356 MATHEMATICS

P1 ( x)
expressing as the sum of partial fractions of the following type:
Q( x)
px + q A B
1. = + ,a≠b
(x − a ) (x − b ) x− a x−b

px + q A B
2. = +
(x − a )2 x − a ( x − a )2

px 2 + qx + r A B C
3. = + +
(x − a ) (x − b ) (x − c ) x− a x−b x−c

px2 + qx + r A B C
4. = + 2
+
(x − a )2 ( x − b ) x − a ( x − a) x−b

px2 + qx + r A Bx + C
5. = + 2
( x − a ) ( x 2 + bx + c ) x − a x + bx + c
where x2 + bx + c can not be factorised further.
® Integration by substitution
A change in the variable of integration often reduces an integral to one of the
fundamental integrals. The method in which we change the variable to some
other variable is called the method of substitution. When the integrand involves
some trigonometric functions, we use some well known identities to find the
integrals. Using substitution technique, we obtain the following standard
integrals.
(i) ∫ tan x dx = log sec x + C (ii) ∫ cot x dx = log sin x + C

(iii) ∫ sec x dx = log sec x + tan x + C

(iv) ∫ cosec x dx = log cosec x − cot x + C

® Integrals of some special functions
dx 1 x−a
(i) ∫ x2 − a 2 = 2 a log x +a
+C

dx 1 a+x dx 1 x
(ii) ∫ a 2 − x2 = 2 a log a−x
+C (iii) ∫ x2 + a 2 = a tan
−1
a
+C
 INTEGRALS 357

dx x
(iv) ∫
dx
= log x + x2 − a 2 + C (v) ∫ 2
a −x 2
= sin − 1
a
+C
x2 − a 2
dx
(vi) ∫
x +a 2 2
= log | x + x2 + a 2 | + C

® Integration by parts
For given functions f1 and f2, we have
d 
∫ f1( x) ⋅ f 2 (x) dx = f1( x) ∫ f 2 (x) dx − ∫  dx
f1 ( x) ⋅ ∫ f 2 ( x) dx dx , i.e., the

integral of the product of two functions = first function × integral of the
second function – integral of {differential coefficient of the first function ×
integral of the second function}. Care must be taken in choosing the first
function and the second function. Obviously, we must take that function as
the second function whose integral is well known to us.
® ∫ e x[ f ( x) + f ′( x)] dx = ∫ e x f (x) dx + C
® Some special types of integrals
x 2 a2
(i) ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx =
2
x − a 2 − log x + x2 − a 2 + C
2
x 2 a2
(ii) ∫ x 2 + a 2 dx =
2
x + a2 +
2
log x + x 2 + a 2 + C

x 2 a2 x
(iii) ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx =
2
a − x2 +
2
sin −1 + C
a
dx dx
(iv) Integrals of the types ∫ ax2 + bx + c or ∫ ax 2 + bx + c
can be

transformed into standard form by expressing

 2 b c  b   c b2
2

ax + bx + c = a  x + x +
2 = a   x +  + − 
 a a    2a   a 4a2  

px + q dx px + q dx
(v) Integrals of the types ∫ ax2 + bx + c or ∫ ax 2 + bx + c
can be