How to do PCB costing ?

Calculating the cost of a printed circuit board (PCB) involves several factors and considerations. Here's a general overview of the steps involved in PCB
costing:

1. **Bill of Materials (BOM):** Start by creating a detailed list of all the components required for the PCB assembly. Include components such as
resistors, capacitors, integrated circuits, connectors, etc. Note down the quantity, part numbers, and unit costs of each component.

2. **PCB Design:** Consider the complexity of the PCB design, including the number of layers, dimensions, and any special features such as impedance
control or blind/buried vias. More complex designs typically require higher manufacturing costs.

3. **Manufacturing Process:** Determine the manufacturing process required for the PCB, such as surface-mount technology (SMT) or through-hole
technology (THT). Each process has different cost implications, with SMT generally being more cost-effective for high-volume production.

4. **PCB Material:** Select the type of substrate material for the PCB, such as FR-4, aluminum, or flexible substrates. The choice of material will impact
both the manufacturing cost and the performance of the PCB.

5. **Panelization:** If multiple PCBs are produced on a single panel, calculate the panelization cost, including the cost of tooling, handling, and
additional material waste.

6. **Labor Costs:** Estimate the labor costs involved in PCB assembly, including soldering, inspection, and testing. Labor costs may vary depending on
the complexity of the assembly process and the location of the manufacturing facility.

7. **Overhead Costs:** Consider overhead costs such as equipment depreciation, facility maintenance, and administrative expenses. These costs are
typically factored into the overall manufacturing cost.

8. **Volume and Lead Time:** Determine the desired production volume and lead time for the PCBs. Higher volumes generally result in lower unit costs
due to economies of scale, while shorter lead times may incur additional expedite fees.

9. **Supplier Quotes:** Obtain quotes from PCB manufacturers or assembly houses based on the specifications provided. Compare quotes from
multiple suppliers to ensure competitiveness and reliability.

10. **Total Cost Calculation:** Sum up the costs associated with materials, manufacturing, labor, overheads, and any additional fees to calculate the
total cost per unit of the PCB.

𝗦𝘂𝗽𝗽𝗹𝗶𝗲𝗿 𝗔𝘀𝘀𝗲𝘀𝘀𝗺𝗲𝗻𝘁 (𝗤𝘂𝗮𝗹𝗶𝗳𝗶𝗰𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻) 𝗢𝘃𝗲𝗿𝘃𝗶𝗲𝘄:-The Supplier Assessment is a process that typically involves several steps to ensure that suppliers meet
certain criteria & standards. By following these steps, organizations can effectively assess and select suppliers that align with their objectives and
contribute to their overall success. The 𝗚𝗼𝗮𝗹 𝗼𝗳 𝗦𝘂𝗽𝗽𝗹𝗶𝗲𝗿 𝗔𝘀𝘀𝗲𝘀𝘀𝗺𝗲𝗻𝘁 𝗶𝘀 𝘁𝗼 𝘀𝗲𝗰𝘂𝗿𝗲 𝗮 𝗹𝗼𝘄-𝗿𝗶𝘀𝗸, 𝗯𝗲𝘀𝘁-𝗶𝗻-𝗰𝗹𝗮𝘀𝘀 𝘃𝗲𝗻𝗱𝗼𝗿 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝘀𝘂𝗽𝗽𝗹𝗶𝗲𝗿 𝗽𝗼𝗿𝘁𝗳𝗼𝗹𝗶𝗼. Here's a
general outline of the process.

1. 𝗜𝗱𝗲𝗻𝘁𝗶𝗳𝗶𝗰𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗼𝗳 𝗡𝗲𝗲𝗱
2. 𝗦𝘂𝗽𝗽𝗹𝗶𝗲𝗿 𝗦𝗲𝗹𝗲𝗰𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗖𝗿𝗶𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗶𝗮
3. 𝗦𝘂𝗽𝗽𝗹𝗶𝗲𝗿 𝗜𝗱𝗲𝗻𝘁𝗶𝗳𝗶𝗰𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻
4. 𝗣𝗿𝗲 - 𝗦𝗰𝗿𝗲𝗲𝗻𝗶𝗻𝗴
5. 𝗥𝗲𝗾𝘂𝗲𝘀𝘁 𝗳𝗼𝗿 𝗜𝗻𝗳𝗼𝗿𝗺𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻- 𝗥𝗙𝗜
6. 𝗘𝘃𝗮𝗹𝘂𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 & 𝗦𝗰𝗼𝗿𝗶𝗻𝗴
7. 𝗦𝗶𝘁𝗲 𝗩𝗶𝘀𝗶𝘁𝘀 & 𝗔𝘂𝗱𝗶𝘁𝘀
8. 𝗦𝘂𝗽𝗽𝗹𝗶𝗲𝗿 𝗥𝗶𝘀𝗸 𝗔𝘀𝘀𝗲𝘀𝘀𝗺𝗲𝗻𝘁
9. 𝗡𝗲𝗴𝗼𝘁𝗶𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻
10. 𝗖𝗼𝗻𝘁𝗿𝗮𝗰𝘁𝗶𝗻𝗴
11. 𝗣𝗲𝗿𝗳𝗼𝗿𝗺𝗮𝗻𝗰𝗲 𝗠𝗼𝗻𝗶𝘁𝗼𝗿𝗶𝗻𝗴
12. 𝗖𝗼𝗹𝗹𝗮𝗯𝗼𝗿𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 & 𝗜𝗺𝗽𝗿𝗼𝘃𝗲𝗺𝗲𝗻𝘁
--------------------------------------------------------
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𝗕𝗲𝗻𝗰𝗵𝗺𝗮𝗿𝗸𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗣𝗿𝗼𝗰𝗲𝘀𝘀 - 𝗢𝘃𝗲𝗿𝘃𝗶𝗲𝘄

Benchmarking is a systematic process where a business measures its success against competitors to discover how to improve performance. The goal is
to identify gaps, learn from the best, and make necessary improvements to achieve superior performance.

In benchmarking, businesses compare metrics, processes, and practices to industry leaders, competitors, and other organizations gaining an
understanding of where they excel and where they lag. The goal is to not just mimic successful growth strategies, but to adapt and innovate based on
these insights, ultimately enhancing their own performance.
When Was the Battery Invented?
One of the most remarkable and novel discoveries in the last 400 years was electricity. We might ask, “Has electricity been around
that long?” The answer is yes, and perhaps much longer. Its practical use has only been at our disposal since the mid to late 1800s,
and in a limited way at first. Some of the earliest public works gaining attention were streets lights in Berlin in 1882, lighting up the
Chicago World’s Fair in 1893 with 250,000 light bulbs, and illuminating a bridge over the river Seine during the Paris 1900 World
Fair.

The use of electricity may go back further. While constructing a railway in 1936 near Baghdad, workers uncovered what appeared to
be a prehistoric battery, also known as the Parthian Battery. The object dates back to the Parthian empire and is believed to be
2,000 years old. The battery consisted of a clay jar that was filled with a vinegar solution into which an iron rod surrounded by a
copper cylinder was inserted. This device produced 1.1 to 2.0 volts of electricity. Figure 1 illustrates the Parthian Battery.

A CLAY JAR OF A PREHISTORIC BATTERY HOLDSON IRON ROD SURROUNDED BY A COPPER CYLINDER WHEN FILLED WITH
VINEGAR OR ELECTROLYTE SOLUTIN, THE JAR PRODUCES 1.1 TO 2 VOLTS.
Not all scientists accept the Parthian Battery as a source of energy. It is possible that the device was used for electroplating, adding
a layer of gold or other precious metals to a surface. The Egyptians are said to have electroplated antimony onto copper over 4,300
years ago. Archeological evidence suggests the Babylonians were the first to discover and employ a galvanic technique in the
manufacturing of jewelry by using an electrolyte based on grape juice to gold-plate stoneware. The Parthians, who ruled Baghdad
(ca. 250 BC), may have used batteries to electroplate silver.

One of the earliest methods to generate electricity in modern times was by creating a static charge. In 1660, Otto von Guericke
constructed an electrical machine using a large sulfur globe which, when rubbed and turned, attracted feathers and small pieces of
paper. Guericke was able to prove that the sparks generated were electrical in nature.

In 1744, Ewald Georg vn Kleist developed the Leyden jar that stored static charge in a glass jar that was lined with metallic foil on
the inside and outside of the container. Many scientists, including Peter van Musschenbroek, professor at Leiden, the Netherlands,
thought that electricity resembled a fluid that could be captured in a bottle. They did not know that the two metallic foils formed a
capacitor. When charged up with high voltage, the Leyden jar gave the gentlemen an unexplainable hefty shock when they touched
the metallic foil.

The first practical use of static electricity was the “electric pistol” that Alessandro Volta (1745–1827) invented. He thought of
providing long-distance communications, albeit only one Boolean bit. An iron wire supported by wooden poles was to be strung
from Como to Milan, Italy. At the receiving end, the wire would terminate in a jar filled with methane gas. To signal a coded event,
an electrical spark would be sent by wire to detonate the jar. This communications link was never built. Figure 2 shows a pencil
rendering of Alessandro Volta.
Figure 2: Alessandro Volta, inventor of the electric battery.

n 1791, while working at Bologna University, Luigi Galvani discovered that the muscle of a frog would contract when touched by a
metallic object. This phenomenon became known as animal electricity. Prompted by these experiments, Volta initiated a series of
experiments using zinc, lead, tin and iron as positive plates (cathode); and copper, silver, gold and graphite as negative plates
(anode). The interest in galvanic electricity soon became widespread.

Early Batteries
Volta discovered in 1800 that certain fluids would generate a continuous flow of electrical power when used as a conductor. This
discovery led to the invention of the first voltaic cell, more commonly known as battery. Volta learned further that the voltage would
increase when voltaic cells were stacked on top of each other. Figure 3.1 and 3.2 illustrate such a series

Figure 3.1: Volta’s experiments with the electric battery in 1796.

Figure 3.2 Voltas experiments with the electric battery in 1796. Silver and zinc electrodes are connected in series, separated by
paper sealed with electrolyte.

Volta’s experiments with the electric battery in 1796.

Metals in a battery have different electron affinities. Volta noticed that the voltage potential of dissimilar metals became stronger
the farther apart the affinity numbers moved. The first number in the metals listed below demonstrates the affinity to attract
electrons; the second is the oxidation state.

 Zinc = 1.6 / -0.76 V

 Lead = 1.9 / -0.13 V
 Tin = 1.8 / -1.07 V
 Iron = 1.8 / -0.04 V
 Copper = 1.9 / 0.159 V
  Silver = 1.9 / 1.98 V
 Gold = 2.4 / 1.83 V
 Carbon = 2.5 / 0.13 V

The metals determine the battery voltage; they were separated with moist paper soaked in salt water.

In the same year, Volta released his discovery of a continuous source of electricity to the Royal Society of London. No longer were
experiments limited to a brief display of sparks that lasted a fraction of a second; an endless stream of electric current now seemed
possible.

France was one of the first nations to officially recognize Volta’s discoveries. This was during a time when France was approaching
the height of scientific advancements. New ideas were welcomed with open arms as they helped to support of the country’s
political agenda. In a series of lectures, Volta addressed the Institute of France. Napoleon Bonaparte participated in the experiments,
drawing sparks from the battery, melting a steel wire, discharging an electric pistol and decomposing water into its elements (see
Figure 4).
Figure 4: Volta’s experimentations at the Institute of France.

In 1800, Sir Humphry Davy, inventor of the miner’s safety lamp, began testing the chemical effects of electricity and found out that
decomposition occurred when passing electrical current through substances. This process was later called electrolysis. He made new
discoveries by installing the world’s largest and most powerful electric battery in the vaults of the Royal Institution of London,
connecting the battery to charcoal electrodes produced the first electric light. Witnesses reported that his voltaic arc lamp produced
“the most brilliant ascending arch of light ever seen.”
In 1802, William Cruickshank designed the first electric battery for mass production. He arranged square sheets of copper with
equal-sized sheets of zinc placed into a long rectangular wooden box and soldered together. Grooves in the box held the metal
plates in position. The sealed box was then filled with an electrolyte of brine, or watered-down acid. This resembled the flooded
battery that is still with us today. Figure 5 illustrates his battery workshop
Figure 5 Cruickshank and the first flooded Battery
Invention of the Rechargeable Battery

In 1836, John F. Daniell, an English chemist, developed an improved battery that produced a steadier current than earlier attempts
to store electrical energy. In 1859, the French physician Gaston Planté invented the first rechargeable battery based on lead acid, a
system that is still used today. Until then, all batteries were primary, meaning they could not be recharged.

In 1899, Waldmar Jungner from Sweden invented the nickel-cadmium (NiCd) battery that used nickel as the positive electrode
(cathode) and cadmium as the negative (anode). High material costs compared to lead limited its use. Two years later, Thomas
Edison replaced cadmium with iron, and this battery was called nickel-iron (NiFe). Low specific energy, poor performance at low
temperature and high self-discharge limited the success of the nickel-iron battery. It was not until 1932 that Schlecht and
Ackermann achieved higher load currents and improved the longevity of NiCd by inventing the sintered pole plate. In 1947, Georg
Neumann succeeded in sealing the cell.

For many years, NiCd was the only rechargeable battery for portable applications. In the 1990s, environmentalists in Europe became
concerned about the harm incurred when NiCd is carelessly disposed. The Battery Directive 2006/66/EC now restricts the sale of
NiCd batteries in the European Union except for specialty industrial use for which no replacement is suitable. The alternative is
nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH), a more environmentally friendly battery that is similar to NiCd.

Most research activities today revolve around improving lithium based sytems , first commercialized by Sony in 1991. Besides
powering cellular phones, laptops, digital cameras, power tools and medical devices, Li-ion is also used for electric vehicles and
satellites. The battery has a number of benefits, most notably its high specific energy, simple charging, low maintenance and being
environmentally benign.

Electricity Through Magnetism

Generating electricity through magnetism came relatively late. In 1820, André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836) noticed that wires
carrying an electric current were at times attracted to, and at other times repelled from, one another. In 1831, Michael Faraday
(1791–1867) demonstrated how a copper disc provided a constant flow of electricity while revolving in a strong magnetic field.
Faraday, assisting Humphry Davy and his research team, succeeded in generating an endless electrical force as long as the
movement between a coil and magnet continued. This led to the invention of the electric generator, as well as the electric motor by
reversing the process.

Shortly thereafter, transformers were developed that converted alternating current (AC) to any desired voltage. In 1833, Faraday
established the foundation of electromagnetism on which Faraday’s law is based. It relates to electromagnetism found in
transformers, inductors and many types of electrical motors and generators. Once the relationship with magnetism was understood,
large generators were built to produce a steady flow of electricity. Motors followed that enabled mechanical movement and
Thomas Edison’s light bulb appeared to conquer darkness.

Early electrical plants produced direct current (DC) with distribution limitations of 3km (~2 miles) from the plant. In around 1886,
the Niagara Falls Power Company (NFPC) offered $100,000 for a method to transmit electricity over a long distance. After much
controversy and failed proposals, the world’s brightest minds met in London, England, and the prize was awarded to Nikola Tesla
(1856–1943), a Serbian immigrant who created the AC transmission system. NRPC with Tesla as a consultant built a multi-phase AC
system, delivering power from new Niagara power station as far as Buffalo, NY.
Fig 6 Nicola Testa (1856-1943)

DC systems run on low voltage and require heavy wires; AC could be transformed to higher voltages for transmission over light
wires and then reduced for use. Older folks supported DC while younger geniuses gravitated towards AC. Thomas Edison was dead
set against AC, giving danger by electrocution as a reason.

The disagreement continued, but AC became the accepted norm that was also supported by Europe. George Westinghouse, an
American inventor and manufacturer, began developing the Tesla system to the displeasure of Thomas Edison.

To everyone’s amazement, AC power lit up the Chicago World Fair in 1893 (Figure 7). Westinghouse then built three large
generators to transform energy from the Niagara Falls to electricity. Three-phase AC technology developed by Tesla enabled the
transmission of electric power over great distances cheaply. Electricity was thus made widely available to humanity to improve the
quality of life.
Telecommunications by wire that was strung along railways operated mostly by primary batteries that needed frequent
replacement. Telex, an early means to transmit data, was digital in that the batteries activated a series of relays. The price to send a
message was based on the number of relay clicks required.

In the mid-1800s, telegraphy opened new careers for bright young men. Staff operating these devices moved into the growing
middle class, far removed from mills and mines burdened with labor, dirt and danger. Steel magnate Andrew Carnegie recalled his
early days as a telegraphy messenger: Alfred Hitchcock started his career as an estimator before becoming an illustrator.

The invention of the electronic vacuum tube in the early 1900s formed the significant next step towards high technology. It enabled
frequency oscillators, signal amplifications and digital switching. This led to radio broadcasting in the 1920s and the first digital
computer, called ENIAC, in 1946. The invention of the transistor in 1947 paved the way for the arrival of the integrated circuit 10
years later, and the microprocessor that ushered in the Information Age. This forever changed the way we live and work.

Humanity has become dependent on electricity and with increased mobility, people gravitate towards portable power involving the
battery. As the battery improves further, more tasks will be made possible with this portable power source.
Global Battery Markets
According to The Freedonia Group , a Cleveland-based industry research firm, the world demand for primary and secondary
batteries is forecast to rise 8.1% per year to $156 billion in 2024[1]. The real growth lies in secondary (rechargeable) batteries and
according to Frost & Sullivan, secondary batteries account for 76.4 percent of the global market, a number that is expected to
increase to 82.6 percent in 2015. The demand is driven by mobile phones and tablets. Earlier estimations over-estimated the
demand for electric vehicles and the figures have since been adjusted downwards.

In 2009, primary batterries made up 23.6 percent of the global market and Frost & Sullivan predicted a 7.4 percent decline by 2015.
Non-rechargeable batteries are used in watches, electronic keys, remote controls, toys, flashlights, beacons, and military devices in
combat.

An Overview of Battery Types

Batteries are classified by chemistry, and the most common are lithium-, lead-, and nickel-based systems. Figure 1 illustrates the
distribution of these chemistries. At a 37 percent revenue share, Li-ion is the battery of choice for portable devices and the electric
powertrain. There are no other systems that threaten its dominance today.
37%

Lead acid stands its ground as being a robust and economical power source for bulk use. Even though Li-ion is making inroads into
the lead acid market, the demand for lead acid batteries is still growing. The applications are divided into starter batteries for
automotive, also known as SLI (20%), stationary batteries for power backup (8%), and deep-cycle batteries for wheeled mobility (5%)
such as golf cars, wheelchairs and scissor lifts.

High specific energy and long storage have made alkaline more popular than the old carbon-zinc, which Georges Leclanché
invented in 1868. Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) continues to hold an important role as it replaces applications previously served by
nickel-cadmium (NiCd). However, at a 3 percent market share and declining, NiMH is becoming a minor player.

An emerging battery usage is the electric powertrain for personal transportation. Battery cost, longevity and environmental issues
dictate how quickly the automotive sector will adopt this new propulsion system. Fossil fuel is cheap, convenient and readily
available; alternative modes face stiff opposition, especially in North America. Government incentives may be needed, but such
intervention distorts the true energy cost, shields underlying problems with fossil fuel and serves select lobby groups with short-
term solutions.
New markets that further boost battery growth are the electric bicycle and storage systems for renewable energy, from which
homeowners, businesses and developing nations are benefiting. Large grid storage batteries collect surplus energy during high
activity and bridge the gap when the input is low or when user demand is heavy.

Advancements in Batteries

Batteries are advancing on two fronts, reflecting in increased specific energy for longer runtimes and improved specific power for
high-current load requirements. Improving one characteristic of a battery may not automatically strengthen the other and there is
often a compromise. Figure 2 illustrates the relationship between specific energy in Wh/kg and specific power in W/kg.
The best performing battery in terms of specific energy and specific power is the secondary lithium-metal (Li-metal). An early
version was introduced in the 1980s by then Moli Energy, but instability with metallic lithium on the anode prompted a recall in
1991. Solid lithium tends to form metal filaments, or dendrites, that cause short circuits. Further attempts to solve this problem by
other companies ended in discontinuing the developments.

The unique qualities of Li-metal are prompting manufacturers to revisit this powerful chemistry. Taming the dendrites and achieving
the desired safety standard may be achieved by mixing metallic lithium with tin and silicon. Graphene is also being tried as part of
an improved separator. Graphene is a thin layer of pure carbon with a thickness of one atom bonded together in a hexagonal
honeycomb. Multi-layers separators that prevent the penetration of dendrite have also been tried. New experimental Li-metal
batteries achieve 300Wh/kg and the potential is much higher. This is of special interest for the electric vehicle.

Battery Building Blocks

An electrochemical battery consists of a cathode, an anode and electrolyte that act as a catalyst. When charging, a buildup of
positive ions forms at cathode/electrolyte interface. This leads electrons moving towards the cathode, creating a voltage potential
between the cathode and the anode. Release is by a passing current from the positive cathode through an external load and back
to the negative anode. On charge, the current flows in the other direction.

A battery has two separate pathways; one is the electric circuit through which electrons flow, feeding the load, and the other is the
path where ions move between the electrodes though the separator that acts as an insulator for electrons. Ions are atoms that have
lost or gained electrons and have become electrically charged. The separator electrically isolates the electrodes but allows the
movement of ions.

Anode and Cathode

The electrode of a battery that releases electrons during discharge is called anode; the electrode that absorbs the electrons is the
cathode.

The battery anode is always negative and the cathode positive. This appears to violate the convention as the anode is the terminal
into which current flows. A vacuum tube, diode or a battery on charge follows this order; however taking power away from a battery
on discharge turns the anode negative. Since the battery is an electric storage device providing energy, the battery anode is always
negative.

The anode of Li-ion is carbon but the order is reversed with lithium-metal batteries. Here the cathode is carbon and the anode
metallic lithium. With few exceptions, lithium-metal batteries are non-rechargeable.

Fig 1 BATTERY SYMBOL

The cathode of a battery is positiive and the ande is negative

Tables 2a, b, c and d summarize the composition of lead-, nickel- and lithium-based secondary batteries, including primary
alkaline.
LEAD ACID CATHODE (POSITIVE) ANODE(NEGATIVE ELECTROLYTEMaterialLead dioxide (chocolate brown)Gray lead, (spongy
when formed)Sulfuric acidFull chargeLead oxide (PbO2), electrons added to positive plateLead (Pb), electrons removed from
plateStrong sulfuric acidDischarged

Lead turns into lead sulfate at the negative electrode, electrons driven from positive plate to negative plate.

Weak sulfuric acid (water-like)

NIMH, NICD

CATHODE (POSITIVE) : Nickel Oxyhydroxide

ANODE (NEGATIVE) : Nickel Oxyhydroxide NiMH Hydrogen absrbing NiCd cadium

ELECTROLYTE : Potassium Hydroxide

LITHIUM-IONCATHODE (POSITIVE) ON ALUMINUM FOILANODE (NEGATIVE) ON COPPER FOILELECTROLYTEMaterialMetal

oxides derived from cobalt, nickel, manganese, iron, aluminumCarbon basedLithium salt in an organic solventFull chargeMetal
oxide with intercalation structureLithium ions migrated to anode.DischargedLithium ions move back to the positive
electrodeMainly carbon

LITHIUM-ION:: Material

CATHODE (POSITIVE) ON ALUMINUM FOIL: Metal oxide derived from Cobalt, Nickel, Manganese, Iron Aluminium
ANODE (NEGATIVE) ON COPPER FOIL: Carbon Based

ELECTROLYTEMaterialMetal oxides derived from cobalt, nickel, manganese, iron, aluminumCarbon basedLithium salt in an organic
solventFull chargeMetal oxide with intercalation structureLithium ions migrated to anode.DischargedLithium ions move back to
the positive electrodeMainly carbon

ALKALINECATHODE (POSITIVE)ANODE (NEGATIVE)ELECTROLYTEMaterialManganese dioxideZincAqueous alkaline

Electrolyte and Separator

Ion flow is made possible with an activator called the electrolyte. In a flooded battery system, the electrolyte moves freely between
the inserted electrodes; in a sealed cell, the electrolyte is normally added to the separator in a moistened form. The separator
segregates the anode from the cathode, forming an isolator for electrons but allowing ions to pass through.

The Octagon Battery – What makes a Battery a Battery

A battery has some of the most stringent requirements and is on par with complex pharmaceutical products for which one change
can have multiple side effects. To make a battery viable as an electric storage device, eight basic requirements must be met and a
battery is fittingly called the octagon battery (Figure 1). The eight key elements to a working battery are as follows.
Figure 1: Octagon battery. so-called because of the eight critical requirements needed to achieve basic function.Many new arrivals
claim to meet or exceed some prerequisites but fail in others, limiting market acceptance. Courtesy of Cadex

1. High specific energy

A key feature in consumer products is long runtime and device manufacturers achieve this by building batteries with high ampere-
hour (Ah). The term lithium-ion is synonymous with a high specific energy. This does not mean that all Li-ion batteries have high Ah
ratings. While the Energy Cell in an 18650 package can have 250 Ah/kg, the same chemistry in a Power Cell is 150 Ah/kg or less, and
a long-life Li-ion for the powertrain is as low as 60 Ah/kg. Furthermore, consumer NiMH has about 90 Ah/kg compared to a 45
Ah/kg for long-life units in the electric powertrain, 45 Ah/kg being almost par with lead acid.
2. High specific power

Batteries made for power tools and electric powertrains provide high load capabilities but the specific energy is low.

3. Affordable price

Materials, refining processes, manufacturing, quality control and cell matching add cost for battery manufacturing; volume
production only assists in part to reduce costs. Single cell use in mobile phones when no cell matching is required also lowers costs.

4. Long life

Nowhere is longevity more important than in large, expensive battery packs. If the battery life of the electric car could be extended
from the anticipated 8–10 years to 20 years, driving an EV could be justified even if the initial investment is high. Longevity does not
depend on battery design alone but also on how the battery is used. Adverse temperature, fast charge times and harsh discharge
conditions stress the battery.

5. Safety

Lithium-based batteries can be built with high specific energy, but these systems are often reactive and unstable. Nickel-based Li-
ion is such an example, so is metallic lithium. Most manufacturers stopped production of these systems because of safety issues.
When used correctly, brand-name Li-ion is very safe.

6. Wide operating range

Batteries perform best at room temperature as cold temperatures slow the electrochemical reaction of all batteries. Li-ion cannot be
charged below freezing, and heating blankets are often added to facilitate charging. High heat shortens battery life and
compromises safety.
7. Toxicity

Cadmium- and mercury-based batteries have been replaced with alternative metals for environmental reasons. Authorities in
Europe are attempting to ban lead acid, but no economical replacement of similar performance is available. Nickel- and lithium-
based batteries contain little toxic material, but they still pose a hazard if disposed carelessly.

8. Fast charging

Lithium- and nickel-based batteries should be charged at 1C or slower At 1C, a nickel-based battery fully charges in about 90
minutes and Li-ion in 2–3 hours. Lead acid cannot be fast charged and the charge time is 8–16 hours. Fast charge times are possible
for nickel and lithium, but the batteries must be built for it, be in good condition and be charged at room temperature. Aged and
mismatched cells do not lend themselves to fast charging. Any charge above 1C causes undue stress, especially on the Energy Cell,
and this should be avoided. NiCd is the only battery that accepts ultra-fast charge with minimal stress.

In addition to the eight basic requirements of the octagon battery, a battery must have low self-discharge to allow long storage and
provide an instant start-up when needed. All batteries have self-discharge, and the loss increases with temperature and age.
Secondary batteries have a higher self-discharge rate than the primary equivalent. A further requirement is a long shelf-life with
little performance degradation. A battery is perishable, and like a food product, it is only good for a time. While alkaline batteries
can be stored for 10 years and still provide 70 percent of their original energy, secondary batteries permanently lose capacity with
age, even if not used.

Battery Definitions and what they mean

Batteries are specified by three main characteristics: chemistry, voltage and specific energy (capacity). A starter battery also provides
cold cranking amps (CCA), which relates to the ability to provide high current at cold temperatures.

Chemistry
The most common battery chemistries are lead, nickel and lithium, and each system needs a designated charger. Charging a battery
on a charger designed for a different chemistry may appear to work at first but might fail to terminate the charge correctly. Observe
the chemistry when shipping and disposing of batteries as each chemistry has a different regulatory requirement.

Voltage

Batteries are marked with nominal voltage; however, the open circuit voltage (OCV) on a fully charged battery is 5–7 percent higher.
Chemistry and the number of cells connected in series provide the OCV. The closed circuit voltage (CCV) is the operating voltage.
Always check for the correct nominal voltage before connecting a battery.

Capacity

Capacity represents specific energy in ampere-hours (Ah). Ah is the discharge current a battery can deliver over time. You can install
a battery with a higher Ah than specified and get a longer runtime; you can also use a slightly smaller pack and expect a shorter
runtime. Chargers have some tolerance as to Ah rating (with same voltage and chemistry); a larger battery will simply take longer to
charge than a smaller pack, but the Ah discrepancy should not exceed 25 percent. European starter batteries are marked in Ah;
North America uses Reserve Capacity (RC). RC reflects the discharge time in minutes at a 25A discharge.

Cold cranking amps (CCA)

Starter batteries, also known as SLI (starter light ignition) are marked with CCA. The number indicates the current in ampere that the
battery can deliver at –18°C (0°F). American and European norms differ slightly. Specific energy, energy density

Specific energy, or gravimetric energy density, defines battery capacity in weight (Wh/kg); energy density, or volumetric energy
density, reflects volume in liters (Wh/l). Products requiring long runtimes at moderate load are optimized for high specific energy;
the ability to deliver high current loads can be ignored.

Specific power
Specific power, or gravimetric power density, indicates loading capability. Batteries for power tools are made for high specific power
and come with reduced specific energy (capacity). Figure 1 illustrates the relationship between specific energy (water in bottle) and
specific power (spout opening).

Figure 1: Relationship between specific energy and specific power.

The water in the bottle represents specific energy (capacity); the spout pouring the water govern specific power (loading).

AA battery can have high specific energy but poor specific power as is the case with the alkaline battery, or low specific energy but
high specific power as with the suercapacitor.

C-rates

The C-rate specifies the speed a battery is charged or discharged. At 1C, the battery charges and discharges at a current that is on
par with the marked Ah rating. At 0.5C, the current is half and the time is doubled, and at 0.1C the current is one-tenth and the time
is 10-fold.
Load

A load defines the current that is drawn from the battery. Internal battery resistance and depleting state-of-charge (SoC) cause the
voltage to drop under load, triggering end of discharge. Power relates to current delivery measured in watts (W); energy is the
physical work over time measured in watt-hours (Wh).

Watts and Volt-amps (VA)

Watt is real power that is being metered; VA is the apparent power that is affected by a reactive load. On a purely resistive load, watt
and VA readings are alike; a reactive load such as an inductive motor or fluorescent light causes a phase shift between voltage and
current that lowers the power factor (pf) from the ideal one (1) to 0.7 or lower. The sizing of electrical wiring and the circuit breakers
must be based on VA power.

State-of-health (SoH)

The three main state-of-health indicators of a battery are:

1. Capacity, the ability to store energy

2. Internal resistance, the capability to deliver current, and
3. Self-discharge, reflecting mechanical integrity and stress-related conditions

Li-ion reveals SoH in capacity. Internals resistance and self-discharge stay low under normal circumstances. SoH is commonly
hidden form the user in consumer products; only state-of-charge (SoC) is provided. SoH is sometimes divided into:

 Absolute state-of-health (ASoH), the ability to store the specified energy when the battery is new
 Relative state-of-health (RSoH), available storage capability when battery is broken in

Note: Unless otherwise mentioned, RSoH refers to SoH.

State-of-charge (SoC)

SoC reflects the battery charge level; a reading battery user is most familiar with. The SoC fuel gauge can create a false sense of
security as a good and faded battery show 100 percent when fully charged. SoC is sometimes divided into:

 Absolute state-of-charge (ASoC), the ability to take the specified charge when the battery is new
 Relative state-of-health (RSoC), available charge level taking capacity fade into account.

Note: Unless otherwise mentioned, RSoC refers to SoC.

State-of-function (SoF)

SoF reflects battery readiness in terms of usable energy by observing state-of-charge in relation to the available capacity. This can
be shown with the tri-state fuel gauge in which the usable capacity is reflected as stored energy in the form of charge (RSoH); the
part that can be filled as empty and the unusable part that cannot be restored as dud. SoF can also be presented with the fishbowl
icon for a battery evaluation at a glance. Tri-state fuel gauges are seldom used in fear of elevated warranty claims. Some devices
offer an access code for service personnel to read SoF.

Figure 2 summarizes battery state-of-health and state-of-charger graphically.

Fig 2 Relationship of Battery STATE OF HEALTH AND STATE OF CHARGE

Definition:

SoH State-of-health. Generic term for battery health.

Capacity is leading health indicator.

ASoH Absolute state-of-health of a new battery.

RSoH Relative state-of-health relating to available capacity

SoC State-of-charge. Generic term for charge level.

ASoC Absolute state-of-charge of a new battery.

RSoC Relative state-of-charge; charge level with capacity fade.

Comparison Table of Secondary Batteries

Rechargeable batteries play an important role in our lives and many daily chores would be unthinkable without the ability to
recharge. The most common rechargeable batteries are lead acid, NiCd, NiMH and Li-ion. Here is a brief summary of their
characteristics.

 Lead Acid – This is the oldest rechargeable battery system. Lead acid is rugged, forgiving if abused and is economically priced, but it has
a low specific energy and limited cycle count. Lead acid is used for wheelchairs, golf cars, personnel carriers, emergency lighting and
uninterruptible power supply (UPS). Lead is toxic and cannot be disposed in landfills.
 Nickel-cadmium– Mature and well understood, NiCd is used where long service life, high discharge current and extreme temperatures
are required. NiCd is one of the most rugged and enduring batteries; it is the only chemistry that allows ultra-fast charging with minimal
stress. Main applications are power tools, medical devices, aviation and UPS. Due to environmental concerns, NiCd is being replaced
with other chemistries, but it retains its status in aircraft due to its good safety record.
 Nickel-metal-hydride- Serves as a replacement for NiCd as it has only mild toxic metals and provides higher specific energy. NiMH is
used for medical instruments, hybrid cars and industrial applications. NiMH is also available in AA and AAA cells for consumer use.
 Lithium-ion - Li-ion is replacing many applications that were previously served by lead and nickel-based batteries. Due to safety
concerns, Li-ion needs a protection circuit. It is more expensive than most other batteries, but high cycle count and low maintenance
reduce the cost per cycle over many other chemistries.

Table 1 compares the characteristics of the four commonly used rechargeable battery systems, showing average performance
ratings at time of publication. Li-ion is divided into different types, named by their active materials, which are cobalt, manganese,
phosphate and titanate.

Missing from in the list is the popular lithium-ion-polymer that gets its name from the unique separator and electrolyte system.
Most are a hybrid version that shares performance with other Li-ion. Also missing is the rechargeable lithium-metal, a battery that,
once the safety issues are resolved, has the potential of becoming a battery choice with extraordinarily high specific energy and
good specific power. The table only addresses portable batteries and excludes large systems that resemble a refinery.
 1. Combining cobalt, nickel, manganese and aluminum raises energy density up to 250Wh/kg.
2. Cycle life is based on the depth of discharge (DoD). Shallow DoD prolongs cycle life.
3. Cycle life is based on battery receiving regular maintenance to prevent memory.
4. Ultra-fast charge batteries are made for a special pupose.
5. Self-discharge is highest immediately after charge. NiCd loses 10% in the first 24 hours, then declines to 10% every 30 days. High
temperature and age increase self-discharge.
6. 1.25V is traditional; 1.20V is more common.
7. Manufacturers may rate voltage higher because of low internal resistance (marketing).
8. Capable of high current pulses; needs time to recuperate.
9. Do not charge Li-ion below freezing.
10. Maintenance may be in the form of equalizing or topping charge* to prevent sulfation.
11. Protection circuit cuts off below about 2.20V and above 4.30V on most Li-ion; different voltage settings apply for lithium-iron-
phosphate.
12. Coulombic efficiency is higher with quicker charge (in part due to self-discharge error).
13. Li-ion may have lower cost-per-cycle than lead acid.

Introduction
In today’s rapidly changing era, we can’t deny that wireless electronics gadgets engulf our lives, be it a smartphone, laptop, watch,
or remote. Our lives swivel around these gizmos indisputably. All most of them are fuelled by Batteries 0r Cells as their primary
power source. We wouldn’t build any wireless electronic device and rely on wired power sources only; even electric cars and space
missions would not be possible without Batteries.

A battery is an electrochemical cell (or enclosed and guarded material) that can be charged electrically to supply a static potential
for power or released electrical charge when needed.

A cell is a single unit bearing DC voltage in the range of 1.5V to 3V.a battery is more precisely a collection of such two or more cells
connected in parallel or series or both, giving rise to higher voltage and current. Even when practically cell and battery are different
things, they are used quite interchangeably.
Types of batteries
The basic categorization of batteries is as follows

— Primary batteries or Non-rechargeable batteries.

— Secondary batteries or Rechargeable batteries.

A standard Electrochemical Cell

An electrochemical cell is a device that can generate electrical energy from the chemical reactions occurring in it, or use the
electrical power supplied to it to facilitate chemical reactions in it. These devices are capable of converting chemical energy into
electrical energy, or the other way around. A typical example of an electrochemical cell could be a standard 1.5-volt cell employed
to power many electrical appliances like TV remotes and clocks.

Functional components of an electrochemical cell

— Negative electrode

— Positive electrode

— Electrolyte

— Separator

— Current collectors
At Negative Electrode

Anode: In an electrochemical cell, the negative electrode is often metal or an alloy or hydrogen (lead metal or paste for PbA).
During discharge, it gives up electrons to external circuits, is oxidized. During charge, accepts electrons from the external circuit is
reduced.

During charge: M^+ + e^ — ( reduction is gain of electrons)

During discharge: M ^— — e ^— (oxidation is loss of electrons)

At Positive Electrode

Cathode: In an electrochemical cell, the positive electrode is often a metallic oxide, sulfide, or oxygen (lead oxide for PbA). During
discharge, accepts electrons from the circuit is reduced. During charge, gives up electrons to an external circuit, is oxidized.

During charge: M ^— — e^ — (oxidation is loss of electrons)

During discharge: M^+ + e^ — ( reduction is gain of electrons)

Electrolyte

As electrons move in the external circuit, compensating ions must move internally to the cell

 Cations are ions with a net positive charge: during discharge, they move through the electrolyte toward the positive electrode.
 Anions are ions with a net negative charge: during discharge, they move through the electrolyte toward the negative electrode.

The electrolyte offers a medium for internal ion charge transfer between the electrodes. The electrolyte is typically a solvent
containing dissolved chemicals — an acid, base, or salt — providing ionic conductivity. It must be an electronic insulator to avoid
self-discharge.

Separator & Current Collectors

The separator electrically isolates the positive and negative electrodes to avoid short circuits and self-discharge of the cell, Often
made from glass mat or fiber, or polyethylene, or a polymer.

Since electrodes are often made from powders, current collectors are metal foils — to which electrodes have adhered — that
conduct electrical current to cell terminals.

Important Characteristics
The following are a few vital characteristics of an electrochemical cell, which define the nature, ability, and applications of these
cells.

Power Capacity

It is the energy stored in a battery, which is measured in Watt-hour.

Watt-hour = V I hours

Units: Ah/mAh

Power Capability

It means the amount of energy (or current; since the voltage is usually fixed) that the battery can deliver charged or discharged. It is
also known as C-rating or C-rate. The capacity of a battery is commonly rated at 1C, meaning that a fully charged battery rated at
1Ah should provide 1A for one hour. Theoretically, it is calculated as A-h divided by 1 hour.

For example:

25000 mA hour / 1 hour = 25000 mA = 25 A = 25 C

Nominal Voltage

Nominal voltage: It is the nominal/ average voltage of the battery/ cell between its maximum and minimum values.

Units: Volts

Charging Current

It is the maximum current that can be applied to charge the battery.

Units: Amps

Charging Voltage

It is the maximum voltage that should be applied to the battery to efficiently charge a battery.
Units: Volts

Discharging Current

It is the current that can be drawn from the battery and is delivered to the load. If the current drawn by the load is greater than the
rated discharging current, the battery drains very fast, which causes the battery to heat up quickly, which also causes the battery to
explode.

Units: Amps

Shelf life

Shelf life defines the time period a battery can be stay powered up and should be able to use it for a rated time period. Shelf life is
mainly considered for non-rechargeable batteries.

Cut-off Voltage

It is the voltage at which the battery can be considered as fully discharged, after which if we still try to discharge from it, the battery
gets damaged.

Cycle Life

The number of cycles that a battery can charge and discharge defines the cycle life. The more the cycle life, the better will be the
battery’s quality.

Power Density

It defines the power capacity of the battery for a given mass of volume.
Units: Wh/Kg

Oxidation/Reduction Reaction

Reduction/oxidation (redox) reactions are an important class of chemical reactions since they are the driving force behind a vast
range of process, both desirable (for example breathing in mammals) and undesirable (for example rusting of iron). A redox
reaction is characterized by the fact that electrons are produced (in an oxidation reaction) or are used by the reaction (in a
reduction reaction). An oxidation reaction must always be paired with a reduction reaction, as the oxidation reaction produces the
electrons required by the reduction reaction.

The electrons transferred in a redox reaction arise from the change of the valence state of materials in the redox reaction. If a
material gives up or loses an electron, then its valance state becomes more positive (since an electron has a negative charge) and
the reaction is called an oxidation reaction. Since an oxidation reaction gives up electrons, it will always have electrons as one of its
products. By definition, the oxidation reaction occurs at the anode. The chemical reaction shown below is an oxidation reaction
where zinc metal (with a neutral valance state or valance charge = 0) is oxidized to give a zinc ion, which has a 2+ valence charge.
The two electrons lost by the zinc metal are products of the oxidation reaction. The zinc ion does not exist as separate entity, and
therefore must for either a solid salt (in which case its mobility and availability is not useful for redox reactions) as a dissolved salt in
a solution. The (aq) after the zinc ion indicates that it is aqueous. Note that since the overall aqueous solution must be electrically
neutral, there must also be ions with positive charge in the solution. In examining only the behavior of the battery reaction, these
may not be specified. However, they will play a role in the solubility of the Zn water (or an alternate solvent).

Basic Battery Operation

The basis for a battery operation is the exchange of electrons between two chemical reactions, an oxidation reaction and a
reduction reaction. The key aspect of a battery which differentiates it from other oxidation/reduction reactions (such as rusting
processes, etc) is that the oxidation and reduction reaction are physically separated. When the reactions are physically separated, a
load can be inserted between the two reactions. The electrochemical potential difference between the two batteries corresponds to
the voltage of the battery which drives the load, and the exchange of electrons between the two reactions corresponds to the
current that passes through the load. The components of a battery, which are shown in the figure below, and consist of an electrode
and electrolyte for both the reduction and oxidation reaction, a means to transfer electrons between the reduction and oxidation
reaction (usually this is accomplished by a wire connected to each electrode) and a means to exchange charged ions between the
two reactions.
Schematic of a battery in which (a) the electrolyte of the reduction and oxidation reaction are different and (b) the electrolyte is the
same for both reactions.

The key components which determines many of the basic properties of the battery are the materials used for the electrode and
electrolyte for both the oxidation and reduction reactions. The electrode is the physical location where the core of the redox
reaction – the transfer of electrons – takes place. In many battery systems, including lead acid and alkaline batteries, the electrode is
not only where the electron transfer takes places, but is also a component in the chemical reaction that either uses or produces the
electron. However, in other battery systems (such as fuel cells) the electrode material is itself inert and is only the site for the
electron transfer from one reactant to another. For a discharging battery, the electrode at which the oxidation reaction occurs is
called the anode and by definition has a positive voltage, and the electrode at which the reduction reaction occurs is the cathode
and is at a negative voltage.

The electrode alone is not sufficient for a redox reaction to take place, since a redox reaction involves the interaction of more than a
single component. The other chemical components of the reaction are contained in the electrolyte. For many practical battery
systems, the electrolyte is an aqueous solution. One reasons for having an aqueous solution is the oxidized or reduced form of the
electrode exists in an aqueous solution. Further, it is important that the chemical species in the electrolyte be mobile in order that
they can move to the site on the electrode where the chemical reaction takes places, and also such that ion species can travel from
one electrode to the other.

The current in the battery arises from the transfer of electrons from one electrode to the other. During discharging, the oxidation
reaction at the anode generates electrons and reduction reaction at the cathode uses these electrons, and therefore during
discharging, electrons flow from the anode to the cathode. The electrons generated or used in the redox reaction can easily be
transported between the electrodes via a conventional electrical connection, such as a wire attached to the anode and cathode.
However, unlike a conventional electrical circuit, electrons are not the only charge carrier in the circuit. Electrons travel from the
anode to the cathode, but do not return from the cathode to the anode. Instead, electrical neutrality is maintained by the
movement of ions in the electrolyte. If each redox reaction has a different electrolyte, a salt bridge joins the two electrolyte
solutions. The direction of the ion movement acts to prevent a charge build-up at either the anode or the cathode. In most practical
battery systems, the same electrolyte is used for both the anode and the cathode, and ion transport can take place via the
electrolyte itself, eliminating the need for a salt bridge. However, in this case a separator is also inserted between the anode and the
cathode. The separator prevents the anode and cathode from physically touching each other since they are usually in very close
physical proximity to one another, and if they were to touch it would short out the battery as the electrons can be transferred
directly without flowing through the external circuit and load.

The redox reactions which comprise a particular battery system define many fundamental parameters about the battery system.
Other key battery properties, including as battery capacity, charging/discharging performance and other practical considerations
are also influenced by the physical configuration of the battery, for example the amount of material in the battery or the geometry
of the electrodes. The following pages describe how battery characteristics – voltage behavior, battery efficiency, battery non-
idealities (self-discharge, degradation of battery capacity, etc) – are dependent on the operation of the redox reactions and the
battery configuration.

Battery Definitions and what they mean

Batteries are specified by three main characteristics: chemistry, voltage and specific energy (capacity). A starter battery also provides
cold cranking amps (CCA), which relates to the ability to provide high current at cold temperatures.
Chemistry

The most common battery chemistries are lead, nickel and lithium, and each system needs a designated charger. Charging a battery
on a charger designed for a different chemistry may appear to work at first but might fail to terminate the charge correctly. Observe
the chemistry when shipping and disposing of batteries as each chemistry has a different regulatory requirement.

Voltage

Batteries are marked with nominal voltage; however, the open circuit voltage (OCV) on a fully charged battery is 5–7 percent higher.
Chemistry and the number of cells connected in series provide the OCV. The closed circuit voltage (CCV) is the operating voltage.
Always check for the correct nominal voltage before connecting a battery.

Capacity

Capacity represents specific energy in ampere-hours (Ah). Ah is the discharge current a battery can deliver over time. You can install
a battery with a higher Ah than specified and get a longer runtime; you can also use a slightly smaller pack and expect a shorter
runtime. Chargers have some tolerance as to Ah rating (with same voltage and chemistry); a larger battery will simply take longer to
charge than a smaller pack, but the Ah discrepancy should not exceed 25 percent. European starter batteries are marked in Ah;
North America uses Reserve Capacity (RC). RC reflects the discharge time in minutes at a 25A discharge.

Cold cranking amps (CCA)

Starter batteries, also known as SLI (starter light ignition) are marked with CCA. The number indicates the current in ampere that the
battery can deliver at –18°C (0°F). American and European norms differ slightly.

Specific energy, energy density

Specific energy, or gravimetric energy density, defines battery capacity in weight (Wh/kg); energy density, or volumetric energy
density, reflects volume in liters (Wh/l). Products requiring long runtimes at moderate load are optimized for high specific energy;
the ability to deliver high current loads can be ignored.

Specific power

Specific power, or gravimetric power density, indicates loading capability. Batteries for power tools are made for high specific power
and come with reduced specific energy (capacity). Figure 1 illustrates the relationship between specific energy (water in bottle) and
specific power (spout opening).

The water in the bottle represents specific energy (capacity); the spout pouring the water govern specific power (loading).

AA battery can have high specific energy but poor specific power as is the case with the alkaline battery, or low specific energy but
high specific power as with the supercapacitor.

C-rates
The C-rate specifies the speed a battery is charged or discharged. At 1C, the battery charges and discharges at a current that is on
par with the marked Ah rating. At 0.5C, the current is half and the time is doubled, and at 0.1C the current is one-tenth and the time
is 10-fold. )

Load

A load defines the current that is drawn from the battery. Internal battery resistance and depleting state-of-charge (SoC) cause the
voltage to drop under load, triggering end of discharge. Power relates to current delivery measured in watts (W); energy is the
physical work over time measured in watt-hours (Wh).

Watts and Volt-amps (VA)

Watt is real power that is being metered; VA is the apparent power that is affected by a reactive load. On a purely resistive load, watt
and VA readings are alike; a reactive load such as an inductive motor or fluorescent light causes a phase shift between voltage and
current that lowers the power factor (pf) from the ideal one (1) to 0.7 or lower. The sizing of electrical wiring and the circuit breakers
must be based on VA power.

State-of-health (SoH)

The three main state-of-health indicators of a battery are:

1. Capacity, the ability to store energy

2. Internal resistance, the capability to deliver current, and
3. Self-discharge, reflecting mechanical integrity and stress-related conditions

Li-ion reveals SoH in capacity. Internals resistance and self-discharge stay low under normal circumstances. SoH is commonly
hidden form the user in consumer products; only state-of-charge (SoC) is provided. SoH is sometimes divided into:

 Absolute state-of-health (ASoH), the ability to store the specified energy when the battery is new
  Relative state-of-health (RSoH), available storage capability when battery is broken in

Note: Unless otherwise mentioned, RSoH refers to SoH.

State-of-charge (SoC)

SoC reflects the battery charge level; a reading battery user is most familiar with. The SoC fuel gauge can create a false sense of
security as a good and faded battery show 100 percent when fully charged. SoC is sometimes divided into:

 Absolute state-of-charge (ASoC), the ability to take the specified charge when the battery is new
 Relative state-of-health (RSoC), available charge level taking capacity fade into account.

Note: Unless otherwise mentioned, RSoC refers to SoC.

State-of-function (SoF)

SoF reflects battery readiness in terms of usable energy by observing state-of-charge in relation to the available capacity. This can
be shown with the tri-state fuel gauge in which the usable capacity is reflected as stored energy in the form of charge (RSoH); the
part that can be filled as empty and the unusable part that cannot be restored as dud. SoF can also be presented with the fishbowl
icon for a battery evaluation at a glance. Tri-state fuel gauges are seldom used in fear of elevated warranty claims. Some devices
offer an access code for service personnel to read SoF.

Figure 2 summarizes battery state-of-health and state-of-charger graphically.

Definition:

SoHState-of-health. Generic term for battery health. Capacity is leading health indicator.

ASoHAbsolute state-of-health of a new battery.

RSoHRelative state-of-health relating to available capacity

SoCState-of-charge. Generic term for charge level.

ASoCAbsolute state-of-charge of a new battery.

RSoCRelative state-of-charge; charge level with capacity fade.

Ideal battery capacity
The battery capacity is a measure of the amount of charge or energy stored in the battery. The fundamental units of battery
capacity is coulombs (C), although a more common and useful unit is Amp-hrs (Ah) (amps = C/time, so Ah = C/time(sec) x time
(hrs)). The battery capacity in Ah can be ideally calculated from the weight/volume or number of moles of materials of the electrode
and electrolyte (if it is an active component in the redox reactions) in the battery. The ideal battery capacity under equilibrium
conditions (which can differ substantially from the “real” battery capacity under load) is calculated by from the moles of available
reactants, from which the moles of electrons can be determined. Using Faraday’s constant, which gives the number of Coulombs for
a mole of electrons (F = 96,484.56 C/mol), the total available coulombs (charge) can be determined for the battery. Since the battery
capacity, when described in Ah is a measure of the total stored coulombs (Amps are C/sec), then the battery capacity can be
determined by the equation:

Capacity (Ah) = n*F* 1 hour/3600sec

Since the primary function of a battery is to store electrical energy rather than electrical charge, the energy storage of a battery is
also an essential parameter. A simple way to determine the energy storage capacity of the battery is to multiply the Ah capacity by
the nominal battery voltage, such that:

Energy Capacity = Ah * Battery Voltage

Battery Charging and Discharging Parameters

The key function of a battery in a PV system is to provide power when other generating sourced are unavailable, and hence
batteries in PV systems will experience continual charging and discharging cycles. All battery parameters are affected by battery
charging and recharging cycle.

Battery State of Charge (BSOC)

A key parameter of a battery in use in a PV system is the battery state of charge (BSOC). The BSOC is defined as the fraction of the
total energy or battery capacity that has been used over the total available from the battery.

Battery state of charge (BSOC or SOC) gives the ratio of the amount of energy presently stored in the battery to the nominal rated
capacity. For example, for a battery at 80% SOC and with a 500 Ah capacity, the energy stored in the battery is 400 Ah. A common
way to measure the BSOC is to measure the voltage of the battery and compare this to the voltage of a fully charged battery.
However, as the battery voltage depends on temperature as well as the state of charge of the battery, this measurement provides
only a rough idea of battery state of charge.

Depth of Discharge

In many types of batteries, the full energy stored in the battery cannot be withdrawn (in other words, the battery cannot be fully
discharged) without causing serious, and often irreparable damage to the battery. The Depth of Discharge (DOD) of a battery
determines the fraction of power that can be withdrawn from the battery. For example, if the DOD of a battery is given by the
manufacturer as 25%, then only 25% of the battery capacity can be used by the load.

Nearly all batteries, particularly for renewable energy applications, are rated in terms of their capacity. However, the actual energy
that can be extracted from the battery is often (particularly for lead acid batteries) significantly less than the rated capacity. This
occurs since, particularly for lead acid batteries, extracting the full battery capacity from the battery dramatically reduced battery
lifetime. The depth of discharge (DOD) is the fraction of battery capacity that can be used from the battery and will be specified by
the manufacturer. For example, a battery 500 Ah with a DOD of 20% can only provide 500Ah x .2 = 100 Ah.

Daily Depth of Discharge

In addition to specifying the overall depth of discharge, a battery manufacturer will also typically specify a daily depth of discharge.
The daily depth of discharge determined the maximum amount of energy that can be extracted from the battery in a 24 hour
period. Typically in a larger scale PV system (such as that for a remote house), the battery bank is inherently sized such that the daily
depth of discharge is not an additional constraint. However, in smaller systems that have a relatively few days storage, the daily
depth of discharge may need to be calculated.

Charging and Discharging Rates

A common way of specifying battery capacity is to provide the battery capacity as a function of the time in which it takes to fully
discharge the battery (note that in practice the battery often cannot be fully discharged). The notation to specify battery capacity in
this way is written as Cx, where x is the time in hours that it takes to discharge the battery. C10 = Z (also written as C10 = xxx)
means that the battery capacity is Z when the battery is discharged in 10 hours. When the discharging rate is halved (and the time it
takes to discharge the battery is doubled to 20 hours), the battery capacity rises to Y. The discharge rate when discharging the
battery in 10 hours is found by dividing the capacity by the time. Therefore, C/10 is the charge rate. This may also be written as
0.1C. Consequently, a specification of C20/10 (also written as 0.1C20) is the charge rate obtained when the battery capacity
(measured when the battery is discharged in 20 hours) is discharged in 10 hours. Such relatively complicated notations may result
when higher or lower charging rates are used for short periods of time.

The charging rate, in Amps, is given in the amount of charge added the battery per unit time (i.e., Coulombs/sec, which is the unit of
Amps). The charging/discharge rate may be specified directly by giving the current - for example, a battery may be
charged/discharged at 10 A. However, it is more common to specify the charging/discharging rate by determining the amount of
time it takes to fully discharge the battery. In this case, the discharge rate is given by the battery capacity (in Ah) divided by the
number of hours it takes to charge/discharge the battery. For example, a battery capacity of 500 Ah that is theoretically discharged
to its cut-off voltage in 20 hours will have a discharge rate of 500 Ah/20 h = 25 A. Furthermore, if the battery is a 12V battery, then
the power being delivered to the load is 25A x 12 V = 300W. Note that the battery is only "theoretically" discharged to its maximum
level as most practical batteries cannot be fully discharged without either damaging the battery or reducing its lifetime.

Charging and Discharging Regimes

Each battery type has a particular set of restraints and conditions related to its charging and discharging regime, and many types of
batteries require specific charging regimes or charge controllers. For example, nickel cadmium batteries should be nearly
completely discharged before charging, while lead acid batteries should never be fully discharged. Furthermore, the voltage and
current during the charge cycle will be different for each type of battery. Typically, a battery charger or charge controller designed
for one type of battery cannot be used with another type.

Battery voltage and capacity in non-equilibrium

The battery voltage described by the Nernst Equation and battery capacity assumes that the battery is in equilibrium. Since a
battery under load is not in equilibrium, the measured voltage and battery capacity may differ significantly from the equilibrium
values, and the further from equilibrium (ie the high the charge or discharge currents), the larger the deviation between the battery
voltage and capacity equilibrium and the realistic battery voltage may be. The difference between the voltage under equilibrium
and that with a current flow is termed polarization. Polarization effects have a significant impact on battery operation, both
beneficial and detrimental. For example, polarization effects mean that under normal operation of lead acid batteries the electrolysis
of water proceeds slowly and to first order can be neglected during discharge (but not charging since the voltage is higher).
However, polarization effects also have detrimental effects on performance, by, for example, reducing efficiency and making the
battery capacity sensitive to charging and discharging conditions.

The polarization is comprised of three basic mechanisms, relating to resistive drops in the battery, and to two effects relating to the
rates at which a reaction can proceed. These two effects are due to kinetic effects caused by the inherent rates of the chemical
reaction (called kinetic overvoltage or activation overvoltage), and by the effects related to the movement of reactants to the
electrode (called mass transport overvoltage). The overvoltage causes a deviation of the voltage and capacity from the equilibrium
values calculated earlier. As shown below, during discharging, the battery voltage is lower than that in equilibrium, while during
charging, a higher voltage than the Nernst voltage is required. Polarization effects have significant impact on the battery efficiency
and how the battery can be charged and discharged.
Mass Transport Overvoltage in Batteries

The mass transport overvoltage has a significant impact on batteries, particularly at high rates of charge and discharge. As the
battery discharges, it depletes the region around the electrode of some of the reactants. The concentration gradient between the
region surrounding the electrode and further away in the electrolyte causes reactants to diffuse towards the electrode. However, if
the discharge rate of the battery causes the reactants to be used at a greater rate than they can diffuse towards electrode, then the
concentration near the electrode will continue to drop as the battery discharges. This drop in concentration is greater than that
expected voltage drop if the reactants were uniformly distributed through the electrolyte and therefore, according to the Nernst
equation, the battery voltage decreases more rapidly than that calculated by equilibrium. The more rapidly a battery is discharged,
the more rapid the fall in voltage compared to that from equilibrium. Rapid discharging affects not only the battery voltage, but
also battery capacity. Since some of the reactants are not used in the reaction before the voltage drops below the minimum
voltage, then the available battery capacity is also reduced.
During charging, a similar process occurs, except that charging increases the concentration surrounding the electrode.
Consequently, a higher voltage is required to charge the battery than expected by equilibrium calculations. The mass transport
overvoltage has a significant effect on the battery parameters relevant to a photovoltaic system. The lower voltages during
discharge and higher voltages during charging reduce the battery efficiency. Further, mass transport effects alter the available
battery capacity, as the battery capacity is reduced under high discharge rates. Because of these effects, mass transport has a
significant impact on the optimal use of a battery, limiting both the charge and discharge currents.

Activation Overvoltage in Batteries

The kinetic or activation overvoltage of the reduction and oxidation reactions of the battery should be as small as possible, since
during charging the voltage required will greater than the equilibrium voltage by activation energy. The difference in the charging
voltage and the discharging voltage (i.e., the overvoltage) reduces the battery efficiency.

If there are secondary or side reactions in the battery, then the kinetic overpotential has different effects between charging and
discharging. During discharging, the battery voltage is lower, and therefore there is less possibility that the voltage is sufficient to
overcome the activation energy of secondary battery reactions. During charging, the battery voltage is higher, and hence there is
the possibility that additional reactions can occur. This effect can give rise to beneficial properties. The hydrolysis of water consists
of the redox reaction shown below, which has an electrochemical potential of 1.23 V.

Consequently, if a voltage of more than 1.23V is applied to a battery which has water as a component of the electrolyte, then the
electrolysis of water occurs, producing hydrogen and oxygen instead of the charging reaction for the battery. Since most batteries
operate at about 2V, this would then make water-based electrolytes unsuitable for batteries. However, the overvoltage of the redox
reactions in the electrolysis of water are high enough such that during discharging, gas evolution from the electrolysis of water (or
either one of the half reaction involved in the electrolysis of water) is not a dominant consideration. However, during charging, the
higher voltage experienced by the battery causes first the hydrogen and then the oxygen half reactions to proceed. In lead acid
battery systems, the presence of these two reactions gives rise to gassing. In many battery configurations, gassing leads to
numerous undesirable side-effects, including water loss from the electrolyte and physical damage to the electrolyte.
Resistive Drops in Batteries

A final contribution to the overvoltage in a battery is the resistive drops that occur in a battery. There are several components to the
total battery resistance. Part of the overall resistance is due to resistance of the components in the path of the electron flow,
including the electrode and the connections between the two electrodes. Other components of the resistive polarization include the
surface of the electrodes. The resistive polarization may not be linear with applied voltage. Other components of the resistive
polarization include the resistance of the surface of the electrode. For example, in a lead acid battery, as the discharge reaction
proceeds, lead sulfate builds up on the surface of the electrode, which is non-conductive. The resistive overpolarization has several
practical impacts on battery performance and operation. Similar to the concentration polarization, it reduces the efficiency and
places limits on how much the battery can be charged or discharged.

Secondary Reactions

In addition to the central reduction and oxidation reaction which comprise a battery, secondary or side reactions may occur. In most
cases, these side reactions give rise to unwanted or detrimental effects. In all cases, these secondary reactions reduce the coulombic
efficiency of the battery. If the secondary reaction occurs during discharging, some of the charge (current that would normally flow
to the load is used by the secondary reaction). Similarly, during charging, the secondary reactions use charge intended to drive the
main battery reactions, thus reducing the couloumbic efficiency. The electrolysis of water described in the activation overpotential is
an example of an unwanted secondary reaction. Secondary reactions give rise to several unwanted effects, such a gassing, self-
discharge and corrosion of the electrodes.

Physical State of the Electrodes

The physical state of the electrodes plays an important part in the practical operation of a battery. The key characteristic of a battery
electrode is that its surface area should be large. This lowers the series resistance, increases the area over which the chemical
reaction can take place (hence also reducing the mass transport overvoltage). In addition, a large surface area helps ensure that the
reactants are not completely covered by the products of the chemical reaction. A complete, uniform coverage of the electrode by
the product reaction would prevent the redox reactions from proceeding, since the reactant species could no longer reach the
electrode. Moreover, even in the reaction products allow the reactant species through, the reaction products are often not
conductive, and therefore electrons evolved or required by the redox reactions could not pass through the reaction productions. A
large surface area is typically achieved by using porous materials. The figure below shows the porous lead used in a lead acid
battery.

During charging and discharging, several processes can occur that change the structure or shape of the electrode. In most battery
reactions, the electrode materials undergo a physical change during the discharge/charge cycle. The changes to the electrode, both
physical changes as the original electrode material is re-formed and chemical changes of the materials on the electrodes give rise to
numerous non-idealities. A key non-ideality is that the material may change its morphology, potentially during deposition of the
reaction products on the electrode, but more commonly when the electrode material remains unchanged for long periods of time.
For example, in lead-acid batteries, lead sulfate, which forms as the battery is discharged, may form large, relatively insoluble
crystals over time. These large crystals are difficult to convert back into lead or lead oxide, and hence they reduce battery capacity if
the battery is left in its discharged state.
Other effects that relate to the physical changes experienced by the electrode or electrolyte are that the reactant products seldom
have the identical density as the reactants, and hence the electrode undergoes physical changes in its size. If the mechanical
stresses are too large, the electrode material may flake off, hence permanently reducing capacity. The relative physical changes in
size may be exacerbated at high or low temperatures, as density differences may increase as the temperate changes.

Finally, as the electrode material is re-formed during charging, the electrode may change its shape. In lead acid batteries, this is
circumvented by the fact that the solubility of the lead ion Pb2+ is very low, and hence Pb2+ is rapidly converted to Pb in the close
physical proximity to where it was dissolved, thus preventing significant changes of shape of the electrode. Alternately, either the
products during discharging or the original battery material during charging may form so as isolate regions from charging or
discharging, thus permanently reducing battery capacity.

Battery Capacity
"Battery capacity" is a measure (typically in Amp-hr) of the charge stored by the battery, and is determined by the mass of active
material contained in the battery. The battery capacity represents the maximum amount of energy that can be extracted from the
battery under certain specified conditions. However, the actual energy storage capabilities of the battery can vary significantly from
the "nominal" rated capacity, as the battery capacity depends strongly on the age and past history of the battery, the charging or
discharging regimes of the battery and the temperature.

Units of Battery Capacity: Ampere Hours

The energy stored in a battery, called the battery capacity, is measured in either watt-hours (Wh), kilowatt-hours (kWh), or ampere-
hours (Ahr). The most common measure of battery capacity is Ah, defined as the number of hours for which a battery can provide a
current equal to the discharge rate at the nominal voltage of the battery. The unit of Ah is commonly used when working with
battery systems as the battery voltage will vary throughout the charging or discharging cycle. The Wh capacity can be approximated
from the Ahr capacity by multiplying the AH capacity by the nominal (or, if known, time average) battery voltage. A more accurate
approach takes into account the variation of voltage by integrating the AH capacity x V(t) over the time of the charging cycle. For
example, a 12 volt battery with a capacity of 500 Ah battery allows energy storage of approximately 100 Ah x 12 V = 1,200 Wh or
1.2 KWh. However, because of the large impact from charging rates or temperatures, for practical or accurate analysis, additional
information about the variation of battery capacity is provided by battery manufacturers.

Impact of Charging and Discharging Rate on Capacity

The charging/discharging rates affect the rated battery capacity. If the battery is being discharged very quickly (i.e., the discharge
current is high), then the amount of energy that can be extracted from the battery is reduced and the battery capacity is lower. This
is due to the fact the necessary components for the reaction to occur do not necessarily have enough time to either move to their
necessary positions. The only a fraction of the total reactants are converted to other forms, and therefore the energy available is
reduced. Alternately, is the battery is discharged at a very slow rate using a low current, more energy can be extracted from the
battery and the battery capacity is higher. Therefore, the battery of capacity should include the charging/discharging rate. A
common way of specifying battery capacity is to provide the battery capacity as a function of the time in which it takes to fully
discharge the battery (note that in practice the battery often cannot be fully discharged).

Temperature

The temperature of a battery will also affect the energy that can be extracted from it. At higher temperatures, the battery capacity is
typically higher than at lower temperatures. However, intentionally elevating battery temperature is not an effective method to
increase battery capacity as this also decreases battery lifetime.

Age and history of battery

The age and history of the battery have a major impact on the capacity of a battery. Even when following manufacturers
specifications on DOD, the battery capacity will stay at or close to its rated capacity for a limited number of charge/discharge cycles.
The history of the battery has an additional impact on capacity in that if the battery has been taken below its maximum DOD, then
battery capacity may be prematurely reduced and the rated number of charge/discharge cycles may not be available.

Battery Voltage
The voltage of a battery is a fundamental characteristic of a battery, which is determined by the chemical reactions in the battery,
the concentrations of the battery components, and the polarization of the battery. The voltage calculated from equilibrium
conditions is typically known as the nominal battery voltage. In practice, the nominal battery voltage cannot be readily measured,
but for practical battery systems (in which the overvoltages and non-ideal effects are low) the open circuit voltage is a good
approximation to the nominal battery voltage.

Since the electric potential (voltage) from most chemical reactions is on the order of 2V while the voltage required by loads is
typically larger, in most batteries, numerous individual battery cells are connected in series. For example, in lead acid batteries, each
cell has a voltage of about 2V. Six cells are connected to form a typical 12V lead acid battery.

Voltage Variation with Discharging

Due to the polarization effects, the battery voltage under current flow may differ substantially from the equilibrium or open circuit
voltage. A key characteristic of battery technology is how the battery voltage changes due under discharge conditions, both due to
equilibrium concentration effects and due polarization. Battery discharge and charging curves are shown below for several different
battery systems. The discharge and charge curves are not necessarily symmetric due to the presence of additional reactions that
may be present at the higher voltages encountered in charging.

Cut-Off Voltage

In many battery types, including lead acid batteries, the battery cannot be discharged below a certain level or permanent damage
may be done to the battery. This voltage is called the "cut-off voltage" and depends on the type of battery, its temperature and the
battery's rate of discharge.

Measuring State of Charge Based on Voltage

While the reduction of battery voltage with discharge is a negative aspect of batteries which reduces their efficiency, one practical
aspect of such a reduction, if it is approximately linear, is that at a given temperature, the battery may be used to approximate the
state of charge of the battery. In systems where the battery voltage is not linear over some range of state of charge of the battery or
in which there are rapid variations in the voltage with the BSOC will be more difficult to determine the BSOC and therefore will be
more difficult to charge. However, a battery system that maintains a more constant voltage with discharge rate will have a high
voltage efficiency and will be more easily used to drive voltage sensitive loads.

Effect of Temperature on Voltage

Battery voltage will increase with the temperature of the system, and can be calculated by the Nernst Equation for the equilibrium
battery voltage.

Other Electrical Battery Parameters

Internal Series Resistance

The internal series resistance of a battery determines the maximum discharge current of the battery. Consequently, for applications
in which the batteries are required to provide high instantaneous power, the internal series resistance should be low. In addition,
the series resistance will affect the battery's efficiency but may change as the battery ages.

Self-Discharge

Self-discharge refers to the fact that even in the absence of a connected load, the discharge reaction will proceed to a limited extent
and the battery will therefore discharge itself over time. The rate of self-discharge depends primarily on the materials involved in
the chemical reaction (i.e., the type of battery system) and on the temperature of the battery.

Cold Cranking Current

The maximum amount of current a battery can provide for a short period of time is called the cranking current. This parameter is
often specified for transport applications, in which the battery must provide enough current to start a large engine. However, it is
typically not an important parameter in PV systems.

Battery Lifetime
The lifetime of a battery may be specified in several different ways depending on the application and hence on which mechanism
asre most significant. For applications in which the battery is regularly charged and discharged (such as in photovoltaic systems),
the most appropriate measure of lifetime is the number of charge/discharge cycles over which the battery maintains a given
fraction of its capacity.

Since batteries inherently involve chemical reactions that are reactive, the materials used in batteries are susceptible to alternate
reactions that degrade battery performance. While certain catastrophic battery failure mechanisms are possible, battery lifetime is
typically controlled by the gradual degradation in battery capacity which accompanies charge/discharge cycles. Consequently,
battery lifetime is typically given as the number of charge/discharge cycles which it can undergo and still maintain its original
capacity. However, in systems which do not frequently experience charge/discharge cycles (such as in uninterruptable power
supplies), battery lifetime is more appropriately specified in years. Improper use of the battery can greatly accelerate battery aging
and further decrease the number of cycles over which a battery can be used.

Battery life is defined either in years (if it remains fully charged or in # of cycles under a given set of conditions (including
temperature and DOD).

Failure Modes

A battery can degrade or can fail catastrophically. Modes are: shorts, degradation of electrode material, freezing, increases in
resistance.

Battery Safety and Disposal

Most battery systems, including those used in renewable energy systems, contain corrosive or dangerous chemicals and the safety
regulations for each type of battery should be carefully checked. Additional safety concerns relate to their ability to produce large
current. Finally, for lead-acid battery systems, the evolution of hydrogen is a potential issue.

Batteries should not be thrown away as most batteries contain toxic and/or corrosive material.

Summary and Comparison of Battery Characteristics

There are a large number of battery parameters. Depending on which application the battery is used for, some parameters are more
important than others. The following is a list of parameters that may be specified by a manufacturer for a given type of battery. For
example, in a typical battery for a general car, the energy density is not relevant - a battery is a small fraction of the total battery
weight and consequently this parameter would typically not be listed for a conventional car battery. However, in electric vehicle
applications, the battery weight is a significant fraction of the overall weight of the vehicle and so the energy densities will be given.
Functions of Batteries

Batteries are a common feature in most types of PV systems that are not connected to the utility grid. In addition to providing
storage, batteries can also be used for several other functions:

Storage. Batteries store energy being produced by a given generating source, and when this source is unavailable this energy can
be used by the load. The inclusion of storage in any energy generating system will increase the availability of the energy.

Start-up current. Batteries can provide higher currents to the load than the array alone can provide. This is especially useful if a
particular load has a high current draw on start-up. Many motors initially have a high current requirement.

Power conditioning. Batteries can function as power conditioning. Two cases where this feature is used is in directly coupled
systems, such as water pumping, and in uninterruptable power supplies.

In addition to the different mode of operation, batteries in photovoltaic systems also must meet several other criteria. As reliability
and low maintenance are desirable in photovoltaic systems, the batteries must also have a long lifetime. Further, since batteries will
often be a substantial fraction of the total cost of a PV system, cost is a significant factor in batteries for PV systems. In general,
batteries manufactured for other applications are not well suited to photovoltaic energy applications. The key characteristics of a
battery in a renewable energy system are:

 efficiency of the battery

 how battery capacity and lifetime is affected by deep cycling and extended states of low charge
 the initial and ongoing battery costs
 the maintenance requirements of the battery.

Electrolysis of Water
In battery solutions in which a component of the electrolyte is water (such as in lead acid batteries), the possibility of electrolysis
water must be taken into account when charging a battery. The electrolysis of water, which is breaking water into oxygen and
hydrogen.

According to the standard potentials, the voltage of this reaction is 1.23V. However, the activation overpotential of this reaction is
large, and hence it does not proceed at a significant rate (and can therefore be neglected in battery charging or discharging) until
voltages on the order of 2.2V are reached in the battery. During high charging rates, the charging voltage may exceed this voltage,
and hence two reactions will proceed in such a battery: one the charging of the battery and the second the electrolysis of water. As
the electrolysis of water gives of hydrogen and oxygen, both of which are gases, the battery is said to be gassing. The electrolysis of
water has several impacts on the battery. Firstly, it leads to water loss in the battery, which must be replaced. Further, the evolution
of hydrogen gas forms a potential safety hazard if released in an improperly ventilated area, or can overpressure the battery case.
Both of these issues may be minimized or circumvented by preventing the gases, the battery is said to be gassing. The electrolysis
of water has several impacts on the battery. Firstly, it leads to water loss in the battery, which must be replaced. Further, the
evolution of hydrogen gas forms a potential safety hazard if released in an improperly ventilated area, or can overpressure the
battery case. Both of these issues may be minimized or circumvented by preventing the gases, particularly the hydrogen from
escaping from the battery. Batteries using this approach are called sealed or recombinant batteries. Despite the potential
maintenance and safety problems associated with gassing, it may also have beneficial impacts. For example, in lead-acid batteries
gassing can be used to mix the electrolyte, thus preventing regions of higher sulfuric acid concentration (which is denser) from
sinking to the bottom (an effect called stratification).

The electrolysis of water is affected by the presence of small amounts of impurities in the lead acid batteries, and hence batteries
with additives to the lead (for mechanical strength or other practical purposes) can experience significantly different gassing
voltages. Further, since the activation energy is temperature dependent, the voltage at which gassing of a battery changes with the
battery temperature and on the details of the battery components.

Uses of batteries in PV systems

While the primary function of a storage system is to provide power when sunlight is not available, hence increasing the fraction of
time the photovoltaic system provides electricity, the addition of batteries has numerous other advantages which mean that the
batteries can be used for multiple purposes. For small systems consisting of one or two photovoltaic modules, batteries can act as a
load-matching system. Alternately, in photovoltaic systems which contain a load with a large initial current draw (such as
experienced by an inductive load, typically represented by a motor), the batteries can be used to provide initial start-up current. In
grid-connected systems, battery storage can be used for peak shifting, in which the power generated by the sun is stored for
several hours in order to better match when the peak load occurs