Causes of expansion

- Impact of fascism and Nazism on the foreign policies of Italy and Germany
- Impact of domestic economic issues (Great Depression) on the foreign policies of Italy and Germany
Events
- German challenges to the post-war settlements (1933-1938); revising ToV
- Italian expansion: Corfu incident, Abyssinia (1935-1936)
Responses
- International response to German aggression (1933-1938; the Munich Conference) ⇒ appeasement
and ineffective
- International response to Italian aggression (1935-1936; Stresa Front, the Hoare-Laval Pact) ⇒
appeasement and ineffective

Mussolini
- 1922: March on Rome
- 30,000 blackshirts gather in Naples and Rome → demand the resignation of the PM → King
appoints Mussolini to restore ‘law and order → Mussolini extended his control, consolidating his
power ⇒ Duce
- 1923: Corfu Incident
- 1925: Locarno Treaty
- 1929: Great Depression
- 1930: London Naval Conference
- 1935-36: Abyssinian War
- 1936-39: Spanish Civil War
- 1937: Anti-Comintern
- 1938: Invasion of Albania
- 1939: Pact of Steel
- 1941: Tripartite Pact

Fascism
- Nationalist demands
- Imperial design → creating a brand new empire ⇒ destiny and right to have Mediterranean
region (Corfu incident), restoring the glory of ancient Rome
- The Treaty of central Power at WW1 → Italy was neutral until 1915. Promised Italy territories in
Istria, South Tyrol, Africa, Yugoslavia → But none went to Italy ⇒ REVENGE → waved a
nationalism and wanted a new Roman empire
- 1925: formal opposition to Fascism was banned (Il Duce → One leader) ⇒ Coercion,
intimidation, secret police (censorship, secret police)
- Social reasons
- Maintaining power through fascist ideology and cult of personality → Italy’s prestige
- Propaganda - subjected to domestic concerns, designed to strengthen Mussolini’s power and
prestige; enhance the popularity and cult of the lear and ignore domestic problems
- Political issues - coalition government was inefficient, fear of Bolshevism (communism),
individuals funded paramilitaries (semi-militarised force)

Foreign Policy
- Stressed that Italy should be ‘great, respected, and feared’
- Mussolini wanted ⇒ rich land, autarky (self-sufficiency), unified lands, new lands for population,
increase military, taking Abyssinia
An expansionist foreign policy - right and necessary
- Right
1. Echoing the feeling of many Italians, Mussolini saw a need to revise the postwar treaties in
order to revert to the ‘mutilated peace’ of 1919 (Italians' dissatisfaction concerning territorial
rewards in favour of Italy at PPC; Treaty of London - Trent and South Tyrol, the Austrian Littoral,
territories in Dalmatia, a protectorate over Albania with the direct control of Vlora)
2. Mussolini believed in Italy’s ‘imperial destiny’ (an heir to the ancient Roman Empire)
- Necessity
1. Given that propaganda was an important characteristic of Fascism, territorial expansion was
used to increase Italy’s prestige → enhance the cult of the leader
2. Mussolini claimed Italy needed colonies to provide arable land in order to expand their economy
+ new territories to resettle a growing Italian population
3. As Mussolini’s regime met increasing challenges at home, a successful foreign policy was
sought as an opportunity to move attention away from his domestic policies

Impact of domestic economic issues on Italy’s foreign policy up to 1929

- After the WW1: the finance war effort increased unemployment and inflation/ unstable domestic society
/ opportunities for aggressive foreign policy were limited / South of Italy was very poor and was mostly
dependent on the agricultural sector / dependent on imports
- After the Great Depression: foreign policy became more aggressive to solve economic problems
(unemployment reached 1 million, decreased production by 25%), increased state intervention,
expanded rearmament

Italian foreign policy between 1922 and 1933

- Development of Foreign policy
- 1922-1929: Foreign policy wanted to revise the Treaty of St Germain (Austria) (but constrained
by collective security abroad, consolidation of power at home) + still tried to cooperate with the
Allies
- 1929-1934: Great Depression opened the ability for action, Rise of Hitler undermined
international cooperation
- 1935-1940: Invasion of Abyssinia, Spain and Albania → closer connection with Germany
- The Corfu Incident of 1923 → Greece (+LoN) vs. Mussolini
- 21 Aug 1923: 4 Italians were assassinated when marking the border between Greece and
Albania → Mussolini seized the opportunity to intimidate Greece → demanded 50 million lire
and an official apology → Greece refuse → Mussolini invaded Corfu → Greece appeals to LoN
→ British pressure → 27 Sept: Greece paid compensation → LoN relations were damaged
- Fiume of 1924
- Fiume (Italian majority) was given to Yugoslavia after the WW1 → hated by the nationalists →
After the Corfu incident, Mussolini invaded and got the King of Yugoslavia to hand over Fiume
to Italy and signed the Pact of Rome with Mussolini (both countries promised neutrality if
attacked by the third party) → Victory for Mussolini → citizens were happy VS. France became
furious
- Little Entente: French defensive alliance with Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia → to
prevent aggressors (Germany and Italy) from undermining the Paris Peace Settlements in the
Balkans
- Albania 1926
- increasing influence in Albania → plotted to expand influence in the Balkans (expense of the
French), secretly supported separatist forces in Yugoslavia and signed agreements in
Czechoslovakia (wanted “entente powers” to move towards Italy), intervening in the Albanian
civil war → he had to protect and support Albania (monopolised Albanian shipping/ trade/ army)
⇒ made Little Entente powers closer together in fear of Italy
Italian foreign policy in the 1930s
Before 1935: Italy continued to show some cooperation with Britain and France
- Four Power Pact 1933: Treaty in June 1933 between Italy, Germany, France and Britain. A better way
to ensure international security
- Dollfuss Affair 1934: Austria’s chancellor (Engelbert Dollfuss) was murdered by Nazis. Italy was
concerned that South Tyrol → Mussolini's control was under threat/Mussolini mobilised troops along
the Austrian border (Brenner Pass) → Germany was forced to back down + stop interfering in Austria
(believed it was part of the Italian sphere of influence) → Major success for Mussolini

In 1935: openly aggressive

- the Stresa Front 1935: the last attempt by Europe to use collective security against German
revisionism (revising ToV) → failed (era of appeasement policy).
- Hitler announced conscription + rearmament in March 1925
- April → France, Britain and Mussolini met in Northern Italy to discuss Hitler. Reaffirmed Locarno
pact → decided to form a ‘Stresa Front’ to contain Germany.
- However, all three had diverging aims. ⇒ Britain did not want war (thus did not want to
antagonise Germany) / France did not consider war (yet did want to contain Germany) /
Mussolini wanted to contain Germany and also invade Abyssinia
- Breaks down in June 1935, Britain signed Anglo-German Naval Pact which allowed Germany
to rebuild her naval force ⇒ Italy and France felt betrayed
- Mussolini invaded Abyssinia in Oct 1935 → end of the Stresa Front (Mussolini allowed Hitler to
take Austria)
- Italian expansion in Abyssinia, 1935-36
- Abyssinia (known today as Ethiopia) was an independent monarchy located between the Italian
colonies of Eritrea and Somaliland
- Both Abyssinia and Italy joined the LoN after WW1 ⇒ Article six of the League Covenant had
stated that, should any member declare war on a member state, it would be treated as an
attack on the entire organisation requiring collective action.
- Italy and Abyssinia had signed the Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of Friendship and Arbitration in 1928
→ declaring that territorial disputes between the two countries would be solved by impartial
arbitration.
- Causes
- Historical factors: ‘Adowa scar’ (humiliation)
- Economic factors: raw materials (natural resources) and markets, as well as creating
new territory for a growing Italian population + effects of the GD had put Italy under
additional pressure to lift itself out of an economic crisis
- Political factors: distraction from domestic economic turbulence + Mussolini’s image as a
successful leader (Duce)
- The ‘Abyssinian’ factor: Mussolini viewed Abyssinia’s attempts at modernisation with
suspicion. He feared that unless he moved immediately, a modern Abyssinia could
become a threat to the Italian colonies of Eritrea and Somaliland. It is also true that
Mussolini criticised the feudalism of Abyssinia and the prevalence of slavery.
- International factors: Mussolini thought Britain and France would give him a free hand to
do as he pleased in Abyssinia, as a way of keeping on good terms with Italy in view of
German rearmament. Also, given that Italy felt threatened by German ambitions in
Austria, a victory over Abyssinia would show the Germans the strength of the Italian
military.
- Economic sanctions (ineffective)
1. the sanctions, which did not include the trading of coal, oil and steel (essential to the
Italian economy and war effort), took a long time to implement
2. when finally implemented, the sanctions only lasted from Nov 1935 to June 1936 - not
long enough a period to have a significant impact on Italy
 3. At the time, Britain’s naval priorities were focused on the protection of British
possessions against Japan in the Far East. Britain did not want to engage in a conflict.
(they allowed Italy to continue to send forces and supply the troops in Africa)
4. without the full commitment of non-members such as the US, Japan and Germany.
- The Hoare-Laval Pact
- In Dec 1935, British Foreign Secretary Samuel Hoare and French Prime Minister Pierre
Laval proposed to offer Mussolini two-thirds of Abyssinia, partly through direct political
control and partly through economic influence. Before negotiations began, however,
details of the pact were leaked by the French press. This caused a political crisis, one
that forced Hoare to resign.
- Impact of the invasion
- Surrendered by 1936. In May of that year, Selassie went into exile in Britain, from where
he continued to campaign for the liberation of his nation. Two months later, the League
abandoned its economic sanctions on Italy.
- The Spanish Civil War
- The Spanish Civil War (1936-39) started as a military revolt against the Popular Front coalition
government by General Francisco Franco, who led the Nationalists against the Republicans.
- Initially, nations met up and agreed upon the ‘non-intervention’ solution
- The Nationalists were supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, while the Soviet Union
supported the Republicans who were also aided by foreigners joining the International
Brigades. The war came to an end with the Nationalist victory in March 1939.
- Italy sank into a kind of diplomatic isolation → German-Italian relations developed ⇒ both
leaders signed the Rome-Berlin Axis in October 1936. In 1936, Italy and Germany both
intervened in the Spanish Civil War on the sides of the Nationalists
- Under the Gentlemen’s Agreement of Jan 1937, Italy and Britain pledged themselves to maintain the
territorial status quo in the Mediterranean
- Mussolini increased Italy’s military presence in Africa, threatening both British and French
colonies as well as Spain. Moreover, he announced that he would not withdraw from Spain until
Franco defeated the Republicans.
- Mussolini made another attempt to approach Germany by joining the Anti-Comintern Pact (1937)
- Italy left the LoN by the end of the year
- Italy signed another treaty of economic cooperation with Yugoslavia that guaranteed mutual
neutrality in case of a conflict. This treaty threatened France, which had been up until that point
the leading great power in the Balkans through its alliance with the Little Entente countries.
- The invasion of Albania in 1939
- Albania attracted the interest of a number of countries; Yugoslavia and Greece, two neighbours
that shared borders with Albania, were both keen to expand their territories into Albania.
- France and Italy, two rivals in the Balkans, were aware of the importance of Albania for
the control of the Mediterranean.
- Albania was involved in several border clashes with both Yugoslavia and Greece → the Corfu
incident
- Mussolini wanted to control Albania
- Wanted the control of the oil and mineral deposit to assist in his policy of autarky
(self-sufficiency)
- Albania had access to the Mediterranean Sea, which he was as his ‘Italian lake’
- Control of Albania would give Italy a foothold in the Balkans and would keep Yugoslavia
in check
- Since 1925, Mussolini had exercised a policy of economic and political penetration of Albania
that ended with its annexation in 1939.
- In 1926 and 1927, Italy and Albania signed the Treaties of Tirana, establishing Italy’s influence
over Albania in exchange for Italian economic assistance that contributed to keeping the leader
 of Albania, Zogu, in power. → gained control of Albanian minerals + gained control over the
Albanian armed forces
- After the GD, in the 1930s, Italy gained further access to the much-needed Albanian oil.
- Finally, in April 1939, Mussolini ordered the invasion of Albania and the deposition of King Zog
(Zogu), and King Victor Emmanuel of Italy succeeded Zog as the new King of Albania.
- Reasons
1. Mussolini wanted a military alliance with Hitler and saw the situation with Albania as an
opportunity to show the strength of the Italian military
2. By the time of the invasion in 1939, Hitler had regained control of the Rhineland,
annexed Austria, received part of Czechoslovakia at the Munich Conference, and
moved into the Czech provinces of Bohemia and Moravia - Mussolini was, therefore,
determined to demonstrate that he could also build a Mediterranean empire.
3. The fact that the world’s eyes were on Hitler’s movements and the growing tensions
between Germany and Poland meant Mussolini could invade Albania without much
intervention from the other nations.
- Results
1. Italy had gained access to minerals, oils, and other Albanian resources since the late
1920s → the invasion itself did not make a significant changes/ contributions to the
acquisition of resources for Italy
2. Mussolini did have fortifications built on Albanian territory → Oct 1940, he launched an
invasion of Greece from Albania (disastrous)

International response to Italian Aggression

- 1931: LoN was practically DEAD → no point with collective security
- Mussolini ignored the League / Britain and France undermined in Hoare-Laval proposal
- Economic sanctions encouraged Italy to trade with Germany
- Britain and France no longer trusted Italy and started isolating Italy
- Isolation ⇒ strengthened Italy’s relationship with Germany
- Oct 1936: Rome-Berlin Axis (Pact of Steel)
- Mussolini abandoned ‘Equidistance’
- Joins Hitler’s side
- Both sides intervened in the Spanish Civil War
- Division of Europe
- Britain pushed Mussolini away because of the leaked H-L pact
- Hitler into Rhineland → Broke ToV (emboldened Hitler)
- Britain was reluctant to fight against Italy in the 1930s
- Spanish civil war: many generals were right-wing (fascists → Germany/ Italy) in a left-wing
government → So Mussolini supported a General Franco who won → Mussolini wanted to
prevent British and French control of the Mediterranean
- 1937: Anti-Comintern Pact - Mussolini and Germany
- Gentlemen’s Agreement of Jan 1935: Italy and Britain pledged to maintain the status quo of the
Mediterranean
- Europe’s failure: Anglo-German Naval agreement / changing diplomatic alliances
- Mussolini left LoN in 1937
Impact of Nazism on the foreign policy of Germany

Cause of German expansion

- Legacy of WW1: Germany was defeated but also transformed → “German Revolution” (Kaiser Wilhelm
abdicated → start a new democracy; the Weimar Republic), Paris Peace Conference tried to reduce
the chance of war and the effects of war
- Treaty of Versailles: Blame (article 231) → reparation, undermined legitimacy of the new Weimar
Republic, “Diktat” (dictated by the Great Powers) → increased revisionist (revise the ToV; Hitler)
feelings and extremism, Rhineland was demilitarised, reduced army to 100K men
- Economic catastrophe: Ruhr invasion of 1923 → hyperinflation (Germany started printing out money to
finance war reparation → fall in the value of money → increase in the general price level) (=extreme
increase in the general price level) ⇒ Dawes and Young Plan helped Germany finance reparation ⇒
HOWEVER, the Great Depression led to more than 30% unemployment and failed to finance/repay
reparations

Consequences of the Munich Putsch

- Short term failure: the Nazi party was banned, and Hitler was prevented from speaking in public until
1927, Hitler was tried for high treason and sentenced to five years in prison
- Long term success: he was sentenced in April and out of prison by December. During his time in the
comfortable Landsberg Prison, he wrote ‘Mein Kampf’ (My Struggle; it describes the process by which
Hitler became antisemtic and outlines his political ideology and future plans for Germany) → millions of
Germans read it, and Hitler’s ideas became very well-known
- The fact that the judge has been so lenient with the sentence and that Hitler had served so little time
suggests that some people in authority had sympathy with Hitler
- Hitler realised that he would never come to power by revolution and that he would have use democratic
means, so he reorganized the party to enable it to take part in elections

Reasons for limited support for the Nazi Party 1924-28

- Gustav Stresemann’s economic policies had helped Germany → Germans began to feel more
prosperous + political stability → Germans voted for moderate parties who supported the Republic,
rather than more extreme parties like the Nazis who wanted to abolish it (The Nazis’ messages about
the dangers posed by Jews and the need to abolish democracy largely fell on deaf ears)
- Hitler was jailed and then banned from speaking in public until 1927 after the Munich Putsch
- The Nazi party was under constant pressure from the Weimar authorities following the Munich Putsch.
Several times it was banned nationally or in certain parts of Germany

The impact of the Depression on Germany

- US calls in loans → German industry loses finance, lowers production, lays off workers → people
spend less, prices drop, demand falls → industry loses more money, lowers production further, lays
more workers off → people spend less, prices drop ⇒ Depression
- Over the winter of 1929-30, the number of unemployed rose from 1.4 million to over 2 million ⇒ By the
time Hitler became Chancellor, one in three Germans were unemployed (6.1 million)
- Industrial production had also more than halved over the same period
- Germans began to lose faith in democracy and looked to extreme parties on the bothe the Left
(communists) and the Right (the Nazis) for quick and simple solutions
- Political failure: in March 1930, the German Chancellor, Muller, resigned (사퇴) when his government
could not agree on how to tackle the rise in government spending caused by the rise in unemployment
⇒ Bruning replaces; worsens the economic problems → Bruning could not get the Reichstag to agree
to his policies SO the President Hindenburg used ‘Article 48’ (the Chancellor could control without the
Reichstag at a time of emergency) of the Weimar constitution, which gave the President the power to
pass laws by decree → this undermined democracy and weakened the power of the Reichstag ⇒
opening the way for Hitler’s later dictatorship
1928: 12 seats → 1932: 230 seats

- Foreign policy: Overthrow ToV (revisionist), Greater Germany, Lebensraum (expand into east Europe
and Soviet Union → destroy communism; enemy of Nazism, right to territory of sub-human races)
- Achieving foreign policy aims
- suspended democracy through Decree for Protection of People and State, Enabling Act,
banned other political parties
- Propaganda - Hitler Youth, Nazi Labour Front, Public Enlightment Ministry,
- SS/SA involved in concentration camps, Gestapo, repression of the opposition

Impact of domestic economic issues on the foreign policy of Germany

Economic problems
- 1933 unemployment in millions due to the Great Depression: large programme of public works,
National Labour Service (no one could be unemployed), Autobahns, cars, rearmament (motorways
helped in the war) ⇒ unemployment from 5.6 million to 1.6 million in 1933 to 1936
- Rearmament: wanted to be ready for war in 1940, Autarky

Foreign policy
- Rhineland: 1936 - against the ToV and Locarno treaty, Hitler reoccupied the area
- Rhineland was “German Territory”, distracted attention from economic problems caused by
rearmament (domestically), secure borders against France and to protect Ruhr
- Anschluss: 1934 - against the ToV
- The Austrian Nazis supported Hitler “We will regard Austria as a German State”, by 1938 →
Nazi members were given roles in Government
- In March 1938, Nazis marched into Austria, becoming part of Germany.
- Sudetenland: 1938 - meeting between France, Italy, Britain and Germany (without the Czechs) ⇒
Munich Conference → “appeasement policy”; allowed German Sudetenland. Then Hitler backstabs and
invaded Czechoslovakia.

Changing diplomatic alignments in Europe; the end of collective security; appeasement

League of Nations and Disarmament

- Despite the ToV, other member nations did not disarm after WW1.
- LoN set up ‘World Disarmament Conference’ in 1932 → failure
- Hitler withdrew from the LoN in 1933
- Even before Hitler, USSR and Germany signed a treaty in 1922 to increase military training and
equipment
- Disarmament was an unfair treatment on Germany as it left her vulnerable
- “I’ll disarm if you do it” → but the rest of Europe disagreed

International response
- Four Power Agreement (France, Britain, Italy, Germany) ends in 1933
- Britain could not understand Germany’s position / Germany wanted to revise ToV to instill peace
/ Britain wanted to destroy USSR, so needed Germany as a happy ally
- Poland - left vulnerable: signed 10 year non-aggression pact with Germany in 1934
- France - feared Germany’s rearmament but could not come to an agreement with the international
community. France surrounded by aggressive countries (Poland, Germany), Saar region was taken by
France after the war held a vote ( → Germany won ⇒ success for Hitler)
- USSR - risk of German-Polish attack: Stalin signs treaty with France + Czech in 1935, signs treaty with
Germany
Mussolini and Hitler
- Similarity: both authoritarian, anti-communist, fascist and nationalists + Revision of ToV
- Initial tensions: Hitler’s rise, Hitler’s desire for Austria, Dollfuss affair in 1934 → direct confrontation
over the issue. Hitler retreated after Mussolini mobilised troops to defend Austria. / Invasion of
Abyssinia
- Friendship: Rhineland, Abyssinia (Germany recognised Abyssinia as part of Italy), Spanish Civil War,
Rome-Berlin Axis (Nov 1936 → spheres of influence of all Germany and Italy; IT = Mediterranean
Sea, GR = Eastern Europe) → Anti-Comintern Pact

Hossbach Memorandum
- Hitler’s detailed plan for war → next steps for foreign policy
- Move against Austria, Czech, and East Europe → regardless of Great Britain and France’s response
- Swiftly before French rearms, whilst UK wants appeasement and whilst Germany is strong

General weakness of West

- LoN: tried to impose sanctions; Italy ignored the sanctions and left the LoN
- Failure to confront Abyssinia (weaknesses of LoN and the Great Powers became apparent) → Hitler
expands into Rhineland in 1936
- Mussolini pushed closer to Hitler with the Rome Berlin Axis in Oct 1936
- No hope to contain Hitler → 1935, the Anglo-German Naval Agreement (fixed tonnage of German
marine to 35% of British navy which was larger than under the ToV → it set a precedent for other
clauses to be broken)
- No more equidistance after 1936 (alliance with Hitler) → Mussolini cooperated with Nazi Germany e.g.
intervention in the Spanish Civil War → 1937, Anti-Comintern (1937, Gentleman’s agreement with
Britain → FAIL)

German Challenges to the Post-war settlements (1933-38)

German Expansion (1938-1939) and the outbreak of war

How does Hitler achieve his aims?

1. Leaving the League of Nations 1933

a. to prepare for the war
i. the League would condemn Hitler to disarm
b. A WDC was held, and nations (esp. France) was not willing to disarm - Germany felt like they
were not treated as an equal
i. this was soon after the Manchurian crisis and almost no progress on disarmament was
made
2. Conscription (징병) /re-armament (1933, 1935): End of WDC. Begins rearming in secret. Nuremberg
rally (proclaiming freedom to re-arm)
- France does nothing, the British signed the Anglo-German Naval Treaty (1935) limiting the
German Navy to 35% of the British. This broke the ToV.
3. Saar Plebiscite (1935): As agreed on the ToV, Saarland was allowed a plebiscite after 15 years on
whether to return to Germany - 99% voted to return. Germany had regained its first piece of lost
territory by legal and peaceful means. It was a tremendous propaganda success for Hitler. Therefore, it
gave Hitler the confidence to continue with his plans.
- Hitler became more popular among the Germans as he was effectively gaining control of more
land, making Germany powerful. (revisionist)
- Hitler, being a nationalist, believed that all Germans had to be integrated together in Germany.
By taking control of Saar, he was able to integrate the German speaking people in Saar to the
German mainland. (the Great German Empire)
 - Nothing; legal according to ToV
4. Rhineland (March 1936): Hitler marched troops into the Rhineland to remilitarise it. This is breaking the
ToV. Hitler ordered these troops to retreat at the first sign of resistance.
- Risk for Hitler
- Germany could be penalized by the League on Nations - this was against the ToV +
Locarno Treaties
- It could anger France and cause them to act. Hitler lacked military force. He only had
two divisions, but the French alone could easily outnumber this force and with better
equipment and air support. Hitler admitted that if the French had marched into the
Rhineland “we would have to withdraw with our tail between our legs”. This would have
been humiliating for Hitler.
- Nothing - Britain and France were preoccupied with the Abyssinian crisis + both in an economic
depression. (Britain considered Hitler was “going into his own backyard” over the Rhineland)
5. Spanish Civil War (1936-39): Germany supplies weapons to the Fascist side, the Soviets to the
Communist side. Testing ground for new weapons. Guernica (1937) showed the power of the Luftwaffe
(German air force). Fascists eventually win, under General Franco.
- This could be considered a dress rehearsal for a full-scale European War
- Hitler succeeded in persuading Mussolini to abandon Britain and France. They formed the
‘Rome-Berlin Axis’ → Anti-Comintern Pact
- Guernica: The Germans were attacking to support the fascists (Franco) of Spain, Germany
used the Luftwaffe as a testing ground, Used the Blitzkrieg tactics, Guernica was bombed
- Beneficial to Hitler
- prevent the spread of communism
- disliked communism strongly
- if communism spread in Europe, it would have stirred the communists in
Germany as well, causing insecurity
- Hitler became closer to Mussolini
- Mussolini agreed to Hitler’s plan to unite with Austria, the Anschluss
- essential in enabling Hitler to revise the ToV
- Britain and France started to rearm
- Nothing - not their place to intervene.
6. Anschluss (1934, March 1938): Hitler first tries Anschluss in 1934, but is blocked by Mussolini. With the
threat of Italian opposition, he backs down. In 1938, he tried again. The Nazi party in Austria stir up
trouble. Schushnigg, the prime minister, offers to call a plebiscite. Hitler didn’t want to take the risk, so
sends in troops to monitor the vote. 99% voted for Anschluss.
- How
- There was a strong Nazi Party in Austria. Many in Austria supported the union with
Germany. The Austrian Nazis staged demonstrations and caused riots.
- Since the First World War, Italy had regarded Austria as within its sphere of influence.
When Hitler attempted a union between Germany and Austria in 1934, Mussolini
authorised military manoeuvres to prevent the union. Hitler’s relationship with Mussolini
had improved since 1934 and in 1938 he had Mussolini’s support for the Anschluss
- Britain and France did not support Schuschnigg (Austrian politician - independence)
- By joining Germany and Austria, Hitler had helped his development of a Greater Germany (and
the Lebensraum)
- Hitler had acquired his homeland
- Had successfully broken (revised) the ToV
- This was a step that was absolutely necessary for Hitler to take in order to break the
Treaty of Versailles. Before starting the war, Hitler wanted to see whether the League of
Nations actually was willing to stop him even if it meant that they had to make certain
sacrifices.
 - Austria’s soldiers, weapons and rich deposits of gold and iron ore were added to Germany’s
increasingly strong army and industry
- Response: Nothing - both believed that the ToV was too harsh with regard to Anschluss, and
felt what Hitler did was justified.
7. Sudetenland (Aug - Sept 1938): Sudeten Nazi Party started a riot, called for unification with Germany.
Hitler threatened with force. Chamberlain intervened, Britain/France/Germany/Italy met at the Munich
conference (Sept 1938) - agreed to give Sudetenland to Germany.
- Stop a war between Czech and Germany, even though Czechs were well-armed. Chamberlain
was convinced that he has secured ‘peace in our time’. The logistics of supporting Sudetenland
were hard, and both Britain and France needed to re-arm.
8. Czechoslovakia (March 1939): Germany invades the rest of the Czech. The Czechs offered no
resistance - their defences were in the Sudetenland.
- Part of Czechoslovakia was the Sudetenland where 3,500,000 German-speaking people lived.
One of Hitler’s aims was to unite German-speaking people
- To gain living-space (Lebensraum)
- To break the ToV (revisionist)
- To gain coal, iron and weapons
- Britain and France started to prepare for war. Both realised Hitler cannot be trusted and step up
for re-armament. Britain signed a treaty with Poland, offering assistance if they are attacked.
9. Nazi-Soviet Pact (Aug 1939): Hitler and Stalin shock the world by signing a non-aggression pact,
promising not to attack each other. They also agreed to divide up Poland. This left Hitler free to
commerce war with the West after, without the fear of war on two fronts.
- The British have tried to make an alliance with Stalin, but have been too slow or arrogant.
Chamberlain still thinks communism is a bigger threat.
10. Poland (Sept 1939): After claiming people in the Danzig are being mistreated, Hitler invades Poland.
Britain said if Germany does not pull out by 3rd Sept, they will declare war. Germany didn’t → WW2
begins

International response to German and Italian aggression (1938-40)

Invasion of Poland: Sept 1939, Nazi invades Poland (divided between Germany and USSR, destroyed Polish
railways and airforce through blitzkreig)
- Response of US: lifted embargo, modified Neutrality Act to allow war-fighting nations to buy weapons
from the US
- Europe: Stalin took over Baltic States and Finland, Germany took over Denmark, Norway, Belgium and
France (Chamberlain resigned as Prime Minister and Churchill went into power; no negotiation with
Hitler)
- Fall of France: June 1940, puppet government run by the Nazis, shocked Maginot line, 300k
troops had to be rescued in Dunkirk
- Italy: June 1940, when Germany was about to win, they declared war. Sept 1940, invades Greece and
Egypt → failed (Germany had to step in)
- Britain: Battle of Britain (July - Sept 1940), tried to destroy British airfields and bases but did not
damage moral / capacity / infrastructure