IGCSE CHEMISTRY

1. The Particulate Nature of Matter

Describe the states of matter and explain their interconversion in
terms of the kinetic particle theory

Kinetic Theory
• When a solid is heated, particles vibrate faster about a fixed point
causing particles to move further apart and so solid expands
• When particles gain sufficient energy to overcome strong forces of
attraction, they move out of their fixed position and can slide over
each other in a continuous random motion – solid has melted.
• Particles in liquid have energy to move around but are still close to
each other and do not have enough energy to overcome the forces
that hold them close to each other.
• If more heat is supplied, particles move faster until they have
enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction. Particles
escape the liquids surface and move around in continuous rapid
motion – the liquid has boiled
• In the vapor, the particles move in rapid random motion. This
movement is due to collision of vapor particles with air particles

Diffusion
The movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an
area of low concentration, across a concentration gradient, until
equally spread out.

Describe evidence for the movement of particles in gases and

liquids (a treatment of Brownian motion is not required)

Evidence:
• In liquids: potassium manganate (VII) in a beaker of water
• In gases: gas jar of air connected to gas jar of bromine

Describe the dependence of rate of diffusion on molecular mass

(treated qualitatively)

Rate of diffusion can be affected by:

1. Temperature
1. Increase → rate increases
2. Decrease → rate decreases
2. Density
1. The lower the density of the gas, the higher its’ diffusion rate

Solid
• Strong attraction between particles
• Arranged in a fixed pattern - regular lattice
• Atoms vibrate - don’t move - there fixed volume and shape
Liquid
• Attraction between molecules is weaker than in solids
• Random pattern
• Take shape of container
• Particles can slide past each other
Gas
• Very few intermolecular forces
• Particles are spread out
• Constantly collide with each other at high speeds
3. Experimental Techniques

2.1 - Measurement
 Name appropriate apparatus for the measurement of time,
temperature, mass and volume, including burettes, pipettes and
measuring cylinders

2.2 - Criteria of Purity

• Describe paper chromatography
• Interpret simple chromatograms
• Interpret simple chromatograms, including the use of Rf values

• Paper chromatography:
o Drop substance in centre of filter paper - wait to dry
o Use a pipette to drop a solvent (e.g. water) on the substance
o Paper + rings = chromatogram.
o Principle: Difference in solubility separates different pigments
o Substances travel across paper at different rates which is why
they separate into rings
 o Method works because different substances travel at different
levels of attraction to it

• Stationary phase is material on which separation takes place

• Mobile phase consists of the mixture you want to separate,
dissolved in a solvent.
• Interpreting simple chromatograms:
o Number of rings/dots = number of substances
o If two dots travel the same distance up the paper they are the
same substance.
o You can calculate the Rf value to identify a substance, given by
the formula:

Rf Value = Distance moved by solvent / Distance moved by solute

Outline how chromatography techniques can be applied to

colourless substances by exposing chromatograms to substances
called locating agents

• To make colourless substances visible, use a locating agent:

o Dry paper in oven
o Spray it with locating agent
o Heat it for 10 minutes in oven

Understand the importance of purity in substances in everyday life,

e.g. foodstuffs and drugs

Purity
Often, the purity of a substance doesn’t exactly matter; people wash
in tap water, which contains small amounts of many different
particles, and continue to go on unharmed. This is because,
usually, these impurities are harmless.
However, when producing, for example, a new drug or food
flavouring, purity is crucial, as it is very important to make sure that
there isn’t anything in the substance that will harm people.

2.3 - Methods of Purification

- Filtration

- Crystallisation
- Distillation

- Fractional Distillation
 Suggest suitable purification techniques, given information about
the substances involved

Separating a mixture of two solids

• Can be done by dissolving one in an appropriate solvent
• Then filter one and extract another from the solution by
evaporation
• If one solid is magnetic, use a magnet e.g. iron fillings

Deciding which separation method to use:

1. Mixture goes into funnel with filter paper, into flask
2. Residue is insoluble and therefore stays at top
3. Filtrate goes through
1. Some water in the solution is evaporated, causing the solution to
become more concentrated.
2. A drop is placed on a slide to check if crystals are beginning to
form.
3. Leave solution to cool, therefore crystallise.
4. Filter to remove crystals from solution.

1. Impure liquid is heated

2. Eventually, it boils, causing the steam to rise to the condenser
3. Any impurities will be left behind
4. Steam condenses in condenser as it is cold, forming a pure liquid
which will drop into the beaker
Removes a liquid from a mixture of liquids,
because liquids have different boiling
points,
1. Heat mixture, thus evaporating
substance with lowest boiling point (some of
other substances will evaporate as well)
2. Mixture of gases condense on beads
at fractional column.
3. Therefore, beads are heated to the
lowest boiling point of the substances, so said substance can no
longer condense on the beads
4. Other substances continue to condense on beads and drip back
into flask
5. Change beaker after each fraction
Index
The Particulate Nature of Matter
Experimental Techniques
Atoms, Elements and Compounds
Stoichiometry
Electricity and Chemistry
Chemical Energetics
Chemical Reactions
Acids and Bases
The Periodic Table
Metals
Air and Water
Sulfur
Carbonates
Organic Chemistry
3. Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

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3.1 - Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table
State the relative charges and approximate relative masses of
protons, neutrons and electrons
 Define proton number and nucleon number
• Proton number: Number of protons and electrons in an atom →
may be called “Atomic Number”
• Nucleon number: Number of protons + neutrons in an atom → may
be called “Atomic Mass”

'
Use proton number and the simple structure of atoms to explain the
basis of the Periodic Table (see section 9), with special reference to
the elements of proton number 1 to 20

In the periodic table...

• The proton number increases by 1 when you go to the right
• When you go one element down, you increase proton number by 8
in the first 3 periods (transition elements not included)

Define isotopes

Isotopes
→ These are different versions of the same element
→ They have a different number of neutrons
e.g. Carbon 12 and Carbon 14

State the two types of isotopes as being radioactive and non-

radioactive

Two types:
• Radioactive isotopes (unstable)
• Non-radioactive isotopes

State one medical and one industrial use of radioactive isotopes

• Medical use: Cancer treatment (radiotherapy) - rays kill cancer

cells using cobalt-60
• Industrial use: Check for leaks - radioisotopes (tracers) added to
oil/gas. Leak is found as radiation is found using Geiger counter.

Describe the build-up of electrons in ‘shells’ and understand the

significance of the noble gas electronic structures and of valency
electrons (the ideas of the distribution of electrons in s and p
orbitals and in d block elements are not required.)

• Electrons are arranged in electron shells.

• Atoms want to have full outer shells (full set of valency electrons),
this is why they react.
• Noble gases have full outer shells so they have no need to react.
• Electron shell structure: 2, 8, 8, 18.
• More reactive elements have a greater desire to have a full outer
shell, so also form more stable compounds.

3.2 - Bonding: The Structure of Matter

Describe the differences between elements, mixtures and
compounds, and between metals and non-metals

• Element → substance that can’t be split into anything simpler, in a

chemical reaction. Elements have unique proton numbers
• Mixture → two or more elements mixed together but not chemically
bonded
• Compound → a substance made up of two or more elements
chemically bonded together
 Describe an alloy, such as brass, as a mixture of a metal with other
elements

Alloy: A mixture of two or more metals or of metals and non-metals.

This is done to improve the metals’ properties

3.3 - Ions and Ionic bonds

Describe the formation of ions by electron loss or gain
Describe the formation of ionic bonds between elements from
Groups I and VII

• Chemical bond formed by transfer of electrons from one atom to

another
• Metals lose electrons to form cations, non-metals gain electrons to
form anions
• Positive cations and negative anions ions attract to each other
• Strong electrostatic force of attraction between positive cations and
negative anions is called ionic bonding
• Ionic bonds are formed generally when metals react with non-
metals.
• Generally, group I, II and III give electrons to group VI or VII
elements.
• VALENCY - the valency of an ion is the number of electrons given
away or gained
o The valency is equal to the charge of the ion.
• Ionic compounds are neutral, as ions combine in such a way that
all positive and negative charges cancel out.

Describe the formation of ionic bonds between metallic and non-

metallic elements
Describe the lattice structure of ionic compounds as a regular
arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions
 - Electron displaces to other atom
so

both have full outer shell.

Naming ionic compounds

• Name of positive ion comes first, followed by the negative ion.
• If the metal ion is a transition metal which forms more than one ion,
a specification of which is necessary e.g. Copper (II) nitrate →
indicates that Cu2+ is being used, not Cu+
 Writing ionic formulae
• Since the compounds are neutral, the positive and negative ions
have the same number of + and - charges, a compound with a 1:1
ratio is formed.
e.g. CuSO4 or NaCl or ZnS or CaO
• If the cation and anion have different charges, balance the ions,
until all positive and negative charges cancel out.
• No charges are to be found in the final formula

Ions to remember:

3.4 - Molecules and Covalent Bonds

Describe the formation of single covalent bonds in H2, Cl2, H2O,
CH4 and HCl as the sharing of pairs of electrons leading to the
noble gas configuration

• When atoms share electrons to obtain a noble gas electron

structure - full outer shell
• Covalent bonding takes place between non-metals only
• Shape of molecule is dictated by repulsion between pairs of
electrons
Describe the differences in volatility, solubility and electrical
conductivity between ionic and covalent compounds
Describe the electron arrangement in more complex covalent
molecules such as N2, C2H4, CH3OH and CO2
Spectator ions
→ Ions which don’t take part in the reaction.
e.g. FeCl2 + 2NaOH → Fe(OH)2 + 2NaCl
↳ Here, the Na+ and Cl- ions are not “doing anything”. So, we can
leave them out of the ionic equation.
Bonding in…
Hydrogen - A hydrogen atom only has one shell, with one electron.
This shell can hold two electrons. When two hydrogen atoms get
close enough, their shells overlap and then they can share
electrons.
So each has a full shell, like helium, a noble gas (therefore full outer
shell).
Each hydrogen atom has a positive nucleus. Both nuclei attract the
shared electron - and this strong force of attraction holds them
together.
When bonded, the hydrogens form a molecule. Hydrogen is a
molecular element, with a formula H2. The 2 shows that there are 2
hydrogen atoms in each molecule, therefore, it is diatomic.

Chlorine - A chlorine atom needs a share in one more electron, to

obtain a stable outer shell of eight electrons. So two chlorine atoms
bond covalently. Since only one pair of electrons is shared, the
bond between atoms is called a single covalent bond, or just a
single bond. This may be shown by a single line, like this: Cl-Cl.
Water - In water, atoms of different elements share electrons.
Therefore, water is known as a covalent compound. The oxygen
atom shares electrons with two hydrogen atoms. All now have a
stable arrangement of electrons in their outer shells: 2 for hydrogen
and 8 for oxygen.

Methane - Methane is also a covalent compound. A carbon atom

shares electrons with four hydrogen atoms, thus forming a stable
arrangement of electrons in the outer shells; 2 for hydrogen and 8
for carbon.

Hydrochloric acid - HCl is also a covalent compound. It has a

chlorine atom that shares one electron with a hydrogen atom. Both
will then have a stable arrangement of electrons in their outer
shells; 2 for hydrogen (like helium) and 8 for chlorine (like other
noble gas atoms).

Oxygen - An oxygen atom has six outer electrons, so needs a

share in two more. So two oxygen atoms share two electrons each,
giving molecules with the formula O2. Each atom will then have a
stable, full outer shell of eight electrons. Since the oxygen atoms
share two pairs of electrons, the bond between them is called a
double bond. O=O can be used to represent this.
Nitrogen - A nitrogen atom has five outer electrons, so needs to
share three more to obtain a full outer shell. Therefore, two nitrogen
atoms share three electrons each, giving molecules with the
formula N2. Each atom now has a stable outer shell with 8
electrons. Since the nitrogen atoms share three pairs of electrons,
the bond between them is called a triple bond, which can be
represented like this: N≡N.

Ethene - Ethene has the formula C2H4. This means that there are 2
carbon atoms and 4 hydrogen atoms in the molecule. Each carbon
shares all four of its’ electrons. They share two with two hydrogen
atoms and two with the other carbon atom, forming a carbon-carbon
double bond and a carbon-hydrogen single bond.
Methanol (CH3OH) - A carbon atom shares electrons with three
hydrogen atoms one hydrogen atom. Shape of molecule is similar
to methane, however is in the presence of oxygen.
Carbon dioxide - The carbon atom shares all four of its’ electrons:
two with each oxygen atom. So all three atoms gain stable shells.
The two sets of bonding electrons repel each other. They move as
far apart as they can, making a linear molecule. All the bonds
formed are double bonds, so the molecule can be represented as
follows: O=C=O
 3.5 - Macromolecules
Describe the giant covalent structures of graphite and diamond
Relate their structures to the use of graphite as a lubricant and of
diamond in cutting

Diamond
Diamond is made of carbon atoms, held in a strong lattice. In it, a
carbon atom bonds to four others. Each outer atom then bonds to
three more, and so on. Eventually, billions of carbon atoms are
bonded together, in a giant covalent structure.
Properties:
• Very hard, because each atom is held in place by four strong
covalent bonds.
• High melting point due to strong covalent bonds.
• Can’t conduct electricity as nor ions or electrons are free to move
and carry charge.
Use:
• Tools for drilling and cutting, as it is the hardest substance known
to man and does not conduct

Graphite
Like diamond, graphite is made of only carbon atoms. So, diamond
and graphite are allotropes of carbon. Graphite is one of the softest
solids on earth, due to its’ structure. In it, each carbon atom forms
covalent bonds to three others, giving rings of six atoms. These
rings form flat sheets that lie on top of each other, held together by
weak forces.
Properties:
• Soft and slippery, as sheets have the ability to slide over each
other
• Good conductor of electricity. This happens because, after forming
all the bonds, the carbons have one electron left over (3 bonds; 4
electrons on outer shell). This electron then becomes free-flowing
and can carry charge across the graphite.
Uses:
• Lubricant for engines and locks
• Pencils
• Electrodes
• Connecting brushes in generators

Describe the macromolecular structure of silicon(IV) oxide (silicon

dioxide)
Describe the similarity in properties between diamond and
silicon(IV) oxide, related to their structures

Silicon dioxide (silica)

Silica occurs naturally as quartz, the main mineral in sand. It also
forms a giant covalent structure.
Each silicon atom is bonded covalently to four oxygen atoms. Each
oxygen atom bonds covalently to
two silicon atoms, forming a very hard substance with a high
melting point of 1710°C.
Properties:
• Very hard
• High melting point
 ↳ Both these properties are quite similar to those of diamond, and
are a result of the similarity in
their structures.
Use:
• Sandpaper
• Making glass and lenses
• Bricks

3.6 - Metallic Bonding

Describe metallic bonding as a lattice of positive ions in a ‘sea of
electrons’ and use this to describe the electrical conductivity and
malleability of metals

Structure of Metals
In metals, the atoms are tightly packed together in a regular lattice.
This allows outer electrons to easily separate from their atoms,
resulting in a lattice
of ions in a ‘sea’ of (free-flowing) electrons. Use copper as an
example. It has ions that are held together by forces of attraction to
the free electrons.
These forces are known as metallic bonding. This regular
arrangement of ions results in the formation of crystals in the
copper, known as grains. These
grains can only be seen at a microscopic level.

Bonding
• A metallic bond is the attraction between metal ions and free
electrons.
• This occurs in all metals, as the ions sit in a lattice and are held
together by their attraction to the electrons. And since these ions
are found in a regular pattern, metals are crystalline.

Properties of Metals
1. High melting points
1. Lots of heat energy needed to break up strong metallic bonds that
form the lattice
2. Copper: 1083°C
3. Nickel: 98°C
2. Malleable and ductile
1. Occurs as layers of ions are able to slide over each other
2. Since electrons are also free to move, layers can slide without
breaking.
3. Metals containing differently sized ions, such as mild steel (an
alloy of iron and carbon), will be less malleable, as it is harder for
these layers to slide over each other.
3. Good conductors of heat
1. Free electrons take in heat energy, making them move faster
4. Good conductors of electricity
1. Free electrons in lattice can move around to carry charge after
applying a voltage to the metal
1. Best conductor - silver, followed by copper, a more commonly
used substance as it is cheaper.

4. Stoichiometry
4.1 - Stoichiometry
Define relative atomic mass, Ar
Define relative molecular mass, Mr , as the sum of the relative
atomic masses (relative formula mass or Mr will be used for ionic
compounds)
 Mass
1. Relative Atomic Mass, Ar
1. The average mass of an atom compared with the carbon-12 atom
2. Can be found on periodic table, above “atomic symbol”
3. Needs to be calculated when dealing with isotopes. How to
calculate:
1. (% x nucleon number of first isotope) + (% x nucleon number of
second isotope)... continue until all natural isotopes are
accounted for.
2. e.g. chlorine:
→ (0.75 x 35) + (0.25 x 37) = 35.5

2. Relative Molecular Mass, Mr

a. The sum of relative atomic masses
b. When referring to ions, this is known as relative formula mass
(also Mr)
*an ion has the same mass as the atom which it is made from as it
is just the atom minus an electron, with negligible mass), therefore
the values will be the same.
c. e.g. ammonia, NH3
Ar → N = 14
H=1x3=3
∴ Mr = 14 + 3 = 17

• A compound ending in -ide only contains two different elements.

• A compound ending in -ate contains oxygen.

4.2 - The Mole Concept

Define the mole and the Avogadro constant
Use the molar gas volume, taken as 24 dm3 at room temperature
and pressure
→ Mole - The mass of substance containing the same number of
fundamental units as there are atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12.
Fundamental units may be atoms, molecules, or formula units,
depending on the substance concerned.
→ Avogadro constant - 6.02 x 1023

Calculate stoichiometric reacting masses and volumes of gases and

solutions, solution concentrations expressed in g/dm3 and mol/dm3.
(Calculations involving the idea of limiting reactants may be set.
Questions on the gas laws and the conversion of gaseous volumes
to different temperatures and pressures will not be set.)

Number of moles
Number of moles = Mass / Molar mass or simply n = m / Mr

Moles in gases
Volume = Number of moles x 24 dm3

Concentration
Concentration = number of moles / volume
→ Moles per dm3 - mol/dm3
e.g. 1mol/dm3 = 1M
→ Grams per dm3 - g/dm3

Limiting reagent
Often, one reagent will be in excess - the LIMITING reagent is the
substance which isn’t in excess. To work out which is the limiting
reagent in a reaction, calculate the number of each and relate back
to how they react in the equation.

Calculate empirical formulae and molecular formulae

Molecular formulae
This is simply the formula using the actual number of atoms in a
molecule.

Empirical Formula
• The simplest ratio of the atoms in a compound
• e.g.
o Molecular formula of ethanol = C2H5OH
o Empirical formula of ethanol = C2H6O
• To calculate
o make the percentage ratio into the simplest whole number
possible
(If %s, use as grams)
• Divide the coefficients if each element symbol by the lowest
coefficient

Calculate % yield and % purity

Percentage yield = Actual mass obtainedCalculated massx 100%

Percentage purity = mass of product (pure)mass of compound
(impure)x 100%

5. Electricity and Chemistry

Describe electrolysis in terms of the ions present and reactions at
the electrodes in the examples given

• Any liquid that contains ions will conduct electricity. This occurs
because, inside them, the ions are free to move around. Alongside,
decomposition takes place. Therefore, electricity can be used to
break down substances. This is a process called electrolysis.
• To perform this process, two terminals, positive and negative, are
needed to complete the circuit. These are attached to two rods,
 called the cathode (negative) and the anode. Electrons will leave
from the negative terminal.
• A liquid that contains ions is called an electrolyte.
• Electrons carry current through wires and electrodes, however, the
ions are carried by the liquid.
• Overall, electrolysis is a redox reaction. Reduction takes place at
the cathode (RAC - Reduction At Cathode) and Oxidation at the
anode.
o OILRIG - Oxidation Is Loss (of electrons), Reduction Is Gain (of
electrons)
• Electrolysis solutions will vary depending on the electrodes used.
o Using inert electrodes, such as carbon or platinum, the product
formed will not be altered due to the electrodes, and will follow its’
‘rules’.
o When using electrodes that aren’t inert, such as copper, the
product will be altered. The anode will end up dissolving and
move to the cathode.

Describe the electrode products in the electrolysis of:

• molten lead(II) bromide
• concentrated hydrochloric acid
• concentrated aqueous sodium chloride
between inert electrodes (platinum or carbon)

Electrolysis of Molten Lead (II) Bromide

• Graphite electrodes
• Contains lead ions (Pb2+) and bromide ions (Br-)
1. Electrons flow from negative terminal of the battery to the cathode
2. In the liquid, ions move to the electrode of opposite charge.
3. At the cathode, lead ions accept electrons, forming lead below the
cathode.
4. At the anode, bromide ions give up electrons. Red-brown bromine
vapour bubbles off.
5. Electrons flow from the anode to the positive terminal of the
battery.
• This results in the decomposition of the lead (II) bromide
lead bromide → lead + bromine
PbBr2 (l) → Pb (l) + Br2 (g)
• The graphite electrons are inert. They carry the current into the
liquid, but remain unchanged. (Platinum electrodes are also inert)
• What is happening during this process:
1. Ions move. Opposite charges attract so lead ions go to the cathode
and bromide ions go to the anode. This carries the current.
2. At the cathode, each lead ion receives two electrons to become
lead atoms.
1. Half equation: Pb2+ + 2e- → Pb
2. Ions gain electrons therefore reduction occurs.
3. At the anode, each bromide ion gives up an electron to become an
atom, to later on pair up to form a molecule.
1. Half equation: 2Br- → Br2 + 2e-
2. Ions lose electrons therefore oxidation occurs.
Electrolysis of two others:

State the general principle that metals or hydrogen are formed at

the negative electrode (cathode), and that non-metals (other than
hydrogen) are formed at the positive electrode (anode)
Predict the products of the electrolysis of a specified binary
compound in the molten state

Electrolysis of Molten compounds (in general)

• The same pattern occurs for all molten ionic compounds of two
elements.
o The compound will always be broken, by electrolysis, into its’ two
elements, giving the metal at the cathode and the non-metal at the
anode.
• Needed to obtain various metals, e.g.
o Lithium
o Sodium
 o Potassium
o Magnesium
o Aluminium

Predict the products of electrolysis of a specified halide in dilute or

concentrated aqueous solution

Electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride

1. The solution contains Na+ ions and Cl- ions from the salt, and H+
and OH- ions from the water. The positive ions go to the cathode
and the negative to the anode.
2. At the cathode, the hydrogen ions accept electrons, since it is less
reactive than sodium:
1. 2H+ (aq) + 2e- → H2 (g)
2. The hydrogen gas bubbles off
3. At the anode, the chlorine ions give up electrons more readily than
the hydroxide ions.
1. 2Cl- (aq) → Cl2 (aq) + 2e-
2. The chlorine gas bubbles off.
• Result is a solution of sodium hydroxide.

Electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride

1. The same ions are present as before. But now the proportion of
Na+ and Cl- ions is lower, since this is a dilute solution. So the
result will be different.
2. At the cathode, hydrogen ‘wins’ as before, and bubbles off
3. At the anode, OH- ions give up electrons, since not many Cl- ions
are present. Oxygen bubbles off.
• When the hydrogen and oxygen bubble off, the Na+ and Cl- ions
are left behind. So, we still have a solution of sodium chloride.
• Overall result: water has been decomposed.

Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions (in general)

• Solutions in water
• Result is different of that of a molten solution. This is because ions
in the water also interact with the process (even though water is
molecular, a small percentage of these molecules are split into
ions).
 Water molecules → hydrogen ions + hydroxide ions
H2O → H+ + OH-
• Products therefore change, as they are in the presence of other
ions.
• Rules:
1. At the cathode, either a metal or hydrogen forms.
▪ The more reactive the element, the more it ‘likes’ to exist as ions.
So if a metal is more reactive than hydrogen, its’ ions stay in
solution and hydrogen bubbles off.
▪ If metal is less reactive, metal forms
2. At the anode, a non-metal other than hydrogen forms.
▪ If the solution is concentrated with halides, then either chlorine,
bromine or iodine form.
▪ However, if the solution is dilute or there aren’t any halides
present, oxygen forms.

Describe, in outline, the manufacture of

• chlorine and sodium hydroxide from concentrated aqueous sodium
chloride
• aluminium from pure aluminium oxide in molten cryolite
(Starting materials and essential conditions should be given but not
technical details or diagrams.)

Uses of products:
• Chlorine (yellow-green gas) is used for making…
o PVC
 o Solvents for degreasing and dry cleaning
o Medical drugs
o Weed killers and pesticides
o Paints and dyestuffs
o Bleaches
o Hydrochloric acid
o Can also be used as sterilising agent, to kill bacteria in water
supplies and swimming pools.
• Sodium hydroxide (alkaline and corrosive) is used for making…
o Soaps
o Detergents
o Textiles e.g. viscose
o Paper
o Ceramics
o Dyes
o Medical drugs
• Hydrogen (colourless, flammable gas) is used for making…
o Nylon
o Hydrogen peroxide
o Margarine
o Used as fuel in hydrogen fuel cells

Electrolysis of pure aluminium oxide in molten cryolite

• Main ore: Bauxite
o Aluminium oxide mixed with impurities such as sand and iron
oxide. This causes the reddish-brown colour.
• Electrolysis is carried out in a large steel tank, lined with carbon,
which acts as the cathode.
• Big blocks of carbon hang in the middle of the tank, acting as the
anode.
• Since alumina (aluminium oxide) has a high melting point of
2045°C, a temperature impossible of maintaining in the steel tank,
it is dissolved in molten cryolite, therefore lowering the melting
point.
• At the cathode: The aluminium ions gain electrons (reduction)
o 4Al3+ (l) + 12e- → 4Al (l)
o The aluminium drops to the bottom of the cell as molten metal.
This is run off at intervals. Some will be mixed with other metals to
make alloys, while some will be run into moulds, to harden.
• At the anode: The oxygen ions lose electrons (oxidation)
o 6O2- (l) → 3O2 (g) + 12e-
o The oxygen gas bubbles off, and reacts with the anode.
▪ C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (oxidation of carbon)
• Overall reaction: Alumina is broken down, giving aluminium:
aluminium oxide → aluminium + oxygen
2Al2O3 (l) → 4Al (l) + 3O2 (g)

Describe the electroplating of metals

Name the uses of electroplating
 In general… (to electroplate an object with metal x)
Cathode → object to be electroplated
Anode → metal x
Electrolyte → a solution of a soluble compound of x

Refining (purifying) copper

1. The anode is made of impure copper. The cathode is pure copper.
The electrolyte is dilute copper (II) sulfate solution.
2. The copper in the anode dissolves. But the impurities do not
dissolve. They just drop to the floor of the cell as sludge.
3. A layer of pure copper builds up on the cathode. When the anode
is almost gone, the anode and cathode are replaced.

Describe the reasons for the use of copper and (steel-cored)

aluminium in cables, and why plastics and ceramics are used as
insulators

Use of steel-cored aluminium in cables

• Good conductor
• Light
• Non-corrosive
• Cheap
• Strong (steel core)

Use of copper in cables

• Very good conductor
• Ductile

Plastics and Ceramics used as insulators

• Don’t conduct electricity.
• Poor conductors of heat.
• Plastics used for casing in plugs.
• Ceramics used to support cables in electricity pylons.
 Electrolysis of Brine (concentrated solution of sodium chloride)
• Anode: Titanium
• Cathode: Steel
• Membrane in the middle is called a diaphragm cell, and allows ions
through but keeps gases apart.
• Ions present: Na+ and Cl- (from the salt), and H+ and OH- (from
the water).
• At cathode: Hydrogen is discharged rather than sodium
(reduction).
o 2H+ (aq) + 2e- → H2 (g)
• At anode: Chlorine is discharged rather than oxygen (oxidation).
o 2Cl- (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e-
• Once both gases bubble off, a solution of sodium hydroxide is left
behind. Some of it will be evaporated to make a more
concentrated solution, and some is evaporated to dryness, making
solid sodium hydroxide.
Electroplating
Electroplating means using electricity to coat one metal with
another, to make it look better, or to prevent corrosion. For
example, steel car bumpers are coated with chromium.
The drawing on the right shows how to electroplate an iron spoon
with silver. The spoon acts as the cathode, as it’s connected to the
negative terminal. The anode is made of silver. The electrolyte is a
solution of a soluble silver compound, such as silver nitrate.
At the anode: The silver dissolves, forming silver ions in solution
Ag (s) → Ag+ (aq) + e-
At the cathode: The silver ions are attracted to the cathode. There,
they receive electrons, forming a coat of silver around the spoon.
Ag+ (aq) + e- → Ag (s)
When the layer formed is thick enough, the spoon is removed.
6. Chemical Energetics
6.1 - Energetics of a Reaction
Describe the meaning of exothermic and endothermic reactions
Describe bond breaking as endothermic and bond forming as
exothermic
 An endothermic reaction, such as thermal decomposition, is the
breaking of bonds while taking in heat energy, and an exothermic
reaction, such as a combustion or neutralisation reaction, is the
making of bonds while releasing heat energy.

6.2 - Production of Energy

Describe the production of heat energy by burning fuels

• A fuel is a substance which can be conveniently used as a source

of energy.
• Burning fuels (like oil) to form oxides is an exothermic reaction.
• The heat from burning fuels is used in power plants to create
steam from water and turn turbines.
• In order for any material to combust three things must be present:
o Fuel
o Heat
o Oxygen
• A good fuel would:
o be cheap
 o be abundant
o be liquid at room temperature
o produce a large amount of energy when combusted
o not produce polluting gas

• Describe hydrogen as a fuel

Hydrogen
• When burned with oxygen, it is explosive, therefore used in rockets
• Inside fuel cells, it combines with oxygen without burning
• Can be produced by reacting methane gas with steam.

Describe radioactive isotopes, such as 235U, as a source of energy

Uranium-235
• Uranium-235 can be used in nuclear power stations to produce
electricity
• 􏰀The radioactive isotope is bombarded by neutrons resulting in a
lot of heat being produced
• Small amount of radioactive fuel produces large amount of heat
• Advantages: lots of energy is from a small amount and no CO2
• Disadvantage: radioactive waste produced and non-renewable

Describe the production of electrical energy from simple cells, i.e.

two electrodes in an electrolyte. (This should be linked with the
reactivity series in section 10.2 and redox in section 7.3.)

Simple Cells
• A cell is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical
energy and is composed of two metals of different reactivity
connected by an
 external circuit and an electrolyte.
• Electrochemical cells produce electrical energy by converting
stored potential energy into electrical energy
• This works because of the different reactivity between the metals
• Consists of a more reactive negative pole, a less reactive positive
pole, and an electrolyte.
• Voltage is directly proportional to the difference in reactivity
between the metals
o Large difference = High voltage
o Small difference = Low voltage
• Atoms give up electrons and enter the solution as ions

Describe the use of hydrogen as a potential fuel reacting with

oxygen to generate electricity in a fuel cell (details of the
construction and operation
of a fuel cell are not required)

Hydrogen Fuel Cells

• Convert H2 and O2 into H2O by electrochemical reaction
• Half equation:
o H2 → 2H+ + 2e-
o O2 + 4e- → 2O2-
• Full ionic equation:
o 2H2 + O2 → 4H+ + 2O2-
o Overall: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
• The only way the H2 and O2 can exchange e- is by forcing them
through a circuit which provides the electrical energy.
• Ions pass through an electrolyte via a semi-permeable membrane
which allows them to make H2O.
Important because H2 (g) is very energy dense (lots of energy per
kg) and electricity is very difficult and expensive to store.
 7. Chemical Reactions
7.1 - Rate of Reaction
Describe the effect of concentration, particle size, catalysts
(including enzymes) and temperature on the rate (speed) of
reactions
Describe and explain the effects of temperature and concentration
in terms of collisions between reacting particles

Effect of Concentration and Pressure

1. More molecules per unit 2.
2. More molecules for possible collisions.
3. Increase in frequency of collisions.
4. Higher chance of minimum activation energy.
5. Rate of reaction will be greater with higher concentration.
 Effect of Surface Area (particle size)
1. Powdered marble has MUCH larger surface area than marble
chips.
2. This means that is a much larger area for the hydrochloric acid to
collide with.
3. Frequency of collisions increases.
4. The chance of particles having the minimum activation energy
increases.
5. Therefore, the rate of reaction will be greater with a larger surface
area.

Effect of Temperature
1. When heated up, molecules will move faster, as there will be an
increase in kinetic energy.
2. More molecules with minimum activation energy.
3. Faster moving molecules = more frequent collisions.
4. Therefore, higher temperature will increase rate of reaction.

Catalysts
A catalyst, such as enzymes, is a substance that speeds up a rate
of a reaction, but does not get used in the reaction. Usually an
expensive metal (platinum, gold, etc…), but using them can
significantly improve rates of industrial reactions.
In other words, a catalyst provides an alternative pathway for the
reaction which has a lower activation energy.
→ To tell if a substance is a catalyst in a reaction, you must weigh it
after the reaction.

Describe a practical method for investigating the rate (speed) of a

reaction involving gas evolution
Interpret data obtained from experiments concerned with rate
(speed) of reaction

Practical Investigation Involving Gas Evolution

magnesium + hydrochloric acid → magnesium chloride + hydrogen
Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
 Here, hydrogen is the easiest substance to measure, because it is
the only gas in the reaction. It bubbles off and can be collected
using a gas syringe, where its’ volume will be measured.

The experiment:
1. Clean the magnesium with sandpiper
2. Put dilute hydrochloric acid in the flask and insert the stopper and
syringe immediately.
3. Begin stopwatch at same time.

What happens:
• Hydrogen bubbles off and rises up the flask, into the gas syringe,
pushing the plunger outwards.
• The volume of gas in the syringe should be noted at intervals, e.g.
every 30 seconds.

Typical results:

Notice the following about the results:

1. The rate changes all through the reaction. It is greatest at the start,
but decreases as the reaction proceeds.
2. The faster the reaction, the steeper the curve.
3. When the reaction is over, the curve goes flat.
4. Average = Total volumeTotal Time
therefore Average = 8 cm^3

* This method may be used for any reaction with a gas as a product

Devise a suitable method for investigating the effect of a given

variable on the rate (speed) of a reaction

Ways to change a reaction

• Change concentration
o A reaction goes faster when the concentration of the reactant is
increased
• Change temperature
o Method:
1. Mark cross on piece of paper
2. Place a beaker containing sodium thiosulfate solution on top of
the cross, and observe it from above.
3. Start a clock as soon as hydrochloric acid has been added to the
solution, and also measure temperature
4. Stop the clock once the cross on the paper is no longer visible.
Note the time.
5. Repeat several times changing the temperature.
o Typical results suggest that a reaction goes faster when the
temperature is raised. When temperature
increases by 10℃, rate generally doubles.
• Changing surface area
o Reaction done between small chips and large chips
o The rate of reaction increases when the surface area of a solid is
increased.

Describe the application of the above factors to the danger of

explosive combustion with fine powders (e.g. flour mills) and gases
(e.g. mines)

Explosions
• In certain situations, increasing things such as concentration,
surface area, and temperature can cause dangerous reactions to
quickly take place, causing explosions.
• Flour mills:
o Flour particles are tiny, so the flour particles to have a large
surface area. It can also catch fire. Since there is lots of flour dust
floating around in the air, any spark from a machine can be
enough to cause an explosion
• In coal mines:
o In these, methane (CH4) and other flammable gases collect in the
air. At certain concentrations, they form an explosive mix with the
air. A spark is enough to set off an explosion.
• Describe the role of light in photochemical reactions and the effect
of light on the rate (speed) of these reactions
• Describe the use of silver salts in photography as a process of
reduction of silver ions to silver; and photosynthesis as the reaction
between carbon dioxide and water in the presence of chlorophyll
and sunlight (energy) to produce glucose and oxygen

Photochemical Reactions
• These are reactions that obtain their energy from light, e.g.
photosynthesis and reactions that occur in film photography.
• A photochemical reaction can be sped up by increasing the
intensity of light.
• Photosynthesis:
o Light provides energy for the reaction and chlorophyll is a dye that
absorbs light, and also acts as a catalyst for it.
light
carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
chlorophyll
• In film photography, black-and-white film relies on a photochemical
reaction. It is covered with a coating gel that contains tiny grains of
silver bromide. Light causes this to break down:
o It is both a photochemical reaction and a redox reaction.
o The silver ions are reduced: 2Ag+ + 2e- → 2Ag (electron gain)
o The bromide ions are oxidised: 2Br - → Br2 + 2e- (electron loss)

7.2 - Reversible Reactions

Describe the idea that some chemical reactions can be reversed by
changing the reaction conditions (Limited to the effects of heat on
hydrated salts) including hydrated copper(II) sulfate and hydrated
cobalt(II) chloride.

A reversible reaction is a reaction in which reactants form products

and the product(s) can then react or decompose to form the
reactants.

Hydrated Copper (II) Sulfate

• These are blue crystals that, when heated, become a white
powder. This powder is anhydrous copper (II) sulphate:
o CuSO4•5H2O (s) → CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O (l)
• This is easy to reverse. Simply add water. The anhydrous copper
(II) sulfate gets hot and turns blue.
o CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O (l) → CuSO4•5H2O (s)
In conclusion, this reaction is reversible, as it can go in either
direction. The first reaction is the forward reaction and the other is
the back reaction. To show this is a reversible reaction, the symbol
⇌ is used. So the final equation looks like this:
CuSO4•5H2O (s) ⇌ CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O (l)

Energy change
A reversible reaction is endothermic in one direction, and
exothermic in the other. The same amount of energy is transferred
each time.
• Concept of Equilibrium
• Predict the effect of changing the conditions (concentration,
temperature and pressure) on other reversible reactions

Equilibrium
A reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen to make ammonia may
be used as an example to explain equilibrium, since it is reversible.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)
In this reaction, three molecules of hydrogen react with one of
nitrogen to form two of ammonia. But, if you put the correct mixture
of nitrogen and hydrogen into a closed container it won’t turn into
ammonia. This is because once a certain amount of ammonia is
formed, the system reaches a state of dynamic equilibrium. From
then on, every time two ammonia molecules form, another two
break down into nitrogen and hydrogen. So the level of ammonia
remains unchanged.
Equilibrium means there is no overall change. The amounts of
nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia remains steady. But dynamic
means there is continual change; ammonia molecules continually
break down while new ones form.
 In a closed system, a reversible reaction reaches a state of dynamic
equilibrium, where the forward and back reactions take place at the
same rate. So there is no overall change.
The term dynamic equilibrium is usually shortened to equilibrium.

Changing Yield - Le Chatelier’s Principle

When a reversible reaction is in equilibrium and you make a
change, the system acts to oppose the change, and restores
equilibrium. A new equilibrium mixture forms.
A reversible reaction always reaches equilibrium, in a closed
system. However, you can shift equilibrium, by altering the
reactions’ conditions. This may be done so that the mixture contains
more products; increase yield. There are four possible changes that
can be made (all explanations relative to previous reaction on
obtaining ammonia)

1. Temperature change
1. The forward reaction is exothermic. The back reaction is
endothermic. Heating speeds up both reactions but if you heat the
equilibrium mixture, it acts to oppose the change. More ammonia
breaks down in order to use up the heat added. So the reaction
reaches equilibrium faster - but the new equilibrium mixture has
less ammonia. So the situation has gotten worse.
2. However, if you were to reduce the temperature, and the system
acts to oppose the change, more ammonia would form, giving out
heat. But if the temperature is too low, the reaction will take too
long to reach equilibrium.
2. Pressure change
1. Pressure is caused by the gas molecules colliding with the walls
of the container. The more molecules present, the higher the
pressure. When pressure is increased, the equilibrium mixture
acts to oppose this. More ammonia forms, which means fewer
molecules. So the amount of ammonia in the mixture increases.
Equilibrium has shifted to the right.
3. Remove ammonia (Decrease concentration of reactant)
1. Since the equilibrium mixture is a balance of nitrogen, hydrogen
and ammonia, removing the ammonia would disrupt this balance.
 Therefore, the system will shift equilibrium to form more ammonia,
hence restoring equilibrium.
2. The ammonia could be removed by cooling the mixture, as the
ammonia would condense first and could then be run off as a
liquid.
4. Addition of a catalyst
1. Iron is a catalyst for this reaction. A catalyst speeds both forward
and back reactions equally. So the reaction reaches equilibrium
faster, saving time. The amount of ammonia produced will not
change.

In conclusion, temperature always shifts equilibrium and a change

in pressure will only shift the equilibrium if the number of molecules
is different on each side of the equation. Both these changes, when
are an increase, increase the rate in which equilibrium is reached.

7.3 - Redox
Define oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen loss/gain.
(Oxidation state limited to its use to name ions, e.g. iron(II), iron(III),
copper(II), manganate(VII).)

Oxidation
• A gain of oxygen is called oxidation. The substance has been
oxidised.
• An example of this is the burning of magnesium
o 2Mg (s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO (s)
Reduction
• A loss of oxygen is called reduction. The substance has been
reduced.
• An example of this is hydrogen passing over heated copper (II)
oxide.
o CuO (s) + H2 (g) → Cu (s) + H2O (l)

Define redox in terms of electron transfer

If a substance is losing electrons during a reaction, it is being

oxidised, and if a substance is gaining electrons, it is being
 reduced. A reaction in which both these processes occur, such as
burning magnesium in oxygen, is a redox reaction.
To remember this, use the following mnemonic:
OILRIG
Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain

Writing half equations to show electron transfer

1. Write down each reactant, with the electrons it gains or loses
1. magnesium: Mg → Mg2+ + 2e-
2. oxygen: O + 2e- → O2-
2. Check that each substance is in its correct form (ion, atom or
molecule) on each side of the arrow. If not, correct it.
1. In the example above, oxygen is not shown in the correct form it
exists in. Therefore it must be changed to O2. You must double
the number of electrons and oxide ions.
2. O2 + 4e- → O2-
3. The number of electrons must be the same in both equations. If
not, balance them by multiplying the wrong equation by a number.
1. magnesium: 2 Mg → 2 Mg2+ + 4e-
2. oxygen: O2 + 4e- → O2-

Oxidation States
• States how many electrons each atom of an element has gained,
lost, or shared, while forming a compound.
• If oxidation states change during a reaction, it’s a redox reaction.
• Rules:
1. Each atom in a formula has an oxidation state
2. Oxidation states are shown with roman numerals
3. Elements that aren’t combined to anything have an oxidation state
of 0
4. Many elements have the same oxidation state in most or all their
compounds
▪ e.g. hydrogen or aluminium
5. However, atoms that belong to transition elements can have
variable oxidation states in their compounds.
▪ e.g. iron or copper
6. In any formula, the oxidation states must add to zero
Oxidation state changes during redox reactions
 Use reaction between sodium and chlorine as an example.
2Na (s) + Cl2 (g) → 2NaCl (s)
0 0 +I -I
*oxidation states are shown under each element
Each sodium atom loses an electron during the reaction, turning it
into an Na+ ion. Therefore, as there is a loss of electrons, sodium is
being oxidised, and its’ oxidation state rises from 0 to 1. Each
chlorine atom gains electrons during the reaction, forming the Cl-
ion. Since it is gaining electrons, it’s being reduced, and its’
oxidation state is going from 0 to -1.
Therefore, we can assume that a rise in oxidation state means
oxidation has occurred, and that a fall in oxidation state means
reduction has occurred.

Identify redox reactions by changes in oxidation state and by the

colour changes involved when using acidified potassium
manganate (VII), and potassium iodide. (Recall of equations
involving KMnO4 is not required.)

Changes when using acidified potassium manganate (VII)

• Is an oxidising agent
o A substance with a strong drive to gain electrons - will oxidise
other substances by reducing itself
o Can be called an oxidant
• Transition element (manganese) therefore has many oxidation
states
• This is a purple compound, with the formula KMnO4. Manganese,
in the compound, has an oxidation state of +VII. However, since
its’ +II oxidation state is much more stable, it is strongly driven to
reduce itself to achieve this oxidation state, through a gain of
electrons.
• Once the potassium manganate (VII) has been reduced, a colour
change occurs - purple to colourless.
reduction
MnO4- (aq) → Mn2+ (aq)
manganate (VII) ion → manganese (II) ion
purple → colourless
• As a colour change occurs, potassium manganate (VII) can be
used to test for the presence of a reducing agent. If agent is
present, purple will begin to fade.

Changes when using potassium iodide

• Is a reducing agent
o A substance with strong drive to lose electrons - will reduce other
substances by oxidising itself
o Can be called a reductant
• When added to hydrogen peroxide, in the presence of sulphuric
acid, the following redox reaction takes place:
H2O2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → I2 (aq) + K2SO4 + 2H2O (l)
hydrogen peroxide + potassium iodide + sulphuric acid → iodine +
potassium sulfate + water
• Hydrogen peroxide, here, loses an oxygen and is therefore
reduced. The potassium is acting as a reducing agent. The
potassium iodide is also being oxidised into iodine, causing a
colour change.
oxidation
2I- (aq) → I2 (aq)
colourless → red-brown
• So, potassium iodide is used to test for oxidising agents.
 8. Acids and Bases
8.1 - The Characteristics and Properties of Acids and Bases
Describe the characteristic properties of acids as reactions with
metals, bases, carbonates and effect on litmus

Properties of acids
• Reactions with metals
o acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
o e.g.
▪ magnesium + sulfuric acid → magnesium sulfate + hydrogen
Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
•
o The metal drives the hydrogen out of the acid, and thus takes its’
place. In other words, the metal displaces hydrogen.
• Reactions with bases
o acid + base → salt + water
o Bases are compounds that react to give only a salt and water.
Metal oxides and hydroxides are bases. Alkalis are soluble bases.
o e.g. (acid + alkali)
▪ hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
• e.g. (acid and insoluble base)
o sulfuric acid + copper (II) oxide → copper (II) sulfate + water
H2SO4 (aq) + CuO (s) → CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
• Reactions with carbonates
o acid + carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
o e.g.
calcium carbonates + hydrochloric acid → calcium chloride + water
+ carbon dioxide
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O
(l) + CO2 (g)
• Effect on litmus:
o Acids make litmus turn red. However, this can vary, depending on
how strong the acid is, from red to yellowish-green (pH 1 - 6)

Describe the characteristic properties of bases as reactions with

acids and with ammonium salts and effect on litmus
 Properties of bases
• Bases react acids to form a salt and water. This is what identifies a
base.
• Reactions with ammonium salts
o This reaction drives out ammonia gas
o e.g.
calcium hydroxide + ammonium chloride → calcium chloride
+ water + ammonia
Ca(OH)2 (s) + 2NH4Cl (s) → CaCl2 (s) +
2H2O (l) + 2NH3 (g)
•
o This reaction is used for making ammonia in laboratories.
• Effect on litmus:
o Bases make litmus turn blue. However, this can vary, depending
on how strong the base is, from greenish-blue to violet (pH 8 - 14).

Describe neutrality and relative acidity and alkalinity in terms of pH

(whole numbers only) measured using Universal Indicator paper

• Neutral - Does not accept or donate a proton

o e.g. CO
o Never define “neutral” by pH, but by its’ ability to move protons
o Will not neutralise an acid or a base
o A substance that is neutral will have a pH of 7, and will turn litmus
green.
• Relative acidity - can be measured using Universal Indicator paper
o pH 1 - 6 → red
• Relative alkalinity - can be measured using Universal Indicator
paper
o pH 8 - 14 → blue
 Neutralisation
• This is a reaction with acid that gives water as well as a salt.
o therefore, the reactions of bases and carbonates with acid are
neutralisations
• In these reactions, we say the metal has been neutralised

Describe and explain the importance of controlling acidity in soil

Controlling soil acidity

• Plants grow at pH near 7
• If too alkaline or too acidic, plants will not grow
• Soil acidity can be fixed by adding lime.

Define acids and bases in terms of proton transfer, limited to

aqueous solutions
Describe the meaning of weak and strong acids and bases

• Acid - A proton (H+) donor

o AH → A- + H+ *must balance charge
(any acid)
• Base - A proton acceptor
o B- + H+ → BH
(any base)
• Strong acid - acids which completely dissociates - all acid
molecules break down to release H+

• Examples:
o HCl → Cl- + H+
o H2SO4 → SO42- + 2H+
o HNO3 → NO3- + H+
• Strong acids make extremely weak conjugate bases
• Weak acids - Partially completely
o AH ⇋ A- + H+
o Examples:
▪ Ethanoic acid (in vinegar)
▪ CH3COOH (l) ⇋ CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)
▪ Citric acid
▪ Methanoic acid
▪ Phosphoric acid
o All non-metal oxides are acidic
• Alkali - water soluble bases
o Most metal oxides are bases
▪ e.g. CaO, Fe2O3
• Strong bases - Completely ionize in water, producing many OH-
ions
• Weak bases - Partially ionize in water, producing fewer OH- ions
o NH3 + H+ → NH4+
ammonia ammonium
Conjugate = Associated (or coupled)
therefore conjugate base = the proton acceptor (A-) created when
the acid (AH) dissociates (occurs in aqueous solutions)
AH → A- + H+
B- + H+ → BH
conjugate acid → proton donor created when base accepts a proton
• Metal oxides are nearly all basic, as they are nearly all hydroxides,
some of which are water soluble e.g. sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
• Non-metal oxides are nearly always acidic
o Al2O3 ZnO22- BOTH are AMPHOTERIC
zincate ion
• Amphoteric - Accept or donate a proton
o therefore reacts with both acids and bases
• Amphoteric ≠ Neutral

8.2 - Types of Oxides

Classify oxides as either acidic or basic, related to metallic and non-
metallic character

Basic Oxides
• In general, metals react with oxygen to form basic oxides
• These belong to the larger group of compounds called bases
• e.g. Copper (II) oxide

Acidic Oxides
• In general, non-metals react with oxygen to form acidic oxides.
• e.g. Sulfur dioxide

Further classify other oxides as neutral or amphoteric

Neutral Oxides
• Neutral oxides do not react with acids or bases.
• e.g. CO

Amphoteric Oxides
• An amphoteric oxide will react with both acids and bases
• e.g. Aluminium oxide

8.3 - Preparation of Salts

Describe the preparation, separation and purification of salts as
examples of some of the techniques specified in section 2.2(b) and
the reactions specified in section 8.1

Making salts
• A salt can be made by reacting acids with...
o metals
o insoluble bases
o soluble bases
o carbonates
• Starting with a metal
o Zinc sulfate can be made by reacting dilute sulphuric acid with
zinc.
1. Add zinc to acid in a beaker. It will begin to dissolve, and hydrogen
will bubble off. Bubbling will only stop when all the acid is used up.
2. The zinc left behind, as it was in excess, should be removed
through filtration. An aqueous solution of zinc sulfate should be left
behind.
3. Add heat to the solution to evaporate some water and obtain a
saturated solution. Crystals of zinc sulfate will form after this has
been left to cool.
• This method is great for making salts of magnesium, aluminium,
zinc and iron. However, with sodium, potassium, or calcium, it is
not, as these react too violently with acids.
• Starting with an insoluble base
o Copper will not react with dilute sulfuric acid. So to make copper
(II) sulfate, you must start with a base such as copper (II) oxide,
which is insoluble. The reaction that takes place is:
1. Add some copper (II) oxide to dilute sulfuric acid. It dissolves on
warming, and the solution turns blue. Add more until no more will
dissolve, which means all the acid has been used up.
2. Remove the excess by filtering. This leaves a blue solution of
copper (II) sulfate in water.
3. Heat the solution to obtain a saturated solution. Then leave it out to
cool. Crystals of copper (II) sulfate form.
• Starting with an insoluble base (alkali)
o It is dangerous to add sodium to acid, so, to make sodium salts,
start with sodium hydroxide. You can make sodium chloride like
this:
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
• Both reactants are soluble, and no gas bubbles off. So, to
determine when the reaction has finished, titration has to be done.
• In a titration, one reactant is slowly added to another in the
presence of an indicator, such as phenolphthalein. The indicator
changes colour when the reaction is complete. This allows you to
know the amount needed to make the reaction happen, so the
reaction can now be repeated without the indicator.
• The process:
1. Put 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution into a flask, using a
pipette. Add two drops of phenolphthalein.
2. Add the acid from a burette, just a bit at a time. Swirl the flask
carefully, to help the acid and alkali mix.
3. The indicator suddenly turns colourless. So, the alkali has been
used up. The solution is now neutral. No more acid should be
added.
4. Find how much acid was added, using the scale on the burette.
This tells you how much acid is needed to neutralise 25 cm3 of the
alkali.
5. Now repeat without the indicator, as it would be an impurity. Put 25
cm3 of alkali in the flask. Add the correct amount of acid to
neutralise it.
6. Finally, heat the solution from the flask to evaporate the water.
White crystals of sodium chloride will be left behind.
• The same method could be used to make potassium salts from
potassium hydroxide, and ammonium salts from ammonia solution.

Describe the preparation of insoluble salts by precipitation

Suggest a method of making a given salt from suitable starting
material, given appropriate information

Making insoluble salts

• These can be made by precipitation
• To precipitate an insoluble salt, you must mix a solution that
contains its positive ions with one that contains its negative ions.
• An example of an insoluble salt is barium sulfate. It can be made
by mixing solutions of barium chloride and magnesium sulfate.
o Barium chloride solution, BaCl2, contains barium ions and
chloride ions.
o Magnesium sulfate solution, MgSO4, contains magnesium ions
and sulfate ions.
o When mixed, the barium and sulfate ions bond together, forming
barium sulfate as a precipitate.
o The equation for this reaction is as follows:
BaCl2 (aq) + MgSO4 (aq) → BaSO4 (s) + MgCl2 (aq)
• The ionic equation is:
Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) → BaSO4 (s)
• The magnesium and chloride ions are not shown as they are
spectator ions.
• Steps in making the salt:
1. Make up solutions of barium chloride and magnesium sulfate
2. Mix them - a white ppt of barium sulfate is formed
3. Filter to separate; ppt will be caught in filter paper.
4. Rinse and wash ppt by running distilled water through it
5. Place in warm oven to dry

8.4 - Identification of Ions and Gases

• Describe the following tests to identify:
o aqueous cations:
▪ aluminium, ammonium, calcium, copper(II), iron(II), iron(III) and
zinc (using aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous ammonia as
appropriate) (Formulae of complex ions are not required.)
o anions:
▪ carbonate (by reaction with dilute acid and then limewater),
chloride (by reaction under acidic conditions with aqueous silver
nitrate), iodide (by reaction under acidic conditions with aqueous
silver nitrate), nitrate (by reduction with aluminium), sulfate (by
reaction under acidic conditions with aqueous barium ions)
o gases:
▪ ammonia (using damp red litmus paper), carbon dioxide (using
limewater), chlorine (using damp litmus paper), hydrogen (using
lighted splint), oxygen (using a glowing splint).

Test for Aqueous Cations

• To test for these, use aqueous sodium hydroxide or aqueous
ammonia
Test for Anions
Test for Gases
9. The Periodic Table
9.1 - The Periodic Table
Describe the Periodic Table as a method of classifying elements
and its use to predict properties of elements

The Periodic Table

• A way of classifying elements
• Elements are shown in order of proton, showing elements
periodicity
o Similar elements appear in regular intervals
o Similar elements are arranged in columns
• Columns are called groups
o numbered 0 to VII
o elements with similar properties appear in the same groups
o group number tells us the number of valency electrons
• Rows are called periods
o numbered 0 to 7
o period number tells us the number of electron shells
• Metals and non-metals are separated by zigzag line

9.2 - Periodic Trends

Describe the change from metallic to non-metallic character across
a period
Describe the relationship between Group number, number of
valency electrons and metallic/non-metallic character

Metals and Non-metals

• Non-metals are found on the right side of the periodic table, and
metals are on the left.
• Metals increase in reactivity as you descend a period of metals
• Non-metals decrease in reactivity as you descend a period of non-
metals

9.3 - Group Properties

 Describe lithium, sodium and potassium in Group I as a collection of
relatively soft metals showing a trend in melting point, density and
reaction with water
Identify trends in other Groups, given information about the
elements concerned
Predict the properties of other elements in Group I, given data,
where appropriate
Identify trends in other Groups, given information about the
elements concerned

Group I - Alkali Metals

• Lithium, sodium and potassium belong to this group
• The most reactive of all metals
o This is because, to have a full outer shell, the elements only need
to lose one electron. Therefore, a strong drive to react with other
elements is created, in order to
succeed in giving up this electron. They become ions, and ionic
compounds, such as sodium chloride, made up of Na+ ions and Cl-.
• Atoms with the same number of valency electrons react in a similar
way.
• Alkali metals always form ions with a +1 charge.
• Compounds formed will be white solids
• They dissolve in water to form a colourless solution.
Physical properties:
• Good conductors of heat and electricity
• Soft - can be cut with a knife
• low density
o float on water when reacting
• low melting and boiling points
Trends:
• as you move down, softness increases
• as you move down, density increases
• as you move down, melting points decrease
Chemical properties:
• React vigorously with water - hydrogen bubbles off, leaving a
solution of hydroxides, which are alkaline
• Burn brightly and burst into flames when burnt in jars of chlorine -
form chlorides.
• Burst into flames when heated and plunged into jars of oxygen -
burn fiercely to form oxides
Trends:
• reactivity increases as you move down
• Describe chlorine, bromine and iodine in Group VII as a collection
of diatomic non-metals showing a trend in colour, and state their
reaction with other halide ions
• Predict the properties of other elements in Group VII, given data
where appropriate

Group VII - The Halogens

• Group of non-metal elements
• Includes fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine
• All halogens:
o form coloured gases
▪ fluorine (pale green solid) → pale yellow gas
▪ chlorine (yellow solid) → green gas
▪ bromine (red-brown solid) → red vapour
▪ iodine (black solid) → purple vapour
o are poisonous
o form diatomic molecules
Physical trends:
• colour gets deeper as you move down
• density increases as you move down
• boiling point increases as you move down
Chemical properties:
• react with metals to form compound halides
Chemical trends:
• reactivity decreases as you move down
Why are halogens so reactive?
These atoms only need one electron to form a complete outer shell
of 8 electrons. Therefore, they have a strong drive to react with
another element or compound, to gain this final electron. When they
react with metals, halide ions are formed, so products are ionic. For
example, a reaction between iron and chlorine give iron (III)
chloride, made up of Fe3+ ions and Cl-.
However, with non-metal ions, such as hydrogen or carbon, they
share electrons, forming covalently bonded molecules. For
 example, hydrogen and chlorine atoms share electrons, to form
molecules of hydrogen chloride; HCl.

Why reactivity decreases:

As you descend group VII, the number of electron shells increases,
but the reactivity of the elements decreases. This is because, a
halogens reactivity is based on its’ ability to attract an electron to
complete its’ outer shell, and it will do this by having a positive
nucleus. Now, as the number of shells increases, the distance of
the outer shell to the nucleus also increases. Attracting an electron
has then become more difficult, as forces of attraction are weaker.

Halogens reacting with halides

• A halogen will displace a less reactive halogen from a solution of
its halide.
• e.g.:
o Cl2 (aq) + 2KBr (aq) → 2KCl (aq) + Br2
o Bromine has been displaced

9.4 - Trasition Elements

Describe the transition elements as a collection of metals having
high densities, high melting points and forming coloured
compounds, and which, as elements and compounds, often act as
catalysts

Transition Metals
• Found in the middle of the periodic table
• Common metals, e.g.
o iron
o copper
o tin
o silver
o etc…
• Many transition elements and their compounds can act as
catalysts.
o Iron is used as a catalyst in the production of ammonia

Physical properties:
• hard, tough, strong
• high melting points
• malleable
• good conductors of heat and electricity
• high density

Chemical properties:
• much less reactive than Group 1
• no clear trend in reactivity
• form coloured compounds (most)
• can form ions with different charges (most)
• can form more than one compound with one element, e.g.
o copper (I) oxide → Cu2O
o copper (II) oxide → CuO
• can form complex ions (most)

9.5 - Noble Gases

Describe the noble gases as being unreactive

What are they?

• A group of non-metals that contain the following elements:
o helium
o neon
o argon
o krypton
o xenon
• All the elements in this group...
o exist as colourless gases that occur naturally in air
o are monatomic - exist as single atoms
o are very unreactive

Why are they so unreactive?

The reason atoms react in the first place is obtain a full outer shell
of electrons, that is what gives them drive to react. But, a noble gas
already has a full outer shell of electrons. So the atoms have no
need to react to gain or lose electrons. This is also why they are
 monatomic; as they already have full outer shells, there is no need
to bond to complete the shell.
Also, since they are unreactive, they are inert.

Trends in physical properties

• Atoms increase in size and mass as you move down
• Density increases as you move down
• Boiling point increases as you move down

Describe the uses of the noble gases in providing an inert

atmosphere, i.e. argon in lamps, helium for filling balloons

Uses of noble gases

1. Helium - fill balloons and airships
2. Argon - used to provide an inert atmosphere, therefore can be
used as:
1. filter in tungsten light bulbs
2. protect metals being welded
3. Neon - advertising signs
1. originally glows with a red colour, however this may be changed
by mixing it with other gases
4. Krypton - used in lasers (e.g. eye surgery) and car headlamps
5. Xenon - lighthouse lamps, lights for hospital operating rooms, car
headlamps.
 10. Metals
10.1 - Properties of Metals
Describe the general physical and chemical properties of metals

Explain why metals are often used in the form of alloys

Identify representations of alloys from diagrams of structure

Alloys
• An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals, or of a metal and a
non-metal, which has been made molten and mixed together.
• They are used because they have improved qualities for a
particular job
• Metals are often used as alloys because they have an increased
range of uses and mixture of atoms gives an irregular structure
which stops layers sliding over each other easily; they are stronger
• In the diagram below, (a) is representing the structure of an alloy,
while (b) shows a pure metal.
 10.2 - Reactivity Series
Place in order of reactivity: potassium, sodium, calcium,
magnesium, zinc, iron, (hydrogen) and copper, by reference to the
reactions, if any, of the metals with
• water or steam
• dilute hydrochloric acid
and the reduction of their oxides with carbon

Reactions of metals with water or steam

• Sodium reacts violently with cold water, whizzing over the surface,
forming hydrogen gas and a clear solution of sodium hydroxide.
o 2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
• The reaction between calcium and cold water is slower. Hydrogen
is bubbled off, and a cloudy solution of calcium hydroxide is left
behind.
o Ca (s) + 2H2O (l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
• Magnesium reacts very slowly with cold water, but vigorously on
heating with steam; it glows brightly. Hydrogen and solid
magnesium oxide form.
o Mg (s) + H2O (g) → MgO (s) + H2
 Reactions with hydrochloric acid
• It is unsafe to add sodium or potassium to acid in the lab, as they
react explosively and quickly.
 In conclusion, when metals react with both hydrochloric acid or
water, hydrogen displaced. This shows that the metals that react
with the above are more reactive than hydrogen. Those who don’t
react with the above are less reactive than hydrogen.
These reactions are all redox reactions. For example, when
magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid, its atoms lose electrons,
while the hydrogen from the acid gains electrons.

Reduction of oxides with carbon

• In this reaction, metals compete with carbon.
1. Magnesium oxide is mixed with powdered carbon and heated. No
reaction occurs, showing magnesium is more reactive than carbon
2. Lead (II) oxide is used instead, and it turns into molten lead, and
carbon dioxide forms. Therefore, carbon is more reactive than
lead.
1. The equation for this reaction is:
1. 2PbO (s) + C (s) → 2Pb (s) + CO2
lead (II) oxide + carbon → lead + carbon dioxide
• Carbon is more reactive than some metals. It will reduce their
oxides to form the metal.
 Describe the reactivity series as related to the tendency of a metal
to form its positive ion, illustrated by its reaction, if any, with
• the aqueous ions
• the oxides
of the other listed metals

Metals reacting to form ions in solution (aqueous)

1. Copper (II) sulfate solution contains blue copper (II) ions and
sulfate ions. An iron nail is placed in the solution.
2. Copper begins to coat the nail. The solution begins to turn green,
which indicates iron (II) ions. Therefore, iron has pushed copper
out of the solution.
1. Iron displaces copper from the copper (II) sulfate solution.
2. Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
iron + copper (II) sulfate → iron (II) sulfate + copper
(blue) (green)
• A metal displaces a less reactive metal from solution of its
compounds.

Metals competing with other metals, for oxygen

1. Some powdered iron is heated with copper (II) oxide, CuO. The
question at hand is whether or not the iron can get the oxygen it
needs from the copper (II) oxide.
2. The reaction, once it starts to get going, gives out heat, causing the
mixture to glow. Iron (II) oxide and copper are formed. Therefore,
the iron was able to take the oxygen.
1. Fe (s) + CuO (s) → FeO (s) + CuO (s)
• The iron is acting as a reducing agent, removing oxygen.
• The metal grabs oxygen from the oxides of the metal below it.
• A metal will reduce the oxide of a less reactive metal. The
reduction is always exothermic.

Describe the action of heat on the hydroxides and nitrates of the

listed metals

Thermal decomposition
• This is the breakdown of compounds on heating.
o The lower a metal is in the reactivity series, the more readily its
compounds decompose when heated.
o Hydroxides, except those of sodium and potassium, decompose
to the oxide and form carbon dioxide.
o Nitrates, except those of sodium and potassium, decompose to
the oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and oxygen. The nitrates of sodium
and potassium only form nitrates and oxygen.
o Carbonates, except those of sodium and potassium, decompose
to the oxide and carbon dioxide.

The reactivity series:

Account for the apparent unreactivity of aluminium in terms of the

oxide layer which adheres to the metal

Reactivity of aluminium
 Aluminium reacts very quickly with oxygen, forming a thin coat of
aluminium on its’ outside. It sticks to the metal and thus acts as a
barrier that prevents any further corrosion.

9.3 - Extraction of Metals

Describe the ease in obtaining metals from their ores by relating the
elements to the reactivity series

Ease of extracting metals

The more reactive a metal, the more difficult it is to extract from its
ores, since these are stable compounds. For the most reactive
metals, the toughest method of extraction is used; electrolysis.

Describe the essential reactions in the extraction of iron from

hematite
Describe the conversion of iron into steel using basic oxides and
oxygen

Iron extraction
• The blast furnace is used to extract iron.
The charge, a mixture containing the iron ore and other
components, is added at the top. What is in the charge?
1. Iron ore - hematite; mainly iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3, mixed with sand
and other compounds.
2. Limestone - calcium carbonate, CaCO3
3. Coke - made from coal; almost pure carbon

After going through this process, the iron continues to be impure,

mainly with carbon and
sand. This is called pig iron. Some of it will be run into moulds, to
make cast iron, however
most of it is turned into steel.

Describe in outline, the extraction of zinc from zinc blende

Zinc extraction
• Zinc is obtained from its’ main ore, zinc blende. It is mainly made
up of zinc sulfide, ZnS. First, it is roasted in air, giving zinc oxide
and sulfur dioxide.
 zinc sulfide + oxygen → zinc oxide + sulfur dioxide
2ZnS (s) + 3O2 (g) → ZnO (s) + 2SO2 (g)
• Then, the oxide is reduced in one of the following ways:
1. Using carbon monoxide - carried out in a furnace
zinc oxide + carbon monoxide → zinc + carbon dioxide
ZnO (s) + CO (g) → Zn (s) + CO2 (g)
•
o The final mixture contains zinc and a slag of impurities. The zinc is
separated by fractional distillation (boils at 907℃)
• Using electrolysis - In this process, a compound must be melted, or
be in solution. However, zinc oxide has a very high melting point,
1975℃, and is insoluble in water. Therefore, it is dissolved in dilute
sulfuric acid (made using the sulfur produced at the roasting
stage). Zinc oxide is a base, so it neutralises the acid, forming a
solution of zinc sulfate. This solution then undergoes electrolysis,
and zinc will form at the cathode.
o Zn2+ (aq) + 2e- → Zn (s)
The zinc is then removed from the cathode and melted into bars to
later sell. In fact, most of the zinc is extracted through electrolysis,
because the result is very pure.

Name the main ore of aluminium as bauxite (see section 5)

Aluminium
This is the most abundant metal in the earth’s crust, and comes
from its’ main ore, bauxite, which is simply aluminium oxide mixed
with other impurities such as sand and iron oxide. These impurities
are what give it a reddish-brown colour.
After having its impurities removed at bauxite plants, the result is a
white aluminium oxide or alumina.
More on the extraction of this metal can be found in chapter 5,
Electricity and Chemistry.

10.4 - Uses of Metals

Uses of Metals
• Name the uses of aluminium:
o in the manufacture of aircraft because of its strength and low
density
o in food containers because of its resistance to corrosion

Describe the idea of changing the properties of iron by the

controlled use of additives to form steel alloys

Changing the properties of iron to make steel alloys

• Steel is made from molten iron from the blast furnace. However, it
is impure. It contains about 5% carbon (from coke), sand (mainly
silicon dioxide), phosphorus and sulfur compounds.
1. First, impurities are removed from the pig iron.
1. the molten iron from the blast furnace is placed into an oxygen
furnace, where a jet of oxygen is turned on.
2. the oxygen reacts with the carbon to form carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide, which are carried off. It also reacts with other
impurities to form acidic oxides.
3. After, calcium oxide, a basic oxide, is added. It reacts with silicon
dioxide and other acidic oxides to give slag, that is skimmed off.
For some steels, all impurities are removed. But many others are
just iron plus a bit of carbon, which makes steel stronger (however
too much will make it brittle and hard to shape).
1. Other elements may then be added.
1. These should be measured out carefully, to give steels such as
stainless steel, with the required properties.
 Name the uses of mild steel (car bodies and machinery) and
stainless steel (chemical plant and cutlery)
Mild steel
• This is a mixture of pure iron and a very small amount of carbon. It
is very hard and strong.
• Uses:
o buildings
o ships
o car bodies
o machinery
Uses of stainless steel
1. cutlery
2. equipment in chemical factories

Name the uses of zinc for galvanising and for making brass

Uses of zinc
• Galvanising
o This is a way of using zinc to protect iron. It is used in the steel of
car bodies, for example.
▪ In this process, the iron or steel is coated with zinc. This can be
done through electrolysis or bathing the iron or steel in molten
zinc.
▪ The zinc coating keeps air and moisture away. But, if the coating
is damaged, the zinc will continue to protect the iron or steel, due
to sacrificial protection.
• Making brass
o 70% copper, 30% zinc
o alloy
o made by mixing molten zinc and copper
o special properties:
▪ harder than copper
▪ does not corrode
o can be used for musical instruments, ornaments, door knobs and
other fittings.
 Name the uses of copper related to its properties (electrical wiring
and in cooking utensils)

Physical properties:
• strong
• malleable
• ductile
• sonorous
• shiny
• good conductors of heat and electricity
• high fixed points
• dense
Chemical properties:
• react with oxygen to form oxides
• metal oxides are bases
• form positive ions when reacting
• charge on ion is same as group number
• however, transition elements have variable valencies.
 11. Air and Water
Describe chemical tests for water using cobalt(II) chloride and
copper(II) sulfate

Chemical tests for water

• Using cobalt (II) chloride, CoCl2
o chemical test
o paper turns from blue to pink
• Using powdered anhydrous copper (II) sulfate, CuSO4 • 6H2O
o chemical test
o CuSO4 • 6H2O (s) → CuSO4 (s) + 6H2O (g)
hydrated blue solid → anhydrous white solid
• Test fixed point
o physical test
o Boils at 100℃ and freezes at 0℃

Describe, in outline, the treatment of the water supply in terms of

filtration and chlorination
Name some of the uses of water in industry and in the home

Purification of water - treatment

1. The water is pumped in. A screen traps any big particles, such as
twigs.
2. A coagulant is added. This is a chemical that makes small
suspended particles stick together.
3. Air is blown through the water in flotation tanks, to make the
coagulated particles float to the top, where they are then skimmed
off.
4. The water is passed through a bed of fine sand to filter it.
5. It may go through further filters. For example more sand, or
charcoal to remove bad tastes and smells.
6. Chlorine is then added to kill the bacteria and other microbes in the
water.
7. Some plants will add a fluoride compound to the water, to help fight
off tooth decay.
8. The water is then finally pumped to a reservoir, where it will be
stored.

Uses of Water
At home:
• drinking
• cooking
• washing things
• toilets

In industry:
• solvent
• wash things
• cooling

Describe the composition of clean air as being approximately 79 %

nitrogen, 20 % oxygen and the remainder as being a mixture of
noble gases, water vapour and carbon dioxide
 Air

Describe the separation of oxygen and nitrogen from liquid air by

fractional distillation

Separation of oxygen and nitrogen

• After the air has been cooled far enough to become a liquid, the
mixture is separated. This is done through fractional distillation.
o This works because the gases have different boiling points.
o The process goes as follows:
1. Air is pumped into the plant, and filtered to remove dust particles
2. Next, water vapour, carbon dioxide, and other pollutants are
removed, as they would later freeze and block the pipes. This is
done by:
1. cooling the air until the vapour condenses to water
2. then passing it over beds of adsorbent beads to trap the carbon
dioxide, and any other pollutants.
3. The air is then compressed, by being forced into a very small tube.
This makes the air hot, but it is cooled again by recycling cold air.
4. The cold, compressed air is passed through a jet, into a larger
space. It expands rapidly, and this makes it very cold.
Steps 3 and 4 are repeated several times. The air gets colder each
time. By -200℃, the air is liquid (except for neon and helium, but
these are removed, and later separated by a different method that
involves adsorption by charcoal).
1. The now liquid air is then pumped into the fractionating column,
where it is slowly warmed up. The gases boil off one by one, and
are collected in tanks or cylinders.
1. The boiling points of the gases are:
1. nitrogen -196℃
2. argon -186℃
3. oxygen -183℃
4. krypton -153℃
5. xenon -108℃

Name the common pollutants in the air as being carbon monoxide,

sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and lead compounds
State the source of each of these pollutants:
• carbon monoxide from the incomplete combustion of carbon-
containing substances
• sulfur dioxide from the combustion of fossil fuels which contain
sulfur compounds (leading to ‘acid rain’ – see section 13)
• oxides of nitrogen from car exhausts
• State the adverse effect of common pollutants on buildings and on
health

Pollutants
 Describe and explain the presence of oxides of nitrogen in car
exhausts and their catalytic removal

Oxides of nitrogen in car exhausts

When petrol burns in a car engine, harmful gases are produced,
including:
• oxides of nitrogen
• carbon monoxide
• unburnt hydrocarbons from the petrol - these can cause cancer
 To solve this problem, modern cars are equipped with a catalytic
converter. In it, harmful gases are adsorbed onto the surface of
catalysts, where they react to form harmless gases. A catalyst is
used to speed up this reaction, and is usually a transition element
such as platinum, palladium or rhodium. They will have increased
surface areas (by coating with ceramic honeycombs or ceramic
beads) to increase adsorption rate. Harmless gases will flow out the
exhaust pipe.
The compounds are made harmless by being reduced, as follows:
2NO (g) + 2CO (g) → 2CO2 (g) + N2 (g)
or
2NO (g) → N2 (g) + O2 (g)

Describe methods of rust prevention, specifically paint and other

coatings to exclude oxygen
Describe sacrificial protection in terms of the reactivity series of
metals and galvanising as a method of rust prevention

Rusting
• Rusting requires oxygen and water
• How to prevent it:
1. Cover the metal. Since the aim is to keep out oxygen and water,
this could be done by:
1. painting - steel bridges and railings are usually painted
2. grease - tools and machine parts are coated with grease or oil
3. another metal - galvanising and electroplating
2. Sacrificial protection - let another metal corrode instead
1. During rusting, iron is oxidised, as it loses electrons. Magnesium
is more reactive than iron, and therefore has a stronger drive to
los electrons. So when a bar of magnesium is attached to the side
of a steel ship, or the leg of an oil rig, it will corrode instead of the
iron.
2. The magnesium eventually dissolves, and has been sacrificed to
protect the iron. It must be replaced before it fully dissolves. This
could also be done with zinc.
3. Sacrificial protection - how it works (with zinc and iron boat)
1. Zinc forces electrons into the metal that is electrically connected
to it. There are more electrons in the system than iron is able to
 overcome (i.e. a higher voltage) therefore iron is unable to force
electrons into the boat to become Fe3+ and therefore is
protected.

Describe the need for nitrogen-, phosphorus- and potassium-

containing fertilisers
Describe the displacement of ammonia from its salts

Fertilisers
• Plants need nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus for various
reasons
o nitrogen - making chlorophyll and proteins
▪ taken in as nitrate ions and ammonium ions
o potassium - produce proteins and resist disease
o phosphorus - helps grow roots and ripens crops
• These elements are generally obtained from compounds in the
soil, and sometimes they will get naturally replaced. However, in
the end, the soil gets worn out, so farmers add fertilisers to the soil.
• A fertiliser is any substance added to soil to make it more fertile.
• Synthetic fertilisers are made in factories. Here are some
examples:
o ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3
o potassium sulfate, K2SO4
o ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4
o ammonium phosphate, (NH4)3PO4
• Examples of reactions to make synthetic polymers:
1. ammonia reacts with nitric acid to give ammonium nitrate. This
fertiliser is an excellent source of nitrogen:
NH3 (aq) + HNO3 (aq) → NH4NO3 (aq)
ammonia + nitric acid → ammonium nitrate
1. ammonia reacts with sulfuric acid to give ammonium sulfate:
2NH3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → (NH4)2SO4 (aq)
ammonia + sulfuric acid → ammonium sulfate
• All alkalis (except ammonia) will react with ammonium compounds,
removing ammonia
o calcium hydroxide + ammonium chloride → calcium chloride +
water + ammonia
• Negative side:
 o In the river - fertiliser cans seep into rivers from farmland. In the
river, they aid the growth of algae, which, eventually, cover the
entire top of the river. Once they die, bacteria begin to thrive and
feed on them, while using the oxygen dissolved in the water, thus
suffocating the fish.
o In the water - nitrate ions can end up in water supplies. They’ll be
converted into nitrite ions in our bodies, which will then combine
with the haemoglobin, in the place of oxygen. Thus, the body ends
up carrying less oxygen, which can cause illness, especially in
children.

State that carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases and
may contribute to climate change

Greenhouse gases
• The greenhouse gases are: carbon dioxide and methane.
• They stop heat escaping into space.
• Too much greenhouse gases leads to climate change.
• This will cause the ice poles to melt, rising sea levels, more
droughts, storms, floods and famine; global warming.

Describe the essential conditions for the manufacture of ammonia

by the Haber process including the sources of the hydrogen and
nitrogen, i.e. hydrocarbons or steam and air

The Haber Process

• This is a process used to make ammonia.

Obtaining the reactants:

Nitrogen → air is nearly 80% nitrogen and 20% oxygen. The
oxygen is removed by burning hydrogen. That leaves mainly
nitrogen, and a small amount of other gases.
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l)
Hydrogen → usually by reacting methane with steam:
CH4 (g) + 2H2O → CO2 (g) + 4H2 (g)
→ It can also be made by cracking hydrocarbons from petroleum.
• Conditions of the reactions:
o Fe catalyst
 200℃
o
o 100 atm pressure
o forward reaction is exothermic; reverse is endothermic
High yield favours low temperature and high pressure. Rate of
reaction is independent to yield. At high temperatures, high rate is
favoured but yield decreases for the Haber process, so we accept a
lower yield because we can produce more ammonia per unit time.
Therefore, if rate is faster with high temperature, but yield is low, an
industry will prefer to have a higher production rate rather than a
high production yield at a slow rate.
• Reactants are purified out at the end, by fractional distillation, and
reused in the next reaction.
• The ammonia produced us to make fertilisers and explosives
o NPK fertilisers (seen above)

Describe the formation of carbon dioxide:

• as a product of complete combustion of carbon- containing
substances
• as a product of respiration
• as a product of the reaction between an acid and a carbonate
• from the thermal decomposition of a carbonate
• Describe the carbon cycle, in simple terms, to include the
processes of combustion, respiration and photosynthesis

Carbon cycle
• Carbon dioxide, in the carbon cycle, is removed from the
atmosphere by photosynthesis and dissolving in the ocean, and it
is added to the atmosphere by respiration and the combustion of
hydrocarbons.
• CO2 emissions from fossil fuels leads to global warming
• CO2 from burning plants doesn’t contribute because the carbon in
the plants was in the atmosphere recently - no net gain of CO2
• CO2 is not a pollutant; it occurs naturally in the air
The formation of carbon dioxide:
1. Respiration - C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
1. Happens inside living cells to differentiate from combustion
2. Combustion of fossil fuels:
1. C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
 2. Exothermic
3. Acid + Carbonate:
1. H2SO4 (aq) + CaCO3 (s) → H2O (l) + CO2 (g) + CaSO4 (s)
4. Thermal decomposition of a carbonate
1. CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

State the sources of methane, including decomposition of

vegetation and waste gases from digestion in animals

Sources of methane
• Gas deposits in the ocean floor and on land, as natural gas
• Decomposition of vegetation (bacteria break down plant material)
in the absence of oxygen.
• Waste gas from animals, e.g. cows
 12.Sulfur
Describe the formation of carbon dioxide:
• as a product of complete combustion of carbon- containing
substances
• as a product of respiration
• as a product of the reaction between an acid and a carbonate
• from the thermal decomposition of a carbonate
Describe the carbon cycle, in simple terms, to include the
processes of combustion, respiration and photosynthesis

Carbon cycle
• Carbon dioxide, in the carbon cycle, is removed from the
atmosphere by photosynthesis and dissolving in the ocean, and it
is added to the atmosphere by respiration and the combustion of
hydrocarbons.
• CO2 emissions from fossil fuels leads to global warming
• CO2 from burning plants doesn’t contribute because the carbon in
the plants was in the atmosphere recently - no net gain of CO2
• CO2 is not a pollutant; it occurs naturally in the air
The formation of carbon dioxide:
1. Respiration - C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
1. Happens inside living cells to differentiate from combustion
2. Combustion of fossil fuels:
1. C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
2. Exothermic
3. Acid + Carbonate:
1. H2SO4 (aq) + CaCO3 (s) → H2O (l) + CO2 (g) + CaSO4 (s)
4. Thermal decomposition of a carbonate
1. CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

State the sources of methane, including decomposition of

vegetation and waste gases from digestion in animals

Sources of methane
• Gas deposits in the ocean floor and on land, as natural gas
• Decomposition of vegetation (bacteria break down plant material)
in the absence of oxygen.
• Waste gas from animals, e.g. cows
13. Carbonates
• Describe the manufacture of lime (calcium oxide) from calcium
carbonate (limestone) in terms of thermal decomposition

Manufacture of lime (calcium oxide)

• This is done through the thermal decomposition of calcium
carbonate, CaCO3 (limestone)
• CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

• Name the uses of calcium carbonate in the manufacture of iron

and of cement

Uses of calcium carbonate

1. Making cement
2. Manufacture of iron
3. Sculptures (e.g. marble)
4. Soil acidity treatments
5. Flue gas desulfurization materials
 1. SO3 (g) + CaCO3 (g) eventually makes gypsum, used in building
materials.
1. Removes acidic gases from power plants that burn fossil fuels

• Name some uses of lime and slaked lime as in treating acidic soil
and neutralising acidic industrial waste products, e.g. flue gas
desulfurization

Slacked lime
• Made as follows:
o CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
• Used to:
1. make cement
2. control soil acidity
3. used as solution to detect CO2 gas (as limewater)
14.1 - Names of Compounds

Alkane: Contains only C-C single bonds

Alkenes: Contains only C=C double bonds
Alkynes: Contains only C≡C triple bonds
Alcohols: Contain only C-O-H group
Carboxylic Acid: Contain only OH-C=O group
↳ All these are common in the homologous series
 Homologous Series: A family of organic molecules which differ in
the number of C atoms but have similar chemical/physical
properties.
Hydrocarbons: Molecule containing H and C atoms

Tips for drawing:

• When drawing alkanes…
1. Always make sure only SINGLE bonds (C-C)
2. Refer to number of carbons (e.g. propane - 3C)
3. Use formula CnH(2n+2) to find number of H atoms e.g. propane =
C3H(2x3+2)
= C3H8
e.g.

• When drawing alkenes…

1. Always make sure only 1 DOUBLE bond (C=C)
2. Refer to number of carbons (e.g. Butene - 4C)
3. Use formula CnH2n to find number of H atoms e.g. butene - 4C
therefore C4H8

e.g.
• When drawing alcohols…
1. Always make sure 1 C-O-H group present
2. Refer to number of carbons (e.g. butanol - 4C)

e.g.

• When drawing carboxylic acids…

1. Always make sure that 1 O=C-OH group is present
2. Refer back to number of carbons (e.g. Propanoic acid → 3C)

e.g.

General rules for drawing

• H - can only make 1 bond
• C - Must make 4 bonds
• O - Only two (covalent) bonds
↳ If structure breaks one of these rules, check again.

14.2 - Fuels
A mixture of molecules in a liquid from separated fuels in giant
fractionating columns in oil refineries.
Natural Gas → Gasoline → Naphtha → Kerosene → Diesel → Fuel
oil
↳ Learn this order
New
Guys
Never
Keep
Donuts
Faithfully

Uses of refinery gas / bottled gas

1. Heating
2. Cooking

Uses of lubrication fraction

1. Fuel for ships
2. Home heating systems

Uses of bitumen
1. Making roads

→ If asked for description of petroleum / crude oil:

• Mixture of hydrocarbons and its’ separation into useful fractions by
• fractional distillation
→ In fractionating columns, the alkanes get larger as you move
down.
This is because their mp/bp increase, as intermolecular bonds get
stronger,
therefore providing the need for more heat energy, the larger the
alkane,
to break the bonds, therefore larger alkanes are at the bottom as
there is more heat.

14.3 - Homologous Series

Definition: A family of organic molecules which differ in the number
of C atoms but have similar chemical and physical properties
Common in series:
• Alkanes
• Alkenes
• Alkynes
• Carboxylic acids
• Alcohols
→ Belong to same FUNCTIONAL GROUP - HYDROCARBONS

Structural Isomerism (Isomers)

• Syllabus requirements: Describe and identify
→ Molecules with the same molecular formula but different
structural formula
e.g.
C4H10: CH3 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3
 I
CH3-CH-CH3 Butane
2-methylpropane

Isomers of hexane:
Hexane: CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3

CH7-CH2-CH2-CH-CH3 ← 2-methylpentane
I
CH3

CH3-CH2-CH-CH2-CH3 ← 3-methylpentane
I
CH3

CH3
I ↱ Due to 2 “CH3”
CH3-C-CH2-CH3 ← 2-2-dimethylbutane
I ↳ Always choose smallest when counting
CH3

CH3
I
CH3-CH-CH-CH3 ← 2-3-dimethylbutane
I
CH3
• Isomers are branched versions of alkanes. Branching prevents
close contact with other molecules, therefore there are fewer weak
intermolecular bonds, therefore less energy needed to break these
bonds therefore lower fixed points (bp/mp).
• Therefore, isomers have different fixed points.

Skeletal Formula
1. Each point is a C atom
2. H atoms are omitted, except on functional groups
3. Functional groups are written as normal
4. Double bonds are double lines
 ↳ On ethane, there is only 1 line, yet 2 carbons. Therefore, when
drawing the skeletal formula for linear alkanes, simply take 1 away
from the number of C atoms to calculate the number of lines. This is
because this structure only shows the bonds between the carbons.

• Long chain of unsaturated and saturated oils

o Saturated = no C=C double bonds
o Unsaturated = C=C or C≡C bonds present
• We can detect the difference between saturated and unsaturated
molecules using bromine water (Br2 (aq))
• Br2 + saturated molecule (e.g alkanes)
↳ orange solution → orange solution
NO CHANGE
• Br2 + unsaturated molecule (e.g alkene)
↳ orange solution → colorless solution

14.4 - Alkanes
• Extremely UNREACTIVE - essentially like poly(ethene)
 Only 2 chemical reactions:
o
1. Combustion e.g C3H6 ← Always make sure to balance
C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O *COMBUSTION COMPLETE*
Trend: Hydrocarbons become harder to ignite as molecules
get bigger
2. Free radical substitution with halogens
Initiation Cl2 → Cl • ← free radical
Propagation 1 Cl • + CH4 → HCl + • CH3
Propagation 2 • CH3 + Cl2 → CH2Cl2 + Cl •
Termination • CH3 + CC • → CH2Cl2 or CH2CC + Cl →
CH2Cl2 •
↳ variety of end products
Bonding in alkanes
• Simplest of hydrocarbon family
• Only C-C single bonds
• Only carbon-hydrogen bonds

Properties of alkanes
• Extremely unreactive - except in terms of burning
• Similar to poly(ethene)
• Low fixed points

14.5 - Alkenes
Manufacturing alkenes and hydrogen
• CATALYTIC CRACKING or cracking
o Takes long chain alkanes and converts them into more valuable
alkenes and short chain alkanes.
e.g. Octane
C8H18 → C3H6 + C5H12 * Heat and zeolite catalyst used
Longer alkane Alkene Shorter alkane
• Global demand for short chain alkanes and alkenes is not matched
by supply (from crude oil). Cracking provides a method to convert
long chain alkanes, which we don’t need, into these more profitable
hydrocarbons.
• Alkanes are used extensively in the chemical industry, e.g. to
make:
1. Ethanol
2. Plastics, like poly(ethene)
3. Chemicals for industry like halogenoalkanes
• Bioethanol is better for the environment because the CO2 made
from burning them was only recently converted by photosynthesis
(in plant cells using chlorophyll) into sugars from CO2 that was
already in the atmosphere - no net increase in CO2 levels.
↳ CO2 in atmosphere → sugars → Ethanol + CO2 →
CO2 + H2O
Photosynthesis Fermentation Combustion

Distinguishing saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons

1. Using aqueous bromine
• Br2 (aq) + saturated molecule:
Orange solution → Orange solution *NO CHANGE*
• Br2 (aq) + unsaturated molecule:
Orange solution → Colorless solution
2. From molecule structures
• If no C=C double bonds present, oil is saturated
• If C=C or C≡C bonds present, oil is unsaturated
↳ Have C=C double bonds therefore can undergo addition
reaction

Fermentation of poly(ethene)
• This can be an example of addition polymerisation of monomer
units
Polymers - A large molecule made from many smaller ones
(monomers)
• Poly(ethene) is made from ethene

Addition polymerisation
→ All addition polymers are made from a C=C double bond
containing a monomer
1. Fold the given monomer so the C=C bond, the core component of
all addition monomers, is clearly shown.
2. Remove C=C bond and insert brackets
n is usually 10,000 units for most polymers
* To obtain monomer from polymer, simply reverse steps
e.g. “remove C=C bonds” → “add C=C bonds”

Hydration of alkenes (steam)

(Adding H2O) H3PO4
H2O + CH2CH2 → CH3CH3OH
400oC

Hydration of vegetable oil

(Adding H2)
H2 + unsaturated vegetable oil (l) → saturated vegetable fat
(s)

Addition of halogen to alkene:

C6H12 + Br2 → C6H12Br2
↳ The halogen gets added to each carbon atom in the
double bond
e.g. rtp
Br2 + CH3-CH2-CH=CH2 → CH3-CH2-CHBr-CHBr-CH2Br

*Cl2 or I2 can be added in the same way

14.6 - Alcohols

Ethanol Production
1. Fermentation
C6H12O6 → 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2
Yeast cells
→ We can convert sugar from plant material into ethanol and
carbon dioxide. Yeast is used as a natural catalyst.
2. Catalytic addition of steam
→ ethene is reacted with steam. Catalyst: silicon dioxide (s) coated
with phosphoric (V) acid. This is a REVERSIBLE reaction.
H3PO4
CH2=CH2 + H2O ⇌ CH3CH2OH
 Properties of ethanol
• Volatile, colorless liquid with slight odor
• Low boiling point - weak intermolecular forces - although higher
than corresponding alkane
• Very soluble in water
• Viscous

Uses of ethanol
1. Burning as a fuel e.g. a car
2. Used as a solvent e.g. to clean non-water soluble mixtures e.g.
paint
3. Oxidised to carboxylic acids
1. Using K2Cr2O7 (Potassium dichromate)
K2Cr2O7
CH3CH2OH + 2[O] → CH3COOH
Heat
Orange solution → Blue solution
b. Fermentation - anaerobic respiration using yeast or bacteria
Bacteria
CH3CH2OH + 2[O] → CH2COOH + H2O
No oxygen
*Processes “a” and “b” are both related to the production of
ethanoic acid

14.7 - Acids
Properties of carboxylic acids e.g. ethanoic acid
1. Weak acids (does not dissociate completely)
2. Can form esters
3. Flammable

Formation of Ethanoic acid

1. Oxidation of ethanol by fermentation (anaerobic respiration using
yeast or bacteria)
Bacteria
CH3CH2OH + 2[O] → CH2COOH + H2O
No oxygen
2. Using potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)
K2Cr2O7
 CH3CH2OH + 2[O] → CH2COOH
Heat
Orange solution → Blue solution
→ Ethanoic acid is a weak acid, therefore it does not dissociate
completely in aqueous solution

Making esters from carboxylic acids and alcohols

• When carboxylic acids are treated with alcohols, in the presence of
an acid catalyst, an ester is formed. The catalyst used is usually
sulphuric acid. This is a slow and reversible reaction, called
esterification.

- R will become something ending in “-oate” e.g. butanoate

- R’ will become something ending in “-yl” e.g. methyl
- CONDENSATION REACTION is shown in blue, and is where the
“H2O” comes from. Making the formation of this compound clear is
essential to obtain full marks.

Naming esters:
• Alcohol becomes -yl e.g. ethanol → ethyl
• Carboxylic acid becomes -oate e.g. ethanoic acid → ethanoate
• Alcohol 1st, carboxylic acid 2nd
 Syllabus requirement: ethyl ethanoate formation
H2SO4
Ethanol + Ethanoic acid → Ethyl ethanoate
Heat

14.8 - Macromolecules
Macromolecules are large molecules built up by smaller units, or
monomers
Different macromolecules have different units and/or different
linkages

Synthetic Polymers

Uses of plastics
1. Packaging of fresh food - poly(ethene)
2. Fibres - polyester
3. Drink bottles - PET

Uses of man-made fibres

1. Sportswear - nylon
2. Raincoats - polyester
3. Jumpers - acrylic
4. cellulose - viscose

Problems of non-biodegradable plastics

1. Take up space in landfills, which is expensive
2. Can break down into dangerous toxins e.g. PVC, which can leach
into drinking water
3. Hazardous to wildlife

Polyesters: Polymers where individual units are held together by

esters
 Working out polymers from monomers
• Polymer repeating unit contains 1 diol + 1 carboxylic acid + all
joined by esters
Monomer from polymer:

Amides
→ Made from carboxylic acid and amines, yet similar to esters.
Formation of nylon
Nylon 6,6 has a diamine with 6 carbons in the main chain and a
dicarboxylic acid with 6 carbons.
representation of nylon according to syllabus requirements:

→ In this reaction, a phenomenon called “CONDENSATION

POLYMERISATION” occurs. This is when smaller molecules are
lost to form water outside the chain and amide links (in the
formation of nylon) in the main chain. Reverse of this reaction is
called HYDROLYSIS.

Formation of Terylene

→ This is very similar to polyesters, such as terylene, which has a

structure like this:
 *They are similar because they both have the same linkage

14.9 - Natural Macromolecules

• The main constituents of food are proteins, fats and carbohydrates

Proteins
• Just like polyamides e.g. nylon
• Made from amino acids

Proteins and Polyamides are

similar because…
1. Polyamide links
2. Condensation polymers
different because…
1. Proteins are made from amino acids
2. Polyamides are made from diamine and dicarboxylic acids
Therefore, proteins are made from one type of monomer, whereas
polyamides are made of two.
→ As a protein is a condensation polymer, it can be hydrolysed in
the same way
↳ Add water + conc. H2SO4 + Heat

Fats / Lipids
Esters are very important in biodegradable molecules like fats e.g.
triglycerides
 → Same linkage as terylene - ester group
→ To hydrolyse this, add water + concentrated NaOH or H2SO4
↳ forms salts found in soap

Fat or lipid molecules contain fatty acids which have an alkane tail
group that is around 20 C atoms long, therefore have in total about
100 C atoms, 6 O atoms and approx. 200 H atoms, so about 300
atoms in total, therefore a MACROMOLECULE
BUT much smaller than a polymer e.g. terylene, which is about
30,000 atoms.
BUT polymers are macromolecules that much, much smaller than
GIANT MACROMOLECULAR structures e.g. diamond or SiO2, e.g.
more than 6.02 x 10^23 atoms.

Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides)
• Made from sugar monomers, forming glycosidic bonds

→ Hydrolysis forms simple sugar e.g. starch

Fermentation of sugars
Yeast
• C6H12O6 → 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2
o Sugar → Ethanol + Carbon dioxide

2D chromatography
• Separates out a mixture of chemicals
• It can be used to separate out amino acids and sugars, since both
are very chemically similar.
14. Organic Chemistry