Key Project Management Concepts

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Basics of Project Management
1.1 Introduction
• A farmer taking up crop cultivation
• A construction company constructing a bridge
• Railways changing the meter gauge railway track to broad gauge
• An FMCG company introducing its products into a new virgin market
• A company hiring fresh graduates
• A student pursuing MBA
What is common to all these? All these are projects.
A project is not merely establishing an industry or constructing a building. It is
just something new, something unique, planned and executed for good.

1.2 Definition of Project

PMBOK (Project Management Body of Knowledge) defines project as a temporary
endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service. Temporary means
that every project has a definite end, and Unique means that the product or service is
different from all similar products or services.

Project can also be defined as a single use plan to achieve a certain objective of
introducing something unique or a change and ensure that progress is maintained in line
with the objective, generally in terms of time, cost, and various technical and quality
performance parameters. The following are the important aspects of a project:
• Starting date
• Specific goals and conditions
• Defined responsibilities
• Budget
• Planning
• Fixed end date
• Parties involved

Project Management
Project management is a methodical approach to planning and guiding project processes
from start to finish. It is the method of planning the plan. It starts from project
definitions and ends with goal achievement.

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PMBOK defines project management as the application of knowledge, skill, tool
and techniques to project activities in order to meet stakeholder’s needs and
expectations from a project.

1.3 Project Characteristics

The various characteristics of the project are
• Fixed set of objectives: The project starts when the objective(s) is finalized.
The project comes to an end as soon as the objectives are attained.
• Tenure: Project is never a continuous activity, it has to come to an end. Its life
span is fixed.
• Team work: It needs a team to accomplish various activities.
• Unique: All projects are unique in themselves, no two projects are exactly
similar.
• Life cycle: Like all living organisms, project starts slowly (definition phase), then
starts building up in size (planning phase), then reaches peak (implementation
phase) before finally getting terminated.
• Made to order: The customer always decides the objective and informs the
constraints like time and cost.
• Single entity: Generally, projects are the responsibilities of a single person/
entity but certainly there are many participants in a project, who are helping the
single entity in the accomplishment of project objectives.
• Multi-skilled staff: The staff needed for a project, including the project
manager needs to have a wide range of skills including technical skills, human
skills, financial skills, negotiation skills, etc.
• Subcontracting: Subcontracting is practically unavoidable in project
management. As specialized knowledge or workforce is needed for a very small
duration in a project, it is difficult and costly to employ or retain. Therefore, they
are just hired for small duration or specific job from outside agency.
• Risk and uncertainty: Projects are risky as the activities involved in projects
are non-retrievable. Thus, risk is unavoidable. However, risk can be reduced
considerably using various forecasting techniques and project management and
control tools.
1.4 Objectives of Project management

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There are four major objectives of project management
• Scope: Scope means what are the expectations from you as a project manager
and your team. A civil contractor always has well-defined scope, like all civil
works including excavation, foundation, concreting, brickwork, plastering of all
walls as per the attached drawings.
• Performance: A project is always expected to have a well-defined performance
level. If a project is unable to adhere to the desired performance of a customer,
it is certainly an unsuccessful project.
• Time: A successful project is the one which is completed within the time limits
perceived during the planning. As the cost is dependent on time, time
management becomes a crucial activity of project management.
• Cost: It is dependent on all the above objectives. Mathematically it can be
written as: Cost = f (P, T, S).
Therefore, cost is a function of performance, time and scope. If any of the above
increases, it is surely going to increase the cost of the project.
Another approach in defining the objectives is the SMART approach.
o Specific: Project should target a specific goal
o Measurable: It should be quantifiable
o Attainable: It should be attainable with resources available
o Realistic: It should be realistic in nature
o Time Limit: There should be fixed time limits

Project Life Cycle and its Classification

2.1. Project life cycle and its phases
Project life cycle divides the sequence of operations of project in to different phases.
Regardless of scope or complexity, any project goes through a series of stages during its
life. Project activities must be grouped into phases to facilitate project manager and his
team to plan and organize various inputs effectively. It also helps in identifying
deviations and thus helps in decision making with regard to continuation or termination
of the project.
Generally, there are four stages of project life cycle which are
2.1.1. Idea Generation (Concept Phase)
Anyone who is planning to invest starts searching everywhere for new ideas. One can
start a new project by defining its objectives, scope, purpose and deliverables to be

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produced. He will also hire his project team, set up the project office and review the
project, to gain approval to begin the next phase. The basic processes of this initiation
phase are
• Project document: This is a statement describing the characteristics of the
project undertaken.
• Project feasibility document: This contains constraints and alternative
solutions. The four steps in the project feasibility study are:
o Problem description
o Approach to be used
o Alternate generations for solving the problem
o Preliminary recommendations
• Project concept document: It will answer the following questions
o What is to be done?
o How will it be done?
o Why is it to be done?
• Project charter: Project charter formally communicates the initiation of the
project. It consists of project scope, project authority and KSF (Key Success
Factors).
During this phase, project team is responsible for the following activities:
• Conducting interviews with customers and stakeholders
• Conducting research for generating more necessary information.
• Preparing project feasibility document, project concept statement and project
• charter.
2.1.2. Project Planning Phase
Project planning phase follows the project initiation phase. Countless hours during the
succeeding phases can be saved with proper planning.
The purpose of the project planning phase is to:
• Determine project requirements
• Decide project cost and schedules
• Search for sources of all resources
The basic processes of the project planning phase are:
• Defining the scope: Define the scope of the project and its limitations.

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 • Preparing the work breakdown structure: Divide the whole project into
smaller activities
• Role assignment: Assign jobs to individuals or group of individuals as
predefined activities or tasks.
• Project scheduling: Determine optimum schedule of the project and show it on
a Gantt Chart.
• Fund allocation: Allocation of funds for individual activities.
Other subsidiary processes in the planning stage are:
• Risk management planning: It includes identification of possible causes
and effect of the risks and trying to reduce the impact of risk.
• Procurement planning: Decisions regarding all products, services or
resources needed to accomplish the project.
In the planning stage, various steps are taken which includes:
• Final techno-economic feasibility of the project: This is the last chance
for changing the decision, as after this stage, it proves too closely to shut
down the project or change the project.
• Basic engineering and process design: The process is selected and basic
engineering is done. The documents with respect to equipment specification
are prepared.
• Division of work/responsibilities: Different activities are allocated to
individuals or groups.
• Identify potential vendors and subcontractors: No project is complete
without the help of outside expert agencies called subcontractors. The potential
suppliers of various equipment, civil construction agencies and similar agencies
are identified and negotiated.
• Detailed engineering design: based on the designs of equipment supplier,
detailed engineering is performed. The final layout is prepared and the work
schedule prepared.
• Final estimation of the cost of the project: The above steps leads to
finalizing quite accurate cost of the project. This is essential as the next step
would involve arrangement of funds.
• Decision of capital structure and means of finance: The final decision with
respect to financing the project is needed during the planning phase. It is a

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 crucial decision generally taken by core strategic group with the advice of finance
managers.
• Final schedule of implementation (next phase): The next phase will be
implementation. A proper schedule of implementation is essential to avoid
confusions. The schedule of implementation tells all the members of the team
when a particular activity should start and end. It will provide the milestones of
every activity. The techniques used are PERT, CPM, Gantt chart, crashing
resource allocation and resource leveling.t

2.1.3. Implementation or Execution Phase

Project execution is characterized by the actual work on the tasks planned and project
control involves the comparison of the actual performance with the planned
performance and taking appropriate corrective action to get the desired output.

During this phase, project team is responsible for the following activities:
• The team members perform the tasks allocated in the earlier phase under the
supervision of the project manager and report to him.
• Project manager is responsible for performance measurement, which includes
finding variances with respect to cost, schedule and scope.
• Project manager is responsible for providing project status report to all key
stakeholders. He should specifically inform the deviation from the plan to the
stakeholders. He should also determine the root cause for the deviations and
suggest the alternate actions to encounter the deviation caused or expected. This
helps stakeholders to decide the corrective action to be taken.
• All project key stakeholders are responsible for the review of the variances.
• All project key stakeholders are responsible for taking necessary action of the
variances thus determined so as to complete the project within time and cost.
The basic process of the project execution can be:
• Execution of the project plan
• Handle the changes
• Project control
The subsidiary processes during project execution can be:
• Quality control

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 • Performance monitoring
• Project administration
• Risk monitoring and control
• Scope and control
• Schedule and cost control
• Management of outside agencies (subcontractors)
The key activities during this phase of execution include:
• Award contracts to contractors, vendors, subcontractors: Final selection
of suppliers of various supplies of services (generally termed contractors) and
physical equipment (generally termed vendors).
• Procure equipment and services: After continuously monitoring the suppliers,
the project team has to procure the goods and services.
• Erection of equipment: The procured equipment needs to be placed on the
designed place after preparing the required foundation.
• Control and monitor project cost, schedule and scope: As majority of
efforts, time and cost are incurred during this phase, it is critical to monitor the
project schedule and cost during this phase. This is generally done using various
tools like Gantt chart and Earned Value Analysis.
• Motivation of project team: As this phase consumes maximum energy of
the team members, motivating them during this phase is critical to the
success of the project.
2.1.4. Termination Phase (Clean-up Phase)
The last step performed to say good bye to a project is the termination phase. The
termination of a project is inevitable, but how it is terminated and when may have a
profound and long-lasting impact on the organization and its employees. In the end, all
projects, both successful and unsuccessful, will have to be terminated. During the
termination phase, the project’s resources are redistributed, financial records are closed,
and project personnel are reassigned. The organization’s sensitivity to the concerns of
the project team can have a lasting impact on their commitment and productivity.
Lastly, a final report, which discusses the project’s successes and shortcomings, is
prepared for senior management. This report can significantly influence how the
organization manages projects in the future.

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There are three ways to terminate a project: extinction, inclusion, or integration.
termination by extinction means the project is completed. For example, the new
project has been developed and given to the client, the building has been completed
and accepted by the purchaser, or the software has been installed and is running.

By contrast, termination by inclusion is a very different process. The complete project

team and its equipment are transferred to a new division. As one might expect, this type
of change places significant additional stress on the day-to-day operations of the
organization. Project managers and team members must be sensitive to these stresses
until the organization is able to settle into a new and more stable routine.

The most common, but also the most complex, method of termination is by
integration. The project’s resources, personnel, and functions are absorbed as a part
of the original organization. The major problem associated with this termination process
is the ability of the organization to blend technological differences between the project
and the organization. Past experience appears to play a key role in successfully
integrating terminated projects.

Level of Effort in different phases of project

3. Project Management Methodologies

The major 2 types of project management methodologies are as below :
3.1 Waterfall methodology
The Waterfall method is a traditional approach to project management. In it, tasks and
phases are completed in a linear, sequential manner, and each stage of the project must
be completed before the next begins.

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The stages of Waterfall project management generally follow this sequence:
• Requirements
• Analysis
• Design
• Construction
• Testing
• Deployment & maintenance
• Progress flows in one direction, like a real waterfall.
Also like a real waterfall, though, this can quickly get dangerous. Since everything is
mapped out at the beginning, there’s a lot of room for error if expectations don’t match
up with reality. And there’s no going back to a previous stage once it’s completed (just
imagine trying to swim against a waterfall — not fun).

This project management methodology is used if:

• The end goal of your project is clearly defined — and isn’t going to change.
• The stakeholders know exactly what they want (and it isn’t going to change).
• Your project is consistent and predictable (i.e. isn’t going to change).
• You’re working in a regulated industry that needs extensive project tracking or
documentation.
• You might need to bring new people into the project midway through and get
them up to speed quickly.

This project management methodology is not suitable if:

• The project is liable to change.
• Full picture of all the requirements is not available before start.
• Continuous testing or adapt to feedback is required during the process.

3.2. Agile methodology

The agile project management methodology came from a growing dissatisfaction with
the linear approach of traditional project management methodologies.
Frustrated with the limitations of project management methods that couldn’t adapt with
a project as it progressed, the focus began to shift to more iterative models that allowed

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teams to revise their project as needed during the process instead of having to wait until
the end to review and amend.
The concept of agile project management has gone on to spark several specific sub-
frameworks and methodologies, such as scrum, Kanban, and lean. But what do they all
have in common? The key principles of agile project management methodologies are:
• It’s collaborative.
• It’s quick.
• It’s open to data-driven change.
As such, agile project management methodologies usually involve short phases of work
with frequent testing, reassessment, and adaptation throughout.
In many agile methods, all of the work to be done is added to a backlog that teams can
work through in each phase or cycle, with project managers or product owners
prioritizing the backlog so teams know what to focus on first.
• This project management methodology is used if:
• The project is liable to change.
• Not sure at the outset what the solution will look like.
• Need to work quickly, and it’s more important that you see speedy progress than
perfect results.
• Stakeholders or client needs (or wants) to be involved at every stage.
This project management methodology isn’t the right one if:
• Project requires a lot of documentation
• Project has a predictable deliverable, and you need to be crystal clear about what
that looks like from the outset.
• The project can’t afford to change during its course.
• Project has strict deadlines or deliverables.

4. Organizational Influences
Though the nature of a project is temporary, they are not performed in isolation. They
work in a controlled environment and are affected by Enterprise Environmental
Factors (EEF) and Organizational Process Assets (OPA).

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The Project Management Institute terms them as influences. Enterprise environmental
factors can be internal or external, while organizational process assets are always
internal to an organization
4.1 Enterprise Environmental Factors (EEF)
Enterprise environmental factors are the influences not under the control of the
organization or the project management team that affect the organization, the project,
and its outcome. Every organization has to exist and work within the EEF.
These influences may have positive or negative impacts on your project constraints,
though often, the impact is negative.
Enterprise environment factors can be either internal or external.
Examples of external enterprise environmental factors are as follows:
• Government regulations
• Market conditions
• External political conditions
• Industry standards
• Legal restrictions
A few examples of internal enterprise environmental factors include:
• Organizational culture
• Type of organizational structure
• Internal political conditions
• Available resources
• Infrastructure
4.2 Organizational Process Assets (OPA)
Organizations have assets that help them achieve their goals. Here, these assets are
called organizational process assets. These OPAs are inputs of almost all processes of
the PMBOK Guide. The project management team may modify these OPAs according to
their requirements.
Once the project has ended, these organizational process assets can be stored in a
central repository to be used whenever required for future projects.
Organizational process assets can be divided into two categories.
The first is for processes, policies, and procedures for conducting work, which includes
the following:
• Policies

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 • Procedures
• Standard templates
• General guidelines
The project management team cannot usually update or modify these elements, as the
organization has provided them. However, a project manager can provide feedback or
suggestions, and higher management can decide to update or modify.
The second category comprises the corporate knowledge base for storing and retrieving
information. For example:
• Risk register
• Lessons learned
• Stakeholder register
• Past project files
• Historical information
These organizational process assets influence the project’s success and keep growing as
the organization grows.
Let us say that you are in the identify risks process. You decide to start identifying risks
by using a checklist.
You will not create this checklist from scratch; you will look at similar past project
records to find a risk checklist and customize it as per your project requirements. This
will save you a lot of time.
There is a famous saying in project management, “Why reinvent the wheel?” which
means if you have something available, why would you try to remake it? You are free to
update or modify elements from this category.
Organizational process assets are used extensively in project management.
The project management team is responsible for looking for any relevant documents in
historical records before starting to build something from scratch.

4.3 The Difference Between Organizational Process Assets and Enterprise

Environmental Factors (EEF Vs OPA)
There are many differences between organizational process assets and enterprise
environmental factors.

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Organizational process assets help organizations improve their processes, help project
management teams to learn, and share best practices by using a collective knowledge
base.
On the other hand, enterprise environmental factors may or may not help your
organization. These are the conditions in which your organization has to work and do
not fall under the control of the project management team.
For example, if the government increases taxes, it will affect your profits negatively;
however, if they decrease taxes, your profits will increase.
Moreover, enterprise environmental factors are difficult to change; you must live with
them. Organizational process assets can be customized according to suitability, making
the project management team’s life much more comfortable.
It is important to note that organizational process assets always support the project
team, while enterprise environmental factors can help or hinder it.

5. Stakeholder Management
5.1 Who are Stakeholders?
Stakeholders are those who have a stake or an interest in a project or strategy
undertaken by a company or an organization, they will be affected in some way be the
project and so have an interest in influencing it. They may benefit from the project and
so will be supportive and positive about it; conversely, the project may damage their
interests or they may perceive it will have a negative outcome for them so they will seek
to stop it or, at the very least, project it in a bad light.
In construction projects stakeholders can include:
• Users of a building
• Funders
• Neighbors
• Regulatory bodies
• General public

5.2 Internal and External Stakeholders

Internal Stakeholders
There are broadly two groups of project stakeholders, those internal and those external
to the client organization. The type most usually recognized are the external

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stakeholders, however the management of internal stakeholders is often more
problematic.
For example - In construction projects it is often difficult to identify who actually is the
client, there may be a nominated single point of contact but this person is not really the
‘client’ just the representative of the client organization. Very often it is the case that
this person has the responsibility of juggling a whole range of different requirements
within the client organization and as a result they will be subject to many influences
which will may well affect the project as change. Within the client organization there will
be a whole range of individuals with very different ‘stakes’ in the project, unless the
nominated client representative takes a very strong line they will succeed in influencing
the course of the project.

External Stakeholders
External stakeholders are the individuals or organizations who are not part of the client
organization but nevertheless have an interest in the project. They are perhaps the
stakeholder groups most readily recognized. For publicly funded projects the number of
stakeholders who can be identified is high. These generally consist of:

• Funders, whether this be a government department, grant provider or private

sector partner.
• Users, whether these be passengers for a transport project or visitors for a
museum.
• Regulatory authorities. Most commonly the planning authorities, but also
specialist regulatory authorities for example those involved in rail projects.
• Those affected, who may be neighbors or those working or living nearby.
• The press and media are another significant group who can greatly influence
perception of the project and its perceived, and in some cases actual, success.

It is relatively easy to identify forty individual stakeholder groups for a significant public
project, although private sector projects tend to have slightly fewer. One of the key
problems with stakeholder management is the sheer number of people involved and the
fact that their levels of power and interest differ markedly.

5.3 Stakeholder Analysis

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Stakeholder analysis can be used to understand the stakeholder environment and to
prioritize management resources. It can be undertaken as follows: -

• The first step is to identify stakeholders, you can't manage them if you don't
know who they are, list them out. This exercise will need to involve all members
of the team.
• Next decide on the level of power and interest each individual stakeholder has to
influence the project. This is not a precise art, the assessment can only be based
on the perceptions of the team, but it is important that you consider ‘interest’
from their point of view not yours, a large organization, for example a key grant
provider, may be of great interest to the project but is the project of great
interest to the grant provider? If the project does not happen they can just fund
something else. You then plot the stakeholders on a matrix.

Keep Manage
Satisfied Closely

Monitor Keep
Informed

• You
will then
need to
define
whether the individual stakeholder groups are broadly positive or negative about
the project. You will probably find that those with a high level of interest, on the
right of the matrix are either strongly supportive or otherwise, this is not
surprising as their interest is high and so they have an opinion. Those on the left
may have no strongly formed views.

This completes the basic analysis, you should then use the analysis to form the basic
management and communication strategy for the project.

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5.4 Active Management of Stakeholders
The basic requirement is to manage the project so that positive stakeholders are in the
bottom right hand corner and negative stakeholders are out of that corner. You need to
remember that the matrix is dynamic, changes of individual within stakeholder
organizations or changes to your project will be reflected in the matrix. The following
are some ideas for strategies that you or the client may wish to adopt to deal with the
various groups.
5.4.1 High Power, High Interest
If they are positive provide them with information to maintain their support, look after
them well they are important, let them know that. Don't ignore them just because they
are not causing you any problems at the moment. Involve them in your project, make
them part of your project steering group (if they are not already), involve them in
decisions, use them to lobby other groups and make sure they voice their support.
Those with high power and interest, who are negative are a big problem and you need
to put effort into dealing with them. Use other positive stakeholders to lobby them and
hopefully change their views, attempt to counter any negative influence they may have
on other groups, reduce their power if the means exists to do this. They may also
respond to bargaining. Find out what is important to them, help them out, buy their
favour. Some also respond to information and interest.

Management strategies
Positive

• Provide information to maintain their support

• Consult with them prior to taking project decisions
• Meet with them regularly
• Consult with them, involve them and seek to build their confidence in the project
and the team
• Encourage them to act as advocates for the project
• Nurture them, look after them, they are critically important to you and to the
project

Negative

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 • Attempt to develop their support and change their view by ensuring they fully
understand the project and the benefits it will deliver. Their resistance maybe
due to lack of information or understanding.
• Attempt to build their confidence in you and in the team.
• Find out what is important to them, if you can help them out or minimise
negative impact on them they may be more helpful.
• Demonstrate that you are doing your best to limit adverse effects on them.
• Counter any negative influence they may have on others.

5.4.2 High Power, Low interest

The high power, low interest group are the unexploded bombs – their interest is
low, at the moment. However, if the project alters or the individuals change their
interest may suddenly increase and they will use their power to influence the project.

Management strategies
• Maintain a careful watching brief, make sure that changes to the project or
changes within the stakeholder organization do not suddenly increase the level of
negative interest.
• Find out what is important to these groups and make sure that the project does
not adversely affect this. If the project is likely to have a positive effect for them
make sure they are aware.
• Beware of other negative stakeholders passing information to this group to
encourage them to oppose the project.

5.4.3 High Interest, Low Power.

If they are positive they are strong allies – treat them well, provide them with
information, involve them, use them to lobby other groups. If they are negative, they
will probably deluge you with e-mails and phone calls, you need to ensure that you don't
spend too much time on them.

Management strategies
Positive

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 • Maintain their enthusiasm and interest in the project, they are good allies to
have.
• Provide them with information, invite them to presentations, involve them as
much as resources allow. This can be done fairly cheaply through a project
website, newsletter or open presentations.
• Seek their input and opinion if you can, they will be flattered by this, but ensure
that you do not get too many opinions.

Negative

• This is a group that you will probably know all too well, because of their high
level of interest they will probably deluge you (or your client) with e-mails and
other correspondence. You need to be sure that you do not spend too much time
on them, remember their power is low.
• You may need to get the project sponsor or client representative to take a firm
line with them they can use a lot of time and resource.

5.4.4 Low Power, Low Interest

Make sure you don't spend too much time on them but if they are supportive provide
them with information and be nice to them, their position or view may change in the
future
Management strategies

• Ensure they receive the project newsletter, have access to a project website or
are invited to presentations.

5.5 Stakeholder Engagement Assessment Matrix

The Stakeholder Engagement Assessment Matrix (SEAM) helps us understand the
stakeholders' current and desired levels of engagement.
Organizations or project managers may use the framework to:

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 • Identify which stakeholders may need to be prioritized based on the gap between
their current and desired state
• Develop a stakeholder engagement plan or strategy
• Determine what kind of communication and activities may be suited for
stakeholders based on their current or desired level of engagement
• Monitor changes in stakeholder engagement throughout the project by
comparing an initial stakeholder engagement assessment matrix with another
version completed mid-project
• Report on progress and KPIs

Breaking Down the Stakeholder Engagement Assessment Matrix

Stakeholder Unaware Resistant Neutral Supportive Leading

Stakeholder 1 C D
Stakeholder 2 C D
Stakeholder 3 C D
Stakeholder 4 C, D
Stakeholder 5 C D

C = Current, D = Desired

Let’s break these components down further and what they mean:
Y-Axis: Stakeholders
The Y-Axis is simple — this is where your stakeholders are listed. You may list the
names of individuals who are impacted by, have an influence on, or an interest in your
organization, work, or project. Or you may list groups or organizations that are your
stakeholders.
X-Axis: Engagement Levels
The X-Axis should display the five engagement levels. Here are the levels and what they
mean:

• Unaware – Does not yet know about the project or what it may impact
• Resistant – Does know about the project and what it might impact, but does
not support its goals or work
• Neutral – Does know about the project, but does not support or oppose it

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 • Supportive – Does know about the project and supports its goals and work
• Leading – Does know about the project and is actively involved and working
towards the project’s success

Current Vs Desired
The final part of the stakeholder engagement assessment matrix is the C and D marked
in each row. The C should go underneath your stakeholder’s current level of
engagement, and the D should go underneath the level of engagement you desire for
them in order for your project to be successful. Note that if your stakeholders are
already at their desired level of engagement, you’ll place both C & D in the same
column.
When to Assess Stakeholder Engagement
Most common mistake is to only assess their stakeholders at the start of the project.
Project teams or consultants do stakeholder analysis and mapping, and then it just sits
there in a folder or document that isn’t used to inform decisions, evaluate progress, or
report on issues in the context of their stakeholder mapping groups.

Stakeholder engagements should be assessed regularly — quarterly, or at project

milestones, and certainly at the end of the project. That way, you’ll have more
valuable data to assess your progress, identify risks, monitor issues, set your priorities,
and make better-informed decisions.

5.6 Communication to Stakeholders

Stakeholders are individuals affected by or interested in the project's outcome. They can
include project sponsors, team members, customers, vendors, regulatory agencies, etc.
Communication is the key to ensuring that these needs are met.

The primary objective of stakeholder communication is to keep all parties involved

informed about the project's progress, challenges, and goals. This includes providing
regular updates on project milestones, timelines, and deliverables. By keeping
stakeholders in the loop, project managers can reduce the risk of misunderstandings
and ensure that everyone is on the same page.

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In addition to keeping stakeholders informed, effective communication allows
stakeholders to provide feedback and input. This input can be invaluable in ensuring
that the project meets the needs and expectations of all stakeholders. Stakeholders can
offer insights into potential roadblocks, identify areas where improvements can be
made, and guide how to overcome obstacles.

Furthermore, stakeholder communication helps to establish trust and strengthen

relationships between the project team and stakeholders. By demonstrating
transparency and responsiveness, project managers can increase stakeholder buy-in,
reduce resistance to change, and create an environment of collaboration and
cooperation. This is particularly important when working with external stakeholders such
as customers or regulatory agencies, where building trust can help to smooth the
project's progress. When stakeholders feel they are being heard and their needs are
being addressed, they are more likely to be engaged and invested in the project's
success.

Best Practices for Stakeholder Communication

One best practice for stakeholder communication is identifying and prioritizing
stakeholder needs. This involves understanding the stakeholder's goals, expectations,
and concerns. Project managers should also consider each stakeholder's impact on the
project's success and adjust their communication approach accordingly.

Another important aspect of stakeholder communication is the use of appropriate

communication channels. Stakeholders may prefer different communication models
like email, phone calls, or face-to-face meetings. Project managers should identify the
most effective communication channels for each stakeholder and establish a regular
cadence for communication.

Establishing a feedback mechanism is also crucial for effective stakeholder

communication. Project managers should create a tool for stakeholders to provide
feedback and stay informed about project progress. By regularly updating stakeholders
on project progress and addressing their concerns, project managers can ensure that
stakeholders remain engaged and invested in the project's success.

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Here are some of the most essential tips on stakeholder communication:

• Identify stakeholders - Make a list of all stakeholders involved in the project.

This may include project sponsors, team members, customers, suppliers, etc.
• Determine their communication needs - Some stakeholders may require
regular updates, while others may only need to be informed of major
developments.
• Develop a communication plan - It should outline how you will communicate
with each stakeholder and include the frequency of communication, the channels,
and the type of information that will be shared.
• Tailor communication to the stakeholder - Customize your communication
to suit the needs of each stakeholder. For example, a customer may require
more detailed information about the project status, while team members may
need more technical information.
• Use multiple communication channels - Use a variety of communication
channels to reach your stakeholders. This may include email, phone, video
conferencing, or in-person meetings.
• Be transparent and honest - Share both good and bad news with your
stakeholders. If there are issues or problems, address them openly and provide
solutions.

• Listen actively - Actively listen to your stakeholders and address their concerns.
This will help build trust and strengthen your relationships.
• Document communication – It will help you keep track of important
information and ensure everyone is on the same page.
• Review and adjust - Review your communication plan regularly and adjust it
as needed. This will help ensure that your communication remains adequate and
relevant throughout the project.

By following the above best practices for stakeholder communication, one can build
strong relationships with stakeholders and increase the likelihood of project success.
5.7 What is a stakeholder communication plan?

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A stakeholder communication plan is a structured approach to sharing information with
the stakeholders involved in a specific project. Below is an effective six-step approach to
creating the stakeholder communication plan.

1. Identify your stakeholders and break them into groups

The first step in your stakeholder communication plan is to identify your stakeholders
(done as part of your stakeholder management plan). These are the people that you’ll
need to communicate with over the course of the project.

2. Define the stakeholders responsible for feedback and approval

Defining the stakeholders responsible for feedback and approval upfront, before a
project begins, is another crucial step in your stakeholder communication plan. Many of
your stakeholders will just need to be kept in the loop with project updates, but there
will be certain individuals who’ll be required to give feedback and approval as the
project progresses.

3. Set guidelines on the communication channels to use to stay in touch

Before you kick off your project, set guidelines on the communication channels you’ll
use to stay in touch with stakeholders. This keeps things consistent, reduces confusion,
and streamlines the flow of information – avoiding the scattering of messages across
different platforms.

4. Outline how frequently to communicate

Outlining how frequently you plan to communicate helps to manage your stakeholders’
expectations so that they know when you’ll be in touch. This reduces uncertainty, as

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well as the risk of stakeholders feeling uninformed (and pestering you for information at
all hours of the day).

5. Clarify the type of information you’ll share

Different stakeholders will want different types of information shared with them
throughout the project. For example, some might only be interested in progress
updates. Others might want to be kept in the loop about challenges as they arise. And
some will be keen to hear when you reach certain milestones.
Deciding on the type of information you’ll share with different stakeholder groups will
help to make sure that content is relevant to the interests and needs of different
stakeholders, which boosts stakeholder engagement.

6. Specify how quickly a response is expected

Stakeholder communication plan should set out how quickly stakeholders can expect a
response from you. And you from them. That might be 12 hours, 24 hours, 48 hours, or
longer depending on the urgency of the project.
5.8 What’s the difference between a stakeholder communications plan, a
stakeholder engagement plan, and a stakeholder management plan?
These terms are related and often used interchangeably, they actually refer to different
aspects of stakeholder relations in the context of a project.

• Stakeholder communications plan

A stakeholder communications plan focuses on the strategies and tactics for

communicating information to stakeholders throughout the project. It outlines how
information will be shared, the communication channels that will be used, the frequency
of updates, and the types of messages that will be communicated.

• Stakeholder engagement plan

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A stakeholder engagement plan focuses on strategies for actively involving stakeholders
in the project. It aims to foster stakeholder collaboration so that stakeholders play an
active and meaningful role in shaping the project’s outcome.

• Stakeholder management plan

A stakeholder management plan has a broader focus, addressing both stakeholder

communication and stakeholder engagement, plus strategies for identifying and
analyzing stakeholders. It also includes strategies for managing both supportive and
challenging stakeholders and addresses how to deal with conflicts throughout the
process.

5.9 Communication methods

• Push communication

In push communication, a sender pushes out information to a receiver (one direction). It

is most often used to communicate expected, non-urgent information. Push
communication does not expect an immediate response from the receiver and is usually
delivered in writing. If the sender requires confirmation that the receiver has seen and
understood the message, they should specify that.
Push communication examples
You do all the talking or sharing in the meeting. You send regular reports or updates to
project team and stakeholders

o Lectures
o Memos
o Email updates
o Voicemails
o Reports
o Contracts
o Documents

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 • Pull communication

In pull communication, the sender creates content that receivers can passively access at
any time, rather than the sender directly channeling it to receivers. Unlike its name
would suggest, pull communication doesn’t involve pulling in your audience. It comes
from the fact that pull communication represents documentation and information that a
receiver will “pull” out when they need to.
Pull communication examples

o Websites
o Wikis
o Google docs
o Bulletins
o Dashboards
o Webinars
o Social media
• Interactive communication

Interactive communication involves the sharing of information back and forth between
sender and receiver in real time. It’s used in cases where an immediate response is
required, and in other areas where push and pull communication methods seem
insufficient. Interactive communication can be performed virtually or in person.
One of the main benefits of interactive communication is that it allows space for body
language or other physical cues (at least if it is delivered in person or via video
conference). Interactive communication may also be best when relaying sensitive or se
Interactive communication examples

o Instant messaging
o Meetings
o Phone calls
o Video or audio calls

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6. Project Scope Management
The project scope is the total amount of work that needs to be done to complete a
project. To define it, project managers must break down the project into the tasks and
deliverables that’ll be executed to meet goals and stakeholder requirements and deliver
the project successfully.
Defining the project scope is an integral part of the project planning process because
based on the scope, project manager will assemble their teams, estimate what project
resources are needed and determine what the project plan, schedule and budget will be.
6.1 What Is Project Scope Management?
Project scope management is the process of tracking the scope of a project once it
starts to ensure it doesn’t grow beyond control. It’s important that no extra work or
extra costs are added to the project scope without the supervision of a project manager;
if the scope of a project changes during the project execution phase, the project plan,
schedule and budget that were initially defined won’t match the scope, causing project
delays and overspending. This is known as scope creep and might cause projects to fail.
Project Scope Management Steps
1. Define the Project Scope
Defining the scope of a project consists of identifying the work that’ll be performed. To
do so, you must first outline the main goals and objectives of the project and think
about the activities required to achieve them. Then, once you have an idea of what your
project should accomplish, you can use a work breakdown structure to break down the
project into a set of tasks.
A work breakdown structure (WBS) is a planning tool that helps project managers
visualize the tasks required to complete a project, prioritize them and identify
deliverables and dependencies.

2. Write a Project Scope Statement

Once project scope is defined, project scope statement can be formulated, which
describes the following elements:

• Project goals & objectives: The project requirements or acceptance criteria.

• Project deliverables: The outcomes of project tasks.

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• Project exclusions & constraints: As a project manager you need to explain what
can’t be done and why.
• Project assumptions: Some initial assumptions that the project management team
has before executing the work.
• Project milestones: These mark important moments in your project life cycle, such as
the end of a phase.
• Scope baseline: Your original scope as you planned it. The scope baseline allows you
to compare actual results against what it’s in your scope statement.

3. Create a Scope Management Plan

The scope management plan is a document that describes the guidelines and
procedures on how the scope will be defined, tracked and adjusted. The scope
management plan is an important component of the overall project plan. While there’s
not a one-size-fits-all method to create a scope management plan, it should:

• Include the scope statement

• Show the work breakdown structure that was used to define the project scope
• Describe the scope baseline
• Explain who are the team members and what their roles and responsibilities are
• Establish acceptance criteria for project deliverables
• Describe what are the major milestones and project phases

4. Define a Scope Baseline to Control the Scope

A scope baseline describes the project scope that was approved by both the project
stakeholders and the project management team. It’s used during the project execution
phase to ensure the project scope is executed as planned.
5. Monitor and Control your Project Scope During the Project Life Cycle
Besides creating project documents, most project managers use project management
software tools like Gantt charts, kanban boards and project dashboards to keep track of
their project scope

6.2 What Is a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)

A work breakdown structure (WBS) is a visual, hierarchical and deliverable-oriented

deconstruction of a project. It is a helpful diagram for project managers because it

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allows them to break down their project scope and visualize all the tasks required to
complete their projects.

All the steps of project work are outlined in the work breakdown structure chart, which
makes it an essential project planning tool. The final project deliverable, as well as the
tasks and work packages associated with it rest on top of the WBS diagram, and the
WBS levels below subdivide the project scope to indicate the tasks, deliverables and
work packages that are needed to complete the project from start to finish.

Why Use a WBS In Project Management?

Making a WBS is the first step in developing a project schedule. It defines all the work
that needs to be completed (and in what order) to achieve the project goals and
objectives. By visualizing your project in this manner, you can understand your project
scope, and allocate resources for all your project tasks.

A well-constructed work breakdown structure helps with important project management

process groups and knowledge areas such as:
• Project Planning, Project Scheduling and Project Budgeting
• Risk Management, Resource Management, Task Management and Team
Management

Deliverable wise WBS Example

A Deliverable-Based Work Breakdown Structure clearly demonstrates the relationship
between the project deliverables (i.e., products, services or results) and the scope (i.e.,
work to be executed)

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Phase wise WBS Example
Each of these Elements are typical phases of a project. The Level 2 Elements are the
unique deliverables in each phase. Regardless of the type of WBS, the lower Level
Elements are all deliverables. A Phase-Based WBS requires work associated with
multiple elements be divided into the work unique to each Level 1 Element.

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 7. Project Scheduling

A project schedule provides your project's clear, up-to-date status, including tasks,
assignments, dependencies, and milestones. Project scheduling involves creating a
document, that details the project timeline and the organizational resources required to
complete each task.

The project schedule must be accessible to every team member. Its purpose is to
communicate critical information to the team, so it must be comprehensive and easy to
understand.

7.1 Components of a project schedule

The project schedule is essential to the project life cycle. It efficiently communicates
important information at a glance, using easily understood visual elements:

• Visual timelines, such as Gantt charts, keep everyone in sync.

• Tasks and milestones break down the work necessary to complete the
project. Grouping tasks in a logical sequence with dependencies allows you to set
milestones and keep the project on track.
• Durations and dependencies help project managers estimate milestones and
overall completion dates. Tracking dependencies can help identify and overcome
bottlenecks early in the project life cycle.
• Budget summaries show the project spend-to-date against the budget. Linking
the budget summary to the project plan helps manage expenses and allows
project managers to adjust as needed throughout the timeline.
• Resource tracking shows assigned team members for each task in the
timeline, providing confidence that resources are adequate and not sitting idle.

7.2 Steps to create a project schedule

1. Create the Project Scope

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The project scope statement is created during the initial planning. All of the tasks
needed to complete the project successfully are listed here (which requires
understanding the stakeholder’s requirements.)
By using a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) you can organize these activities and lay
them out in order of completion. Understanding task dependencies and their sequence
are very important for schedule management.

2. Establish the Sequence of Tasks

Tasks are the small jobs that lead to the final deliverable, and it’s fairly crucial to map
out the sequence of those tasks before diving into them. Oftentimes a task will be
dependent on another to start or finish. You don’t want to get halfway through a task
before you realize you can’t complete it due to hanging objectives.

3. Group Tasks
Once you’ve collected your tasks and have them in proper order, you should take the
opportunity to divide your tasks by importance. You need to know which is critical to the
project implementation schedule and must be done first and those less important that
can be done if there’s time. You could use a priority matrix to facilitate this process.

Then, break your tasks down with milestones that relate to the five project phases—
initiation, planning, execution, monitoring and close. Organizing your tasks with
milestones makes it easier to track progress, and gives your teams a sense of
accomplishment that boosts morale and productivity.

4. Link Task Dependencies

Some tasks can be done simultaneously, but some tasks are dependent on others to
start or finish before they can start or finish. These task dependencies must be mapped
out in your schedule to keep you aware of them, or you risk bottlenecks and blocking
your team.

5. Find the Critical Path

The critical path is a method for scheduling tasks in a project to find those which are
critical to the success of the project. This allows you to make smart choices about tasks

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that can be ignored if time and costs become constrained. This method is commonly
used for schedule risk analysis. Software that can find the critical path for you can make
this step a lot easier.

7.3 Critical Path Method

In project management, the critical path is the longest sequence of tasks that must be
completed to execute a project. The tasks on the critical path are called critical activities
because if they’re delayed, the whole project completion will be delayed.

Finding the critical path is very helpful for project managers because it allows them to:
• Accurately estimate the total project duration.
• Estimate the time that’s necessary to complete each project task.
• Identify critical activities which must be completed on time and require close
supervision.
• Find out which project tasks can be delayed without affecting the project
schedule by calculating slack for each task.
• Identify task dependencies, resource constraints and project risks.
• Prioritize tasks and create realistic project schedules.

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7.4 PERT Method
A program evaluation review technique (PERT) chart is a graphical representation of a
project's timeline that displays all of the individual tasks necessary to complete the
project. Put simply, a PERT chart is a project management tool that allows users to map
out a project's timeline and itemize individual tasks. This means that the PERT chart
allows users to communicate project instructions and set schedules and timelines for
projects among other things.
There are two main steps when determining the PERT Estimate. These two steps are:

Step 1: Determine optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely estimates

Step 2: Calculate PERT Estimate using the PERT Formula
Step 1: Determine optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely estimates
To conduct PERT Analysis, three-time estimates are obtained (optimistic, pessimistic,
and most likely) for every activity along the Critical Path.

Optimistic Time (O): the minimum possible time required to accomplish a task,
assuming everything proceeds better than is normally expected.
Pessimistic Time (P): the maximum possible time required to accomplish a task,
assuming everything goes wrong (excluding major catastrophes).
Most likely Time (M): the best estimate of the time required to accomplish a task,
assuming everything proceeds as normal.

Formula - E = (O + 4M + P ) / 6
where E is Estimate; o = optimistic estimate; p = pessimistic estimate; m = most likely
estimate
Example - For Activity A: O = 4 hours , M = 8 hours , P= 16 hours
E = (4 + 4(8) + 16) / 6 = 52 / 6 = 8.7 hours

Analyzing the schedule - There are many methods used to analyze the schedule, but
the Critical Path method is by far the most dominant method and is the best
understood, and is therefore deemed the best practice

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7.5 Project Dependencies & Relationships
A project dependency is a task that relies on the completion of a different task.

• Finish to Start (FS): This is the most common task dependency. Task E cannot
start until Task A is complete. This functionality is common in the Waterfall
project management methodology. Example: Construction of a room. To install the
ceiling, you have to construct the walls. In this example, the first activity is
constructing walls, and the second activity is the ceiling.

• Finish to Finish (FF): Task E cannot finish until Task D is also completed. This type
of finish dependency is common with tasks that have subtasks within them; if the
subtasks are not completed, you
cannot complete the parent task.

Important point: In the case of an

FF dependency, two tasks may in
fact run in parallel. However, the
second task is only able to entirely
complete after the first task is 100%
done.
Example: Consider a project where
the software needs to be implemented, but the requirements are still in progress. In
this scenario, coding cannot be finished without the collecting requirements, which is
a finish-to-finish relationship.

• Start to Start (SS): Task F cannot start before Task C starts. These are for tasks
that are required to run in parallel with each other. Example: of a start dependency
is a timed e-commerce launch. A social media marketer may want to post an
announcement for a sale going live, just as a web developer pushes the correct web
page to go live. The social media marketer does not start until the web developer
starts to ensure that the announcement goes out at the same time.

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• Start to Finish (SF): Task D must start for Task F to be completed. This is
important for situations that require overlap. Example : A representative cannot
leave until a different representative comes to relieve them of their duties so that
there is always someone available to provide customer support.

Dependency management key points

1. Visualize dependencies clearly

Visualizing dependencies is an easy way to better understand what tasks need to be
completed and in what order. Using visual tools like a Gantt chart or a Kanban board
can clearly show your team members what stage your project is currently in and which
tasks are dependent.

2. Monitor potential risks in a project plan

When you're establishing a project plan, brainstorm all potential internal dependencies
that you may encounter during your project. Do any of the team members have a
heavier workload than normal? Are you working with any external vendors to complete
this project? In the event that one part gets delayed, is the project team prepared for a
shift in the schedule?
You cannot monitor every single potential risk, but you can keep an eye on
dependencies to ensure deliverables stay on track. This is especially important for cross-
team dependencies, such as when the marketing team is waiting on assets from the
design team. Regular communication is key.

3. Encourage stakeholder engagement

There's no such thing as over-communication when it comes to task dependencies. If
one project stakeholder knows that a task is delayed, encourage them to communicate
with the entire team so individuals can adjust their timelines accordingly.

7.6 Schedule Tracking

Project schedule tracking is the process of monitoring a project’s progress against the
original project plan. The goal is to make corrective actions as soon as you spot
deviations (or occurrences that may lead to deviations) so the team stays on track.

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There are a variety of methods, tools and metrics to track progress. Some of the most
common include:

• Milestones: Milestones are points in the project timeline that mark significant
events that may positively or negatively impact the project schedule, such as
start/end dates of different phases, completion of key deliverables and client
approvals.

• Percent complete: Gantt charts can be used to capture the percentage of work
done and record the project progress.

• Earned value: Earned value (EV) measures how much work has been
completed versus the plan. To calculate the earned value, multiply percent
complete by the project’s total budget.
If your budget is $10,000 and your percent complete is 40%, the earned value is
$4,000.

EV = % complete x total budget

EV = 40% x $10,000
EV = $4,000
However, to fully appreciate earned value, other metrics have to be calculated as
well, such as:

• Schedule variance (SV): SV is the difference between the expected and actual
progress to date. The project is behind schedule if the resulting SV is negative,
on schedule if zero and ahead of schedule if positive.

To get SV, calculate the difference between earned value and planned value
(PV), which is the budgeted amount for the work scheduled for completion.

SV = EV – PV

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 If the planned value to date is $5,000—meaning 50% of the project should have
already been completed—SV will be computed as follows:

SV = $4,000 – $5,000
SV = –$1,000
SV is negative, so the project is behind schedule.

• Cost variance (CV): This measures the difference between the budgeted
amount and the actual costs to date. To calculate cost variance, subtract the
actual cost (AC) from EV. A negative CV means the project is over budget; zero,
on budget; and positive, under budget.

Let’s say your AC is $4,500.

CV = EV – AC
CV = $4,000 – $4,500
CV = –$500
CV is negative, so the project is over budget.

• Schedule performance index (SPI): Just like SV, SPI indicates whether a
project is on, behind or ahead of schedule, but also by how much. To calculate
SPI, divide EV by PV. Using the same example:

SPI = EV/PV
SPI = $4,000/$5,000
SPI = 0.8
The project is 20% behind schedule.

• Cost performance index (CPI): Much like CV, CPI indicates project cost
efficiency and also provides an estimate of the variance.

CPI = EV/AC
CPI = $4,000/$4,500

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 CPI = 0.89
The project is 11% over budget.

8. Data Presentation
8.1 Gantt Charts
A Gantt chart is a bar chart that visually shows project tasks and the schedule. The
tasks are shown on the vertical axis, while the task duration is shown on the horizontal
axis. The graphic depicts the start and end dates of the activities, as well as the task
dependencies and current schedule status.

Vertical Axis: The tasks are listed on the vertical axis

Horizontal Axis: The width of bars on the horizontal axis shows the activity duration.

Step-by-step procedure to develop a Gantt chart.

• Step 1: List the activities planned for a work package as part of the WBS (Work
Breakdown Structure). Let’s consider a sample work package below for a simple
product logo design project
1. Design
o Analyze the tool/software for the design (A)
o Prepare sample logos (B)
2. Testing
o Validate logo (C)
o Provide QA sign-off (D)
3. Review & Approval
o Review the logo designs (E)
o Finalize the logo (F)
o Approve the logo for product use (G)

• Step 2: Estimate the duration for all these activities for the Optimistic,
Pessimistic, and most likely time expected (business days)

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 • Step 3: Calculate the Total Estimate for each of the above activities using the
PERT Beta Probability Distribution formula: Te = (O + 4M + P) / 6

• Step 4: Identify the predecessor for the activities

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 • Step 5: Identify the critical path using a schedule network diagram.

A -> B -> C -> D -> E – > F -> G: Total Duration: 16.58 days (Critical Path)
A -> B -> D -> E -> F -> G: Total Duration: 14.58 days

• Step 6: Translate these details into the chart yields a result as seen below:

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8.2 Burnup Chart
A burn up chart is a graph that shows project progress over time. There are two main
lines shown on the chart: one for the total project work planned, and the other for
tracking the work completed to date.
How to read a burn up chart?
Along the y-axis is the number of story points delivered or the amount of work to be
completed. Across the x-axis is the sprint number or time period.

• The yellow line across the top shows the total planned number of sites that will
be delivered by the end of the project.
• The dotted black line illustrates the weekly planned completion count.
• The blue line is reporting the actual number of work/sites completed.

You can see that up to week 8, actual work done was essentially less than the planned
count but the team caught back up from week 8 onwards

Some key things to watch out for when reading a burn up chart are:

• If the yellow line changes, then work has been added or removed from the
project.
• If the black line changes, a change has been made to the baseline plan for how
much work will be completed in each sprint.
• If the blue line is beneath the black line, you’re behind schedule.
• If the blue line is above the black line, you’re ahead of schedule.

Total Work Cumulative Estimated

Week
Sites Completed Completed Completion
0 1100 0 0 0
1 1100 80 80 142
2 1100 160 240 283
3 1100 100 340 425
4 1400 110 450 567
5 1400 130 580 708
6 1400 180 760 850

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 7 1400 170 930 992
8 1400 180 1110 1133
9 1700 160 1270 1275
10 1700 170 1440 1417
11 1700 90 1530 1558
12 1700 130 1660 1700
Total Weeks 12

1800

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Total Work Cumulative Completed Estimated Completion

9. Risk and Issues

• Risk originates from a wide range of known/unknown causes – within & outside
business environment
• Action to be taken before a Risk becomes an Issue
• Risks can be positive (opportunities) or negative (threats). A Risk is an
uncertain event that may have a positive or negative impact while an Issue is an
event that has happened and affected the project negatively
• Risk register is maintained to keep track of all Risks and Issue Log is maintained
to keep track of all Issues

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 • Unattended risks become Issues, Inadequately responded Risks may become
Issues

9.1 Key Definitions

• Risk Tolerance – The degree of uncertainty (risk) that an organization or
individual is willing to withstand.
Example – While bidding for a project, rough order estimates say that this project
costs approx. $100,000.
Your organization cannot allow you to bid for more than 10% of this
amount. This 10% is risk tolerance limit.
• Risk Appetite - Risk appetite is the degree of uncertainty an organization or
individual is willing to accept in anticipation of a reward. As appetite = hunger, it
becomes subjective, and you can’t quantify it.
• Risk Threshold - The level of risk exposure above which risks are addressed
proactively and below which risks may be accepted.
• Risk Register - The risk register contains individual, identified risks facing the
project and the assessment, response plan, etc., for each opportunity or threat.
It is a Log file that works as a master database of all the risks captured
• Risk Report – It contains information about overall project risk and summary
information on individual project risks.
• Positive Risk – The uncertain event that creates an opportunity for the project.
Example – Investment of project is in USD and devaluation of INR is leading to
increase in investment inflow in INR.

9.2 Risk vs Issue

• A risk can be either positive or negative; an issue is only negative.

• A risk may or may not occur in the future; an issue is happening now.
• A high-impact risk has a mitigation plan for the future; an issue needs immediate
action to reduce negative impact.
• Risks are documented in the risk Register for what could happen; Issues are
recorded in the Issue Log for what is or did happen.

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 • Risks have a probability of occurrence rating; issues do not because they did
happen or are occurring.
• Risks have a mitigation plan to influence the likelihood of occurrence; issues do
not as they happen.
• The most important part of “risk vs. issue” is time orientation: risk management
is about looking ahead and preparing for the unknown but possible, and issue
work is the response to what is impacting the project in the current moment and
was not expected.

9.3 Risk Response

Each identified Risk needs to have a response even if that response is Accept  Do
Nothing. Response types are -
• Avoid — seeking to eliminate uncertainty
• Transfer — passing ownership and/or liability to a third party
• Mitigate — reducing the probability and/or severity of the risk below a threshold
of acceptability
• Accept — Do nothing
• Escalate — Raise to appropriate decision maker
Mitigation leads to residual/secondary risks and devising responses to control and
monitor them is required.

10. Project Quality Management

Project quality management is the process of defining quality standards for the
deliverables of a project, as well as the quality assurance measures to guarantee those
standards are met. Project quality management can be simply defined as the
combination of quality planning, quality assurance and quality control activities.

• Quality Planning
o First, identify the quality requirements for your project deliverables and
how the project needs to be managed. Agree on how this process will be
documented and how that information will be delivered. Will you have
regular meetings, emails, etc.?

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 o The quality planning section will include these specifics as well as metrics
for measuring the quality while managing the project. This should include
a quality checklist to collect and organize the marks you need to hit during
the project.

• Quality Control
o Quality control is the first step in project quality management. It consists
of determining quality requirements for project deliverables and testing,
inspecting and reporting to make sure they’re met.
o While it’s similar to quality assurance (QA), the main difference between
them is that quality assurance (QA) focuses on improving processes to
maintain quality standards and prevent issues, while quality control (QC)
focuses on inspecting and identifying issues.
o The main role of quality control is to ensure rules are being followed and
that the expected project quality standards are met. Some ways to ensure
that the required quality of the deliverables is being achieved is through
peer reviews and testing.

• Quality Assurance
o Quality assurance is the planned and systemic activities implemented in a
quality system so that quality requirements for a product or service will be
fulfilled.
o Use quality assurance to ensure your processes are in fact working
towards making the project deliverables meet quality requirements. Two
ways to accomplish this are by using a process checklist and a project
audit.

10.1 Cost of Quality

Cost of Quality (COQ) is primarily a measure of all costs related to the quality
and the lack thereof. Thereby, COQ refers to the entire lifecycle of the product
(or outcome) created by a project.
The cost of quality technique addresses the issue of a project being temporary in
nature while the quality of its deliverables lasts for the entire lifecycle of the

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 product. Thus, it forces a project and its organization to measure to consider
quality aspects during and beyond the duration of a project.

Cost of quality consists of two components:

• Cost of conformance and
• Cost of non-conformance, also referred to as failure cost

Cost of Conformance
Cost of conformance describes the amount of resources needed to achieve the quality
requirements and targets of a project. The underlying rationale is to spend money on
the prevention of quality issues rather than for fixing them.
Cost of conformance consist of two components:

• Prevention cost
• Appraisal cost.

Cost of Non-Conformance
Cost of non-conformance is used as a synonym for failure cost. It refers to the resources
that are required to fix failures and take corrective actions but also to indirect effects
from quality issues, such as negative business impact.
Cost of non-conformance consists of two elements:

• Internal failure costs

• External failure costs.

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