Topic 5 Notes Work Energy Sem 2 2019 Soln

Student Name: ……………………………………….
ID #: …………………………………… Physics Semester 2, 2019 – TOPIC NOTES
Physics
Topic 5
Work and Energy
Solutions
Contents
5.1 Work Done by a Constant Force ....................................................................................................2
5.2 Kinetic Energy, and the Work-Energy Principle ..............................................................................9
5.3 Potential Energy ..........................................................................................................................13
5.4 Conservative and Non-conservative Forces .................................................................................20
5.5 Mechanical Energy and its Conservation .....................................................................................21
5.6 Problem Solving using Conservation of Mechanical Energy.........................................................22
5.7 Other Forms of Energy; The Law of Conservation of Energy .......................................................30
5.8 Energy Conservation with Dissipative Forces; Solving Problems .................................................31
5.9 Power ..........................................................................................................................................36
Glossary of Terms ..................................................................................................................................39
Formulae – Work and Energy .................................................................................................................39
Topic 5: Work and Energy © UP International College New Zealand

“Chapter-Opening Question” – Guess now!
A skier starts at the top of a hill.

(i) On which run does her gravitational potential energy change
the most: (a), (b), (c), (d); or are they (e) all the same?
(ii) On which run would her speed at the bottom be the fastest if
the runs are icy and we assume no friction or air resistance?
(iii) Recognizing that there is always some friction, answer the
above two questions again.
e same e same e same c steepest
(i) ………. (ii) ………. (iii) ……… ……….
Until now we have been studying the translational motion of an object in terms of Newton’s three laws of
motion. In that analysis, force has played a central role as the quantity determining the motion. In this
topic and the next, we discuss an alternative analysis of the translational motion of objects in terms of
the quantities energy and momentum. The significance of energy and momentum is that they are
conserved. That is, they remain constant. That conserved quantities exist gives us not only a deeper
insight into the nature of the world, but also gives us another way to approach solving problems.
This topic is devoted to the very important concept of energy and the closely related concept of work.
These two quantities are scalars and so have no direction associated with them, which often makes
them easier to work with than vector quantities such as acceleration and force.
5.1 Work Done by a Constant Force

Read Chapter 6-1 Work Done by a Constant Force, page 139
The word work has a variety of meanings in everyday language. But in physics, work is given a very
specific meaning to describe what is accomplished when a force acts on an object, and the object moves
through a distance. The work done on an object by a constant force (constant in both magnitude and
direction) is defined to be the product of the magnitude of the displacement times the component of the
force parallel to the displacement.
In equation form we can write:
𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹∥ 𝑑𝑑 where 𝐹𝐹∥ is the component of the constant force �𝑭𝑭⃗ parallel to the displacement �𝒅𝒅⃗.
Topic 5: Work and Energy © UP International College New Zealand Page 2

Physics Semester 2, 2019 – TOPIC NOTES
𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹∥ 𝑑𝑑 where 𝐹𝐹∥ is the component of the constant force �𝑭𝑭⃗ parallel to the displacement �𝒅𝒅⃗.
We can also write:
𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃
where 𝐹𝐹 is the magnitude of the constant force, 𝑑𝑑 is the magnitude of the displacement of the object, and
𝜃𝜃 is the angle between the directions of the force and the displacement. The cos 𝜃𝜃 factor appears in the
equation above because 𝐹𝐹 cos 𝜃𝜃 is the component of �𝑭𝑭⃗ that is parallel to �𝒅𝒅⃗.
Work is a scalar quantity – it has no direction, but only magnitude, which can be positive or negative.
Let us consider the case in which the motion and the force are
in the same direction, so 𝜃𝜃 = 0 and cos 𝜃𝜃 = 1; in this case,
𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹 × 𝑑𝑑. For example, if you push a loaded grocery trolley
a distance of 50 m by exerting a horizontal force of 30 N on
the trolley, you do 30 N × 50 m = 1500 Nm of work on the
trolley.
As this example shows, in SI units work is measured in

newton-meters (N⋅m). A special name is given to this unit, the
joule (J): 1 J = 1 N⋅m.
A force can be exerted on an object and yet do no work. If you hold a heavy bag of groceries in your
hands at rest, you do no work on it. You do exert a force on it, but the displacement of the bag is zero, so
the work done by you on the bag is zero. You need both a force and a displacement to do work. You
also do no work on the bag of groceries if you carry it as you walk horizontally across the floor at
constant velocity. The person shown at right exerts an upward force 𝑭𝑭 �⃗𝑃𝑃 on the bag equal to its weight.
But this upward force is perpendicular to the horizontal displacement of the bag and thus is doing no
work, 𝑊𝑊 = 0, because 𝜃𝜃 = 90° and cos 90° = 0. Thus, when a particular force is perpendicular to the
displacement, no work is done by that force. When you start or stop walking, there is a horizontal
acceleration and you do briefly exert a horizontal force, and thus do work on the bag.
Consider the person at right who holds the bag stationary. Does he do work
on the bag? Explain.
No. There is no displacement in the direction of the applied force.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
No energy is transferred.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
If the person moves the bag horizontally at constant velocity, does he do

work on the bag? Explain.
No. There is no displacement in the direction of the applied force.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
No energy transfer is taking place
……………………………………………………………………………………….
A student exerts a large horizontal force against a very heavy piano which sits on a carpeted surface, but
is unable to move it. What work has been done? Has the student exerted energy?
None. Displacement is zero.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
The student has converted chemical energy to heat. No mechanical work is done.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Work can be positive or negative. When the force has a component in the same direction as the
displacement (𝜙𝜙 between zero and 90°), cos 𝜙𝜙 is positive, and the work is positive. When the force has a
component opposite to the displacement (𝜙𝜙 between 90° and 270°), cos 𝜙𝜙 is negative, and the work is
negative. When the force is perpendicular to the displacement, 𝜙𝜙 = 90°, and the work done by the force
is zero.
When we deal with work, as with force, it is necessary to specify whether you are talking about work
done by a specific object or work done on a specific object. It is also important to specify whether the
work done is due to one particular force (and which one), or the total (net) work done by the net force on
the object.
Ex. #1 Does the earth do work on the moon?

(Conceptual Example 6-3, page 142)
The moon revolves around the earth in a nearly circular orbit, kept
in its orbit by the gravitational force exerted on it by the earth.
Does gravity do
(a) positive work,
(b) negative work, or
(c) no work on the moon? Explain.
(c) No work is done, as there is no force applied to the moon in the

…………………………………………………………………………….
direction of its motion. The force is perpendicular to the motion.
…………………………………………………………………………….
This is why the moon and any other satellite can stay in orbit. No
…………………………………………………………………………….
work needs to be done against the force of gravity.
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….

Ex. #2 Work done on a crate

(Example 6-1, page 140)
A person pulls a 50 kg crate 40 m along a horizontal floor by a constant force 𝐹𝐹𝑃𝑃 = 100 𝑁𝑁, which acts at
a 37° angle as shown below. The floor is rough and exerts a friction force 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 50 𝑁𝑁. Determine (a) the
work done by each force acting on the crate, and (b) the net work done on the crate.
Four forces act on the crate, as shown. The vector sum of these forces is the net force.
The work done by the gravitational force FG , the normal force FN and the vertical component of the applied
force FP is zero, as they are perpendicular to the displacement.
The net work can be calculated by finding the net force on the object, and taking the component of this net
force along the displacement:
Fnet = FP cos θ - Ffr

⇒ W = ( FP cos θ - Ffr ) × x where x is the displacement
= ( 100 cos 37° - 50 ) × 40
= 1200 N
Alternatively, we could find the work done by each force in the direction of the displacement and add them
together:
WP = FP × x × cosθ = 100 × 40 × cos 37° = 3200 J

Wfr = Ffr × x = - 50 × 40 = -2000 N (friction opposes the motion)
Hence net work = 3200 – 2000 = 1200 J, as before
Try 6-1 Exercise A, page 140

A box is dragged a distance 𝑑𝑑 across a floor by a force �𝑭𝑭⃗𝑃𝑃 which makes an angle 𝜃𝜃 with the horizontal,
as in Ex. #2 above. If the magnitude of �𝑭𝑭⃗𝑃𝑃 is held constant but the angle 𝜃𝜃 is increased, the work done
by �𝑭𝑭⃗𝑃𝑃 (a) remains the same; (b) increases; (c) decreases; (d) first increases, then decreases.
(c) decreases, as the component of FP in the direction of the motion is proportional to cosθ .
……….

Ex. #3 Work done on a backpack
(a) Determine the work a hiker must do on a 15.0 kg backpack to
carry it up a hill of height ℎ = 10.0 𝑚𝑚, as shown at right.
Determine also
(b) the work done by gravity on the backpack, and
(c) the net work done on the backpack.
For simplicity, assume the motion is smooth and at constant
velocity (i.e. the acceleration is zero).
Acceleration is zero, so horizontal forces on the backpack are zero.
Applying Newton’s 2nd Law in the vertical direction, seeing motion

is vertical:
⇒ Σ Fy = may
⇒ FH – mg = 0
⇒ FH = mg = 15 × 9.8 = 147 N
a) WH = mg × dcosθ = mg × h
= 147 × 10
= 1470 J
b) The work done by gravity is negative, as the displacement is

in the opposite direction to FG = mg
WG = -mg × h
= -147 × 10 = - 1470 J
Net work by all the forces on the backpack is zero. However the
hiker does do work of 1470 J on the backpack.
Problems Booklet A: q 3, 4

Ex. #4 Sliding down a ramp

A package with mass 𝑚𝑚 is unloaded from a truck with an
inclined ramp, as shown at right.
The ramp has rollers that eliminate friction, and the truck
unloads the package from an initial height ℎ.
The ramp is inclined at an angle 𝛽𝛽.
Write an algebraic expression in terms of these quantities
for the work done on the package during its trip down the
ramp.
Shown at right is a sketch of the situation and a free body diagram of the package.
Make the x axis the direction of the displacement.
The normal is perpendicular, so does no work on the package.
Force down the ramp = mg sinβ

ℎ
Displacement down the ramp, 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Hence W = F × displacement
ℎ
= mg sinβ × 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = m g h
Because the only force doing work on the package is gravity,

the work done only depends on the weight and the height, h.

Ex. #5 Work done by several forces
Farmer Johnson hitches his tractor to a
sled loaded with firewood and pulls it a
distance of 20.0 m along level frozen
ground.
The total weight of the sled and load is
14,700 N.
The tractor exerts a constant force 𝐹𝐹⃗𝑇𝑇
with magnitude 5000 N at an angle of
36.9° above the horizontal as shown.
A constant 3500 N friction force opposes
the motion.
Find the work done on the sled by each
force individually and the net work done on the sled by all forces.
A free body diagram of the sled has been provided.
Work done by the tractor = Ftractor x × displacement

= 5000 cos 36.9° × 20
= 80,000 = 80 kJ
Work done by friction = - Ffr × displacement

= - 3500 × 20
= - 70, 000 = - 70 kJ
Hence work done on the sled = Wtractor + Wfr

= 80 -70
= 10 kJ
Alternatively, we could find the net force on the sled and use this to calculate
the work done on the sled:
Fnet = Ftractor × cosθ – Ffr

= 5000 cos 36.9° - 3500 = 500 N
⇒ W = 500 × 20 = 10 kJ, as before

5.2 Kinetic Energy, and the Work-Energy Principle

Read Chapter 6-3 Kinetic Energy, and the Work-Energy Principle, page 142
Energy is one of the most important concepts in science. In this topic we define translational kinetic
energy and different types of potential energy. In later topics we will look at other types of energy
related to electricity. The crucial aspect of energy is that the sum of all types, the total energy, is the
same after any process as it was before. That is, energy is a conserved quantity. For the purposes of
these notes, we can define energy in the traditional way as:
“energy is the ability to do work”.
In the examples completed to this point, the work done on various objects, in most cases, has caused
their energy to change. We can therefore define work as the following:
“work is a process where energy changes from one form to other”.
A moving object can do work on another object it strikes. A flying cannon ball
does work on a brick wall that it knocks down. A moving hammer does work
on a nail it drives into wood. In both cases, a moving object exerts a force on
a second object which undergoes a displacement. An object in motion has the
ability to do work and therefore can be said to have energy. The energy of
motion is called kinetic energy.
In the diagram above a constant net force 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 accelerates a car from speed 𝑣𝑣1 to a speed 𝑣𝑣2 over a
displacement 𝑑𝑑. The net work done is 𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑. This net work done on the car causes a change in
speed of the car, and therefore a change in kinetic energy.
1
We define the quantity 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2 to be the translational kinetic energy (KE or Ek) of an object.
2
1
𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = 2 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2 [J] This formula is derived in 6-3, page 143.
𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓2 −𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖2
vf 2 = vi 2 + 2 a d ⇒ a = 2𝑑𝑑
d
𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓2 −𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖2
given W = F × d = m× a× d = 𝑚𝑚 × 2𝑑𝑑
×d
1
= (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓2 − 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖2 )
2
1 1
and 𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = Δ𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = 2 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣2 2 − 2 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣1 2
This equation is a useful result known as the work-energy principle. It can be stated in words:
“The net work done on an object is equal to the change in the object’s kinetic energy.”

The work-energy principle is a very useful reformulation of
Newton’s laws. It tells us that if (positive) net work 𝑊𝑊 is done on
an object, the object’s kinetic energy increases by an amount 𝑊𝑊.
The principle also holds true to the reverse situation: if the net
work 𝑊𝑊 done on an object is negative, the object’s kinetic
energy decreases by an amount 𝑊𝑊.
That is, a net force exerted on an object opposite to the object’s
direction of motion decreases its speed and its kinetic energy.
An example is a moving hammer striking a nail.
The net force on the hammer (−𝑭𝑭 �⃗, in the diagram at right) acts
toward the left, whereas the displacement �𝒅𝒅⃗ of the hammer is to
the right. So the net work done on the hammer,
𝑊𝑊ℎ = (𝐹𝐹)(𝑑𝑑) cos 180° = −𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹, is negative and the hammer’s
kinetic energy decreases (usually to zero).
The diagram above also illustrates how energy can be considered “the ability to do work”. The hammer,
as it slows down, does positive work on the nail: 𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛 = (+𝐹𝐹)(+𝑑𝑑) = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 and is positive. The decrease in
kinetic energy of the hammer (= 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 by the work-energy principle) is equal to the work the hammer can
do on another object, the nail in this case.
1
The translational kinetic energy (= 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2 ) is directly proportional to the mass of the object, and it is also
2
proportional to the square of the speed. Thus, if the mass is doubled, the kinetic energy is doubled. But if
the speed is doubled, the object has four times as much kinetic energy and is therefore capable of doing
four times as much work.
Because of the direct connection between work and kinetic energy, energy is measured in the same
units as work: joules in SI units. Like work, kinetic energy is a scalar quantity. The energy of a group of
objects is the sum of the kinetic energies of the individual objects.
The work-energy principle can be applied to a particle, and also to an object that can be approximated
as a particle, such as an object that is rigid or whose internal motions are insignificant. It is useful in
simple situations, as we will see in the next examples.
Ex. #6 Work on a car to increase its kinetic energy

How much net work is required to accelerate a 1000 kg
car from 20 ms-1 to 30 ms-1?
1 1
𝛥𝛥𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣2 2 − 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣1 2
2 2
1
= 𝑚𝑚(𝑣𝑣2 2 − 𝑣𝑣1 2 )
2
1
= × 1000 (302 − 202 )
2
= 250 kJ

Try 6-3 Exercise B, page 144

(a) Make a guess: will the work needed to accelerate the car in Ex. #6 from rest to 20 ms-1 be more than,
less than, or equal to the work already calculated to accelerate it from 20 ms-1 to 30 ms-1?
(b) Do the calculation.
1
W = 2 × 1000 (202 − 02 )
= 200,000 J, or 200 kJ
More work is required to accelerate from 20 to 30 ms -1, than from 0 to 20 ms -1
Ex. #7 Work to stop a car

(Conceptual Example 6-5, page 145)
A car travelling 60 km/h can brake to a stop in a distance 𝑑𝑑 of 20 m.
If the car is going twice as fast, 120 km/h, what is the stopping distance?
Assume that the maximum braking force is approximately independent of speed.
⇒ F d = ½ m vf 2 - ½ m vi 2
Given that F and m are constant, this shows us that d is proportional to v2
Hence if v is doubled, the stopping distance will increase 4 times, to 80 m
Try 6-3 Exercise C, page 145

Can kinetic energy ever be negative?
No. Kinetic energy is proportional to the velocity squared, so will always have a positive magnitude.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Try 6-3 Exercise D, page 145

(a) If the kinetic energy of a baseball is doubled, by what factor has its speed increased?
(b) If its speed is doubled, by what factor does its kinetic energy increase?
a) EK doubled ⇒ v increased by √2.
b) v doubled ⇒ EK increased by 4 times

Ex. #8 Work and Kinetic Energy
(Conceptual Example)
Two blocks of ice, one twice as heavy as the other, are at rest on a frozen lake.
A person pushes each block a distance of 5 m with a constant force (the same magnitude of force for
each block).
Assume that friction may be neglected.
The kinetic energy of the light block after the push is:
A. smaller than that of the heavy block
B. equal to that of the heavy block
C. larger than that of the heavy block
B, because the same work has been done on each block.
Ex. #9 Using work and energy to calculate speed.
Let’s revisit the sled from example 5.
The free body diagram is shown at right.
We found that the total work done on the sled by all the forces is 10,000
J, so the kinetic energy of the sled must increase by 10,000 J.
The mass of the sled is 𝑚𝑚 = (14,700 𝑁𝑁/(9.80 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 ) = 1500 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘.
Suppose the sled’s initial speed 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 is 2.00 ms-1. What is its final speed?
Hence ΔEK =½ m vf 2 - ½ m vi 2
⇒ 10,000 = ½ × 1500 × (vf 2 – 2 2 )
⇒ vf = √ [( 2 × 10,000 / 1500 ) + 4 ]
= √ ( 13.33 + 4 )
= 4.16 ms -1
Check:
EK initial = ½ m vi 2
= ½ × 1500 × 2 2 = 3000 J
EK final = ½ m vf 2
= ½ × 1500 × 4.16 2 = 12,979, J
A difference of 10 kJ (3 sf)

5.3 Potential Energy

Read Chapter 6-4 Potential Energy, page 145
We have discussed the energy due to an objects motion, which we call kinetic energy. It is also possible
to have potential energy, which is the energy associated with forces that depend on the position or
configuration of an object (or objects) relative to their surroundings. Various types of potential energy
(𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 ) can be defined, and each type is associated with a particular force.
The spring of a wind-up toy is an example of an object with potential energy. The spring acquired its
potential energy because work was done on it by the person winding the toy. As the spring unwinds, it
exerts a force and does work to make the toy move.
Gravitational Potential Energy

Perhaps the most common example of potential energy is gravitational potential energy. A heavy brick
held high above the ground has potential energy because of its position relative to earth. The raised
brick has the ability to do work, for if it is released, it will fall to the ground due to the gravitational force,
and can do work on, for example, a stake, driving it into the ground.
Consider the diagram at right. For an object of mass 𝑚𝑚 to be lifted

vertically, an upward force at least equal to its weight 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 must be
exerted on it. To lift the object without acceleration, the person
exerts an “external force” 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚. If it is raised a vertical height h,
from position 𝑦𝑦1 to 𝑦𝑦2 , a person does work equal to the product of
the “external” force he exerts 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 upward, multiplied by the
vertical displacement (the change in position) h.
That is,
𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑 cos 0 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚(𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 )
Therefore, to raise an object of mass m to a height h requires an

amount of work equal to mgh. And once at height h, the object has
the ability to do an amount of work mgh. We can say that the work done in lifting the object has been
stored as gravitational energy.
We therefore define the gravitational potential energy (PE or Ep) of an object, due to earth’s gravity, as
the product of the object’s weight mg and its height h above some reference level (such as the ground).
𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ [J]
Note,
𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚(𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 ) = 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝2 − 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝1 = Δ𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝
That is, the change in potential energy when an object moves from a height 𝑦𝑦1 to a height 𝑦𝑦2 is equal to
the work done by a net external force to move the object from position 1 to position 2 without
acceleration.

Gravitational potential energy depends upon the vertical height of the object above some reference level.
In some situations, you may wonder from what point to measure the height y. The gravitational potential
energy of a book held high above a table, for example, depends on whether we measure y from the top
of the table, or the floor, or from some other reference point. What is physically important in any
situation, is the change in potential energy ∆𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 because that is what is related to the work done; and it is
∆𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 that can be measured. We can therefore choose the measure y from any reference point. The
change in potential energy between any two points does not depend upon this choice.
An important result concerns the gravity force, which does work only in the vertical direction: the work
done by gravity depends only on the vertical height h, and not on the path taken. Therefore changes in
gravitational potential energy depend only on the change in vertical height and not on the path taken.
Potential energy belongs to a system, and not to a single object alone. Potential energy is associated
with a force, and a force on one object is always exerted by some other object. Thus potential energy is
a property of the system as a whole.
Ex. #10 Potential energy changes for a roller coaster

A 1.0 × 103 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 roller-coaster car moves from point 1, to point 2 and then to point 3.
a) What is the gravitational potential energy at points 2 and 3 relative to point 1?

That is, take 𝑦𝑦 = 0 at point 1.
EP2 = m g h2 = 1000 × 9.80 × 10 = 9.80 × 10 4 J = 98,000 J
EP3 = m g h3 = 1000 × 9.80 × ( -15 ) = - 1.47 × 10 5 J = -147,000 J
b) What is the change in potential energy when the car goes from point 2 to point 3?
ΔEP = EP3 - EP2

= - 147,000 – 98,000
= - 245,000 J
c) Repeat part b), but take the reference point (𝑦𝑦 = 0) to be at point 3.
EP2 = m g h2 = 1000 × 9.80 × 25 = 245,000 J

EP3 = 0
ΔEP = EP3 - EP2
= 0 – 245,000
= - 245,000 J - as before

Energy-efficient transport
(Biology Application)
In Indonesia and other countries, some women are
known to carry loads of up to 70% of their body
weight in baskets on their heads. Westerners who
attempt to carry a load in this way expend almost
twice as much energy as people who do it normally.
This puzzling difference prompted a study, which
found that when, when westerners walk, they have
more up-and-down motion than do women
accustomed to carting baskets.
For larger vertical motion, more work is done by
gravity on the load; thus, more energy is required to
raise the load a higher distance against the force of
gravity.
Climbing El Capitan
One of the world’s most famous climbing rocks is
the 884 m El Capitan in Yosemite National Park
(USA).
The red line shows a common climbing route, which
involves an overnight stay on a ledge.
For a typical 75 kg male climber, the change in
gravitational potential energy from the bottom to the
top of El Capitan is about 6.5 × 105 𝐽𝐽.
That sounds like a lot, but in fact, it’s less than the
energy you get from eating a typical candy bar!
The work that results in the net change in
gravitational potential energy represent only a small
part of the total energy expended on such a climb.

Potential energy of an elastic spring
We now consider potential energy associated with elastic materials, which includes a great variety of
practical applications. Consider the simple coil spring. The spring has potential energy when
compressed (or stretched), because when it is released, it can do work on a ball as shown.
To hold a spring either stretched or compressed an amount x from its natural (unstretched) length
requires the hand to exert an external force on the spring of magnitude Fext which is directly proportional
to x. That is:
𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 [N] This equation is known as Hooke’s Law.
where k is a constant, called the spring stiffness constant (or simply spring constant), and is a measure
of the stiffness of the particular spring. The stretched or compressed spring itself exerts a force Fs in the
opposite direction on the hand, as shown at right.
𝐹𝐹𝑆𝑆 = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 [N]
Consider the diagram at right.

(a) Spring is in its natural (unstretched) position.
(b) Spring is stretched by a person exerting a force 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 to

the right (positive direction). The spring pulls back with a
force 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠 , where 𝐹𝐹𝑆𝑆 = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘.
(c) Person compresses the spring (x < 0) by exerting an

external force 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 to the left; the spring pushes back with
a force 𝐹𝐹𝑆𝑆 = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, where 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠 > 0 because x < 0.
To calculate the potential energy in a stretched spring, let us calculate the work required to stretch it.
As a spring is stretched or compressed, the magnitude of the

force needed increases linearly as x increases. The average
1
force will therefore be half of the maximum, 𝐹𝐹� = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘.
2
1 1
∴ 𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹� 𝑥𝑥 = � 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘� (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥 2
2 2
Hence, the elastic potential (strain) energy stored in a spring

(SE or Es) is given by:
1
𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 = 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥 2 [J]
2

Activity 1: Finding the ‘Spring Constant’ of a spring

A mass hangs on a spring causing the spring to change in length. As more mass
is added to the spring, the position of the mass changes. The weight force of the
mass and the position of the mass may be tabulated.
Using the spring and hanging mass given to you, measure and tabulate the
position of this mass as the hanging mass is increased.
To calculate the spring constant, you will need to calculate the change in position
– the extension of the spring. Then plot a suitable graph to find the spring
constant of the spring given to you.
Mass Force Position

Extension (cm)
(kg) (N) (cm)
0.000 0.00 16.0 0.0
0.050 0.49 33.5 17.5
0.100 0.98 50.0 34.0
0.150 1.47 66.5 50.5
0.200 1.96 82.5 66.5
0.250 2.45 99.0 83.0
a) What does the gradient of the graph represent?
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
the spring constant, 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⇒ [𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐−1 ]
b) What is the spring constant of your spring?

2.10−0.70 1.40
𝑘𝑘 = = = 0.029167 ⇒ 0.0292 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐−1 ≡ 2.92 𝑁𝑁𝑚𝑚−1
72−24 48
c) How much energy is stored in the spring at maximum extension?
at maximum extension, 𝑥𝑥 = 83 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.83 𝑚𝑚

1 1
𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 = 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥 2 ∴ 𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 = 2 (0.029167)(0.83)2 = 0.010046 ⇒ 10.0 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
2

Ex. #12
A spring with a spring stiffness k extends 50.0 mm when a 2.0 N force is applied to it.
a) Find the spring stiffness of the spring.
Δ length = 50.0 mm = 0.050 m

⇒ F = 2.0 N
𝐹𝐹
⇒ k = 𝑥𝑥
2.0
= 0.050
= 40.0 Nm -1
b) Find the elastic potential (strain) energy stored in the spring.

ES = ½ k x 2
1
= 2 × 40 × 0.0502
= 0.050 J
c) If the force is doubled, calculate the new extension.
F α x ( the force is proportional to the extension/compression

⇒ extension is also doubled
d) Calculate the new elastic potential energy stored.
ES = ½ k x 2
1
= 2 × 40 × 0.102
= 0.20 J – A four times increase
How would you describe the relationship between the energy stored and the extension x?
Energy is proportional to displacement squared
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Ex. #13 Car springs

(Example11-1, page 295)
When family of four with a total mass of 200 kg (2 sf) step into their 1200 kg
car, the car’s springs compress 3.0 cm.
(a) What is the spring constant of the car’s springs, assuming that they act
as a single spring?
𝐹𝐹 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
By Hooke’s Law, 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ⇒ 𝑘𝑘 = =
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
200 × 9.8
=
0.030
6.5 × 10−4 𝑁𝑁𝑚𝑚−1 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 65 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚−1 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 65 𝑁𝑁𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚−1
(b) How far will the car lower if loaded with 300 kg (2 sf) rather than 200 kg?
𝐹𝐹 300 × 9.8
𝑥𝑥 = = = 4.5 × 10−2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑘𝑘 6.5× 104
In other words, the displacement increases from 30 mm to 45 mm when an extra 100 kg is added to the car.
Or a 50% increase in the load, causes a 50% increase in the spring compression.

Ex. #14 Stretching a spring

A spring is stretched from 𝑥𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑎𝑎, as shown.
Is more energy required to stretch the spring through the
first half of this displacement (from 𝑥𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎) or
through the second half (from 𝑥𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑎𝑎)?
1
𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 = 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎2
2
1
𝐸𝐸2𝑎𝑎 = 𝑘𝑘(2𝑎𝑎)2 = 2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘2
2
= 4𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎
Ex. #15 Work done on a spring scale

A woman weighing 600 N steps on a
bathroom scale containing a heavy spring.
The spring compresses by 1.0 cm under her
weight.
Find the force constant of the spring and the
total work done on the spring during its
compression.
F = -600 N
x = - 1.0 cm = 0.010 m
𝐹𝐹 600
𝑘𝑘 = = − = 60,000 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁−1
𝑥𝑥 −0.010
𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹 × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (where F is the average force applied during the displacement)
600
= × 0.010
2
= 3.0 J
or:
𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

1
= 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 2
2
1
= × 60,000 × 0.0102
2
= 3.0 J

5.4 Conservative and Non-conservative Forces
Read Chapter 6-5 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces, page 149
Forces such as gravity, for which the work done does not depend upon the path taken but only on the
initial and final positions, are called conservative forces. The elastic force of a spring, in which 𝐹𝐹 =
−𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, is also a conservative force. An object that starts at a given point and returns to that same point
under the action of a conservative force has no net work done on it because the potential energy is the
same at the start and the finish of such a round trip.
Many forces, such as friction and a push or pull exerted by a person, are non-conservative forces
since any work they do depends upon the path. For example, if you push a crate across a floor from one
point to another, the work you do depends on whether the path taken is straight or is curved. In the
diagram below, if a crate is pushed slowly from point 1 to point 2 along the longer semi-circular path, you
do more work against friction than if you push it along a straight path.
You do more work on the curved path because the distance is greater and, unlike the gravitational force,
�⃗𝑝𝑝 is in the direction of the motion at each point. Thus the work done by the person
the pushing force 𝑭𝑭
does not only depend on points 1 and 2; it also depends upon the path taken. The force of kinetic friction
always opposes the motion; it too is a non-conservative force.
Try 6-5 Exercise E, page 149

An object acted on by a constant force 𝐹𝐹 moves from point 1 to point 2 and back again.
The work done by the force 𝐹𝐹 in this round trip is 60 𝐽𝐽.
Can you determine from this information if 𝐹𝐹 is a conservative or nonconservative force? Explain.
Yes it is non-conservative, because for a conservative force the work done is zero for the round trip.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

5.5 Mechanical Energy and its Conservation

Read Chapter 6-6 Mechanical Energy and its Conservation, page 150
If we can ignore friction and other non-conservative forces, or if

only conservative forces do work on a system, then the total
mechanical energy of that system remains constant – that is, the
total mechanical energy of a system is a conserved quantity.
𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝1 + 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘1 = 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝2 + 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘2 … conservative forces only
To say it another way, ∆𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 = −∆𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 ; that is, if the kinetic energy of
a system increases, then the potential energy must decrease by
an equivalent amount to compensate.
The principle of conservation of mechanical energy for

conservative forces states that:
If only conservative forces do work, the total mechanical

energy of a system neither increases or decreases in any
process. It stays constant it is conserved.
In the next section we shall see how it is easier to use

conservation of mechanical energy, rather than the kinematics
equations and Newton’s laws. After that we will discuss how other
forms of energy can be included in the general conservation of
energy law, such as the energy associated with friction.
Efficient locomotion through springs

The hopping gait of kangaroos is exceptionally
energy efficient. Much of this efficiency comes
from the fact that kangaroos hind legs are, in
effect, big springs. The massive tendons you
see in the photo are elastic, like stiff rubber
bands. At the end of each hop, the impact
stretches these tendons, transforming energy of
motion into elastic potential energy. This stored
energy helps to launch the animal on its next
hop, thus transforming back to kinetic energy.
Because most of the kinetic energy from each
hop is saved and reused, the kangaroo’s
muscles need to add only a little kinetic energy
at the start of each hop.

5.6 Problem Solving using Conservation of Mechanical Energy
Read Chapter 6-7 Problem Solving using Conservation of Mechanical Energy, page 151
A simple example of the conservation of mechanical energy

(neglecting air resistance) is a rock allowed to fall due to earth’s
gravity from a height ℎ above the ground. If the rock starts from
rest, all of the initial energy is potential energy. As the rock falls,
the potential energy 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 decreases (because the rock’s height
above the ground 𝑦𝑦 decreases), but the rock’s kinetic energy
increases to compensate, so the sum of the two remain constant.
At any point along the path, the total mechanical energy is given
by
1
𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 + 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2 + 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
2
where 𝑣𝑣 is its speed at that point. If we let subscript 1 represent

the rock at one point along its path (for example, the initial point),
and subscript 2 represent it at some other point, then we can
write
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 1 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 2
1 1
𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣1 2 + 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣2 2 + 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑦𝑦2
2 2
Just before the rock hits the ground, where we chose 𝑦𝑦 = 0, all of the initial potential energy will have
transformed into kinetic energy.
Ex. #16 Falling Rock

(Example 6-7 Falling Rock, page 151)
If the initial height of the rock, in the example above, is 𝑦𝑦1 = ℎ = 3.0 𝑚𝑚, calculate the rock’s velocity when
it has fallen to 1.0 m above the ground.
Choose the position of y2 to be at 1m above ground level
energy at (1) = energy at (2)

1 1
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚12 + 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚1 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚22 + 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2
2 2
1 2 1
⇒ 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔1 = 𝑣𝑣22 + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔2
2 1 2
1
⇒ 0 + 9.8 × 3.0 = 2 𝑣𝑣22 + 9.8 × 1
1
⇒ 29.4 = 2 𝑣𝑣22 + 9.8
v2 = 6.2610
= 6.3 ms -1

The equations can be applied to any object moving without friction under the influence of gravity. In the
next example a roller-coaster car starts from rest at the top of a hill and coasts without friction to the
bottom and up the hill on the other side. There are other forces besides gravity acting on the car, the
normal force exerted by the tracks. But the normal force acts perpendicular to the direction of motion at
each point and so does zero work. We ignore rotational motion of the car’s wheels and treat the car as a
particle undergoing simple translation.
Ex. #17 Roller-coaster car speed using energy conservation

(Example 6-8 Roller-coaster car speed using energy conservation, page 152)
Assuming the height of the hill is 40 𝑚𝑚 and the roller-coaster
car starts from rest at the top.
Calculate
(a) the speed of the roller-coaster car at the bottom of the
hill, and
(b) at what height will it have half this speed.
Take 𝑦𝑦 = 0 at the bottom of the hill.
1 1
2 2
1 2 1
2 1 2
1 2
⇒ 0 + 9.8 × 40 = 2 𝑣𝑣2 + 0
v2 = 28 ms -1

1 1
2 2
1 2 1
2 1 2
1
⇒ 0 + 9.8 × 40 = 2 142 + 9.8 × 𝑦𝑦3
⇒ 𝑦𝑦3 = 30 𝑚𝑚
Ex. #18 Speeds on two water slides

(Conceptual Example 6-9 Speeds on two water slides, page 153)
Two water slides at a pool are shaped differently, but start at the
same height ℎ.
Two riders start from rest at the same time on different slides.
(a) Which rider, Paul or Corinne, is traveling faster at the bottom?
(b) Which rider makes it to the bottom first?
Ignore friction and assume both slides have the same path length.
(a) Each rider’s potential energy is transformed to kinetic
energy.
………………………………………………………………………….
mgh = ½ mv 2 The mass cancels so the speeds are the same.
………………………………………………………………………….
(b) Corrine is at a lower height than Paul at any instant.
………………………………………………………………………….
She converts her potential energy to kinetic energy earlier.
………………………………………………………………………….
She travels faster at all times.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Because the distance is the same, she arrives first.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

As another example of the conservation of mechanical energy, let us consider an object of mass 𝑚𝑚
connected to a compressed horizontal spring whose own mass can be neglected and whose spring
stiffness (constant) is 𝑘𝑘. When the spring is released, the mass 𝑚𝑚 has speed 𝑣𝑣 at any moment. The
1
potential energy of the system (object plus spring) is 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥 2 , where 𝑥𝑥 is the displacement of the spring
2
from its unstretched length. If neither friction nor any other force is acting, conservation of mechanical
energy tells us that
1 1 1 1
𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣1 2 + 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥1 2 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣2 2 + 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥2 2
2 2 2 2
where the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the velocity and displacement at two different moments.
Ex. #19 Toy dart gun

(Example 6-10 Toy dart gun, page 154)
A dart of mass 0.100 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 is pressed against the spring of a toy dart
gun as shown.
The spring with spring stiffness 𝑘𝑘 = 250 𝑁𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚 and negligible mass,
is compressed 6.0 cm and released.
If the dart detaches from the spring when the spring reaches its
natural length (𝑥𝑥 = 0), what speed does the dart acquire?
E1 = E2
1 1 1 1
𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣1 2 + 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥1 2 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣2 2 + 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥2 2
2 2 2 2
1 1
0 + × 250 × 0.0602 = × 0.100 × 𝑣𝑣22 + 0
2 2
⇒ 𝑣𝑣2 = 3.0 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1
Ex. #20 Mass and pulley system

Two unequal masses are connected by a massless
cord passing over a frictionless pulley as shown.
Considering the two masses as a system, which of
the following statements is true about the gravitational
potential energy and the kinetic energy after the
masses are released?
A. 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 increases and 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 increases
B. 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 decreases and 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 increases
C. Both 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 and 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 remain constant.

Ex. #21 Potential energy on an air track

A glider with mass 𝑚𝑚 = 0.200 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 sits on a frictionless,
horizontal air track, connected to a spring of negligible
mass with a force constant 𝑘𝑘 = 5.00 𝑁𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚.
You pull on the glider, stretching the spring 0.100 𝑚𝑚,
and then release it with zero initial velocity.
The glider begins to move back towards its equilibrium
position (𝑥𝑥 = 0).
What is its speed when 𝑥𝑥 = 0.0800 𝑚𝑚?
1 1 1
𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥1 2 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣2 2 + 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥2 2
2 2 2
1 1 1
⇒ × 5.0 × 0.1002 = × 0.200 × 𝑣𝑣22 + × 5.0 × 0.0802
2 2 2
1
⇒ 0.025 = 0.100 × 𝑣𝑣22 + × 0.016
2
⇒ 𝑣𝑣2 = 0.300 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1
Ex. #22 Total Mechanical Energy

Two blocks with masses 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 and 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 , where 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 > 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 , are
attached to a thin string that passes over a frictionless pulley.
The larger mass is resting on a spring that is compressed a
distance 𝑠𝑠 from its equilibrium position.
The spring’s compression is maintained by a trigger
mechanism.
What is the total mechanical energy for this system?
Take EP = 0 at ground level.
1
A. 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑔𝑔ℎ𝐴𝐴 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑔𝑔ℎ𝐵𝐵 + 𝑘𝑘ℎ𝐴𝐴 2
2
1
B. 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑔𝑔ℎ𝐴𝐴 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑔𝑔ℎ𝐵𝐵 + 𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠 2
2
1
C. 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑔𝑔ℎ𝐴𝐴 − 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑔𝑔ℎ𝐵𝐵 + 𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠 2
2

Ex. #23 Two kinds of potential energy
(Example 6-11 Two kinds of potential energy, page 154)
A ball of mass 𝑚𝑚 = 2.60 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, starting from rest, falls a
vertical distance ℎ = 55.0 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 before striking a vertical coiled
spring, which it compresses an amount 𝑌𝑌 = 15 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.
Determine the spring constant 𝑘𝑘 of the spring.
Assume that the spring has negligible mass, and ignore air
resistance.
Measure all distances from the point where the ball first
touches the uncompressed spring (𝑦𝑦 = 0 at this point).
EP = 0 at y = y2
E1 = E 3
1
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × −𝑌𝑌 + 𝑘𝑘𝑌𝑌 2
2
1 2
⇒ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ + 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑘𝑘𝑌𝑌
2
1
⇒ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚(ℎ + 𝑌𝑌) = 𝑘𝑘𝑌𝑌 2
2
2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚(ℎ+𝑌𝑌)
⇒ 𝑘𝑘 =
𝑌𝑌 2
2 × 2.60 × 9.80 × (0.55+0.15)
=
0.152
= 1585.4
= 1590 Nm -1
Alternatively, we can take EP = 0 at the lowest position
again, E1 = E3
1
⇒ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚(ℎ + 𝑌𝑌) = 𝑘𝑘𝑌𝑌 2 ⇒ same solution and result
2
Problems Booklet A: q 5, 6, 7.

Ex. #24 Calculating speed along a vertical circle

Your cousin Throcky skateboards
down a quarter-pipe with radius
𝑅𝑅 = 3.0 𝑚𝑚.
The total mass of Throcky and
the skateboard is 25.0 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘.
He starts from rest and there is
no friction,
(a) Determine his speed at the
bottom of the ramp. (Throcky’s
centre of mass moves in a circle
with radius somewhat smaller
than 𝑅𝑅; neglect this small
difference).
(b), Determine the normal force 𝑛𝑛
which acts on him and his
skateboard at the bottom of the
ramp.
E1 = E 2
1
⇒ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 2 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓2
⇒ 𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓 = �2𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
= √2 × 9.8 × 3.0
= 7.6681
= 7.7 ms -1
Σ 𝐹𝐹𝑣𝑣 = Fc
⇒ 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 = 𝐹𝐹𝑁𝑁 − 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

⇒ 𝐹𝐹𝑁𝑁 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 + 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓2
= 𝑅𝑅
+ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑣𝑣 2
= 𝑚𝑚 � 𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 + 𝑔𝑔�
7.66812
= 25× � 3.0 + 9.80�
= 735
= 740 N upwards

Ex. #25
In a roller coaster ride, the speed of the trolley is
not constant. Assume that any work done by
frictional forces is zero.
The mass of the trolley is 120 kg.
The radius of the circular motion is 15 m.
The trolley is moving at 14 ms-1 at the highest
point.
a). What will be the velocity of the trolley at the
lowest point in the circular motion?
m = 120 kg
r = 15 m, h = 2 × r
vB = 14 ms -1
vA = ?
EP A + EK A = EP B + EK B
⇒ 0 + ½ m vA 2 = m g 2 r + ½ m vB 2
⇒ ½ vA 2 = g 2 r + ½ vB 2
⇒ vA 2 = 4 g r + vB 2
= 4 × 9.80 × 15 + 14 2
= 784
⇒ vA = 28 ms -1
(Note that if vA = 0 ⇒ vB = √ (4 × 15 × 9.80 ) = 24.25 ms -1 )

b). What will be the required support (reaction) forces necessary from the frame of the track at the
lowest and highest point in the trolleys motion?
FS = FC + m g (from the introduction to this topic …)

In this problem, FC is a different magnitude at the top and at the bottom, because the speed is different.
Top: Bottom:
FS = FC – m g FS = FC + m g
= m ac - m g = m ac + m g
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2
= 𝑟𝑟 - m g = 𝑟𝑟 + m g
𝑣𝑣 2 𝑣𝑣 2
= 𝑚𝑚 � 𝑟𝑟 − 𝑔𝑔� = 𝑚𝑚 � 𝑟𝑟 + 𝑔𝑔�
142 282
= 120 × � 15 − 9.80� = 120 × � 15 + 9.80�
= 392 N (downwards) = 7448 N
= 390 N down = 7400 N up

Ex. #26 Elevator Safety (or not)

A 2000 kg elevator with broken cables is
falling at 8.00 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 when it first makes
contact with a cushioning spring at the bottom
of a shaft.
The spring is supposed to stop the elevator,
compressing 3.00 𝑚𝑚 as it does so.
Determine what the force constant 𝑘𝑘 of the
spring should be.
Ignore air resistance and friction in the
elevator guides.
At the initial point, the elevator just touches the spring, total energy of E1
At the final point, the elevator has stopped, total energy of E2
E1 = E 2
1 1
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ + 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣12 = 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥 2
2 2
1
2000 × 9.8 × 3.00 + ½ × 2000 × 8.002 = × 𝑘𝑘 × 3.002
2
⇒ 58,800 + 64,000 = 4.5 𝑘𝑘
⇒ k = 27,289
= 27,300 𝑁𝑁𝑚𝑚−1
Problems Booklet A: q 8, 9.

5.7 Other Forms of Energy; The Law of Conservation of Energy
Read Chapter 6-8 Other Forms of Energy; The Law of Conservation of Energy, page 155
Besides the kinetic energy and potential energy of mechanical

systems, other forms of energy can be defined as well. These
include electric energy, nuclear energy, thermal energy, and the
chemical energy stored in food and fuels. These other forms of
energy are considered to be kinetic or potential energy at the
atomic or molecular level. For example, according to atomic
theory, thermal energy is the kinetic energy of rapidly moving
molecules – when an object is heated, the molecules that make
up the object move faster. On the other hand, the energy stored
in food or in a fuel such as gasoline is regarded as potential
energy stored by virtue of the relative positions of the atoms
(chemical bonds). The energy in chemical bonds can be
released through chemical reactions. This is analogous to a
compressed spring which, when released, can do work. Electric,
magnetic, and nuclear energies can also be considered
examples of kinetic and potential (stored) energies. We will deal
with these other forms of energies in later topics.
Energy can be transformed from one form to another. A rock

falling through the air is an example where potential energy is
converted to kinetic energy.
Often the transformation of energy involves the transfer of

energy from one object to another. In Ex. #18 energy is
transferred from the spring to a dart, from elastic potential
energy to kinetic energy. In Ex. #24 the kinetic energy of a falling
elevator transfers to a spring which gains elastic potential
energy. The potential energy stored in a bent bow can be
transformed into kinetic energy of the arrow – see the diagram at
right.
In each of these examples, the transfer of energy is

accompanied by the performance of work. The spring does work
on the dart, the elevator does work on the spring, and the bow
does work on the arrow.
Work is done when energy is transferred from one

object to another.
One of the great results of physics is that whenever energy to

transferred, it is found that no energy is gained or lost in the
process. This is the law of conservation of energy – it can be
stated as:
The total energy is neither increased nor decreased in any

process. Energy can be transformed from one form to
another, and transferred from one object to another, but the
total amount remains constant.

5.8 Energy Conservation with Dissipative Forces; Solving Problems

Read Chapter 6-9 Energy Conservation with Dissipative Forces; Solving Problems, page 156
In our applications of energy conservation in Section 5.6, we neglected friction and other non-
conservative forces. But in many situations they cannot be ignored. In a real situation, the roller-coaster
car in Ex. #16, for example, will not in fact reach the same height on the second hill as it had on the first
hill because of friction. In this, and in other natural processes, the mechanical energy (sum of kinetic and
potential energies) does not remain constant but decreases. Because frictional forces reduce the
mechanical energy (but not the total energy), they are called dissipative forces. Historically, the
presence of dissipative forces hindered the formulation of a comprehensive conservation of energy law
until well into the nineteenth century. It was only then that heat, which is always produced when there is
friction (try rubbing your hands together), was interpreted in terms of energy. Scientists demonstrated
that if heat is considered as a transfer of energy (thermal energy), then the total energy is conserved in
any process. For example, if the roller-coaster car in Ex. #16 is subject to frictional forces, then the initial
total energy of the car will be equal to the kinetic plus potential energy of the car at any subsequent point
along its path plus the amount of thermal energy produced in the process (equal to the work done by
friction).
In Section 5.5 we saw that the total mechanical energy of a system is a conserved quantity and we
concluded:
𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝1 + 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘1 = 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝2 + 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘2 … for conservative forces only
We may rewrite this and include 𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 – the work done by any nonconservative forces
(𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝1 + 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘1 ) ± 𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝2 + 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘2 … for both conservative and non-conservative forces
In other words,
𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 1 ± 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 2
The work done by non-conservative forces is positive when the force has a component in the same
direction as the displacement (𝜙𝜙 between zero and 90°), cos 𝜙𝜙 is positive; and 𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑 cos ∅. An
example of this force would be the thrust force from an engine of a locomotive or an aeroplane.
The work done by non-conservative forces is negative when the force has a component opposite to the
displacement (𝜙𝜙 between 90° and 270°), cos 𝜙𝜙 is negative; and 𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑 cos ∅. An example of this
force would be the friction force or air resistance force which acts on a moving roller-coaster car.
Typically, when solving problems at this level, non-conservative forces are either exactly in the direction
of the displacement (∅ = 0°, cos ∅ = 1, ∴ 𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = + 𝐹𝐹 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑 ); or exactly in the opposite direction to the
displacement (∅ = 180°, cos ∅ = −1, ∴ 𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = − 𝐹𝐹 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑 ).
You may wonder sometimes whether to approach a problem using work and energy, or instead to use
Newton’s laws. As a rough guideline, if the force(s) involved are constant, either approach may succeed.
If the forces are not constant, and/or the path is not simple, energy may be the better approach because
energy is a scalar.

Ex. #27 Friction on the roller-coaster car
(Example 6-12 Estimate: Friction on the roller-coaster car,
The roller-coaster car in Ex. #17 reaches a vertical height of only
25 𝑚𝑚 on the second hill, where is slows to a momentary stop.
The car travelled a total distance of 400 𝑚𝑚.
Determine the thermal energy produced and estimate the
average friction force (assume that it is roughly constant) which
acts on the car.
The mass of the car is 1000 kg.
𝐸𝐸1 ± 𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐸𝐸2
⇒ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ − 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ′ 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
⇒ ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚(ℎ − ℎ′ ) = 1000 × 9.80 × (40 − 25) = 147,000 𝐽𝐽

ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 147,000
As 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑 ≡ ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⇒ 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 = 𝑑𝑑
=
400
= 367.5 = 370 𝑁𝑁
Ex. #28 A train climbs an incline

A 180 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (𝑡𝑡) train climbs an incline of 1.5° for 2.0 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘.
It’s initial velocity before the climb is 90 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘ℎ𝑟𝑟 −1.
The tractive effort exerted by the engine is 53.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, and the tractive resistance is 95 𝑁𝑁𝑡𝑡 −1 .
Determine the final speed after the climb.
m = 180 × 10 3 kg
θ = 1.5°
d = 2000 m
vi = 90 kmh -1 = 25 ms -1
FEngine = 53,200 N
FFriction = -95 × 180 = 17,100 N
h = 2000 sin1.5° = 52.35 m
(EP1 + EK1 + ES1) + WEngine –WFriction = (EP2 + EK2 + ES2)
Take the bottom of hill as datum (h = 0)

⇒ 0 + ½ m vi 2 + 0 + FEngine d - FFriction d = m g h + ½ m vf 2+ 0
⇒ ( ½ × 180 × 10 3 × 25 2 ) ( 53,200 × 2000 ) – ( 17,100 × 2000 ) = ( 180 × 10 3 × 9.81 × 52.35 )

+ ( ½ × 180 × 10 3 × vf 2 )
⇒ 56.25 × 10 6 + 106.4 × 10 6 – 34.2 × 10 6 = 92.44 × 10 6 + 90 × 10 3 vf 2
⇒ vf 2 = 36.01 × 10 6 / 90 × 10 3
⇒ vf = 20.0 ms -1 The train has slowed down by 5 ms -1 when it reaches the top of the incline.
Note how each term in the equation is evaluated, to give a better understanding where the energy changes
are going.

Ex. #29 Work and Energy on an air track

For the system in Ex. #21, suppose the glider is initially at rest
at 𝑥𝑥 = 0, with the spring unstretched.
You then apply a constant force 𝐹𝐹⃗ with magnitude 0.610 𝑁𝑁 to
the glider.
What is the glider’s speed when it has moved to 𝑥𝑥 = 0.100 𝑚𝑚?
𝐸𝐸1 ± 𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐸𝐸2

1 1
⇒ 0 + 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 2 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥𝑓𝑓2 + 2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓2
1 1
⇒ 0.610 × 0.100 = 2 × 5.00 × 0.1002 + 2 × 0.200 × 𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓2
⇒ 0.0610 = 0.025 + 0.100𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓2
⇒ 𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓 = 0.600 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 −1
Ex. #30 Throcky on the half-pipe again

Suppose the ramp in Ex. #24 is not frictionless
and that Throcky’s speed at the bottom is only
7.00 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠.
What work has been done by the frictional force
acting on him?
𝐸𝐸1 ± 𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐸𝐸2

1
⇒ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ − 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑 = 2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓2
1
⇒ 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ − 2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓2
1
= 25.00 × 9.80 × 3.0 − × 25.0 × 72
2
= 735 − 612.5
= 122.5 = 123 𝐽𝐽
The total mechanical energy decreases by 123 J
If we know d, we can calculate the average friction force

2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋×3 123
𝑑𝑑 = = = 4.712 𝑚𝑚 ⇒ 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 = = 26.1 𝑁𝑁
4 4 4.712

Ex. #31 Loading a crate onto a truck
A crate full of machine parts sits on the floor; the total
mass is 8.0 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘.
The crate must be raised to the floor of a truck by
sliding it up a ramp of 2.5 𝑚𝑚 long, inclined at 30°.
The shop foreman, giving no thought to the force of
friction, calculates that he can get the crate up the
ramp by giving it an initial speed of 5.0 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠 at the
bottom and letting it go.
Unfortunately, friction is not negligible; the crate slides
1.6 𝑚𝑚 up the ramp, stops, and slides back down.
(a) Assuming that the friction force acting on the crate
is constant, find its magnitude.
(b) How fast is the crate moving when it reaches the bottom of the ramp?
(a) 𝐸𝐸1 ± 𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐸𝐸2
𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 − 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑 − 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ
1
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚12 − 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑 − 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ
2
1
× 8.0 × 5.02 − 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 × 1.6 = 8.0 × 9.8 × 0.8
2
100 − 1.5 × 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 = 62.72
⇒ 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 = 23.3 = 23 𝑁𝑁
(b) 𝐸𝐸2 ± 𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐸𝐸3

1
⇒ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ − 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣32
2
1
⇒ 8.0 × 9.8 × 0.8 − 23.3 × 1.6 = 2 × 8.0 × 𝑣𝑣32
⇒ 62.72 − 37.28 = 4.0𝑣𝑣32
⇒ 25.44 = 4.0𝑣𝑣32
⇒ 𝑣𝑣3 = 2.52 = 2.5 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 −1
1
⇒ 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = × 8.0 × 5.02 = 100 𝐽𝐽
2
1
⇒ 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = × 8.0 × 2.52 = 25 𝐽𝐽
2
Hence the kinetic energy has reduced from 100 J initially to 25 J finally.
The crate’s speed and kinetic energy when it returns to the bottom of the ramp are less than when it left.
Mechanical energy has been lost to friction and converted to heat.
Problems Booklet A: q 10.

Extra for Experts!

Ex. #32 Forces on a hammerhead
In a pile driver, a steel hammerhead with mass 200 kg is lifted
3.00 m above the top of a vertical I-beam being driven into
the ground.
The hammer is then dropped, driving the I-beam 7.40 cm
farther into the ground.
The vertical rails that guide the hammerhead exert a constant
60.0 N friction force on it.
Use the work-energy principle to find:
(a) the speed of the hammerhead just as it hits the I-beam
(b) the average force the hammerhead exerts on the I-beam.
(a) The kinetic energy at point 2 equals the gravitational

potential energy at point 1, less the work done on the
hammerhead by friction in the guide rails.
𝐸𝐸𝑃𝑃 1 − 𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝐸𝐸𝐾𝐾 2

1
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ − 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣22
2
1
(200 × 9.8 × 3) − (60 × 3) = × 200 × 𝑣𝑣22
2
5880−180
⇒ 𝑣𝑣2 = � = 7.5498 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1
100
b) When the I-beam stops, all of the kinetic energy of the hammerhead has been
converted to heat by the friction of the guide rails on the hammerhead and the friction
from the ground on the I-beam.
(We are assuming no energy is lost as heat or noise in the collision of the hammerhead
with the I-beam. We are also assuming the hammerhead stops when it hits the pile and
does not bounce back up. For this to happen, they must have equal mass. This is
discussed more in Topic 6, Linear Momentum).
𝐸𝐸𝑃𝑃 1 − 𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 − 𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 0
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ − 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑 − 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑑𝑑 = 0
(200 × 9.8 × 3.074) − (60 × 3.074) − (𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 × 0.074) = 0

6025.04−184.44
𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = = 78,927 = 78.9 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
0.074
Of interest is the magnitude of the deceleration of the

hammerhead:
𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓2 −𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖2 0−7.54982
𝑎𝑎 = = = 385.1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 −2 (𝑎𝑎 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
2𝑑𝑑 2×0.074
⇒ 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 200 × 385.1 = 77026 𝑁𝑁

This same force is applied to the I-beam (Newton’s 3rd Law)
Adding the vertical forces on the hammerhead:

𝛴𝛴 𝐹𝐹𝑣𝑣 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ⇒ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 − 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
⇒ −77,026 = 1960 − 60 − 78927 which balances, agreeing with the values earlier!

5.9 Power
Read Chapter 6-10 Power, page 159
Power is defined as the rate at which work is done. Average power equals the work done divided by the
time to do that work. Power can also be defined as the rate at which energy is transformed. Thus
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑃𝑃� = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = =
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
The power rating of an engine refers to how much chemical or electrical energy can be transformed into
mechanical energy per unit time. In SI units, power is measured in joules per second, and this unit is
given a special name, the watt (𝑊𝑊): 1 𝑊𝑊 = 1 𝐽𝐽⁄𝑠𝑠. We are most familiar with the watt for electrical
devices, such as the rate at which an electrical lightbulb or heater changes electrical energy into light or
thermal energy. But the watt is used for other types of energy transformations as well.
For practical purposes, a larger unit of power is used, the horsepower. One horsepower (ℎ𝑝𝑝) is defined
1
as 746 𝑊𝑊. An engine’s power is usually specified in ℎ𝑝𝑝 or in 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 1 ℎ𝑝𝑝).
3
To see the distinction between energy and power, consider the following example. A person is limited in
the work he or she can do, not only by the total energy required, but also by how fast this energy is
transformed: that is, by power. For example, a person may be able to walk a long distance or climb many
flights of stairs before having to stop because so much energy has been expended. On the other hand, a
person who runs very quickly up stairs may feel exhausted after only a flight or two. He or she is limited
in this case by power, the rate at which his or her body can transform chemical energy into mechanical
energy.
Ex. #33 A marathon stair climb

As part of a charity fund-raising drive, a
Chicago marathon runner with mass
50.0 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 runs up the stairs to the top of the
Willis Tower, the tallest building in Chicago
(443 𝑚𝑚), in 15.0 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.
What is her average power output in watts?
In kilowatts?
In horsepower?
The work done by her is her weight

multiplied by the height she climbs, h.
𝑊𝑊 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × ℎ = 50 × 9.8 × 443 = 217,070 𝐽𝐽

𝑊𝑊 217,070
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = = = 241.19 = 242 𝑊𝑊 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 0.242 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 15×60
𝑊𝑊 𝐹𝐹×𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = = = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 0.242 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 242.19
In horsepower, 𝑃𝑃 = 746
=
746
= 0.323 ℎ𝑝𝑝

When a force acts on a moving object, it does work on the object (unless the force and velocity are
always perpendicular). The corresponding power can be expressed in terms of force and velocity.
Suppose a force 𝐹𝐹⃗ acts on an object while it undergoes a vector displacement ∆𝑑𝑑⃗. The work done by this
force is ∆𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹 ⋅ ∆𝑑𝑑, and the average power is
𝐹𝐹⋅∆𝑑𝑑 ∆𝑑𝑑
𝑃𝑃� = ∆𝑡𝑡 = 𝐹𝐹 ⋅ ∆𝑡𝑡 = 𝐹𝐹 ⋅ 𝑣𝑣̅
Ex. #34 Power in a jet engine

A jet airplane engine develops a thrust (a forward force on the plane) of 15,000 𝑁𝑁.
When a plane is flying at 305 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠, what horsepower does the engine develop?
𝑃𝑃 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 15,000 × 305 = 4.575 × 106 𝑊𝑊
4.575×106
ℎ𝑝𝑝 = 746
= 6132.7 − 6130 ℎ𝑝𝑝
Automobiles do work to overcome the force of friction and air resistance, to climb hills and to accelerate.
A car is limited by the rate at which it can do work, which is why automobile engines are rated in
horsepower or kilowatts. A car needs power most when climbing hills and when accelerating. In the last
example, we will calculate how much power is needed in these situations for a car of reasonable size.
Even when a car travels on a level road at constant speed, it needs some power just to do work to
overcome the retarding forces of internal friction and air resistance. These forces depend upon the
conditions and the speed of the car, but are typically in the range 400 𝑁𝑁 to 1000 𝑁𝑁.
Problems Booklet A: q 1, 2.

Ex. #35 Power needs of a car
(Example 6-14 Power needs of a car, page 160)
Calculate the power required of a 1400 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 car under the
following circumstances:
(a) The car climbs a 10° hill (a fairly steep hill) at a
steady 80 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚⁄ℎ.
(b) The car accelerates along a level road from 90 to
110 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄ℎ in 6.0 𝑠𝑠 to pass another car.
Assume, in both situations, the average retarding force
on the car is 𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 = 700 𝑁𝑁.
a) 𝛴𝛴 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 0 (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣)

⇒ 𝐹𝐹 − 𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 − 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 10° = 0
⇒ 𝐹𝐹 = 700 + 1400 × 9.8 × 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 10° = 3082.4 𝑁𝑁
80
⇒ 𝑃𝑃 = 𝐹𝐹 𝑣𝑣 = 3082.5 × 3.6 = 68499 = 68.5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
b) 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 = 90 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘ℎ−1 = 25.00 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 −1 𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓 = 110 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘ℎ−1 = 30.56 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 −1
𝑣𝑣 −𝑣𝑣 30.56−25 𝑣𝑣 2 −𝑣𝑣 2 30.562 −252
𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑓𝑓𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 𝑖𝑖 = = 0.9267 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 −2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑 = 𝑓𝑓2𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖 = 2×0.9267 = 166.67 𝑚𝑚
6.0
𝛴𝛴 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 𝐹𝐹 − 𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 ⇒ 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 = 1400 × 0.9267 + 700 = 1997 𝑁𝑁
𝑃𝑃 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 1997 × 30.56 = 61040 = 61 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 82 ℎ𝑝𝑝
Compare this with the average power, calculated by the work done divided by time
𝐹𝐹 ×𝑑𝑑 1997×166.67
⇒ 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
=
6
= 55.5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 75 ℎ𝑝𝑝
Why the difference? 55 kW is the average power supplied.

To be able to maintain the acceleration of 0.93 ms -2, the power must increase with speed, to the
maximum value of 61 kW.

Glossary of Terms
Work (done on an The work done on an object by a constant force is defined to be the product of the
object by constant magnitude of the displacement times the component of the force parallel to the
force) displacement.
Work A process where energy changes from one form to another.
Work done… The work done on an object by a constant force (constant in both magnitude and
direction) is defined to be the product of the magnitude of the displacement times the
component of the force parallel to the displacement.
Energy The ability to do work.
Kinetic Energy The energy that a body has due to its motion.
Work-Energy The net work done on an object is equal to the change in the object’s kinetic energy.
Principle
Gravitational The energy that a body has due to its height above some reference level.
Potential Energy
Elastic Potential Energy stored in a compressed or stretched spring, or other flexible material.
Energy
Hooke’s Law The force required to stretch or compress an elastic material is directly proportional to its
compression or extension.
Mechanical Is the sum of kinetic and potential energy in an object that is used to do work. In other
Energy words, it is energy in an object due to its motion or position, or both.
Conservative Forces where the work done does not depend upon the path taken but only on the initial
Forces and final positions.
Non-Conservative Forces where the work done does not depend upon the path taken.
Forces
Dissipative forces Forces which convert mechanical energy to heat.
Conservation of Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be changed from one form to another.
total energy
Power The rate at which work is done.
Formulae – Work and Energy
𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 cos 𝜃𝜃
𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = Δ𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
�𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝1 + 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘1 + 𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠1 � ± 𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝2 + 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘2 + 𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠2
𝑊𝑊 Δ𝐸𝐸
𝑃𝑃 = = = 𝐹𝐹𝑣𝑣̅
Δ𝑡𝑡 Δ𝑡𝑡
1
𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘(𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙) = 2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2
1
𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝(𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒) = 2 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥 2
𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝(𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔) = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ

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Student Name: ……………………………………….

ID #: …………………………………… Physics Semester 2, 2019 – TOPIC NOTES

Topic 5: Work and Energy © UP International College New Zealand

A skier starts at the top of a hill.

5.1 Work Done by a Constant Force

In equation form we can write:

Topic 5: Work and Energy © UP International College New Zealand Page 2

We can also write:

As this example shows, in SI units work is measured in

If the person moves the bag horizontally at constant velocity, does he do

Topic 5: Work and Energy © UP International College New Zealand Page 3

Ex. #1 Does the earth do work on the moon?

(c) No work is done, as there is no force applied to the moon in the

Topic 5: Work and Energy © UP International College New Zealand Page 4

Ex. #2 Work done on a crate

Fnet = FP cos θ - Ffr

WP = FP × x × cosθ = 100 × 40 × cos 37° = 3200 J

Hence net work = 3200 – 2000 = 1200 J, as before

Try 6-1 Exercise A, page 140

Topic 5: Work and Energy © UP International College New Zealand Page 5

Acceleration is zero, so horizontal forces on the backpack are zero.

Applying Newton’s 2nd Law in the vertical direction, seeing motion

b) The work done by gravity is negative, as the displacement is

Topic 5: Work and Energy © UP International College New Zealand Page 6

Ex. #4 Sliding down a ramp

Force down the ramp = mg sinβ

Because the only force doing work on the package is gravity,

Topic 5: Work and Energy © UP International College New Zealand Page 7

Work done by the tractor = Ftractor x × displacement

Work done by friction = - Ffr × displacement

Hence work done on the sled = Wtractor + Wfr

Fnet = Ftractor × cosθ – Ffr

Topic 5: Work and Energy © UP International College New Zealand Page 8

5.2 Kinetic Energy, and the Work-Energy Principle

“energy is the ability to do work”.

“work is a process where energy changes from one form to other”.

Topic 5: Work and Energy © UP International College New Zealand Page 9

Ex. #6 Work on a car to increase its kinetic energy

Topic 5: Work and Energy © UP International College New Zealand Page 10

Try 6-3 Exercise B, page 144

More work is required to accelerate from 20 to 30 ms -1, than from 0 to 20 ms -1

Ex. #7 Work to stop a car

Given that F and m are constant, this shows us that d is proportional to v2

Hence if v is doubled, the stopping distance will increase 4 times, to 80 m

Try 6-3 Exercise C, page 145

Try 6-3 Exercise D, page 145

b) v doubled ⇒ EK increased by 4 times

Topic 5: Work and Energy © UP International College New Zealand Page 11

⇒ 10,000 = ½ × 1500 × (vf 2 – 2 2 )

Topic 5: Work and Energy © UP International College New Zealand Page 12

5.3 Potential Energy

Gravitational Potential Energy

Consider the diagram at right. For an object of mass 𝑚𝑚 to be lifted

𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑 cos 0 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚(𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 )

Therefore, to raise an object of mass m to a height h requires an

𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ [J]

Topic 5: Work and Energy © UP International College New Zealand Page 13

Ex. #10 Potential energy changes for a roller coaster

a) What is the gravitational potential energy at points 2 and 3 relative to point 1?