2.

3 COMPUTER HARDWARE
Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer, i.e. the components
that can be seen and touched. The computer system consists of mainly four basic units:
a) Input device
b) Storage device
c) Central Processing Unit (CPU)
d) Output device

The various functions of these units can be summarized as:

Functions of the units of computer system

Unit Function
1 Input device Reads information from input media and enters to the
computer in a coded form. Simply put, this unit is used
for entering data and programs into the computer system
by the user for processing.
2 Storage device The storage unit is used for storing data and instructions
before and after processing.
3 CPU Memory unit Stores program and data
Arithmetic Logic unit Performs arithmetic and logical functions
Control Unit Interprets program instructions and controls the input
and output devices
4 Output device decodes information and presents it to the user

Input device
Devices used to provide data and instructions to the computer are called
Input devices. Some important input devices are:
• Key board
• Mouse
• Scanner
• MICR (magnetic ink character recognition)
• Web camera
• Microphone etc.

a) Keyboard
The Key board is used for typing text into the computer. It is also known as standard Input
device. A computer keyboard is similar to that of a type writer with additional keys. The
most commonly available computer keyboard has 104 keys. There are different types of
keys on the keyboard. The keys are categorized as:
• Alphanumeric keys , including letters & numbers
• Punctuation keys, such as colon (:), semicolon (;) Question mark (?), Single & double
quotes (‗,‖)
• Special keys such as arrow keys, control keys, function keys (F1 to F12), HOME, END
 etc.

b) Mouse
It is a device that controls the movement of the cursor on a monitor. A mouse will have
2 buttons on its top. The left button is the most frequently used button. There will be a
wheel between the left and right buttons. This wheel enables us to smoothly scroll through
screens of information. As we move the mouse, the pointer on the monitor moves in the
same direction. Optical mouse is another advanced pointing device that uses a light
emitting component instead of the mouse ball. Mouse cannot be used for entering the data.
It is only useful to select the options on the screen.

c) Scanner
It is an input device that can read text or illustrations printed on paper and translate into
digital form. The main advantage of these scanners is that the data need not be entered
separately resulting in saving lot of time.

Scanners are of two types: i) optical scanners ii) MICR

i) Optical scanners:
• Optical character Recognition (OCR): In this, characters are read with the help of
a light. This is used in office atomization, documentation in library etc.
• Optical mark recognition (OMR): It is a technology where an OMR device senses
the presence or absence of a mark such as a pencil mark. OMR is used in tests
such as aptitude tests.
• Optical barcode recognition (OBCR): Barcode readers are photoelectric scanners
that read the bar codes or vertical zebra striped marks printed on product
containers. This is used in super markets, book shops etc.
• MICR: This is widely used in banks to process the cheques. This allows the
computer to recognize characters printed using magnetic ink.

d) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

It is a character recognition technology used primarily by the banking industry to facilitate
the processing of the cheques. MICR characters (cheque No., Acc.No.etc) are printed in
special ink usually containing iron oxide. When a document that contains the ink needs
 to be read, it passes through a machine which magnetizes the ink and there will be a
reader sorter unit which translates the magnetic information into characters. MICR
provides a secure, high speed of scanning and processing information. It scans about 2600
cheques/min.

Central Processing Unit

It is the part of the computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program. It
is the unit that reads and executes program inst ructions. Hence it is known as the―brain of
the computer. The CPU consists of:
• storage or memory unit
• control unit
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

a) Memory Unit
It is also known as the primary storage or main memory. It stores data, program
instructions, internal results and final output temporarily before it is sent to an
appropriate output device. It c o n s i s t s of t h ou s a n d s of cells called ―storage locations.
These cells activate with ―off-on or binary digits (0,1) mechanism. Thus a character
either a letter or numerical digit is stored as a string of (0, 1) Binary digits (BITS). These
bits are used to store instructions and data by their combinations.

b) Control Unit
It acts as a central nervous system and ensures that the information is stored correctly
and the program instructions are followed in proper sequence as well as the data are
selected from the memory as necessary. It also coordinates all the input and output devices
of a system.

c) Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU)

It is the unit where all Arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction etc.) and logical
functions such as true or false, male or female are performed. Once data are fed into the
main memory from input devices, they are held and transferred as needed to ALU where
processing takes place. No process occurs in primary storage. Intermediate generated
results in ALU are temporarily placed in memory until needed at later time. Data may
move from primary memory to ALU and back again to storage many times before the
process is finalized.

Output device
Any device that is capable of representing information on a computer is called an Output
device. Output devices receive information from the CPU and present it to the user in the
desired form. Some important Output devices are: Monitor, Printer

a) Terminal/Monitor
It is similar to TV screen- either a monochrome (black & white) or colour – and it displays
the output. It is also referred as Visual Display Unit (VDU). Several types of monitors
 are in use. Some of them are Colour Graphic A d a p t e r (CGA), E n h a n c e d Graphics
Adaptor (EGA), Video Graphics Adapter (VGA) and Super Video Graphics Adapter
(SVGA). The screen sizes differ from system to system. The standard size is 24 lines by
80 characters. Most systems have provision for scrolling which helps in moving the text
vertically or horizontally on the screen.

b) Printer
A printer is used to transfer data from a computer onto paper. The paper copy obtained
from a printer is often referred as printout. The different printers and their speeds are as
follows:

Different printers and their speeds

S. No. Type Mode of Printing Speed

1 Dot – Matrix printer Prints the character in dotted pattern through printer200/300 to 700 CPS
ribbon using either 24 pin or 9 pin
2 Ink Jet printer Work by spraying ionized ink Slow, 90 CPS

3 Laser printer Also called page printer. Uses laser beam to produce 6 to 12 PPM
an image.

4 Line printer Prints lines at a time instead of single characters. 300 to 600 LPM

5 Plotter Produces drawings or graphs through pens which

are filled with different colours.
( CPS: Characters Per Second; PPM: Pages Per Minutes; LPM : Lines Per Minute)

Laser printer

COMPUTER MEMORY
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer
memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions
required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts
called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size
minus one. For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024
= 65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

Types of memory
Memory is primarily of three types
• Cache Memory
• Primary Memory/Main Memory
 • Secondary Memory

a) Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It
acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data
and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can
access them.

Figure 2.1: Showing cache memory

The advantages of cache memory are as follows:

• Cache memory is faster than main memory.
• It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
• It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
• It stores data for temporary use.

The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:

• Cache memory has limited capacity.
• It is very expensive.

a) Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and
instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and ROM.
Primary memory

Characteristics of Main Memory

• These are semiconductor memories.
• It is known as the main memory.
• Usually volatile memory.
• Data is lost in case power is switched off.
• It is the working memory of the computer.
• Faster than secondary memories.
• A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

b) Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the
main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not
access these memories; instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of
secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it.
For example, Compact disk, CD-ROM, Digital Video Disk (DVD), Hard Drive Disk (HDD)
etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

• These are magnetic and optical memories.
• It is known as the backup memory.
• It is a non-volatile memory.
• Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
• It is used for storage of data in a computer.
• Computer may run without the secondary memory.
• Slower than primary memories.

Units of memory
The computer stores a character in the storage cells with binary (0, 1) mechanism. Thus
the basic unit of memory is a bit (binary digit – 0, 1). To store a character, a computer requires
8 bits or 1 byte. This is called the word length of the storage unit. Hence the storage capacity
of the computer is measured in the number of words it can store and is expressed in terms
of bytes. The following table lists some higher storage units:
Units of memory
Unit Description
Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes
Megabyte (MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB
GigaByte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB
TeraByte (TB) 1 TB = 1024 GB
PetaByte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB
a) Storage capacity
i) Floppy Disk
It is also referred as ―Diskette: and is made of flexible Vinyl material. It has a small hole
on one side called ―Right protect notch, which protects accidental writing/deleting
the information from the disk. There is a hole in the centre through which the spindle of
drive unit rotates the disk. The disks are available in two sizes of 5.25 and 3.5 inches
and these could be either low- density or high-density floppies. Storage capacity of
floppies is measured in kilobytes (KB) and megabytes (MB). The details about the
storage capacities of the floppies are presented below:
Storage capacities of the floppy disk
Floppy Disk Storage Capacity Size (Diameter)
Low Density 360 KB 5.25 inches
High Density 1.2 MB 5.25 inches
High Density 1.44 MB 3.5 inches
Extended 2.8 MB 3.5 inches

ii) Hard Disk

The hard disk can hold more information than the floppy disk and the retrieval of
information from hard disk is faster when compared to floppies or tapes. A hard disk is
fixed inside the CPU and its capacity ranges from 20 MB onwards. The hard disk is
made up of a collection of discs (one below the other) known as platters on which the
data is recorded. These platters are coated with magnetic material. It is less sensitive to
external environmental disorders and hence the storage in hard disk is safe. A small hard
disk might be as much as 25 times larger than a floppy disk. Storage Capacity of hard disks
varies from 20 MB to several Gigabytes like 80GB, 160GB.
COMPUTER PORTS
A port is a physical docking point using which an external device can be connected to the
computer. It can also be programmatic docking point through which information flows from a
program to the computer or over the Internet.

Characteristics of Ports
A port has the following characteristics:
• External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.
• Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external device is plugged in.
• Examples of external devices attached via ports are the mouse, keyboard, monitor,
microphone, speakers, etc.

Important types of ports

a) Serial Port
• Used for external modems and older computer mouse
• Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model
• Data travels at 115 kilobits per second

b) Parallel Port
• Used for scanners and printers
• Also called printer port
• 25 pin model
• IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

c) PS/2 Port
• Used for old computer keyboard and mouse
• Also called mouse port
• Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for the mouse and keyboard
• IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

d) Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port

• It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer,
scanner, mouse, keyboard, etc.
• It was introduced in 1997.
• Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.
• Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds.
• USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port.
e) VGA Port
• Connects monitor to a computer's video card.
• It has 15 holes.
• Similar to the serial port connector. However, serial port connector has pins, VGA port
has holes.

f) Power Connector
• Three-pronged plug.
• Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket.

g) Firewire Port
• Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.
• Connects camcorders and video equipment to the computer.
• Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds.
• Invented by Apple.
• It has three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector, and
9-Pin FireWire 800 connector.

h) Modem Port
• Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network.

i) Ethernet Port
• Connects to a network and high speed Internet.
• Connects the network cable to a computer.
• This port resides on an Ethernet Card.
 • Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon the network
bandwidth

j) Game Port
• Connect a joystick to a PC
• Now replaced by USB

k) Digital Video Interface, DVI port

• Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high-end video graphic cards.
• Very popular among video card manufacturers.

l) Sockets
• Sockets connect the microphone and speakers to the sound card of the computer.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program
is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem. The basic difference
between the Hardware and Software is just the same as that exists between TV and TV
studio. Without TV studio (software) from where the programs are telecast, the TV
(Hardware) is a dead machine.

Types of software
There are two types of software:
• System Software
• Application Software

System Software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the
processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the
computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level
languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the
interface between the hardware and the end users. System software contributes to control and
performance of a computer system. System software acts behind the scenes to manage resources
and operations of a computer system. System software interfaces between computer hardware
and the application software. An example of system software is the Operating System (OS).

Operating System (OS)

The software that manages the resources of a computer system and schedules its operation
is called Operating system. The operating system acts as interface between the hardware and
the user programs and facilitates the execution of programs. Thus, an operating system is
software which controls the general operation of a computer. Some of the functions of an OS
are:
a) Processor management: It manages the assignment of processor to different tasks being
performed by the computer system.
b) Memory management: It manages the allocation of main memory and other storage
areas to the system programmes as well as user programmes and data.
c) Input / Output management: It manages the co-ordination and assignment of different
Input and Output devices while one or more programmes are executed.
d) File management: It allows all files to be easily changed and modified through the use
of text editors or some other file manipulation routines.
e) Establishment and enforcement of a priority system: It determines and maintains the
order in which jobs are to be executed in the computer system. Interpretation of
commands and instructions.
f) Facilitates easy communication between the computer system and the computer
operator.

The User interface provided by the OS can be character based or graphical.

CUI -- Character user Interface

GUI -- Graphical user Interface

CUI: It is operated with keyboard only. Ex: MS-DOS, UNIX

GUI: The system can be operated with mouse and keyboard. Ex: Windows 95, Windows
XP etc
• Disk Operating System (DOS): It was developed as early as 1980 by Bill Gates at the
age of 19. It is suited for personal computers. Dos is a single user and single task
operating system
• WINDOWS: It works with DOS and it supports single user and multitask system.
It requires a powerful PC with a minimum RAM of 8 MB.
• UNIX AND XENIX: It is suited for multi-user and multi-task system

Application Software/programs
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular
environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the
category of Application software. Application software may consist of a single program, such
as Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection
of programs, often called a software package, which work together to accomplish a task.
Examples of Application software are the following:

Examples of Application software

Application/program Purpose/function
 Microsoft Word Processing packages that are responsible for creating, editing and printing
of documents. The extend their capabilities to include checking spelling and
grammar, drawing tables, mail merge, print many copies of one document,
typing in various font styles, colours, underlining, inserting pictures, plus
looking for words with a similar meaning to the one typed (thesaurus)
Microsoft Excel Designed for working with numbers in terms of arithmetic (addition,
multiplication, subtraction, division), sorting from the highest to the lowest
or vice-versa, drawing tables, using mathematical functions such as sine,
cosine, average, randomize, to perform complex calculations such as
regression. Managers use spreadsheets in carrying what-if computations to
determine the impact a certain move or decision might have on the
profitability or future of the business.
Microsoft PowerPoint Microsoft PowerPoint is a presentation tool that supports text, shapes,
graphics, pictures and multimedia along with integration with other
Microsoft Office products like Excel. This software is used to display the
information in the form of slide show. The three main functions of
presentation software is editing that allows insertion and formatting of text,
including graphics in the text and executing the slide shows. The best
example for this type of application software is Microsoft PowerPoint.
Microsoft Access Designed for handling and manipulation of large volumes of data. Consider
the example of a university that keeps each and every detail about every
student and should the data be required (i.e. in terms of fees due, results or
residential status, level, department etc) it is instantly retrieved.
Payroll Software Automates the management of employees' salaries, wages, bonuses and
deductions.
Multimedia software Media players and real players are the examples of multimedia software. This
software will allow the user to create audio and videos. The different forms of
multimedia software are audio converters, players, burners, video encoders
and decoders.

Factors to consider before buying computer software

There are many considerations to be made before one settle for a certain type of software.
• Generally, the software has to be appropriate to the task; it should justify the cost as
well as being affordable.
• Other factors are that the software must be compatible with your hardware. Some
software cannot run on IBM machines, while running modern windows-based programs
without a mouse is underutilizing it. If you are buying application software, it must work
well with the system software, for example you cannot install Microsoft Word 2000 on
a machine with Windows 3.1.
• The software must have continued support from the supplier for it to suit changing user
requirements for example if a software was to be used to calculate tax on goods sold, it
should be changeable from sales tax to value added tax.
• Also software like Microsoft products has many versions indicating responsive
approach to user requirements and modernization. A simple example is that of
employees’ salaries in Zimbabwe, up to date software would allow for salaries payslips
 to accommodate even millions as a salary figure. If it was made without such a vision
then maybe salaries would only be up to say $10 000.
• On the other hand, software must be easy to learn and use, it must offer help.
Specifically, its advantageous to buy software with Graphical User Interface (GUI),
which is a program screen interface based on icons, menus, windows for ease of use. It
must be robust, accurate and free from errors.
• Software also differs in the storage space they need. So when buying software, one has
to consider the storage capacity of his machine, the size of the RAM and the speed of
the processor, so that the machine’s speed is not compromised.

DATABASES
What is a Database?
It is an organised collection of data with minimum duplication to service many applications at
the same time by storing and managing data so that they appear to be in one location. When a
transaction occurs, e.g. a withdrawal in a bank, some data would be stored. All the data that
completely describe a transaction is called a record. E.g.
Withdrawal record

Account# Date Amount Cash/cheque remaining balance

A record is made up of fields. A field is a single descriptive item of a record or a transaction.

All the related records are stored in a file. The various related files and the interfaces that query
or manipulate their stored data from the database. Rather than storing data in separate files for
each application, data is stored physically to appear to users as being stored in only one location.

The database management system acts as the interface between the application programmes
and the data. Database management system is special software used to create and maintain a
database and enable individual business applications to extract the data they need without
having to create separate files or data definitions in their computer programmes.

Advantages of Databases
• Data redundancy is reduced considerably thereby solving problems of excessive
memory requirements and inconsistencies.
• Response time is faster since they can directly interact with the Database Management
System
• Databases offer a wide variety of security and privacy feature for organizational
confidential data.
COMPUTER NETWORKS

The computer network is a set of computers connected to share resources. In computer

networks, the computing devices exchange the data with each other by using the connections
between nodes. The data links are established over cable media such as wires or optic cables or
wireless media such as Wi-Fi. Thus, a computer network is a digital telecommunication
network which allows nodes to share the resources. It is the group of computer systems and
other computing hardware devices. Those devices are linked together through communication
channels to facilitate communication and resource sharing among a wide range of users.

Figure 3.1: The computer network

REASONS FOR NETWORKING COMPUTERS

The design of computer networks should satisfy a broad range of purposes, some of which
include the following:
• Cost reduction by sharing hardware and software resources.
• Provide an efficient means of transport for large volumes of data among various
locations (High throughput).
• Provide inter-process communication among users and processors.
• Increase productivity by making it easier to share data amongst users.
• Repairs, upgrades, expansions, and changes to the network should be performed with
minimal impact on the majority of network users.
• Standards and protocols should be supported to allow many types of equipment from
different vendors to share the network (Interoperatability).
 • Provide centralised/distributed management and allocation of network resources like
host processors, transmission facilities etc.TYPES OF NETWORKS
Basically, there are four types of computer networks as presented below:
• LAN (Local Area Network)
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• PAN (Personal Area Network)
• WAN (Wide Area Network)

a) LAN (Local Area Network)

The Local Area Network is a computer network which interconnects the computer within
the limited area such as a residence, school laboratory, university campus or office building.
LAN (Local Area Network) spans a relatively small area. In a wireless LAN, the users have
unrestricted movement within the coverage area. The wireless networks become popular in
the residences and small businesses just because of their easy installation. The network
topology describes the layout of interconnections between devices and network segments.

Local Area Network

b) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

The Metropolitan Area Network is a computer network which is similar to the Local Area
network but spans an entire city or campus. In Metropolitan Area Network, users are
interconnected with computer resources in a whole geographic area or region. This Network is
larger or broader that the Local Area Network.
Metropolitan Area Network

c) PAN (Personal Area Network)

The Personal Area Network is used for interconnecting the devices which are centered on a
person’s workspace. This Network provides data transmission among devices such as
computers, smart phones, tablets, and personal digital assistants.

Figure 3.4: The Personal Area Network

d) WAN (Wide Area Network)

The Wide Area Network is the telecommunication network which extends over the large
geographical area for the primary purpose of computer networking. These networks are often
established with leased telecommunication circuits. The WAN connects different smaller
networks, including the Local Area Network. The computers connected to the Wide Area
Network are often connected through public networks, such as telephone systems. This
Network can connect through the leased lines or satellites.

Figure 3.5: Wide Area Network

HARDWARE REQUIRED TO SET-UP A COMPUTER NETWORK

• Network Cables
• Distributors
• Routers
• Internal Network Cards
• External Network Cards

a) Network Cables
Network cables are used to connect computers. The most commonly used cable is Category
5 cable RJ-45.

b) Distributors
A computer can be connected to another one via a serial port but if we need to connect many
computers to produce a network, this serial connection will not work. The solution is to use a
central body to which other computers, printers, scanners, etc. can be connected and then this
body will manage or distribute network traffic.

c) Router
A router is a type of device which acts as the central point among computers and other devices
that are a part of the network. It is equipped with holes called ports. Computers and other
devices are connected to a router using network cables. Now-a-days router comes in wireless
modes using which computers can be connected without any physical cable.

d) Network Card
Network card is a necessary component of a computer without which a computer cannot be
connected over a network. It is also known as the network adapter or Network Interface Card
(NIC). Most branded computers have network card pre-installed. Network cards are of two
types: Internal and External Network Cards.

e) Internal Network Cards

Motherboard has a slot for internal network card where it is to be inserted. Internal network
cards are of two types in which the first type uses Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
connection, while the second type uses Industry Standard Architecture (ISA). Network cables
are required to provide network access.

f) External Network Cards

External network cards are of two types: Wireless and USB based. Wireless network card needs
to be inserted into the motherboard; however no network cable is required to connect to the
network.

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

USB card is easy to use and connects via USB port. Computers automatically detect USB
card and can install the drivers required to support the USB network card automatically.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Network topologies can be classified as follows:
a) BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.
Features of bus topology
In the bus topology, each node (computer, server, peripheral etc.) attaches directly to a common
cable.
• This topology most often serves as the backbone for a network.
• In some instances, such as in classrooms or labs, a bus will connect small workgroups.
• It is the simplest method of networking computers.
• It consists of a single cable known as a trunk, backbone or segment that connects all the
computers in the network.
• Each system is directly attached to a common communication channel. Signal that is
transmitted over the channel makes up the messages.
• In a bus topology only one computer can send data at a time, therefore the more
computers in a bus the slower data transmission in the network

Advantages of Bus topology

• Cheap because of its simplicity
• Requires a short cable length
• Easy to expand the network
• Simple to setup compared to Star and Ring topology
• There is no chances of data collision since one computer transmit at a time
• Locating cable fault in a bus topology is relatively easy
• Bus topology is ideal for one-to-many data transmission
• Signal on the cable are bidirectional hence reaches all the nodes

Disadvantages of Bus topology

• Fault diagnosis is difficult in a bus topology – detection of fault may have to be

performed from any point in the network
• Fault isolation is difficult – if fault in the node is detected the node can simply be
removed but if the fault is in network medium itself and entire segment of the Bus must
be disconnected to isolate the fault
 • Repeater configuration – When a Bus type network has its backbone intended for
using a repeater, configuration maybe necessary thus may involve tailoring cable length,
adjusting terminator etc
• Computer nodes must be intelligence – each node on the network is directly connected
to the central Bus. This means that each node must have method of deciding and
detecting its own data

b) RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first.

Features of a ring topology

• Exactly two neighbours for each device.
• Ring, a ring topology features a logically closed loop.
• Data packets travel in a single direction around the ring from one network device to
the next. Each network device acts as a repeater, meaning it regenerates the signal.
• In Ring topology each node is connected to form a single, closed data path.
• Data from one node is passed along to the next node from which it will be examined,
and if that node is not the intended destination, then it is transmitted to the next node
until the destination is reached.
• Token (a special bit pattern) is circulated in the network to enable a node to capture
the data. Ring topology might be structured so that there are a number of information
frames or slot in construct circulation.
• Node wishing to transmit first detects the arrival of an empty slot then inserts the data
it wishes to send, and mark the frame as full.
• The receiving node takes the data and then marks the frame as empty.
 • In implementation one particular node has the responsibility for generating the token
or slot when the network is first constituted
i) Advantages of ring Topology
• The ability to achieve transmission rates of the order of 10 million bits per second
• Provision of local communication via a single channel
• No central server which reduces the cost of establishing the ring topology

ii) Disadvantages
• Failure of one node result into entire network failure
• Detection of fault is very difficult in ring topology
• Isolation of fault is not easy in this topology
c) STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This
hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features of Star Topology

• Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
• Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
• Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

• Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
• Hub can be upgraded easily.
• Easy to troubleshoot.
• Easy to setup and modify.
• Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

• Cost of installation is high.
• Expensive to use.
 • If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the
hub.
• Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

d) MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected
to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices. There are two techniques
to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are:
• Routing
• Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic
to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which
has information about the broken links, and it avoids those nodes etc.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes; hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and it is very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted
load over the network.

Features of Mesh Topology

• Fully connected.
• Robust.
• Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

• Each connection can carry its own data load
• It is robust.
• Fault is diagnosed easily.
 • Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

• Installation and configuration is difficult.
• Cabling cost is more.
• Bulk wiring is required.

e) TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

• Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
• Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
• Extension of bus and star topologies.
• Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
• Easily managed and maintained.
• Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
• Heavily cabled.
• Costly.
• If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
• Central hub fails, network fails.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING A TOPOLOGY

a) Cost – whatever transmission medium is chosen for a Local Area Network has to be
physically installed in the building, this maybe a lengthy process including the
installation cables and raceways. For a Network to be cost effective one would strive to
 minimize installation cost. This may be achieved by using the proper hardware linking
the cables, good modems, cost effective computers to reduced cost
b) Flexibility – one of the main benefits of a local Area Network is its ability to have the
data processing and peripheral nodes distributed around a given area. This means that
the computing power and equipment can be located close to the ultimate users. Because
the arrangements of furniture, internal walls etc in the offices is often subject to change.
The topology should allow for easy reconstruction of the network which involves
moving existing nodes and adding new nodes.
c) Reliability – The topology chosen for the network can help by allowing the location of
the fault to be detected and to provide some means of isolating the faults.

INTERNET

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the present age of information Technology, use of Internet is becoming quite popular for
accessing information on any topic of your interest. It also provides tremendous opportunities
to students, researchers and professionals for getting information on matters related to academic
and professional topics and lot more. In the present world, most of the people who have
computers around themselves use Internet to access information from the World Wide Web,
exchange messages & documents and e-services.

INTERNET
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard
Internet protocol suite (TCP/ IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks
that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of
local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical
networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and
services, such as the interlinked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the
infrastructure to support electronic mail. To access the Internet, an existing network need to pay
a small registration fee and agree to certain standards based on the TCP/IP (Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). TCP "converts messages into streams of packets at the
source, and they are reassembled back into messages at the destination. IP handles the
addressing, and makes sure that a packet reaches its destination through multiple nodes and
even across multiple networks with multiple standards.

Internet terminology
Below are some of the terminologies used in the internet
a) Browser
A piece of software such as Mozilla Firefox and Internet Explorer that allows a computer to
access and display documents, view pictures, hear sound, and view video clips from the World
Wide Web.
b) E-mail
This is a mail that is electronically transmitted by your computer. As opposed to snail mail, e-
mail sends messages instantaneously, anywhere in the world. It has the capability to send
messages at any time and to anyone.
c) File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
The standard method for downloading and uploading files over the Internet. With FTP, you
can login to a server and transfer files (meaning you can "send" or "receive" files).

d) Homepage
This is the first page that is viewed when the browser starts. It is also the page of a Web site
that provides the introduction or content with links.

e) Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

This is the abbreviation for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. It is the set of rules by which Web
pages are transferred across the Internet.

f) Internet Protocol (IP) Address

The Internet is composed of local, regional, national, and worldwide computer networks.
Each computer on the Internet can be identified by a set of unique numbers that is called an
internet protocol (IP) address. The IP address is composed of four different numbers
separated by periods such as 205.134.120.60.

g) Link or Hypertext Link

This is an underlined word(s), phrase(s), or graphics on a Web page that transports the
reader to additional or related information on the Internet.

h) Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

This is an addressing scheme that is used on the Internet to locate resources and/or services
on the World Wide Web. Basically the URL is the address of a computer file that has been
put on a computer server to access the Internet.

i) Web Page
This is a single hypertext file or a page that is part of a Web site.

j) Website
This is a collection of World Wide Web pages or files.

Uses of Internet
Internet has been the most useful technology of the modern times which helps us not only in
our daily lives, but also our personal and professional lives developments. The internet helps
us achieve this in several different ways. For the students and educational purposes the internet
is widely used to gather information so as to do the research or add to the knowledge of various
subjects. Even the business professionals and the professionals like doctors, access the internet
to filter the necessary information for their use. The internet is, therefore, the largest guide for
everyone, in all age categories. The internet has also served to be more useful in maintaining
contacts with friends and relatives who live abroad permanently. Some of the uses of the
internet include:
 a) E-mail: Email is now an essential communication tools in business. With e-mail one
can send and receive instant electronic messages, which work like writing letters. The
messages are delivered instantly to people anywhere in the world, unlike traditional
mail that takes a lot of time. Email is free, fast and very cheap when compared to
telephone, fax and postal services.
b) 24 hours a day - 7 days a week: Internet is available, 24x7 days for usage.
c) Information: Information is probably the biggest advantage internet is offering. There
is a huge amount of information available on the internet for just about every subject,
ranging from government services, trade fairs and conferences, market information,
new ideas and technical support. Users of the internet can almost find any type of data
on almost any kind of subject that they are looking for by using search engines like
Google, yahoo, msn, etc.
d) Online Chat: internet users can access many ‘chat rooms’ on the web that can be used
to meet new people, make new friends, as well as to stay in touch with old friends.
People can chat in MSN and yahoo websites.
e) Services: Many services are provided on the internet like internet banking, job
searching, purchasing tickets, hotel reservations, guidance services on array of topics
engulfing every aspect of life.
f) Communities: Communities of all types have sprung up on the internet. It is a great way
to meet up with people of similar interest and discuss common issues.
g) E-commerce: Along with getting information on the Internet facilitate online shopping.
There are many online stores and sites that can be used to look for products as well as
buy them using credit card. Users of the internet do not need to leave their houses; they
can do all their shopping from the convenience of their home. It has got a real amazing
and wide range of products from household needs, electronics to entertainment.
h) Entertainment: Internet provides facility to access wide range of Audio/Video songs,
plays films. Many of which can be downloaded. One such popular website is YouTube.
Software Downloads: internet users can freely download innumerable, software like
utilities, games, music, videos, movies, etc from the Internet.

Limitations of Internet
a) Theft of Personal information: Electronic messages sent over the Internet can be easily
snooped and tracked, revealing who is talking to whom and what they are talking about.
If you use the Internet, your personal information such as your name, address, credit
card, bank details and other information can be accessed by unauthorized persons. If
you use a credit card or internet banking for online shopping, then your details can also
be ‘stolen’.
b) Negative effects on family communication: It is generally observed that due to more
time spent on Internet, there is a decrease in communication and feeling of togetherness
among the family members.
c) Internet addiction: There is some controversy over whether it is possible to actually be
addicted to the Internet or not. Some researchers claim that it is simply people trying to
 escape their problems in an online world. Children using the Internet have become a
big concern.
d) Virus threat: Today, not only are humans getting viruses, but computers are also.
Computers are mainly getting these viruses from the Internet. Virus is a program which
disrupts the normal functioning of your computer systems. Computers attached to
internet are more prone to virus attacks and they can end up into crashing your whole
hard disk.
e) Spamming: It is often viewed as the act of sending unsolicited email. This multiple or
vast emailing is often compared to mass junk mailings. It needlessly obstructs the entire
system. Most spam is commercial advertising, often for dubious products, get-rich-
quick schemes, or quasi-legal services. Spam costs the sender very little to send — most
of the costs are paid for by the recipient or the carriers rather than by the sender

Information browsing
If one will go onto the internet and type the herald’s website address www.herald.co.zw he will
be able to read the latest version of the paper on the internet. It would allow one to open any
one edition of the herald. www.herald.co.zw is referred to as the URL (Uniform Resource
Location), which helps the Internet browser to locate a user’s requested page. Information
browsing also includes the use of search engines e.g. www.google.com, on which a user type
some keywords specifying a search criteria and click search for the browser to search the whole
internet for the occurrence of the keyword.

An example of a search window

Search the Internet

What are you looking for?

Search

Help on searching is available.

Services of internet
E-mail, FTP, Telnet Email, discussion groups, long-distance computing, and file transfers are
some of the important services provided by the Internet.
a) Email- e-mail is an Internet facility that allows individuals to write each other mail and
send them through the internet to the recipient. Typically for one to send or receive e-
mail, you must be logged on to your account. One’s messages are stored in his mailbox
(which is itself made up of the inbox, bulk box and the sent box). E-mail has added
features of being able to forward, save, delete and compose message. Format of e-mail
is like Format of e-mail is like
 susan@yahoo.com indicate the service provide

Account holder

This means that Susan has an e-mail account with a company called Yahoo.

b) FTP (File Transfer Protocol) File Transfer Protocol, is an Internet utility software used
to uploaded and download files. It gives access to directories or folders on remote
computers and allows software, data and text files to be transferred between different
kinds of computers. FTP works on the basis of same principle as that of Client/ Server.
FTP “Client” is a program running on your computer that enables you to communicate
with remote computers. The FTP client takes FTP command and sends these as requests
for information from the remote computer known as FTP servers. To access remote FTP
server it is required, but not necessary to have an account in the FTP server. When the
FTP client gets connected, FTP server asks for the identification in terms of User Login
name and password of the FTP client. If one does not have an account in the remote
FTP server, still he can connect to the server using anonymous login.
c) Telnet (Remote Computing) Telnet or remote computing is telecommunication utility
software, which uses available telecommunication facility and allows you to become a
user on a remote computer.
d) Newsgroups; When one has one an e-mail, he may specify his areas of interest e.g.
recreational, sport, food, science and technology such that should anyone have any news
he will convey it to the news group.

TYPES OF INTERNET CONNECTIONS

There are five types of internet connections which are as follows:
• Dial up Connection
• Leased Connection
• DSL connection
• Cable Modem Connection
• VSAT

Task
1. Explain the five types of internet connections listed above
2. State the advantages and disadvantages of each type of internet connection.
Requirements for one to connect to the Internet
You have to subscribe to the Internet Service Provider like mweb, zarnet, ecoweb. These give
one a username and a password he can use to derive Internet benefits. When accessing the
Internet, your computer will dial the Internet Service provider’s number. The ISP will also have
a server that hosts and screens (against viruses) your e-mail messages. When you call to a up
for an Internet account, make sure you get the following information:
• User name

• Password

• Access phone number

• Your host name and domain name

• Domain Name System (DNS) server address

The service provider may also supply the following information:

• IP address and subnet mask
• DNS search order (if required)
• Gateway address
• Authentication procedure (whether or not the service provider requires a terminal window
to log on)

One also needs to have a modern Internet browser like Opera, Microsoft Internet Explorer or
Netscape loaded on the computer. Above all, the computer must be at least a Pentium I machine
with a speed from 166MHz. The telephone line and a modem are other requirements. The
modem converts a computer’s electronic digital data into analog signals that can be transported
through a telephone line when information is being sent into the Internet and vice versa when
receiving. The telephone line is the transmission media, which links the computer to the Internet
service provider. Your operating system should compatible with the Internet browser and
modern GUI operating systems support Internet

For large organizations, it’s ideal that they network their computers, hence more requirements.
One would need a server-based network to effect networks security and to use one connection
as a gateway to the Internet.

SECURITY AND ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
Information Technology resources (hardware, software, and data) form a vital strategic resource
of any establishment which must be jealously guarded to ensure its safety, reliability, accuracy
and integrity. Ethics refer to the expected code of conduct within an organization both on the
use of computer resources and human resources. Hence, ethics direct an employee‘s mind
towards profit through sanctioned means, ensure that managers do not engage in fraud and
abuse of funds nor convert the company’s clients for personal motive. At the same time, data
in the organization must be used for its intended purpose which itself should be legitimate.

SECURITY CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH IT

The following are some of the current issues concerning IT security:
• Spamming
• Hacking
• Jamming
• Malicious software
• Sniffing
• Spoofing
• Identity Theft
Security issues associated with information technology & their solutions
Security challenge Description
Password Cracking Password cracking is just another method used to illegally
access someone’s computer without his or her consent.
E-mail Spoofing Spoofing results when a user receives an e-mail that appears to
have originated from one person, but is actually sent by another
person. The objective of spoofing is to trick the user into
divulging confidential information.
Spamming Spamming can be defined as the practice of sending unsolicited
e-mail and other electronic communication. The spammers
who send out all of these e-mails are only charged a few cents
to send out the unsolicited e-mails to users who have not
requested the information
Hacking Hacking is when an illegal user tries to access private
information that they are not entitled to access.
Identify theft Identity theft occurs, when someone possesses or uses a
person’s name, address, Social Security number, bank or credit
card account number, or other identifying information without
a person’s knowledge with the intent to commit fraud or other
crimes.
Solution
To prevent password cracking, users should create and use passwords of eight or
more characters that combine alphanumeric elements, apart from changing it
frequently.
Electronic signature, also known as digital signature helps to prevent spoofing by
ensuring that messages have not been altered during transmission and that the
messages are from the person listed as the sender. Keeping your operating system
and web browser up to date; Schedule spy ware protection software to run
regularly on your computer
Currently, many internet service providers offer policies against spamming and/or
some sort of application that attempts to curb the amount of spam in user’s
mailboxes. Additionally they offer a “Spam Blocker” bundled with their main
program which identifies some spam and prevents it from reaching their users
accounts.
On such preventative measure, is the use of a Firewall which is a program used to
closely monitor precisely what information passes in and out of a computer or
information system. These programs can be set to keep other users out of to
prevent information from leaving the computer or information system.
Detecting identity theft is very difficult and prosecuting it can often be even more
difficult. The best solution to identity theft is prevention. Keeping ones personal
information close and guarding it well is the best solution to this problem.
Administrative controls
They cover company code of practice/conduct and can be implemented through written policies
and procedures; division of functions and supervision
A Code of Practice is a set of standards that a business would expect its employees to conform to.
It is not legally binding but the business would ask an employee to agree to it before being employed
and would be grounds for dismissal if they were not obeyed.
It is always in the best interest of a business to treat its customers fairly and with due consideration
- or they will go elsewhere.
It ensures consistency of practice. All employees would conduct their business in a similar way.

Through division of functions can be whereby where the Information system designers are not part
of the end-users that operate a computer system.

Input Controls

They aim to ensure proper data entry by the intended personnel, through the use of passwords so
that only the holder can benefit from the computer resources, formatted input screens and audible
error signals so that data is entered correctly. Computers should have software that verifies
correctness of the data typed (validation).
Storage controls
There should be a control mechanism so that no everyone can access stored data. Thus documents
can be access through passwords.

Stored data may need to be stored in a separate backup copy so that, in case of that storage device
failing data can be recovered from the backup copy. Stored data can also be encrypted so that,
should the wrong person accesses it, he won’t make sense out of it. Firewall are computers that
protect networked computers from intrusion, hence they also ensure safe storage of data.

Physical protection
Security guards, buglar bars on windows video surveillance cameras, alarms, and building
computer centers above flood levels are some of the many moves to ensure physical safety of
computers.

Disaster recovery plans

Companies should have in place a responsibility roster that explain each and every individual’s
duty in case of a disaster e.g. fire outbreak, so as to minimize the effects of the disaster. They
should also have a tentative document that explain how customers would be served and who should
disseminate the information.

ETHICAL CHALLENGES OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Ethics refers to rules of right and wrong that people use to make choices to guide their behaviors.
Ethics in IT seek to protect and safeguard individuals and society by using information systems
responsibly. Most professions usually have defined a code of ethics or code of conduct guidelines
that all professionals affiliated with the profession must adhere to. In a nutshell, a code of ethics
makes individuals acting on their free will responsible and accountable for their actions. With the
leading advancement in information technology, it is necessary to have the knowledge of security
issues, privacy issues and main negative impacts of IT. To deal with these issues in IT society it is
important to find out the ethical issues.
Some of the major ethical issues faced by Information Technology (IT) are:
• Personal Privacy
 • Access Right
• Harmful Actions
• Patents
• Copyright
• Trade Secrets
• Liability
• Piracy

These are explained with their effects as following below:

a) Personal Privacy
It is an important aspect of ethical issues in information technology. IT facilitates the users
having their own hardware, operating system and software tools to access the servers that are
connected to each other and to the users by a network. Due to the distribution of the network
on a large scale, data or information transfer in a big amount takes place which leads to the
hidden chances of disclosing information and violating the privacy of any individuals or a
group. It is a major challenge for IT society and organizations to maintain the privacy and
integrity of data. Accidental disclosure to inappropriate individuals and provisions to protect
the accuracy of data also comes in the privacy issue.

b) Access Right
The second aspect of ethical issues in information technology is access right. Access right
becomes a high priority issue for the IT and cyberspace with the great advancement in
technology. E-commerce and Electronic payment systems evolution on the internet heightened
this issue for various corporate organizations and government agencies. Network on the
internet cannot be made secure from unauthorized access. Generally, the intrusion detection
system is used to determine whether the user is an intruder or an appropriate user.

c) Harmful Actions
Harmful actions in the computer ethics refers to the damage or negative consequences to the
IT such as loss of important information, loss of property, loss of ownership, destruction of
property and undesirable substantial impacts. This principle of ethical conduct restricts any
outsiders from the use of information technology in manner which leads to any loss to any of
the users, employees, employers and the general public. Typically, these actions comprise of
the intentional destruction or alteration of files and program which drives a serious loss of
resources. To recover from the harmful actions extra time and efforts are required to remove
the viruses from the computer systems.

d) Patents
It is more difficult to deal with these types of ethical issues. A patent can preserve the unique
and secret aspect of an idea. Obtaining a patent is very difficult as compared with obtaining a
copyright. A thorough disclosure is required with the software. The patent holder has to reveal
the full details of a program to a proficient programmer for building a program.

e) Copyright
The information security specialists are to be familiar with necessary concept of the copyright
law. Copyright law works as a very powerful legal tool in protecting computer software, both
before a security breach and surely after a security breach. This type of breach could be the
mishandling and misuse of data, computer programs, documentation and similar material. In
many countries, copyright legislation is amended or revised to provide explicit laws to protect
computer programs.

f) Trade Secrets
Trade secrets are also a significant ethical issue in information technology. A trade secret
secures something of value and usefulness. This law protects the private aspects of ideas which
are known only to the discovery or his confidants. Once disclosed, trade secret is lost as such
and is only protected by the law for trade secrets. The application of trade secret law is very
broad in the computer range, where even a slight head start in the advancement of software or
hardware can provide a significant competitive influence.

g) Liability
One should be aware of the liability issue in making ethical decisions. Software developer
makes promises and assertions to the user about the nature and quality of the product that can
be restricted as an express warranty. Programmers or retailers possess the legitimate to
determine the express warranties. Thus they have to be practical when they define any claims
 and predictions about the capacities, quality and nature of their software or hardware. Every
word they say about their product may be as legally valid as stated in written. All agreements
should be in writing to protect against liability. A disclaimer of express warranties can free a
supplier from being held responsible of informal, speculative statements or forecasting made
during the agreement stages.

h) Piracy
Piracy is an activity in which the creation of illegal copy of the software is made. It is
entirely up to the owner of the software as to whether or not users can make backup copies
of their software. As laws made for copyright protection are evolving, also legislation that
would stop unauthorized duplication of software is in consideration.

SOCIETAL IMPLICATIONS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

The rise of Information technology puts pressure on society members to learn and cope with the
complexity of information-based employment. At the onset Information Technology many
problems as it takes considerable effort to be comfortable with the software, network and
diagnosing related problems. The managers are very much concerned with the reliability of the
computers as the software may be of international standard but failing to address the nitty-gritties
of one’s business. Managers need more information on Information Technology use for them to
confidently conduct cost-benefit analysis for the appropriate hardware, software and network
technology. If Information technology is used to monitor employees, that must be done with their
concert so that they do not feel harassed and insecure at the workplace. This may tend to distort
any motivation that a manager would offer to the employees. Other implications of computers are
many employees tend to lose their jobs due to the insurgence of information technology based
production. Other implications are positive in that, Information technology increases customer
satisfaction through a customer having confidence in the system and being served faster.