States of matter

The kinetic particle theory explains the properties of the different states of matter. The
particles in solids, liquids and gases have different amounts of energy. They are arranged
differently and move in different ways.
The table below summarises the arrangement and movement of the particles in solids, liquids
and gases, and shows simple diagrams for the arrangement of the particles.

Diagram of particle arrangement and

movement

Solids
The table shows some of the properties of solids and why they are like this.

Property Why
Solids have a fixed shape The particles cannot move from
and cannot flow place to place
Solids cannot be The particles are close together
compressed or squashed and have no space to move into

Liquids
The table shows some of the properties of liquids and why they are like this.
 Property Why
Liquids flow and take the The particles can move around
shape of their container each other
Liquids cannot be The particles are close together
compressed or squashed and have no space to move into

Gases
The table shows some of the properties of gases and why they are like this.

Property Why
Gases flow and completely The particles can move quickly
fill their container in all directions
Gases can be compressed or The particles are far apart and
squashed have space to move into

State changes
Substances can exist as a solid, liquid or gas. Converting from one state to another usually
involves heating or cooling.

• Heat must be supplied to a substance for it to melt, evaporate or boil. For example, you need to heat
ice to melt it, and you need to heat water to make steam.
• Heat must be removed from a substance to condense or freeze it. In other words, the substance must
be cooled down.
Under certain conditions, some solids turn straight into a gas when heated. This process is
called sublimation. A good example is solid carbon dioxide, also called ‘dry ice’. At
atmospheric pressure, it turns straight into gaseous carbon dioxide.
Liquid carbon dioxide can only exist under high pressure, such as in fire extinguishers. Iodine
also sublimes - it turns directly from shiny purple-black crystals to a purple vapour when
warmed up.
Changing the pressure
A gas will also liquefy (turn into a liquid) if its pressure is increased enough. This is because
the particles are moved close enough for bonds to form between the particles.
Gas cylinders used for camping stoves and barbecues contain liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
under high pressure. As soon as the pressure is released, the liquid turns back to a gas.

Solubility of solids
If a substance is soluble it will dissolve in a given amount of liquid (called the ‘solvent’).
Different substances have different solubilities. This table shows the solubility of substances
in water at 20°C. Solubility is shown as the grams of a solute per 100 g of water.

Solute Solubility
Sodium chloride 36
Copper(II) sulfate 32
Sodium hydrogencarbonate 10
Lead(II) iodide 0.07
Lead(II) nitrate 54

The effect of temperature

In general, solids become more soluble as the temperature increases. This is why sugar
dissolves better in hot water than in cold water. The table shows three examples of the
solubility (g of solute per 100 g water) of substances at different temperatures.

20°C 30°C 40°C

Sodium chloride 35.9 36.1 36.4
Copper(II) sulfate 32.0 37.8 44.6
Potassium nitrate 47.0 61.6 77.0
Solubility of gases

The solubility of a gas in a particular solventdepends on pressure and temperature.

As the pressure increases, more gas molecules dissolve into the solvent. Carbonated
drinks are bottled under pressure. When the lid of the bottle is removed, the pressure inside
the air space at the top of the bottle is reduced. This causes some of the carbon dioxide to
come out of solution, causing the familiar bubbles in the drink that rise to the top.
In general, gases tend to become less soluble as the temperature of the solvent
increases. This explains why fizzy drinks go ‘flat’ more quickly on a hot day than when they
are stored in the fridge.

Evidence for particles - dilution

A solution is made when a solute, usually a soluble solid compound, is dissolved into a liquid
called a solvent, typically water.
If the solute is white (eg sodium chloride) then the solution is colourless. This is because
the individual particles (in this case, ions) in the sodium chloride crystals break apart and
spread out through the water.
If the solute is coloured (eg blue copper sulfate) then the solution will have a colour. As
with the white solute, the particles are now too small to see, and evenly spread out.
Adding more water to copper sulfate solution will make it a paler shade of blue, because the
blue particles will now be further apart. This shows that both the solute and solvent are made
from tiny particles

Evidence for particles - diffusion

Diffusion in gases
When chemicals, like the smell of perfume or burning toast, are let loose in a room, the
particles mix with the air particles. The particles of smelly gas are free to move quickly in all
directions. They eventually spread throughout the whole room. This is called diffusion.
Diffusion in gases is quick because the particles in a gas move quickly. It happens even
faster in hot gases.
 Diffusion happens quickly in gases

Diffusion in liquids
Diffusion can also happen in liquids. This is because the particles in liquids can move around
each other, which means that eventually they are evenly mixed.
For example, if you drop a little bit of paint into a jar of water the colour will spread slowly
through the water by diffusion.
Diffusion in liquids is slower than in gases because the particles in a liquid move more
slowly.

Solids
Diffusion does not happen at all in solids because the particles in a solid can only vibrate on
the spot, rather than being able to move from place to place.

Particles - definitions
Atom
• The smallest particle of an element.
• Scientists originally thought that atoms could not be split up, but this is not the case.

Molecule
• A cluster of non-metal atoms that are chemically bonded together.
• The atoms in a molecule are joined by covalent bonds.
• The atoms always join in fixed ratios and molecules have a specific formula, eg H2O or N2.
• There are molecules of compounds (eg CH4) and molecules of elements (eg O2).

Element
• A pure substance that is listed on the periodic table and only has one type of atom in it.
• There are over 100 elements.
• Most are metals, a few are semi-metals, and the rest are non-metals.

Compound
• A pure substance made from more than one type of element chemically bonded together.
• Elements bond in fixed ratios and so can be represented by a chemical formula. For example, sodium
chloride has the same number of sodium ions and chloride ions, so its formula is NaCl; whereas water
is always made from twice the number of hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms, so it is H2O.

Mixture
• An impure substance made from different elements or compounds.
• Mixtures can usually be separated by physical techniques such as filtering and distillation.
• Air is a mixture that contains the elements nitrogen, oxygen and argon, and also the compound carbon
dioxide.

Mixtures
A mixture is made from different substances that are not chemically joined.
For example, powdered iron and powdered sulfur mixed together makes a mixture of iron and
sulfur. They can be separated from each other without a chemical reaction, in the way that
different coloured sweets can be picked out from a mixed packet and put into separate piles.

There are times when the purity of a substance is very important. For example, a medicine
must not contain any harmful chemicals.

Mixtures and compounds

Mixtures have different properties from compounds. The table summarises these differences.
 Mixture Compound
Variable composition Definite composition –
– you can vary the you cannot vary the
Composition amount of each amount of each
substance in a element in a
mixture compound
The different The different
Joined or substances are not elements are
not chemically joined chemically joined
together together
The compound has
Each substance in the properties which are
Properties
mixture keeps its different from the
own properties elements it contains
It can only be
Each substance is separated into its
Separation
easily separated from elements using
the mixture chemical reactions
Water, carbon dioxide,
Examples Air, sea water, most magnesium oxide,
rocks sodium chloride

An example - iron, sulfur and iron sulfide

Iron and sulfur react together when they are heated to make a compound called iron sulfide.
What are the differences between a mixture of iron and sulfur, and iron sulfide? Here are
some of them:
• the mixture can contain more or less iron, but iron sulfide always contains equal amounts of iron and
sulfur
• the iron and sulfur atoms are not joined together in the mixture, but they are joined together in iron
sulfide
• the iron and sulfur still behave like iron and sulfur in the mixture, but iron sulfide has different
properties from both iron and sulfur
• you can separate the iron from the mixture using a magnet, but this does not work for iron sulfide
Simple distillation
Distillation separates a liquid from a solution. For example, water can be separated from salty
water by simple distillation. This method works because the water evaporates from the
solution, but is then cooled and condensed into a separate container. The salt does not
evaporate and so it stays behind.

Separating a liquid from a solution

Simple distillation
1. Salty water is heated

Fractional distillation
Fractional distillation can be used to separate two or more liquids. For example, ethanol
(alcohol) can be separated from a mixture of ethanol and water because the two liquids have
different boiling points.
Separating two or more liquids

Distillation process to separate ethanol from water

1. Water and ethanol solution is heated

Fractional distillation is used to separate crude oil into useful liquids that have different
boiling points. Petrol and diesel are useful fractionsof crude oil.

Paper chromatography
Chromatography can be used to separate mixtures of coloured compounds. Mixtures that are
suitable for separation by chromatography include inks, dyes and colouring agents in food.
Simple chromatography is carried out on paper. A spot of the mixture is placed near the
bottom of a piece of chromatography paper. The paper is then placed upright in a
suitable solvent, such as water.
As the solvent soaks up the paper, it carries the mixtures with it. Different components of the
mixture will move at different rates. This separates the mixture out.
1. Spots of ink or plant dye are placed on a pencil line

Rf values
Different chromatograms and the separated components of the mixtures can be identified by
calculating the retardation factor (Rf). The Rf value is worked out by using this equation:
Rf = distance moved by the compound ÷ distance moved by the solvent
The Rf value of a particular compound is always the same if the chromatography has been
carried out in the same way. This allows industry to use chromatography to identify
compounds in mixtures.
Chromatography can also be done when the different substances in the mixture are
colourless. The chromatogram can be exposed to a locating agent, which reacts with the
invisible chemicals so that they can be seen.
Chromatography paper next to a measurement scale shows distances travelled by the solvent
and substance

Filtration and crystallisation

Filtration
This technique is used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid. It can be used to obtain
a product that is free from unreacted chemicals, by-products or solvent.

Separating insoluble solids

1. One beaker contains a mixture of solid and liquid, the other contains a funnel with filter
paper

Crystallisation
When a product is made as a solution, one way to separate it from the solvent is to
make crystals. This involves evaporating the solution to a much smaller volume and then
leaving it to cool. As the solution cools, crystals form, and these can be obtained by filtration.

Structure of the atom

The nuclear model
Atoms contain three sub-atomic particles called protons, neutronsand electrons.
 The protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus at the centre of the atom. The nucleus is
very much smaller than the atom as a whole. The electrons are arranged in shells around the
nucleus.

Properties of sub-atomic particles

Particle Relative mass Relative charge
Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron -1
The number of electrons in an atom is always the same as the number of protons, so atoms
are electrically neutral overall.
Atoms can lose or gain electrons. When they do, they form charged particles called ions:
• if an atom loses one or more electrons, it becomes a positively charged ion
• if an atom gains one or more electrons, it becomes a negatively charged ion

Isotopes
Atomic number and mass number
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called its atomic number:
• the atoms of a particular element all have the same number of protons
• the atoms of different elements have different numbers of protons
The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called its mass number.
 Chemical symbol of chlorine-35
The proton number is shown below the chemical symbol, and the mass number is shown
above. In this example the atomic number is 17 and the mass number is 35. This means that
each of these atoms has:
• 17 protons
• 17 electrons
• 35 - 17 = 18 neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of an element with the normal number of protons and electrons, but
different numbers of neutrons. Isotopes have the same atomic number, but different mass
numbers.
Isotopes can either be radioactive or non-radioactive. For example, 14C is used in radiocarbon
dating to determine the age of historical objects and 99Tc is used in medical imaging.

Three isotopes of hydrogen

Most hydrogen atoms consist of just one proton and one electron, but some also have one or
two neutrons.

Relative atomic mass

 Different atoms have different masses. Atoms have such a small massit is more convenient to
know their masses compared to each other. Carbon is taken as the standard atom and has
a relative atomic mass(Ar) of 12.
• Atoms with an Ar of less than this have a smaller mass than a carbon atom.
• Atoms with an Ar that is more than this have a larger mass than a carbon atom.

Ar values of elements
The table shows some Ar values:

Element Relative atomic mass

Hydrogen (H) 1
Carbon (C) 12
Oxygen (O) 16
Magnesium (Mg) 24
Chlorine (Cl) 35.5
These values tell you that a magnesium atom has twice the mass of a carbon atom, and 24
times more mass than a hydrogen atom. They also tell you that hydrogen atoms have 12 times
less mass than a carbon atom. The Ar values also allow you to work out that three oxygen
atoms have the same mass as two magnesium atoms.
Chlorine's Ar of 35.5 is an average of the masses of the different isotopes of chlorine.

Calculating relative atomic mass from isotopic

abundance
The relative atomic mass of an element is a weighted average of the masses of the atoms of
the isotopes - because if there is much more of one isotope then that will influence the
average mass much more than the less abundant isotope will.
For example, chlorine has two isotopes: 35Cl and 37Cl. But the relative atomic mass of chlorine
is not 36. In any sample of chlorine, 75 per cent of the atoms are 35Cl and the remaining 25 per
cent are 37Cl.
The relative atomic mass is worked out using the following formula, illustrated for two
isotopes, where the abundances are given in percentage values.

For example, using chlorine:

The periodic table
There are more than 100 different elements. The periodic table is a chart showing all the
elements arranged in order of increasing atomic number. The vertical columns in the
periodic table are called groups. Each group contains elements that have similar properties.

The modern periodic table

The periodic table has eight main groups. For example, Group 1 contains
very reactive metals such as sodium (Na), while Group 7 contains very reactive non-metals
such as chlorine (Cl).
There are no compounds in the periodic table, because these consist of two or more different
elements joined together by chemical bonds.

Electron shells
Electrons are arranged in different shells around the nucleus. Each successive shell can only
hold a certain number of electrons.
The innermost shell is filled first. This shell can contain a maximum of two electrons. The
second shell can hold a maximum of eight electrons. When this is filled, electrons go into the
third shell, which also holds a maximum of eight electrons. Then the fourth shell begins to fill.
 Energy shell Maximum number of electrons
First 2
Second 8
Third 8
A lithium atom, for example, has three electrons. It has two in the first shell and one in the
second shell. A carbon atom has six electrons. It has two in the first shell and four in the
second shell.

Electronic arrangement of lithium

Electronic arrangement of carbon

A calcium atom has 20 electrons. Two are in the first shell, eight in the second shell, eight in
the third shell, and two in the fourth shell.

Electronic configurations

Electronic configuration diagram

The electronic configuration of an atom is a description of how the electrons are arranged. It
can be shown as numbers or as a diagram.
Take lithium for example. The diagram shows each shell as a circle around the nucleus, with
each electron represented by a dot. The electronic configuration for lithium is written as 2.1
(showing that lithium atoms have three electrons, two in the first shell and one in the second
shell).
Electrons and groups
A section of the periodic table

Columns in the periodic table - groups

The vertical columns in the periodic table are called groups. The elements in any one
vertical column are in the same group. The groups are numbered from left to right. Elements
in the same group have similar chemical properties.
The number of electrons in the outer shell of all the elements in a group is the same as the
group number.

Examples
All the Group 1 elements - lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium
(Cs) and francium (Fr) - have one electron in the outer shell.
The Group 7 elements - fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I) and astatine (At) -
have seven electrons in the outer shell.
Group 0 elements - helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe) and radon
(Rn) - have full outer shells. (Group 0 is sometimes called Group 8 – all the elements in the
group have eightelectrons in their outer shell, except for helium which only has two).

Rows in the periodic table - periods

Elements in the same horizontal row are in the same period. The periods are numbered from
top to bottom.
The period number is the same as the number of occupied electron shells.
Calculating relative formula masses
Relative atomic mass
The relative atomic mass of an element shows its mass compared with the mass of atoms of
other elements. The relative atomic mass of carbon is 12, while the relative atomic mass of
magnesium is 24. This means that each magnesium atom is twice the mass of a carbon atom.

Relative formula mass

Relative atomic masses can be used to find the relative formula massof a compound.
To find the relative formula mass (Mr) of a compound, you add together the relative atomic
mass values (Ar values) for all the atoms in its formula.
Here are two examples:

QQuestion
Find the Mr of carbon monoxide, CO.
A

QQuestion
Find the Mr of sodium oxide, Na2O.
A
The relative formula mass of a substance, shown in grams, is called one mole of that
substance. So one mole of carbon monoxide has a mass of 28 g, and one mole of sodium oxide
has a mass of 62 g.
The table shows some more examples of relative formula mass calculations, using the relative
atomic mass values given at the bottom of the page.

Relative formula mass calculations

Relative
Compound Formula Calculation formula
mass
Water H2O 1 + 1 + 16 = 18
Sodium
hydroxide NaOH 23 + 16 + 1 = 40
 Relative
Compound Formula Calculation formula
mass
24 + 16 + 16 + 1 + 1 =
(remember that there
Magnesium are two of each atom
hydroxide Mg(OH)2 inside the brackets) 58
• Ar of H = 1
• Ar of O = 16
• Ar of Na = 23
• Ar of Mg = 24

The mole
Chemists measure the amount of a substance in a unit called ‘the mole’. This is a convenient
way of counting atoms. It allows chemists to make predictions about the masses of different
substances that are involved in reactions.
One mole is the Avogadro number of particles (atoms, molecules, ions or electrons) in a
substance.

The Avogadro number

One mole of atoms contains 6 x 1023 atoms, no matter what element it is. This is a very large
number: it is 6 with 23 zeros after it. It is known as the Avogadro number.
This number is used in chemistry because if you could count out this many carbon atoms, the
total mass of carbon you would have is 12 g. On the other hand, weighing out 12 g of carbon
allows you to know how many atoms you have.

Moles of elements
One mole of carbon atoms has a mass of exactly 12 g. Because magnesium atoms each have
twice the mass of carbon atoms (24Mg compared with 12C), one mole of magnesium has a mass
of 24 g. In fact, one mole of any element has a mass in grams that is equal to its relative
atomic mass. One mole of iron has a mass of 56 g.

Moles of compounds
A mole of a molecular compound contains 6 x 1023 molecules. It has a mass that is equal to
its relative formula mass. So a mole of water (H2O) has a mass of 18 g. A mole of carbon
dioxide (CO2) has a mass of 44 g. This also works for ionic compounds, so a mole of sodium
chloride (NaCl) has a mass of 58.5 g.
This approach can also be used for elements that are made from molecules. For example,
oxygen gas O2 is diatomic (each molecule contains two atoms) so its relative formula mass is
32. One mole of oxygen molecules would therefore have a mass of 32 g. One mole of
oxygen atoms (if you could ever isolate them) would have a mass of 16 g.

Varying volume of substances

Mole calculations
This equation shows how relative formula mass, number of molesand mass are related:
number of moles = mass ÷ relative formula mass
This can be rearranged to find the mass if the number of moles and molar mass (its relative
formula mass in grams) are known. It can also be rearranged to find the molar mass if the
mass and number of moles are known.
The triangle diagram may help you with this.

Finding the number of moles

QQuestion
Calculate the number of moles of carbon dioxide molecules in 22 g of CO2.

Finding the mass

QQuestion
Calculate the mass of 2 mol of carbon dioxide (CO2).

Finding the relative formula mass

QQuestion

10 mol of carbon dioxide has a mass of 440 g. What is the relative formula mass of
carbon dioxide

Reacting masses
You can calculate the mass of a product or reactant using the idea of moles, a balanced
equation and relevant Ar values.

Example
Sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide react together to make sodium sulfate and water:
H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O

QQuestion
Calculate the mass of sodium sulfate made when 20 g of sodium hydroxide reacts
with excess sulfuric acid. (Ar of H = 1, Ar of O = 16, Arof Na = 23, Ar of S = 32)

The example above could also be tackled like this:

Molar volume of gases

One mole of any gas has a volume of 24 dm3 or 24,000 cm3 at rtp(room temperature and
pressure). This volume is called the molar volume of a gas.
This equation shows how the volume of gas in dm3 at rtp is related to the number of moles:
volume of gas at rtp = number of moles × 24

QQuestion
 Calculate the volume of 0.5 mol of carbon dioxide at rtp.

QQuestion
Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen that occupy 6 dm3 at rtp.

Newlands’ octaves

Part of Newlands' table

An English scientist called John Newlands put forward his Law of Octaves in 1864. He
arranged all the elements known at the time into a table in order of relative atomic mass.
When he did this, he found a pattern among the early elements. The pattern showed that each
element was similar to the element eight places ahead of it.
For example, starting at Li (lithium), Be (beryllium) is the second element, B (boron) is the
third and Na (sodium) is the eighth element. He then put the similar elements into vertical
columns, known as groups.

Regular repeats
Newlands' table showed a repeating or periodic pattern of properties, but this pattern
eventually broke down.
By ordering strictly according to atomic mass, Newlands was forced to put some elements
into groups which did not match their chemical properties. For example, he put iron (Fe),
which is a metal, in the same group as oxygen (O) and sulfur (S), which are two non-metals.
As a result, his table was not accepted by other scientists.

Mendeleev's periodic table

In 1869, just five years after John Newlands put forward his Law of Octaves, a Russian chemist
called Dmitri Mendeleev published a periodic table.
Mendeleev also arranged the elements known at the time in order of relative atomic mass,
but he did some other things that made his table much more successful.
He realised that the physical and chemical properties of elements were related to their
atomic mass in a repeating or 'periodic' way, and arranged them so that groups of elements
with similar properties fell into vertical columns in his table.
Gaps and predictions
Sometimes this method of arranging elements meant there were gaps in his horizontal rows
or 'periods'. But instead of seeing this as a problem, Mendeleev thought it simply meant that
the elements which belonged in the gaps had not yet been discovered.
He was also able to work out the atomic mass of the missing elements, and so predict their
properties. And when they were discovered, Mendeleev turned out to be right.
For example, he predicted the properties of an undiscovered element that should fit below
aluminium in his table. When this element, called gallium, was discovered in 1875, its
properties were found to be close to Mendeleev's predictions. Two other predicted elements
were later discovered, lending further credit to Mendeleev's table.

Evaluating the work of Newlands and

Mendeleev
Atomic weight
Both Newlands and Mendeleev arranged the elements in order of their atomic weight (now
called relative atomic mass).
Both scientists produced tables in which elements with similar properties were placed at
regular intervals. However, Mendeleev did some things with his table that made it more useful
than Newlands’ table – for example, he swapped the order of some elements if that fitted their
properties better.
 Similarities and differences
This table summarises some similarities and differences between Newlands’ table and
Mendeleev’s table.

Newlands Mendeleev
Ordered elements by atomic Ordered elements by atomic
weight weight
Left gaps for elements he
Included only the elements predicted would be
known at the time discovered later
Swapped the order of some
Maintained a strict order of elements if that fitted their
atomic weights properties better
Every eighth element had
similar properties (Newlands’ Elements in groups had
Law Of Octaves) similar properties
Was criticised by other Was seen as a curiosity to
scientists for grouping some begin with, but then as a
elements with others when useful tool when the
they were obviously very predicted elements were
different to each other discovered later

Groups and periods

All the different elements are arranged in a chart called the periodic table.
Here are the main features of the table:
• the horizontal rows are called periods
• the vertical columns are called groups
• elements in the same group are similar to each other
• the metals are on the left and the non-metals are on the right (hydrogen is a non-metal but is often
put in the middle)
• the main groups are numbered from 1 to 7 going from left to right, and the last group on the right is
Group 0
• the block in between Group 2 and Group 3 is where the transition metals are placed
• there are only two elements in Period 1 (hydrogen and helium)

The zig-zag line in this diagram separates the metals, on the left, from the non-metals, on the
right. Hydrogen is a non-metal but it is often put in the middle.
Most elements are metals, rather than non-metals.
Each element has its own chemical symbol, made from letters. Only elements are found in the
periodic table, never compounds. For example, substances like water and copper sulfate are
not in the periodic table because they are compounds.

Metals and non-metals

Moving from left to right across a period, the elements become less metallic. This is related
to the increase in the number of electrons in the outer shell of their atoms. The atoms
become more likely to gain or share electrons, rather than lose them when they
form compounds.

Metals
Metals tend to have similar properties. They are always good conductors of electricity, and
they usually share these properties:
• high melting point
• good conductors of heat
• malleable (can be beaten into shape)
• shiny when cut
• ductile (can be pulled into wires)
There are some exceptions though. For example, mercury is a liquid at room temperature. The
metals in Group 1, such as lithium, sodium and potassium, are all soft.
Drops of liquid mercury
The properties of metals can be used to explain typical uses of metals. For example, copper is
used for wiring because it is ductile and a good conductor of electricity. Its ability to conduct
heat is not relevant for this use.

Non-metals
Non-metals have a variety of properties, but very few are good conductors of
electricity. Graphite (a form of carbon) is a rare example of a non-metal that conducts
electricity very well.
Many non-metals have a low melting and boiling point. When non-metals are in a solid state,
they are usually brittle so you can’t beat them into shape.

Transition metals
Transition metals tend to have the typical metallic properties listed above. They also tend to
form coloured compounds. The elements and their compounds are often good catalysts.

Metal and non-metal oxides

When a non-metal reacts with oxygen, it forms a non-metal oxide. These compounds are
usually acidic.
For example, sulfur reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide.
S + O2 → SO2
And sulfur dioxide dissolves in water to form sulfurous acid:
H2O(l) + SO2(g) → H2SO3(aq)
This is one of the acids found in acid rain.
 Metal oxides are usually bases. This means that they can neutraliseacids. If a base dissolves
in water, it is an alkali. Alkaline solutions have a pH of more than 7.
Copper oxide is a base, and will react with sulfuric acid to make the salt copper sulfate.

Group 0 – the noble gases

Elements in the same group have similar chemical propertiesbecause the atoms of those
elements have the same number of electrons in their outer shell.
Lithium, sodium and potassium are in Group 1. They all have one electron in their outer
shell. When they react, they lose this outer electron - so they react in similar ways and form
similar compounds.
The noble gases have the following properties in common:
• they are non-metals
• they are very unreactive gases
• they are colourless
• they exist as single atoms (they are monatomic)

The atoms of the noble gases have full outer shells of electrons. Helium atoms have two
electrons in their outer shell. The atoms of the other noble gases have eight electrons in their
outer shells.

Uses of the noble gases

The uses of the noble gases are usually linked to their inertness, or to their tendency to give
off light when an electric current is passed through them.
 Noble
Uses
gas
Party balloons, airships, cooling superconducting
electromagnets (eg in MRI scanners), gas for scuba
Helium diving
Neon Red neon signs, lasers
Shielding gas for welding, surrounding the
Argon filament in an old-fashioned lightbulb
Xenon Lights, lasers
Krypton Lights, photographic flashguns

Group 1 – the alkali metals

The Group 1 elements are called the alkali metals. They are placed in the vertical column on
the left-hand side of the periodic table.

All the Group 1 elements are very reactive. They must be stored under oil to keep air and
water away from them. Group 1 elements form alkaline solutions when they react with
water, which is why they are called alkali metals.
 Reactions of alkali metals with water
All the alkali metals react vigorously with cold water. In each reaction, hydrogen gas is given
off and the metal hydroxide is produced. The speed and violence of the reaction increases as
you go down the group. This shows that the reactivity of the alkali metals increases as you go
down Group 1.

Lithium
When lithium is added to water, lithium floats. It fizzes steadily and becomes smaller, until it
eventually disappears.
• lithium + water → lithium hydroxide + hydrogen
• 2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)

Sodium
When sodium is added to water, the sodium melts to form a ball that moves around on the
surface. It fizzes rapidly, and the hydrogen produced may burn with an orange flame before
the sodium disappears.
• sodium + water → sodium hydroxide + hydrogen
• 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Potassium
When potassium is added to water, the metal melts and floats. It moves around very quickly
on the surface of the water. The hydrogen ignites instantly. The metal is also set on fire, with
sparks and a lilac flame. There is sometimes a small explosion at the end of the reaction.
• potassium + water → potassium hydroxide + hydrogen
• 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)

Strong alkalis
The hydroxides formed in all of these reactions dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions.
These solutions turn universal indicator purple, showing they are strongly alkaline. Strong
alkalis are corrosive. Care must be taken when they are used - goggles and gloves should be
worn.

Explaining reactivity
The Group 1 elements have similar properties because of the electronic structure of
their atoms - they all have one electron in their outer shell.
 Explaining trends
In a reaction, an atom of a Group 1 element will form an ion with a single positive charge. For
example, for sodium forming a sodium ion:
Na → Na+ + e–
A change like this, where an electron is lost, is an example of oxidation.
The ions formed have a stable electronic structure, like a noble gasfrom Group 0.

The reactivity of Group 1 elements increases as you go down the group because:
• the atoms get larger as you go down the group
• the outer electron gets further from the nucleus as you go down the group
• the attraction between the nucleus and outer electron gets weaker as you go down the group - so the
electron is more easily lost

Group 7 – the halogens

The Group 7 elements are called the halogens. They are placed in the vertical column,
second from the right, in the periodic table.

Chlorine, bromine and iodine are the three common Group 7 elements. Group 7 elements form
salts when they react with metals. The term ‘halogen’ means 'salt former'.

Properties and uses of the halogens

This table summarises some of the properties and uses of three halogens:

Element Properties Typical use

Chlorine Green gas Sterilising water
Bromine Orange liquid Making pesticides and plastics
Iodine Grey solid Sterilising wounds
Iodine forms a purple vapour when it is warmed.
Predicting properties
The halogens show trends in physical properties as you go down the group.

Melting point and boiling point

The halogens have low melting points and low boiling points. This is a typical property of non-
metals. Fluorine has the lowest melting and boiling points. The melting and boiling points
then increase as you go down the group.

Melting and boiling points of Group 7 elements

State at room temperature

Room temperature is usually taken as being 25°C. At this temperature, fluorine and chlorine
are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine and astatine are solids. There is therefore a trend in
state from gas to liquid to solid as you go down the group.

Colour
The halogens become darker as you go down the group. Fluorine is very pale yellow, chlorine
is yellow-green, and bromine is red-brown. Iodine crystals are shiny purple - but easily turn
into a dark purple vapour when they are warmed up.

Predictions
When we can see a trend in the properties of some of the elements in a group, it is possible to
predict the properties of other elements in that group. Astatine is below iodine in Group 7.
The colour of these elements gets darker as you go down the group. Iodine is purple, and
astatine is black.

Reactivity of halogens
The non-metal elements in Group 7 - known as the halogens - get less reactive as you go
down the group. This is the opposite trend to that seen in the alkali metals in Group 1 of
the periodic table.
Fluorine is the most reactive element of all in Group 7.
You can see the trend in reactivity if you react the halogens with iron wool.

Halogen Reaction with iron wool

Reacts with almost anything instantly. Very few
scientists handle fluorine because it is so
Fluorine dangerous.
Chlorine Reacts with heated iron wool very quickly.
Has to be warmed and the iron wool heated. The
Bromine reaction is faster.
Has to be heated strongly and so does the iron
Iodine wool. The reaction is slow.

Halogen displacement reactions

The reactivity of the halogens – the Group 7 elements - decreases as you move down the
group. This can be shown by looking at displacement reactions.

Example
When chlorine (as a gas or dissolved in water) is added to sodium bromide solution, the
chlorine takes the place of the bromine. Because chlorine is more reactive than bromine,
it displaces bromine from sodium bromide.
The solution turns brown. This brown colour is the displaced bromine. The chlorine has gone
to form sodium chloride.
In this equation, the Cl and Br have swapped places:
chlorine + sodium bromide → sodium chloride + bromine
 Cl2(aq) + 2NaBr(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
This type of reaction happens with all the halogens. A more reactive halogen displaces a less
reactive halogen from a solution of one of its salts.

Reactivity series
If you test different combinations of the halogens and their salts, you can work out
a reactivity series for Group 7:
• the most reactive halogen displaces all of the other halogens from solutions of their salts, and is
itself displaced by none of the others
• the least reactive halogen displaces none of the others, and is itself displaced by all of the others
It doesn’t matter whether you use sodium salts or potassium salts – it works the same for
both types.
The slideshow shows what happens when chlorine, bromine and iodine are added to various
halogen salts:

Adding chlorine, bromine and iodine to halogen salts

Chlorine water is added to three solutions

Redox reactions involve both oxidation (loss of electrons) and reduction (gain of electrons).
You could remember it as: OIL RIG – Oxidation Is Loss of electrons, Reduction Is Gain of
electrons.
Halogen displacement reactions are redox reactions because the halogens gain electrons
and the halide ions lose electrons.
When we consider one of the displacement reactions, we can see which element is
being oxidised and which is being reduced.
bromine + potassium iodide → iodine + potassium bromide
Br2 + 2KI → I2 + 2KBr
As an ionic equation (ignoring the ‘spectator’ potassium ions):
Br2 + 2I- → I2 + 2Br-
We can see that the bromine has gained electrons, so it has been reduced. The iodide ions
have lost electrons, so they have been oxidised.

Hydrogen chloride
When hydrogen reacts with chlorine, hydrogen chloride is formed. Hydrogen chloride is a
gas, and has the formula HCl(g).
When hydrogen chloride dissolves in water, hydrochloric acid is formed. This has the same
formula, but you can tell the difference because of the state symbol (aq), which stands for
‘aqueous’. The formula is written as HCl(aq).
Hydrogen chloride is made from molecules. The hydrogen atom and the chlorine atom are
joined by a covalent bond. When hydrogen chloride forms hydrochloric acid, the molecules
split into ions.
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
The H+ ions make this aqueous solution acidic. The solution also conducts electricity because
it contains ions that are free to move.
However, when hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in a solvent called methylbenzene, the
molecules do not split up. A solution of HCl in methylbenzene does not contain hydrogen ions,
so it is not acidic. The solution also has a low electrical conductivity.