activities to hone 21st century skills.

technology, engineering, arts and mathematics.

weighing scale, thermometer, etc.

Features to develop Life Skills and Values

recommended by the UNICEF:

Cognitive skills: critical thinking, problem-solving and decision-making

Personal skills: self-awareness and self-management

Interpersonal skills: communication, negotiation, cooperation, teamwork, inclusion, empathy and

Features for assessment and evaluation

items recommended by the NCERT.

Features to provide support to Parents

At-home activities to recognise/apply concepts in the real-world scenarios. As

Diagnostic test with analysis to identify/monitor a student’s skill learning curve.

Approach to the Teacher’s Book

Following are the features of each Teacher’s Book:

Spiral Lesson Plans

the screenshot are methodically arranged boxes with components

to explain how the teacher should approach the contents of

2 LIVING AND NON-LIVING THINGS

that particular page of the chapter. Each component lists the

development of specific skills expected to be instilled in students.

• Living and non-living things

21st Century Skills: This component lists the skills intended to

• About living and Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing

• How living things are

are different • Do bicycles grow?

on the road is a living thing. us is to determine whether they are

We must know what living and

7 Es of Learning: The teaching of each component and learning

Activity Corner 7E Engage, Extend

Skills instilled: Observing, Analysing, Critical thinking

provide tips, strategies and additional material for

explaining a particular concept. They also provide Section Review 1 7E Evaluate

suggestions for using particular teaching aids needed to

support and enhance the learning experience. 7E Evaluate, Engage

Tools for Learning: The Student’s Book contains a variety

of features—Warm-up, Do You Know?, Look It Up!,

living thing. Humans plants are living things.

Skills instilled: Environmental literacy,

component provides specific instructions for taking up

Concept Building 7E Engage, Explain, Elaborate

As 1. Non-living things found