Composite Structures 329 (2024) 117756

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Composite Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruct

Review

A review on bistable composite laminates for aerospace applications

Diego Magela Lemos a ,∗, Flávio D. Marques a , António J.M. Ferreira b
a
São Carlos School of Engineering, University of São Paulo, Av. Trab. Sancarlense, 400, São Carlos, 13566-590, SP, Brazil
b
Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, s/n, Porto, 4200-465, Portugal

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Bistable laminates have attracted considerable interest among researchers as prospective candidates for
Bistable composite laminates delivering exceptional performance within the domain of morphing structures. These laminates exhibit a
Room-temperature shape distinctive characteristic of featuring two stable states, sustaining their configuration until the application
Snap-through
of a critical force that triggers a transition to their second stable position. Before discussing the practical
Aerospace applications
applications involving bistable composite laminates, this paper presents analytical modeling for predicting
the room-temperature shape and simulating the snap-through phenomena. The main aspects of the room-
temperature shape simulation are discussed, and various snap-through triggering methods are shown. At
this point, the paper focuses on a comparative analysis of numerical predictions in contrast to experimental
data aimed at discerning the reliability of existing models. Furthermore, this paper not only elucidates
existing challenges but also delineates potential avenues for future research. As the investigation into bistable
composites progresses from comprehending intrinsic phenomena to practical, real-world applications, this study
outlines both the present and potential future research concerning bistable composite laminates.

1. Introduction In laminated structures, unsymmetric stacking sequences give rise

Composite materials have gained significant attention in aviation
and aerospace applications since their initial utilization in fighter air-
craft empennages, such as the Grumman F-14 Tomcat and McDonnell
Douglas F-15 Eagle. The exceptional strength- and stiffness-to-density
ratios of composite materials have made them particularly attractive
to the aerospace industry, which consistently seeks to enhance the per-
formance of commercial and military aircraft [1,2]. The contemporary
Boeing 787 Dreamliner is an example of such efforts, with approx-
imately 50% of its weight comprising composite materials [3]. This
integration has enabled the 787 to achieve about 20% improvement in
fuel efficiency, increased payload capacity, and reductions in emissions
and fuel consumption [4].
Although composite materials have gained significant popularity
in the aerospace industry due to their lightweight and high-strength
properties, there is still room for improvement to compete with well-
established metallic structures [3]. One key aspect that needs to be
explored is the anisotropy of composite materials, which refers to their
directional dependence on physical properties [5]. Usually, symmetric
laminates are used by adding enough layers to make laminates symmet-
ric. However, unsymmetric laminates should be investigated to fully
realize the potential of advanced composite materials.
to bending-stretching coupling [6,7]. Consequently, the structure un-
dergoes out-of-plane displacements. Additionally, when composite ma-
terials composed of orthotropic layers experience an unsteady thermal
field, they can develop a residual stress field. Such conditions occur
during the curing process of composite structures, wherein the material
is heated up to 170 ◦ C to achieve the desired degree of cure, followed
by cooling to room temperature [8]. In unsymmetric laminates, thermal
stresses arise due to the mismatch in coefficients of thermal expansion
along the fiber direction. As a result, a curved shape can be obtained
for such structures at room temperature [9].
In the 1980s, Hyer [10] conducted pioneering research to systemat-
ically examine the behavior of thin unsymmetric composite laminates,
which was considered anomalous at the time. As noted by the author,
several factors, including the number of layers, their relative orienta-
tion, and their orientation concerning the laminate’s coordinate system,
can impact their shapes. Initially, unsymmetric laminates were mainly
perceived as final shapes to be incorporated directly into helicopter
fuselage segments, wing panels, and rotors. Nevertheless, unsymmetric
laminates are currently regarded as morphing structures, given their
ability to exhibit snap-through behavior and manifest two distinct
shapes at room temperature. Both equilibrium positions are natural and
do not require external forces to maintain. Furthermore, the composite

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: diegomagela@usp.br (D.M. Lemos), fmarques@sc.usp.br (F.D. Marques), ferreira@fe.up.pt (A.J.M. Ferreira).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2023.117756
Received 29 August 2023; Received in revised form 23 November 2023; Accepted 23 November 2023
Available online 29 November 2023
0263-8223/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D.M. Lemos et al. Composite Structures 329 (2024) 117756

Fig. 1. Two cylindrical shapes of a rectangular bistable cross-ply composite plate.

structure exhibits significant deformations between the two equilibrium Numerous analytical models presented in the literature [21,24–37]
positions with only a small input of energy [11,12]. This opens up a share similarities with the model developed by Hyer [20], including
wide range of possibilities for modern morphing structures that enables the one proposed in this paper. This model extends Classical Lamina-
them to change shape according to environmental or operational con- tion Theory (CLT) by incorporating geometric nonlinearities using von
ditions [13–18]. This new class of composite laminates is nowadays Kármán strains, resulting in an Extended Classical Lamination Theory
known as bistable composite laminates [11,12,19]. These laminates (ECLT) model.
are comprised of thin, stacked plies, typically constructed from carbon This paper will consider a composite plate with thickness ℎ, sub-
fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) [10,20]. The manufacturing process jected to a thermal load whose stacking sequence comprises 𝑁 plies.
involves autoclave fabrication, following the conventional procedure The reference coordinate system 𝐱 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) has its origin in the plate’s
for CFRP laminates, as elucidated by Akira et al. [21]. center. The plane 𝑧 = 0 coincides with the mid-surface. After the
This paper aims to provide a comprehensive summary, review, deformation, a material point moves to position 𝐱+𝐮 = (𝑥+𝑢, 𝑦+𝑣, 𝑧+𝑤).
and evaluation of research studies on bistable composite laminated Here, 𝐮 denotes the displacement vector with components defined as:
structures, including theoretical analyses, numerical simulations, and
𝜕𝑤0
experimental investigations, analyzing their behavior from the initial 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑢0 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑧 ,
𝜕𝑥
stages of curing simulation to their real-world aerospace applications. 0
𝜕𝑤 (1)
The paper compares analytical, finite element, and experimental re- 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑣0 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑧 ,
𝜕𝑦
sults, highlighting how well numerical simulations perform concerning
𝑤(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑤0 (𝑥, 𝑦).
experimental data. It also discuss the significance of imperfections in
influencing the convergence of finite element simulations, a topic that where the superscript 0 indicates the plate’s mid-plane displacements.
has not been thoroughly discussed in other related reviews. Various The strain–displacement relations are defined as follows:
triggering methods are examined, such as mechanical force, piezoelec- ( )
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑤 2
tric, shape memory alloy, thermal, and magnetic actuation. Numerical 𝜀𝑥𝑥 = + ,
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥
investigations are presented on the bistable structures’ snap-through ( )2
𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑤 (2)
and snap-back behaviors. While bistable composite structures are be- 𝜀𝑦𝑦 = + ,
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦
coming more prevalent in the aerospace industry, challenges still need
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤
to be addressed, and potential research avenues should be explored. 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = + + .
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
This review article will highlight these issues in detail.
Substituting Eq. (1) in Eq. (2), one has
2. Room-temperature shape ⎡𝜀𝑥𝑥 ⎤ ⎡𝜀0𝑥𝑥 ⎤ 0
⎡𝜅𝑥𝑥 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ 𝜀𝑦𝑦 ⎥ = ⎢ 𝜀𝑦𝑦 ⎥ + 𝑧 ⎢ 𝜅𝑦𝑦 ⎥ , (3)
Accurately predicting their final shape is crucial to successfully ap- ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
plying bistable composite laminates in aerospace structures. The curved ⎣ 𝛾𝑥𝑦 ⎦ ⎣ 𝛾𝑥𝑦 ⎦ ⎣𝜅𝑥𝑦 ⎦
shape that unsymmetric laminates exhibit after the curing process where
is influenced by geometric and material properties [22,23]. Defining ( )2
⎡ 𝜕𝑢0 + 1 𝜕𝑤0 ⎤
the shape of the laminate is, therefore, critical in any analysis of 𝜀 0
⎡ 𝑥𝑥 ⎤ ⎢ 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 ⎥
bistable composite laminates. This section will emphasize the signif- ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ( ) 2 ⎥
𝜺0 = ⎢ 𝜀0𝑦𝑦 ⎥ = ⎢ 𝜕𝑣0 + 1 𝜕𝑤0 ⎥, (4)
icance of predicting the room-temperature shape of these materials ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 ⎥
and discuss the analytical and Finite Element Method (FEM) modeling ⎣ 𝑥𝑦 ⎦ ⎢ 𝜕𝑢
𝛾 0 𝜕𝑣0 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 ⎥
0 0
⎣ 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 ⎦
techniques developed to achieve this. Furthermore, the results obtained
by analytical, FEM and experimental methods will be compared. and
𝜕 𝑤 2 0
0
⎡𝜅𝑥𝑥 ⎤ ⎡ − 𝜕𝑥2 ⎤
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ 𝜕 2 𝑤0 ⎥⎥
⎢
2.1. Analytical modeling
𝜿 0 = ⎢ 𝜅𝑦𝑦 ⎥ = − 𝜕𝑦2 ⎥ . (5)
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢⎢
As highlighted by Hyer [10], the shapes of unsymmetric laminates ⎣𝜅𝑥𝑦 ⎦ ⎣−2 𝜕2 𝑤0 ⎥⎦
do not always conform to the predictions of classical lamination theory. 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
While the Classical Lamination Theory (CLT) predicts saddle-shaped The stress–strain relations within each ply are written in the lami-
laminates, the room-temperature shapes of unsymmetrically laminated nate coordinate system as
composites are often curved. By experimental results, it is known that
cross-ply laminates exhibit two cylindrical shapes. Still, the axes of the ⎡𝜎𝑥𝑥 ⎤ ⎡𝑄̄ 11 𝑄̄ 12 𝑄̄ 16 ⎤ ⎛⎡𝜀𝑥𝑥 ⎤ ⎡ 𝛼𝑥𝑥 ⎤ ⎞
⎢ ⎥ ⎢̄ ⎥ ⎜⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎟
two cylinders are perpendicular to each other, and the curvatures have ⎢ 𝜎𝑦𝑦 ⎥ = ⎢𝑄12 𝑄̄ 22 𝑄̄ 26 ⎥ ⎜⎢ 𝜀𝑦𝑦 ⎥ − ⎢ 𝛼𝑦𝑦 ⎥ 𝛥𝑇 ⎟ , (6)
opposite signs, as shown in Fig. 1. ⎢ ⎥ ⎢̄ ⎥ ⎜⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎟
⎣𝜎𝑥𝑦 ⎦ ⎣𝑄16 𝑄̄ 26 𝑄̄ 66 ⎦ ⎝⎣ 𝛾𝑥𝑦 ⎦ ⎣2𝛼𝑥𝑦 ⎦ ⎠

2
D.M. Lemos et al. Composite Structures 329 (2024) 117756

where 𝐐 ̄ is the transformed plane-stress reduced stiffness matrix, 𝜶 The total potential energy is minimized by applying the Rayleigh–
is the transformed thermal coefficients of expansion vector, and 𝛥𝑇 Ritz method, which employs displacement function approximations to
is a temperature gradient. 𝐐 ̄ and 𝜶 can be considered temperature- predict the temperature-curvature relationship in these laminates. For
dependent properties [38–40]. generality, it will be presented displacement approximations consider-
Combining Eqs. (3)–(6) and integrating over the laminate thickness, ing a complete-polynomials basis as follows:
one obtains the force and moment resultants:  −𝑖
∑ ∑
⎡𝑁𝑥𝑥 ⎤ 𝑁ply ⎡𝑄̄ 11 𝑄̄ 12 𝑄̄ 16 ⎤ ⎛⎡𝜀𝑥𝑥 ⎤ ⎡ 𝛼𝑥𝑥 ⎤ ⎞ (𝑢0 , 𝑣0 , 𝑤0 ) = (𝑈𝑖𝑗 , 𝑉𝑖𝑗 , 𝑊𝑖𝑗 )𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑗 , (15)
⎢ ⎥ ∑ 𝑧𝑘+1 ⎢ ̄ ⎥ ⎜⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎟ 𝑖=1 𝑗=0
⎢ 𝑦𝑦 ⎥
𝑁 =
∫ ⎢𝑄12 𝑄̄ 22 𝑄̄ 26 ⎥ ⎜⎢ 𝜀𝑦𝑦 ⎥ − ⎢ 𝛼𝑦𝑦 ⎥ 𝛥𝑇 ⎟ 𝑑𝑧, (7)
⎢ ⎥ 𝑘=1 𝑘 𝑧 ⎢̄ ̄ ̄ ⎥ ⎜⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎟ where  is the polynomial order, and 𝐗 = {𝑈𝑖𝑗 , 𝑉𝑖𝑗 , 𝑊𝑖𝑗 } defines the
⎣𝑁𝑥𝑦 ⎦ ⎣𝑄16 𝑄26 𝑄66 ⎦ ⎝⎣ 𝛾𝑥𝑦 ⎦ ⎣2𝛼𝑥𝑦 ⎦ ⎠
vector of the unknown coefficients of the displacement field. Since
resulting in the coordinate system considered lies on the plate’s center, clamped
⎡𝑁𝑥𝑥 ⎤ ⎡𝐴11 𝐴12 𝐴16 ⎤ ⎡𝜀0𝑥𝑥 ⎤ ⎡𝐵11 𝐵12 0
𝐵16 ⎤ ⎡𝜅𝑥𝑥 ⎤ essential boundary condition is assumed while the edges are free. For
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥ cross-ply laminates, some polynomials can be simplified, as highlighted
⎢ 𝑁𝑦𝑦 ⎥ = ⎢𝐴12 𝐴22 𝐴26 ⎥ ⎢ 𝜀0𝑦𝑦 ⎥ + ⎢𝐵12 𝐵22 𝜅
𝐵26 ⎥ ⎢ 𝑦𝑦 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥ by Pirrera et al. [33] and Emam [42].
⎣𝑁𝑥𝑦 ⎦ ⎣𝐴16 𝐴26 𝐴66 ⎦ ⎣ 𝛾𝑥𝑦 ⎦ ⎣𝐵16 𝐵26 𝐵66 ⎦ ⎣𝜅𝑥𝑦 ⎦ By substituting Eq. (15) into Eq. (14), the total potential energy
(8)
𝑇
⎡𝑁𝑥𝑥 ⎤ becomes a function of 𝐗, the plate’s properties, and the temperature
⎢ 𝑇⎥ gradient. For fixed values of the plate properties and temperature
− ⎢ 𝑁𝑦𝑦 ⎥ ,
⎢ 𝑇⎥ gradient, the total potential energy can be defined as
⎣𝑁𝑥𝑦 ⎦
𝛱 ≈ 𝛱(𝐗) . (16)
similarly
The equilibrium configurations can be defined by computing the
⎡𝑀𝑥𝑥 ⎤ 𝑁ply ⎡𝑄̄ 11 𝑄̄ 12 𝑄̄ 16 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ∑ 𝑧𝑘+1 ⎢ ̄ ⎥ first variation of the total potential energy:
⎢ 𝑀𝑦𝑦 ⎥ = ⎢𝑄12 𝑄̄ 22 𝑄̄ 26 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ 𝑘=1 ∫𝑧𝑘 ⎢̄ ⎥ 𝛿𝛱(𝑐𝑖𝑗 ) =
𝜕𝛱(𝐗)
=0 , (17)
⎣𝑀𝑥𝑦 ⎦ ⎣𝑄16 𝑄̄ 26 𝑄̄ 66 ⎦ 𝜕𝐗
(9)
⎛⎡𝜀𝑥𝑥 ⎤ ⎡ 𝛼𝑥𝑥 ⎤ ⎞ which is a set of nonlinear equations that need to be solved iteratively.
⎜⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎟ Evaluating the stability of the computed results requires constructing
× ⎜⎢ 𝜀𝑦𝑦 ⎥ − ⎢ 𝛼𝑦𝑦 ⎥ 𝛥𝑇 ⎟ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 ,
⎜⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎟ the Jacobian matrix of the non-linear equation set that corresponds to
⎝⎣ 𝛾𝑥𝑦 ⎦ ⎣2𝛼𝑥𝑦 ⎦ ⎠
the equilibrium points. A positive definite Jacobian matrix indicates
whence a stable equilibrium point, otherwise, the solution corresponds to an
⎡𝑀𝑥𝑥 ⎤ ⎡𝐵11 𝐵12 𝐵16 ⎤ ⎡𝜀0𝑥𝑥 ⎤ ⎡𝐷11 𝐷12 0
𝐷16 ⎤ ⎡𝜅𝑥𝑥 ⎤ unstable equilibrium solution. The Jacobian matrix is calculated as the
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥ second variation of the total potential energy:
⎢ 𝑀𝑦𝑦 ⎥ = ⎢𝐵12 𝐵22 𝐵26 ⎥ ⎢ 𝜀0𝑦𝑦 ⎥ + ⎢𝐷12 𝐷22 𝐷26 ⎥ ⎢ 𝜅𝑦𝑦 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎡ 𝜕𝛱2 𝜕𝛱 𝜕𝛱
⎤
⎣𝑀𝑥𝑦 ⎦ ⎣𝐵16 𝐵26 𝐵66 ⎦ ⎣ 𝛾𝑥𝑦 ⎦ ⎣𝐷16 𝐷26 𝐷66 ⎦ ⎣𝜅𝑥𝑦 ⎦ 𝜕𝑈𝑖𝑗 𝜕𝑉𝑖𝑗 𝜕𝑈𝑖𝑗 𝜕𝑊𝑖𝑗
(10) ⎢ 𝜕𝑈𝑖𝑗 ⎥
𝑇
⎡𝑀𝑥𝑥 ⎤ 2 𝜕 2 𝛱(𝐗) ⎢ 𝜕𝛱 𝜕𝛱 𝜕𝛱 ⎥
𝐉 = 𝛿 𝛱(𝐗) = = ⎢ 𝜕𝑉𝑖𝑗 𝜕𝑈𝑖𝑗 𝜕𝑉𝑖𝑗2 ⎥. (18)
⎢ 𝑇⎥ 𝜕𝐗2
𝜕𝑉𝑖𝑗 𝜕𝑊𝑖𝑗
− ⎢ 𝑀𝑦𝑦 ⎥ . ⎢ 𝜕𝛱 𝜕𝛱 𝜕𝛱
⎥
⎢ 𝑇⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣𝑀𝑥𝑦 ⎦ ⎣ 𝜕𝑊𝑖𝑗 𝜕𝑈𝑖𝑗 𝜕𝑊𝑖𝑗 𝜕𝑉𝑖𝑗 𝜕𝑊𝑖𝑗2 ⎦

Gathering Eqs. (8) and (10), one obtains 2.2. Finite element modeling
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
𝐍 𝐀 𝐁 𝜺0 𝐍𝑇
= − , (11) Several authors [19,43–52] have highlighted the following three
𝐌 𝐁 𝐃 𝜿0 𝐌𝑇
main steps for defining the room-temperature shape of bistable com-
where posite laminates using the FEM, to obtain the stable equilibrium states:
𝑁ply
∑ 𝑧𝑘+1
𝑄̄ (𝑘) 2 Step (1) Fix the center node of the laminate in all degrees of freedom
(𝐴𝑖𝑗 , 𝐵𝑖𝑗 , 𝐷𝑖𝑗 ) =
∫𝑧𝑘 𝑖𝑗 (1, 𝑧, 𝑧 ) d𝑧 , (12)
𝑘=1 and simulate the cooling down process, allowing the laminate
and to cool from the curing temperature to room temperature.
𝑁ply
Step (2) Apply a loading force opposite to the curvature exhibited by
∑ 𝑧𝑘+1
the laminate at the end of Step (1) until it snaps into the
(𝑁𝑖𝑇 , 𝑀𝑖𝑇 ) = 𝑄̄ (𝑘) (𝑘)
𝑖𝑗 𝛼𝑗 𝛥𝑇 (1, 𝑧) d𝑧 . (13)
∫𝑧𝑘 second stable shape.
𝑘=1
Step (3) Remove the actuating force to ensure the stability of the shape
Analyzing the behavior of a bistable composite laminate involves
at the end of the second step. The shape obtained at the end
evaluating its total potential energy, which is minimized by the shapes
of this step represents the second stable shape.
occurring at a specific temperature below the curing point. Assuming
that external tractions are not relevant during the curing process, the
To perform Step (1), the model must account for geometric nonlin-
total potential energy is given by
earities. Schlecht and Schulte [43] emphasized that convergence testing
[ ]⊤ [ ][ ] [ ]⊤ [ ] should consider strain energy rather than residuals or displacements,
𝐿𝑥 ∕2 𝐿𝑦 ∕2 ⎛ 𝜺0 𝐀 𝐁 𝜺0 𝜺0 𝐍𝑇 ⎞
1 ⎜ ⎟ d𝑥d𝑦 , as it is an energetic problem. Otherwise, the solution may result in a
𝛱= −
∫ ∫
2 −𝐿𝑥 ∕2 −𝐿𝑦 ∕2 𝜿 ⎜ 0 𝐁 𝐃 𝜿0 𝜿0 𝐌𝑇 ⎟ saddle shape instead of a cylindrical one. They also stated that the non-
⎝ ⎠
positive definite system solution was forced. Phatak et al. [51] claimed
(14)
that square plates, when fixed at their center, always converge to saddle
where 𝐿𝑥 and 𝐿𝑦 are the plate lengths in 𝑥 and 𝑦 direction, respec- shape, unlike rectangular plates. In the case of a square plate, the
tively. When curing the laminate using a mold (such as anti-symmetric centers of two opposite edges are constrained to move perpendicular
composite shells [39,41]), the terms related to mold radius must be to the laminate.
included in the strain–displacement relations [31]. An example of Various authors have performed Step (1) of the analysis by intro-
anti-symmetric bistable composite shell is shown in Fig. 2. ducing geometrical imperfections to the uncured shape of the bistable

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D.M. Lemos et al. Composite Structures 329 (2024) 117756

Fig. 2. Anti-symmetric bistable composite shell.

composite laminates. The literature contains several studies investigat-

ing different methods to incorporate imperfections to achieve a curved
shape.
Tawfik et al. [23,44] and Gandhi et al. [49] introduced imperfec-
tions by first performing a linear eigenvalue buckling analysis. Then,
the mode shapes obtained from the buckling analysis were incorporated
into the nodal coordinates of the perfect laminate. Dano et al. [46]
and Taki et al. [53] made a minor modification to the dimensions of a
square plate. Specifically, they modeled a square plate with a nominal
side length of 190 mm as a rectangular plate with side lengths of 189
by 191 mm. Dai et al. [47] chose two different regions to introduce
the imperfection by changing the thermal expansion coefficient with
the percentage of 𝛾.
Giddings et al. [19] explored two approaches for modeling the
cooling process of composite laminates. The first approach was an
idealized model that applied temporary mechanical forces during the
first 0.1 ◦ C of cooling, similar to the work of Firouzian-Nejad et al.
[54]. The second approach, an improved model, incorporated data from
optical microscopy to capture more precise details, such as the mean-
ply-thickness and the presence of the resin-rich layer. This additional
information was added to the model, similar to the work of Moore et al.
[55]. Fig. 3. Room-temperature shape of [02 ∕902 ]𝑇 laminates, ranging from 0 to 150 mm in
It is worth noting that some authors have suggested using imper- length. The points are curvatures measure experimentally.
fections to force the laminate into one of its stable states, although Source: Adapted from Hyer [20]
the specific method for achieving this is not specified [52,56]. Ad-
ditionally, some authors do not mention whether any imperfection
was incorporated or introduced during the simulated cooling-down
process [31,38,57–60]. is a reasonable agreement between the magnitudes of the predicted
and experimentally measured curvatures. Specifically, the 𝑦-direction
2.3. Numerical prediction performance curvature exhibits an error of 17.71%. While the theory predicts well
the 𝑥-direction curvature, there is a slight negativity observed in the
Several authors have compared their results to experimental ones experimental measurement compared to the slightly positive prediction
to validate the numerical models. Hyer [20] compared numerical re- by the theory. The reason for this discrepancy remains unclear to the
author.
sults using an analytical model considering the [02 ∕902 ]𝑇 square lam-
Akira and Hyer [21] improved the 4-coefficient model by consider-
inates. He assumed the following set of equations to approximate the
ing thickness imperfections. The 0◦ lamina was 1% thicker, and the 90◦
displacement field:
lamina was 1% thinner than the nominal value, addressing thickness
1 2 3 1 variations in cured laminates. The authors also addressed other imper-
𝑢0 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑏𝑥𝑦2 ,
6 4 fections in laminated plates, including misaligned fibers and material
1 1
𝑣0 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑏2 𝑦3 − 𝑎𝑏𝑥2 𝑦 , (19) property variations across laminae. Fig. 4 presents their findings for
6 4 a [04 ∕904 ]𝑇 laminate. It can be noted that the presence of thickness
1
𝑤0 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑦2 . imperfections leads to the absence of bifurcation behavior, in con-
2
trast to the ideal model, indicating a closer resemblance to the actual
This model is known as the 4-coefficient model as it is a function of cooling-down process where such bifurcation is not observed. Although
𝐗 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}. The results obtained by the author are depicted in Fig. 3. including thickness imperfections does not improve the correlation
It can be observed that each curvature direction result exhibits three with experimental data, it results in a more accurate representation,
branches: upper, middle, and lower. The upper and lower branches particularly regarding bifurcation behavior. Both models present good
correspond to the two stable states, while the middle branch repre- results, particularly when the laminate exhibits its final shape at the
sents the unstable state. As mentioned previously, the occurrence of end of the curing cycle.
bistability in these laminates depends on the length of the laminate, The 4-coefficient model neglects the influence of in-plane shear
which is evident in the depicted results. The author notes that there strain, despite its known presence in the laminate, particularly in the

4
D.M. Lemos et al. Composite Structures 329 (2024) 117756

Fig. 5. Comparison of the curvature between theory and experiment for [04 ∕904 ]𝑇 HFG
carbon/epoxy laminate, aspect ratio equals 2.
Source: Adapted from Jun and Hong [25].

Fig. 6. Theory and experimental curvature for a [302 ∕ − 302 ]𝑇 glass/PEI laminate.
Fig. 4. Curvature comparison between ideal and imperfect models and experiment for
Source: Adapted from Peeters et al. [27].
125 × 125 mm [04 ∕904 ]𝑇 AS4/1908 graphite-epoxy laminate.
Source: Adapted from Akira and Hyer [21].

the 𝑥 − 𝑦 coordinate system after a 𝛼 rotation, where 𝛼 is the principal

corners of the plate. In order to address this limitation, Jun and Hong angle of curvature. They assumed the following system displacement
[25] proposed a 6-coefficient model that incorporates the displacement field:
( )
field as follows: 𝑐 2 𝑎𝑐 𝑎2
( ) 𝑢0 (𝑡, 𝑛) = 𝑛 𝑎1 − − 𝑛 − 𝑛2 + 𝑎3 𝑡2 ,
𝑎2 2 2 6
𝑢0 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 𝑎1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑎3 𝑦2 , ( )
6 𝑑 2 𝑏𝑑 𝑏2
( ) 𝑣0 (𝑡, 𝑛) = 𝑡 𝑏1 − − 𝑡 − 𝑡2 + 𝑎3 𝑛2 , (21)
𝑏2 (20) 2 2 6
𝑣0 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑦 𝑏1 − 𝑦2 + 𝑏3 𝑥2 ,
6 1 1
𝑤0 (𝑡, 𝑛) = 𝑎𝑛2 + 𝑐𝑛 + 𝑏𝑡2 + 𝑑𝑡 .
1 2 2
𝑤0 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑦2 ) .
2 It can be noticed that in addition to the number of unknowns,
In the initial phase of the study, the investigators explored the the model proposed by the authors introduces supplementary linear
relationship between shear strain variation and the width-to-thickness and quadratic terms in the in-plane displacement field, as well as two
ratio (𝑊 ∕𝑡) of the plate. It was observed that the thermal residual additional linear terms in the out-of-plane displacement, in comparison
shear strain initially increases until (𝑊 ∕𝑡) = 84, followed by a rapid to the 4- and 6-coefficient models. Their results are shown in Fig. 6,
decrease as (𝑊 ∕𝑡) further increases for the unsymmetric [0𝑛 ∕90𝑛 ]𝑇
where 𝜅1 and 𝜅2 are the curvatures of the first and second cylindrical
family. Subsequently, the researchers examined the impact of shear
shapes.
strain on the curvature of the plate, taking into account the plate’s
(𝑊 ∕𝑡) ratio. The results were compared with experimental data, which The remarkable agreement between the curvatures predicted by the
are illustrated in Fig. 5. The findings indicated that, as expected, the theoretical model and the experimental results is evident, both in terms
6-coefficient model outperformed the 4-coefficient model, particularly of qualitative and quantitative aspects. The average deviation from
for (𝑊 ∕𝑡) values below 84. the experimental values is only 2.7%, indicating a high level of accu-
The analytical model was also used to analyze angle-ply laminates. racy in the model’s predictions. The authors emphasized that despite
To verify the performance of angle-ply laminates against experimental the theoretical model demonstrating excellent predictive capabilities,
results, Peeters et al. [27] choose 𝑛−𝑡−𝑧 coordinate system, where 𝑛−𝑡 is the outcomes are notably influenced by the mechanical properties,

5
D.M. Lemos et al. Composite Structures 329 (2024) 117756

Table 1 Table 2
Curvatures and out-of-plane displacements predicted analytically. Maximum deflection of a 75 × 75 mm2 [0∕90]𝑇 laminate.
Source: Adapted from [61]. Source: Adapted from [19].
Specimen Stable state 𝐻max [mm] 𝜅 [1/m] State A State B
[02 ∕902 ]𝑇 First 12.6 (38.23a ) 2.2 (33.33) Experimental data 5.12 3.55
Second 15.3 (35.44) 2.5 (35.89) Idealized model 3.76 3.76
Improved model 4.98 3.53
| Analytical − EXP |
a Error = | | × 100.
| EXP |

whose accurate determination poses significant challenges, particu-
larly regarding the thermal expansion coefficient. Additionally, resin
distribution within the laminate is identified as another contributing
factor.
In addition to the aforementioned factors, the contribution of the
slippage effect arising from the interaction between the laminate and
the tool plate was examined by Cho et al. [28] in their study. Using
the 4-coefficient model, they added two dimensionless coefficients, 𝛽1
and 𝛽2 , to compute the degree of slippage exerted on the laminate.
Including the slippage model significantly improves the agreement
with experimental results, particularly for longer plates. The authors
further investigated the slippage model for various values of 𝛽 and
different tool-plate materials, demonstrating strong agreement with
experimental data. Cho and Roh [30] developed an enhanced slippage
model, employing a high-order polynomial displacement field and a
novel transverse shear stress profile, which yields a consistent varia-
tion throughout the thickness of the laminates. These findings high-
light the crucial role of the slippage effect in theoretical predictions,
emphasizing its importance for accurate analysis.
Firouzian-Nejad et al. [61] developed a theoretical model consider-
ing fifth and fourth-order polynomial functions to describe the in-plane
and out-of-displacement, respectively:
( )2𝑖+𝑗 ( )2𝑗
∑ 2 ∑2−𝑖
𝑥 𝑦
𝑢0 = 𝑢̂ 2𝑖+1,2𝑗
𝑖=0 𝑗=0
𝐿 𝑥 𝐿 𝑦
(
)2𝑗 ( )2𝑖+𝑗
2 ∑
∑ 2−𝑖
𝑥 𝑦
𝑣0 = 𝑣̂ 2𝑗,2𝑖+1
𝑖=0 𝑗=0
𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦
[ (22)
( )2 ( )2 ( )2
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥𝑦
𝑤0 = 0.5 × 𝑤̂ 2,0 + 𝑤̂ 0,2 + 𝑤̂ 2,2
𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦
( )4 ( )4 ]
𝑥 𝑦
+ 𝑤̂ 4,0 + 𝑤̂ 0,4 ,
𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦
where 𝐿𝑥 and 𝐿𝑦 are the plate size lengths. The authors utilized this
model to compare the major curvature and maximum deflection of
unsymmetric laminates with experimental data for each stable configu-
ration. The average thickness of each lamina was determined using an
optical microscopy-based and used in the analytical model. The find-
ings are presented in Table 1. A notable observation is that the model
predicts differing values of curvature and out-of-plane displacements.
This behavior is attributed to the varying thickness of each lamina,
leading to an asymmetric behavior as expected and indicated by the
experimental data. Despite employing high-order polynomials and non-
constant lamina thickness, the obtained results do not exhibit a strong
correlation with the experimental data.
In addition to theoretical predictions, comparative studies were
conducted to assess the performance of FEM models in predicting the
behavior of laminated plates and shells, as compared to experimental
outcomes. Schlecht and Schulte [43] analyzed the predictions from
both theoretical and FEM approaches. The theoretical analysis em-
ployed the 4-coefficient model, while the FEM analysis utilized 8-node
bilinear thick-shell elements. Comparing the maximum out-of-plane
displacement of a 140 × 140 mm2 [02 ∕902 ]𝑇 laminate, both FEM and
experimental results yielded identical outcomes, while the theoretical
results exhibited an error of 4.42%. Besides the slight disparity in
maximum out-of-plane displacement, the theoretical model did not
Table 3
Comparison of the predicted edge height and the measured edge height of the cured
square cross-ply composite shell.
Source: Adapted from Ren et al. [31].
Stack sequence Theoretical model FEM Experiment
[02 ∕902 ]𝑇 25.0 N/A 23.0
[90∕0]2𝑇 24.0 25.2 25.0
[902 ∕02 ]𝑇 40.0 42.2 39.0
exhibit an edge effect, unlike the FEM and experimental results. This
behavior was explained by Jun and Hong [25]. Similar findings were
observed for other laminates.
The edge effect was thoroughly investigated by Giddings et al. [19]
using a FEM model comprised of ANSYS’ SOLID186 20-node brick
elements and a thickness distribution measured experimentally. The
findings of their study are presented in Fig. 7. It is worth mentioning
that the FEM results exhibit a prominent edge effect, which is further
supported by the experimental data points. Furthermore, the observed
variation in shear stress around the corner of the laminate explains the
occurrence of the edge effect. The authors also confirmed the signif-
icance of incorporating excess resin modeling in achieving favorable
outcomes when utilizing FEM models. The FEM model with excess resin
exhibits errors ranging from 3%–7% in comparison to experimental
results, whereas the ideal model demonstrates errors ranging from 7
to 73%. This substantial disparity can be attributed to the fact that
non-uniform thickness modeling of the excess resin results in varying
maximum displacements for each stable state, unlike the uniform thick-
ness model which yields identical displacements in both stable states,
as depicted in Table 2.
Ren et al. [31] developed a theoretical model that incorporates
the out-of-plane displacement from the 4-coefficient model, a second-
order polynomial for in-plane strains, and neglects the shear strain. The
FEM model employed Abaqus’s S4 doubly curved shell elements. The
outcomes obtained are displayed in Table 3. Comparing the obtained
results with experimental data, it is evident that the FEM outcomes do
not overcome the theoretical predictions, as both exhibit comparable
performance. However, it should be noted that only the results for one
stable state are presented. Nevertheless, these findings align with the
outcomes reported by Giddings et al. [19] for the idealized model.
To better understand the influence of geometric properties on the
bistability of laminates, Phatak et al. [51] conducted Finite Element
Analysis (FEA) and compared the outcomes with experimental findings.
Their investigation, employing Abaqus’ thick S4R element FEM model,
revealed that a [0∕90]𝑇 laminate with an aspect ratio 1:16 exhibited
bistability. Furthermore, they observed that an increase in aspect ratio
did not reduce curvature, suggesting that laminates with even higher
aspect ratios would also possess bistability. The experimental validation
of these results through fabricated laminates underscores the reliability
of employing FEA to simulate the room-temperature shape of bistable
laminates.
2.4. Concluding remarks
The initial step in the implementation of bistable structures in var-
ious applications involves determining their room-temperature shapes.
Predicting these shapes accurately is crucial for optimizing performance
and functionality. This paper reviewed two primary methodologies

6
D.M. Lemos et al. Composite Structures 329 (2024) 117756

Fig. 7. Edge-effect from FE-predicted mesh with superimposed experimental data points (a) and surface plot of 𝛾𝑥𝑦 shear stress (b) [19]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.

used for shape prediction: theoretical models and finite element method where  = 𝐾 + 𝑊𝐸 − 𝛱 is the Lagrangian function, 𝐾 is the kinetic
(FEM) models. energy, 𝑊𝐸 is external work, and 𝛱 is the total potential energy,
One notable difference between theoretical and FEM results is the defined in Eq. (14). The kinetic energy is given by
displacement in the out-of-plane direction. Theoretical models often 𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 ℎ [( )2 ( )2 ( )2 ]
1 2 2 2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
neglect shear deformation, which is particularly significant at the edges 𝐾= 𝜌 + + d𝑥d𝑦d𝑧 , (24)
2 ∫− 𝐿𝑥 ∫− 𝐿𝑦 ∫− ℎ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
of the laminate. However, by integrating effects such as shear stress, 2 2 2

slippage, and higher-order polynomial displacement fields into the where 𝜌 is the material density and ℎ is the laminate’s height. Con-
theoretical model, the outcomes become comparable to FEM models. sidering the displacement field described by Eq. (1), Eq. (24) becomes
Theoretical models offer the advantage of easily obtaining both sta-
𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 { [( )2 ( 0 )2 ( 0 )2 ]
ble states when solving the nonlinear system of equations. On the
1 2 2 𝜕𝑢0 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
other hand, FEM results typically predict only one stable state per 𝐾= 𝐼 0 + +
2 ∫− 𝐿𝑥 ∫− 𝐿𝑦 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
simulation and require additional techniques to force a non-saddle ( 02 2 0
2
0 2 0
)
shape result. Additionally, theoretical models are computationally less 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝑤 (25)
−2𝐼1 +
demanding than FEM models, facilitating faster results and stream- 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑡
[( )2 ( 2 0 )2 ]}
lining the conceptual development phase. Nevertheless, theoretical 2
𝜕 𝑤 0 𝜕 𝑤
+𝐼2 + d𝑥d𝑦d𝑧 ,
models have a notable limitation in accurately representing complex 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑡
geometries, which can be achieved through FEM modeling.
where the distributed mass parameters are defined as
To enhance room-temperature predictions, it is imperative to con-
ℎ
duct further studies that quantify and comprehend the impact of curing- 2
(𝐼0 , 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 ) = (1, 𝑧, 𝑧2 )𝜌 d𝑧 (26)
related effects on simulation results. Incorporating these inherent ef- ∫− ℎ
2
fects occurring during the curing process into the model is crucial
To keep the generality, 𝑊𝐸 is defined as follows
for achieving highly accurate predictions. These investigations will
∑
contribute to the advancement of comprehensive modeling techniques 𝑊𝐸 = 𝑃 𝑤 d𝐴 + 𝑝𝑖 𝑤𝑖 , (27)
∫𝛤
and ultimately enable more accurate predictions of bistable structure 𝑖
shapes at room temperature. where 𝑃 is a distributed load exerted uniformly across an area 𝛤
and 𝑝𝑖 are concentrated loads applied on the node 𝑤𝑖 . By incorporat-
3. Static and dynamic snap-through ing Eqs. (14), (25), and (27) into Eq. (23), taking into account the
approximation of the displacement field described by Eq. (15), and
performing appropriate derivatives and integrations, one obtains the
In practical applications, the utilization of bistable laminates is resultant equation governing the motion:
enhanced by their inherent curved shape. However, their key feature
𝜕2 𝐮 𝜕𝐮
lies in their ability to undergo snap-through behavior when subjected 𝐌 +𝐂 + 𝐊(𝐮)𝐮 = 𝐅 (28)
𝜕𝑡2 𝜕𝑡
to triggering loads. This intriguing phenomenon occurs during the tran-
where 𝐌, 𝐂, and 𝐊 is the mass, damping, and stiffness matrix, respec-
sition of the laminate between its two stable states. Once the snapping
tively, and 𝐅 is the load vector.
action is complete, the laminate can maintain its stable position even
The damping matrix is usually modeled as a Rayleigh proportional
after the removal of the external input. Additionally, bistable laminates
damping, neglecting the stiffness contribution as the snap-through
possess the remarkable capability of achieving substantial deflections occurs in the low-frequency range [63–66]. That is,
with minimal energy input. This exceptional attribute renders them
𝜕𝐮 𝜕𝐮
well-suited for deployment as morphing structures that exhibit high 𝐂 = 𝛼𝐌 , (29)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
energy efficiency. This section presents the mathematical modeling
where 𝛼 is the mass damping coefficients and calculated as
of the snap-through phenomenon, explores commonly used actuation
techniques, and provides a comparative analysis of numerical and 𝛼 = 4𝜋𝜁 𝜔 (30)
experimental results. where 𝜁 is the critical damping ratio and 𝜔 is the natural frequency
at which large displacements appear on the plate corresponding to a
3.1. Mathematical modeling snap-through mode.

3.2. Static snap-through

For generality, it will be presented a formulation based on Hamil-
ton’s principle [62,63]:
Accurately characterizing the snap-through event is crucial, given
𝑡2 𝑡2 ( ) its dependency on the structure’s geometry and magnitude and na-
𝛿  d𝑡 = 𝛿 𝐾 + 𝑊𝐸 − 𝛱 d𝑡 = 0 , (23) ture of loading [51]. The inertial and damping terms in Eq. (28)
∫𝑡1 ∫ 𝑡1

7
D.M. Lemos et al.
Fig. 8. Mechanical system for applying a force 𝐹 [67].
Source: Reproduced with permission from Taylor & Fran-
cis.
are neglected for static analysis. In the initial investigation conducted
by Dano and Hyer [67], the mechanical response of an unsymmetric
laminate was examined and compared to experimental data using a
basic mechanical apparatus, as depicted in Fig. 8. To incorporate the
effect of a force 𝐹 on the 4-coefficient model, the researchers gradually
increased this force until the snap-through phenomenon occurred. A
similar procedure was executed during the experimental setup. Fig. 9
displays a comparison between the strains measured and predicted at
the center of a square laminate composed of a graphite-epoxy material
[02 ∕902 ]𝑇 with a length of 0.25 m. Remarkably, the 4-coefficient model
effectively approximates the strains up to an applied force of approxi-
mately 20 N. However, the experimental data exhibits a slight plateau
just before the snap-through event, which is not accounted for by the
model. Nonetheless, the measured snap-through force slightly exceeded
23 N, which is in close agreement with the predicted value.
Building upon their earlier research, Dano and Hyer [68] employed
an enhanced displacement field and examined laminates beyond just
cross-ply configurations. They adopted a comparable experimental ar-
rangement, and the outcomes are displayed in Table 4. Notably, the
theoretical predictions exhibited excellent agreement with the experi-
mental findings, as evidenced by both strain gauge measurements and
the weight of water loading. Moreover, the results demonstrated the
influence of fiber orientation on the critical load, thereby enabling the
customization of snap-through behavior for specific applications.
In addition to investigating the critical snap-through load, the crit-
ical snap-back load was also analyzed by Tawfik et al. [44] in their
study. Snap-back refers to the reverse of the snap-through process.
The authors performed FEM simulations and experimental tests using
a [02 ∕902 ]𝑇 laminate plate to determine the critical loads. Abaqus
software was employed to model the plate, utilizing 400 four-noded,
reduced integration, doubly curved shell elements (S4R). To examine
the variation of critical loads with aspect ratio (AR), plates with dif-
ferent AR values were tested. In the FEM simulations, the corner nodes
were restricted from moving in the 𝑧-direction, and a concentrated load
was applied in the middle point of the plate, while in the experimental
setup, the plate was supported at its two opposite sides and the load
was applied using a plunger.
The inverse relationship between the critical snap-through load and
the AR is noteworthy. In contrast, the critical snap-back load shows a
slight increase with an increase in the AR, followed by a decrease as
the AR further increases. The results demonstrate the model’s accurate
prediction capabilities for the snap-through force across all aspect
ratios. However, the model’s predictions for the snap-back force are not
as reliable. Nevertheless, the model effectively captures the increased
8
Composite Structures 329 (2024) 117756
Fig. 9. Comparison of measured and predicted strains at the central bottom and central
top regions of the laminate Dano and Hyer [67].
Source: Reproduced with permission from Taylor & Francis.
critical snap-back load up to an AR of 2. This distinction suggests a
sensitive complexity in the relationship between the critical snap-back
load and the AR compared to the results for the critical snap-through
load.
The critical loads necessary for snap-through and snap-back of
unsymmetric laminates were also investigated by Firouzian-Nejad et al.
[61] using a high-order polynomial model [54]. A comparison was per-
formed between the developed analytical model and an experimental
model under the conditions of central loading and corner support. The
obtained results are presented in Table 5. Remarkably, the analytical
results exhibited excellent agreement with the experimental findings for
both snap-through and snap-back loads, with a maximum discrepancy
of only 12%. However, the value is higher than the one presented
by Tawfik et al. [44] using a FEM model. Moreover, it is important to
highlight that the laminates investigated exhibit a higher critical load
for snap-back compared to snap-through.
Tawfik et al. [23] conducted an analysis to determine the re-
quired force for snap-through and snap-back behavior in laminates
with various planforms, including square, rectangular, trapezoidal, and
triangular shapes (see Fig. 10). To achieve this, the authors utilized the
Abaqus finite element software, which allowed them to develop a nu-
merical model. While theoretical methods can be employed for studying
non-rectangular geometries, such an approach requires complex ap-
proximation functions [69–72], particularly when dealing with the
applied boundary conditions examined in this study [44]. The errors
associated with the critical forces are presented in Table 6. Remarkably,
the critical snap-back forces exhibited higher errors compared to the
snap-through forces, suggesting that the snap-back phenomenon is
more intricate, as mentioned earlier. Interestingly, despite its simpler
geometry, the rectangular configuration showed the highest error in the
critical snap-back force, while the triangular geometry displayed the
highest error in the snap-through load. Zhang et al. [59] performed
D.M. Lemos et al. Composite Structures 329 (2024) 117756

Table 4 the numerical model was 8.7%, while the displacement at the snap-
Comparison between theory and experiments of snap-through forces. The mean of three through occurrence exhibited an error of 6.76%. The experimental
results.
Source: Adapted from Dano and Hyer [68].
results of the two structures showed a relative difference of 17.55%
for the critical snap-through load and 15.89% for displacement.
Laminate Strain gage (lb) Weight (lb) Theory (lb)
In contrast, the numerical results exhibited differences of 4.08 and
[904 ∕04 ]𝑇 17.26a 16.22a 17.10
14.77% for the respective parameters. These findings suggest that
[−604 ∕304 ]𝑇 13.40a 13.09a 14.10
[604 ∕304 ]𝑇 3.35 4.02 3.30 the numerical model may not adequately account for the differences
[−304 ∕304 ]𝑇 9.37 8.69 11.95 between the two laminates in predicting the snap-through load. How-
a
ever, it still demonstrates good performance in predicting displacement.
Mean of two experiments.
Similarly, Zhang et al. [60] also analyzed the response of VS bistable
composites considering linearly varying, sine, and quadratic parabola
Table 5 curve fiber paths by modeling the structures using Abaqus software.
Static snap-through and snap-back loads. Their numerical results present relative error varying from 4.1 to
Source: Adapted from Firouzian-Nejad et al. [61]. 17.1%, similar to other results presented here.
Specimen Snap-through Snap-back Besides mechanical loading, piezoelectric (PZT) and microfiber
Exp. Analytical Exp. Analytical composite (MFC) actuators [78–82] were also studied. The strains
[0∕90]𝑇 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.8 induced in the laminate by the electrical actuator are usually modeled,
[02 ∕902 ]𝑇 3.3 3.6 4.4 4.8 when building a theoretical model, as [78,79,83]
𝛥𝑉
𝜀𝐸
1
= 𝑑11
Table 6
𝛥𝑥1
𝛥𝑉 (31)
Percentage error of FEM analysis of the critical snap-through and snap-back loads when 𝜀𝐸
2
= 𝑑12
compared to experimental data. 𝛥𝑥1
Source: Adapted from Tawfik et al. [23]. 𝐸
𝛾12 =0
Geometry Snap-through Snap-back
where 𝑑11 and 𝑑12 are the effective piezoelectric constants for the MFC
Square 1.02–7.43% 1.96–26.33%
Rectangular 4.48–7.65% 3.81–73.31%
actuator, 𝛥𝑉 is the voltage applied to the MFC actuator, and 𝛥𝑥1 is
Trapezoidal 1.46–7.28% 0.21–7.85% the electrode spacing. These strains are included in the total potential
Triangular 2.31–16.92% 0.52–30.20% energy of the laminate. Then, an applied voltage is increased until
reaches the snap-through phenomenon.
In their study, Schultz and Hyer [78] investigated the snap-through
behavior of a square laminate consisting of a two-layer unsymmetric
a similar study exploring non-conventional geometries. The findings, cross-ply [0∕90]𝑇 with a piezoceramic actuator bonded to one side. The
however, exhibit a reduced relative error for the snap-through load in authors initially employed a theoretical model, considering both a 4-
comparison to the experimental data. coefficient and a refined 10-coefficient model displacement field, to
In addition to evaluating the agreement between numerical simula- predict the voltage required for snap-through. Subsequently, they con-
tions and experimental findings, the experimental data reveals note- ducted an experimental investigation to validate the obtained results.
worthy trends for squared and rectangular laminates. In the case of The 4-coefficient model exhibited a relative error of −46.90%, while
squared laminates, it is observed that the critical snap-through and the 10-coefficient model demonstrated a relative error of −25.25% in
snap-back forces decrease in a monotonically quadratic manner as estimating the voltage necessary for inducing snap-through in the lam-
the side length of the laminate increases. Conversely, for rectangular inate. Both models in this study consistently underestimate the experi-
laminates, an increase in aspect ratio leads to a linear decrease in mental result. However, it is worth noting that the 10-coefficient model
the snap-through force, while the snap-back force exhibits a quadratic demonstrates potential as a suitable choice for parametric analysis due
relationship. Specifically, the snap-back force initially increases by up to its relatively reliable prediction capabilities.
to 40% before rapidly declining. The observed snap-through force ex- In studies involving the modeling of structures with bonded MFC ac-
hibits a linear decreasing trend, which contradicts the findings reported tuators using FEM, the MFCs are commonly represented using solid ele-
in their prior study [44]. However, the snap-back behavior shows ments [84–86] or shell elements [79,80,87]. In the research of Anilku-
similarities, albeit with variations in the experimental setup definition. mar et al. [83], the authors employed Abaqus’ SR4 shell elements to
In the case of non-rectangular laminates, no discernible trend was simulate the bonded MFC and bistable composite plate. The outcomes
observed in the results for both snap-through and snap-back forces. obtained were then compared with experimental results conducted
The forces exhibited fluctuations, either increasing or decreasing, in by Schultz et al. [88]. Furthermore, a theoretical model was developed
response to changes in certain length parameters, indicating the in- by the authors, incorporating two displacement fields to describe the
herent complexity beyond the geometric considerations. Nonetheless, out-of-plane deformation: a constant curvature (CC) and a quadratically
the numerical model demonstrated satisfactory predictive capability in varying curvature (QVC) polynomial. The comparison of the results is
accurately capturing the observed results. presented in Table 7, demonstrating that the semi-analytical model uti-
Unlike the analysis of conventional laminated structures, Chai et al. lizing a high-order displacement field exhibited superior performance
[73] performed an analysis of variable stiffness (VS) composite struc- compared to the CC model (as expected) and the FEM model.
ture [56,74–77]. A connection layer (unidirectional) is presented in Other than the usually analyzed free-free boundary conditions [20]
both specimens tested, as it was noted that it does not affect the number and conventional layups, cantilever boundary conditions [89,90] and
of multi-stable states. The snap-through phenomenon of the specified hybrid layups [91–94] also were analyzed. The discrepancies observed
structures was investigated using a cupping machine to acquire the in the numerical models of these structures closely resemble those
load–displacement curve throughout the transformation process. To in conventional structures when compared against experimental data.
complement the experimental findings, a numerical simulation was This suggests that despite their inherently intricate configurations, the
conducted using the finite element software Abaqus to obtain the load– numerical models effectively handle the complexities presented by
displacement curve based on the simulation results, as depicted in these systems. Additional to non-conventional boundary conditions and
Fig. 11. The numerical model demonstrates good prediction capabilities layups, non-conventional snap-through triggering methods also have
compared to the experimental results for both tested structures. The been studied as heating [95,96], shape-memory alloy (SMA) [97–99],
maximum relative error in the critical snap-through load observed in and magnetic [100–102]. Some examples are shown in Fig. 12.

9
D.M. Lemos et al. Composite Structures 329 (2024) 117756

Fig. 10. Laminates specimens tested [23]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.

Fig. 11. Comparison of load–displacement of simulation and experiment. Arrows indicate the snap-through phenomena [73].
Source: Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature.

Table 7 robust performance of aerospace structures, as they are exposed to

Comparison of predicted snap-through voltages. intricate and fluctuating aerodynamic forces during operation [104,
Source: Adapted from Anilkumar et al. [83].
105].
Results compared Snap-through voltage (V)
Diaconu et al. [63] investigated the dynamic snap-through behavior
Top MFC Bottom MFC in bistable cross-ply composite plates using a theoretical model based
Experiments [88] 1900.00 −475.00 on the displacement field assumed by Dano and Hyer [29]. They veri-
Finite element results 1516.00 −379.00 fied their findings by comparing their findings with the results obtained
Semi-analytical (CC) 1420.00 −355.00
from a FEM analysis on a square plate fixed at its center and subjected
Semi-analytical (QVC) 1598.00 −399.50
to a ramping load at each corner for a duration of two seconds. The
study highlighted diverse dynamic responses, emphasizing nonlinear
behavior [106] and the role of inertial energy. The theoretical and FEM
3.3. Dynamic snap-through results were well-matched in the damping regime, demonstrating the
model’s calibration feasibility. However, a notable limitation is the lack
Numerous investigations have been conducted to explore the snap- of direct comparison with experimental data, limiting comprehensive
through phenomenon, primarily focusing on static aspects. Neverthe- model validation.
less, it is imperative to investigate this phenomenon from a dynamic Arrieta et al. [107] conducted dynamic characterization of a cen-
perspective, given its inherently dynamic nature. This becomes par- trally fixed square plate (Fig. 13). Experimental frequency response
ticularly crucial in aerospace applications, where structures often ex- at two points was measured under sinusoidal excitation to induce
perience intense dynamic excitations within challenging aeroelastic vibration. The authors varied load amplitude and excitation frequency
environments [103]. Comprehending the snap-through behavior under to identify and extract linear, nonlinear, and sub-harmonic response
dynamic conditions becomes paramount to guarantee the reliable and parameters. These parameters were then utilized as input data for a

10
D.M. Lemos et al. Composite Structures 329 (2024) 117756

Fig. 12. (a) Snap-through process of bistable laminate actuated by heating actuation method [95]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier; (b) Bistable laminate integrated
with smart alloys [97]. Reproduced with permission from Taylor & Francis. (c) Magnetic actuation and transition shapes of a bistable shell [100]. No permission is required.

reduced-order model (ROM). The comparison with experimental results Table 8

Comparison between FEM and experimental natural frequencies.
is shown in Fig. 14. The model exhibits excellent agreement with
Source: Adapted from Nicassio et al. [108].
experimental data. However, its scope is confined to small amplitude
Stable state Numerical Experiment
dynamics around an equilibrium position, rendering it incapable of
1st 2nd 1st 2nd
capturing snap-through dynamics. The authors’ study highlights the
SS1 28.9 (1.36a ) 62.8 (6.98) 29.3 58.7
significant dynamic response of bistable composites, though they have
SS2 17.5 (32.57) 28.6 (13.04) 13.2 25.3
not specifically examined the dynamical snap-through behavior. Nev-
Analytical - EXP
ertheless, their work contributes to the understanding of dynamic a
Error = | EXP
| × 100.
snap-through phenomena.
Nicassio et al. [108] also studied the dynamic characteristics of
bistable composites. Employing a FEM model, they simulated the first
two natural frequencies of a rectangular plate in its two stable states. the natural frequency of the first bending mode, as it has a signif-
icant effect on the vibration response of the laminate and at which
To validate their model, they conducted experimental tests employing
large displacements occur during a snap-through phenomenon. Using
an MFC sensor affixed to the plate, generating a voltage read by an
a theoretical model, they found an error ranging from 1.9 to 6.2%.
oscilloscope. The results revealed a maximum prediction error of 6.98%
These results are pretty similar to those presented by the FEM model
for the natural frequencies of the first stable state and a higher error of developed in the work of Nicassio et al. [108].
32.6% for the second stable state (Table 8). As shown previously, the Expanding their previous work [107], Arrieta et al. [109] studied
room-temperature shape of the first stable state it is better predicted the dynamic mechanism involved in triggering snap-through phenom-
than those of the second stable state. Thus, the disparity in predic- ena. According to the authors, a bistable composite plate exhibits
tion accuracy can be attributed to the direct relationship between the two statically stable configurations, each representing a stable equi-
natural frequency and the plate’s geometry, providing insight into the librium point, with an unstable equilibrium point in between. This
greater errors observed in predicting the first two natural frequencies of arrangement gives rise to a potential energy function with two minima
the second stable state. Similarly, Firouzian-Nejad et al. [61] compared (representing stable states) and one maxima (representing an unstable

11
D.M. Lemos et al. Composite Structures 329 (2024) 117756

Fig. 13. Stable states of square cross-ply bi-stable composite plate attached to a Ling shaker [107].
Source: Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature.

Fig. 14. Comparison between the theoretical prediction and the experimentally measured range for the subharmonic resonance [107].
Source: Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature.

state). To transition from one stable state to the other, external energy
must be introduced to push the system beyond the energy hilltop
that separates the two potential wells. Fundamentally, the dynamic
response of bistable plates is limited to oscillations within a stable state
unless sufficient energy is applied to surpass the hilltop. The critical
displacement defines the point at which the system switches from one
stable state to the other, and it correlates with the static deflection
required for such a transition.
The authors conducted experimental tests to ascertain the force
required to initiate the snap-through phenomenon. The investigations
encompassed a frequency spectrum spanning from 10 to 50 Hz. To
achieve this, a sinusoidal input with gradually increasing amplitude
was applied to the bistable plate-MFC using a shaker. The outcomes of
these tests show that the regions exhibiting lower snap-through forces
were found to align with the linear and subharmonic resonance data
obtained from the experimental results. This characterization holds a
crucial role in the development of morphing mechanics that require
less energy to initiate the snap-through phenomenon.
In order to achieve a further reduction in the snap-through force,
the authors implemented the activation of the MFC element. The actu-
ation approach involved a combination of MFC actuation with external
shaker excitation, strategically focusing on frequencies that demanded
the minimum force to induce snap-through. For the chosen configu-
ration, the MFC was employed to target the subharmonic frequency
of the plate’s response. This enabled direct energy transfer from the
MFC to the frequency responsible for generating a significant amplitude
response in the subharmonic resonance mechanism. For an 8-ply-MFC
plate, a maximum reduction of 15.8% of the shaker force to induce
snap-through is achieved compared to the measured force under the
sole action of shaker at a forcing frequency of 36.2 Hz, while for a

12
D.M. Lemos et al. Composite Structures 329 (2024) 117756

Fig. 15. Measure points on the bistable plate [110]. Reproduced with permission from
Elsevier.

smaller dimension and stiffness 4-ply-MFC plate, a maximum reduction

of 47.5% was reached, for a forcing frequency of 45 Hz.
Results for other forcing frequencies were also analyzed. The pre-
sented findings demonstrate the efficacy of the MFC actuation strategy
in reducing the required force for initiating laminate snap-through. This
effectiveness was observed to be dependent on the specific characteris-
tics of the laminate and the excitation conditions applied. These results
expand the range of potential applications for positioning the MFCs and
for the incorporation of a higher number of MFCs.
Arrieta et al. [110] extended their previous work [107] by devel-
oping an expanded numerical model. The focus of this model was to
study the dynamic snap-through phenomenon associated with cross-
well dynamics. The study considered a plate without an attached MFC
for comparison with experimental data. Two specific points, 𝑃𝑥 and
𝑃𝑦 (Fig. 15) were selected for measuring the displacement, which
was then predicted using the developed numerical model. Unlike their
earlier numerical model [107], the present model incorporates the Fig. 16. Comparison between the displacement time response. Simulation (a) and
experiment (b) [110]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
critical deflection threshold that triggers the snap-through, allowing it
to account for cross-well oscillations. Fig. 16 illustrates a comparison
between the simulated and experimental displacement time responses
for a forcing frequency of 39 Hz and a forcing amplitude of 5.5 N. amplitude reaches 2.5 g, a comparable outcome is achieved, and the
While the quantitative agreement of the simulated results is limited, the plate remains unsnapped until this point. At an amplitude of 4.5 g, in
model demonstrates qualitative success in capturing the snap-through addition to the period-three motion, the plate also demonstrates snap-
behavior from stable state 2 to stable state 1. Additionally, the model through motion, which is evident from the large displacement exhibited
successfully predicts the subsequent oscillations confined to stable state by the plate. Interestingly, when the excitation amplitude surpasses
1 following the snap-through phenomenon. 4.5 g, the motion transitions into a state of chaos, revealing intriguing
Exploring the response further the dynamic response at different nonlinear dynamic behavior. The author’s examination of the power
excitation conditions [53,65,111], Emam et al. [112] performed an spectrum response validates this finding. Lemos and Marques [113],
using a theoretical model, found, qualitatively, similar results.
extensive investigation into the nonlinear dynamics of an asymmetric
Zhang et al. [66] conducted experimental analyses to explore how
four-ply bistable laminate supported at its center and free at all bound-
geometric sizes and the number of layers affect this response. The
aries. The laminate was equipped with four MFC patches, as depicted in
experimental vibration tests involved exciting the plates with a foun-
Fig. 17. For experimental measurements, three specific locations were
dation excitation frequency of 24 Hz, with the foundation frequency
selected: two points situated approximately 150 mm away from the
incrementally increased every 5 s. In this experiment, the excitation
midpoint of each plate, and one at the diagonal intersection of these
amplitude was initially set at 650 mV and was increased to 700 mV
two points. The plate was excited in an excitation frequency equal to its after 50 s. It was observed that the snap-through phenomenon occurred
linear low-amplitude natural frequency, 18.5 Hz, measured previously. immediately after the amplitude increase. Following the snap-through,
Displacement time history, 4 power spectrum, and the Poincaré section a strong unsteady response was evident, which eventually stabilized
are calculated. The voltages output of the MFCs, and their power into a certain level of steady response. This observed behavior persisted
spectrum, are also shown. This work will be limited to the displacement across other geometric configurations and amplitude values. Similar
time history, as it is sufficient to summarize the dynamic nonlinear experimental tests were performed considering different laminates. The
snap-through behavior. For excitation amplitudes up to 1.5 g, the plate researchers observed that the alteration of geometric dimensions and
exhibits period-one motion, demonstrating a frequency response that the number of layers in the bi-stable asymmetric laminated composite
corresponds to the excitation frequency, which can be viewed in the square panel significantly influences the critical amplitude to trigger
plate displacement response. By increasing the amplitude to 2.0 g, the the dynamic snap-through.
response remains periodic; however, the frequency response is now half Similar to the work of Zhang et al. [66], Wu et al. [58] conducted
of the excitation frequency, presenting a period-two motion. When the an investigation on the dynamic snap-through behavior of laminates

13
D.M. Lemos et al.
Fig. 17. Experimental setup and MFC layout with the laminate in its second stable position [112].
Source: Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature.
with varying numbers of layers and length sides of bistable asymmet-
ric composite laminated shallow shells. In line with previous studies,
they observed changes in the period motion response with increas-
ing amplitude excitation. Furthermore, the authors demonstrated that
the amplitude–frequency response curves exhibit a rightward bending
pattern, indicating the presence of hardening spring nonlinearities.
Despite conducting FEM analysis, the authors did not conduct a direct
comparison with experimental results. As a result, it is not feasible to
thoroughly discuss the efficacy of FEM models in accurately predicting
the nonlinear dynamic response of the snap-through phenomenon.
In contrast to prior investigations that focused on bistable laminate
plates fixed at their center, Wu et al. [114] conducted a comprehen-
sive analysis of the dynamic snap-through behavior exhibited by a
four-corner simply supported bistable asymmetric laminated compos-
ite square shell and Brunetti et al. [115] conducted an investigation
concerning the behavior of a bistable composite cantilever shell. While
the boundary conditions of the four-corner simply supported plate
differ, the dynamic response exhibits minimal disparity in comparison
to a center-fixed plate: with the increase of excitation frequency, the
displacement-time history response undergoes a transition from single-
well periodic vibrations to double-well chaotic oscillations [116]. In
addition to the empirical findings, Wu et al. [114] undertook a com-
prehensive analysis utilizing both theoretical and FEM models. These
models effectively captured the principal dynamic characteristics of the
examined plate. The dynamic behavior of the cantilever shell, on the
other hand, manifests distinct characteristics. This disparity primarily
arises from the contrasting geometries assumed by the clamped shell
in its respective stable configurations. Furthermore, in conjunction
with investigations of the dynamic response of the snap-through of
bistable laminates, recent research endeavors have been conducted to
explore the application of deep learning techniques [117], optimization
methods [118], and variable stiffness composite laminates [52].
3.4. Concluding remarks
Bistable composite laminates exhibit a remarkable characteristic
by demonstrating two stable positions at room temperature. The shift
between these positions takes place when a critical load is applied,
triggering the occurrence of snap-through, which is a dynamic phe-
nomenon. Even when these laminates are utilized as components of
static mechanisms, it is crucial to take into account the dynamics of
snap-through to fully leverage this distinctive feature. Consequently,
the detailed understanding of dynamic characterization gains signifi-
cant importance in various practical applications.
14
Composite Structures 329 (2024) 117756
The current literature illustrates that snap-through is a complex
phenomenon that is directly impacted by both geometric characteristics
and loading circumstances. While there are numerous numerical inves-
tigations available, only a limited few provide actual comparisons with
real experimental results. Additionally, a significant portion of these
studies apply simplified models, which fail to accurately replicate the
outcomes observed in experiments. Furthermore, there is a noticeable
gap in the existing literature when it comes to examining how typical
real-world boundary conditions influence the dynamic process of snap-
through. Consequently, there exists a promising avenue for delving into
the captivating and dynamic nature of the snap-through phenomenon.
4. Aerospace applications
This unique class of composite laminates possesses the capability to
maintain two stable positions without the need for a continuous power
source to sustain these positions. This exceptional feature makes these
composites highly suitable for the development of intelligent structures
that can adapt to diverse operating conditions. This adaptability is
particularly crucial in applications like morphing concepts within the
aerospace field. In addition to their multiple states, these laminated
composites exhibit exceptional mechanical properties that are espe-
cially valuable for aerospace applications. They can also be tailored to
match the specific mechanical requirements of different applications.
Consequently, these composites emerge as ideal candidates for shap-
ing the future of aerospace structures. This section will discuss the
practical utilization of bistable composite laminates within aerospace
sciences. Moreover, it will be explored the potential applications of this
innovative structural category within the aerospace domain.
While several authors have explored the utilization of bistable com-
posites within aerospace applications [119–121], Diaconu et al. [122]
were the pioneers in examining novel approaches for implementing
bistable composites in aerospace components, as far as the authors are
aware. The researchers explored the application of bistable laminated
composite structures to achieve morphing in an airfoil through three
distinct concepts: morphing of a flap-like structure, camber change
for the airfoil section, and chord length change, as shown in Fig. 18.
The simulations were conducted using the Abaqus code in conjunction
with SR4 doubly curved shell elements. The findings indicate that
the analyzed concepts can achieve the required displacements similar
to those of a conventional airfoil. However, the flap-like concept is
unsuitable for practical aerodynamic loading due to insufficient stiff-
ness. Moreover, this concept is vulnerable to environmental variations,
particularly in aerospace applications, resulting from its sensitivity to
D.M. Lemos et al. Composite Structures 329 (2024) 117756

Fig. 18. Three airfoil morphing concepts using bistable laminates proposed by Diaconu et al. [122]. Morphing trailing edge (a), morphing camber (b), and camber (c). Reproduced
with permission from Elsevier.

Fig. 19. Morphing flap proposed by Panesar and Weaver [123]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.

temperature and moisture changes. On the other hand, the camber
and chord length change concepts emerge as more reliable concepts.
These concepts utilize a bistable plate as the morphing mechanism,
which is distinct from the aerodynamic surfaces. This separation allows
for easier customization to effectively respond to aerodynamic loading
requirements.
Other authors also have analyzed the concept of a morphing airfoil
using bistable laminates [108,123,125–128]. In contrast to Diaconu
et al. [122] work, Panesar and Weaver [123] investigated the flexibility
of variable angle tow (VAT) laminates using ant colony optimization
to determine optimal morphing flaps. Finite element analysis was con-
ducted, and the optimized laminates were manufactured (Fig. 19).
The results exhibit good qualitative agreement between FE predictions
and experimental observations of the laminates. This validates the
morphing flap concept’s feasibility, even though wind tunnel testing
or real-world simulations are lacking. Additionally, the results offer in-
sights into the bistable behavior of optimized laminates and underscore
the efficacy of the optimization approach employed.

15
D.M. Lemos et al.
Fig. 20. Statically stable states of the proposed load alleviation concept [124]. (a) State 1: High lift configuration. (b) State 2: load alleviation configuration. No permission is
required.
Daynes et al. [125] were the first researchers to test in a wind tunnel
a full-scale concept applying bistable laminates. The authors developed
a workable proof-of-concept demonstrator of a bistable composite flap
that integrates bistable composites and actuator solutions. A full-scale
rotor blade section with a span of 2.114 m and a chord of 0.68 m, fitted
with a 1 m-span flap moving between two stable states was tested. The
flap consists of 20 bistable laminates arranged in two rows, similar
to the concept manufactured by Daynes et al. [129], while the lower
and upper skins are not bistable but are made of the same material
of the bistable laminates. By conducting wind-tunnel experiments,
the researchers quantified the impacts of bistable flap deployment
on lift, drag, and pitching moment. The outcomes concerning these
unsteady aerodynamic coefficients at a flow velocity of 60 m∕s, during
the transition of the flap from its initial 0-degree configuration to
a deployed angle of 10 degrees. The outcomes show that the snap-
through phenomenon occurred almost instantly at 1 s, evidenced by a
sudden increase in lift coefficient of around 0.2 and a corresponding
decrease in the pitching moment coefficient. Moreover, no occurrences
of flutter instabilities were noted during all the wind tunnel tests
conducted. This confirms the feasibility of utilizing bistable composites
as aerodynamic surfaces. Nonetheless, it is crucial to tackle possible
enhancements in the actuator mechanism, given that the authors noted
a limitation in the maximum sustainable frequency for continuous flap
state actuation due to actuator overheating.
Instead of utilizing an internal bistable laminated structure, Mukher-
jee et al. [128] introduced a novel design for a morphing wing trailing
edge. This design involves the incorporation of two hybrid bistable sym-
metric laminates (HBSLs) as the wing’s skin, coupled with a corrugated
core. Although the researchers successfully fabricated a prototype, their
primary objective revolved around investigating the bistable properties
of the laminate in a clamped configuration, as part of their morphing
trailing edge concept. A significant contribution of their work was the
exploration of how the loss of bistability is influenced by the plate’s
side length, confirmed by the manufactured prototype. Despite creating
a physical prototype that validated the simulated bistability of their
models, the authors did not conduct comparative studies to confirm
the reliability of the developed FE models.
High-fidelity fluid–structure interaction (FSI) simulations were also
employed to investigate the application of bistable laminates as internal
substructures within morphing airfoils [126,127]. Kuder et al. [127]
introduced a concurrent design and optimization framework to fully
exploit the inherent stiffness variability of bistable laminates. This
approach was utilized to create selective deformation modes tailored
for various flight conditions. The authors performed the simulations
using the Abaqus code. These simulations validated the framework
16
Composite Structures 329 (2024) 117756
adopted by the authors to meet the requirements emphasized in their
work. Specifically, this framework aimed to achieve a selective stiff-
ness, allowing for the customization of actuation resistance within the
compliant substructure to ensure efficient operation.
In addition to investigating morphing airfoils [130–132],
researchers have also examined bistable wing-like structures [133] and
winglets. Gatto et al. [134] explored a concept involving a bistable
winglet to enhance lift during low flight speeds. This winglet design
possesses the capability to transition to an alternate configuration
at higher speeds, such as during climbing or cruising. Within the
transitional region, the winglet is engineered to undergo a passive snap
from its initial stable state to the second state, driven solely by the
increased aerodynamic loading on the winglet as the dynamic pressure
and/or angle of attack increases. While the authors have conducted FE
simulations to compare the room-temperature and stable shapes with
the manufactured bistable winglet, the main objective is to analyze
its passive response to increasing aerodynamic load. For this, they
conducted wind tunnel measurements of all forces and moments before
and after the winglet snap.
The experiments also demonstrated the concept’s capability to gen-
erate a measurable degree of lift augmentation. However, the results
also unveiled the generation and propagation of substantial dynamic
loads throughout the entire wing structure during the snap-through
process. This effect becomes evident when observing the oscillations
in lift coefficient upon snap-through occurrence. In light of this, the
authors propose the necessity of implementing supplementary attenua-
tion and/or control methodologies to ensure the practical applicability
of the concept for modern aircraft operations.
Arrieta et al. [124] also conducted experimental tests on a bistable
winglet concept (Fig. 20). However, the authors explored the reliability
of a passive load-alleviating morphing-compliant mechanism instead of
enhancing lift. The mechanism was designed to ensure the first bending
modes, linked to the minimum snap-through force in each stable state,
are distinctly separated from one another. This design approach effec-
tively diminishes the chance of undesired transitions between stable
configurations. Wind tunnel tests involving aerodynamic loading on
the specimen were carried out and validated the concept’s efficacy in
alleviating aerodynamic loading. The tests demonstrated efficiency of
60% reduction in aerodynamic loading at a flow velocity of 15 m∕s with
an angle of attack of 0 deg, and 32% reduction at a flow velocity of
5 m∕s with an angle of attack of 5 deg, during the transition from state
1 to state 2.
It is well-established that the snap-through event occurs abruptly
and can cause severe vibrations that propagate throughout the entire
structure attached to the bistable laminate [134,136]. Arrieta et al.
D.M. Lemos et al.
Fig. 21. Numerical model (a) and experiment setup (b) [135]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
[137] and Bilgen et al. [138] investigated the analysis of bistable wing
control under aerodynamic loading, utilizing surface-bonded piezoelec-
tric actuators. Furthermore, once the bistable structure reaches a stable
state, it remains in that state. Consequently, the implementation of a
control system becomes imperative to revert the structure to its initial
state when considered necessary. Using a resonant control technique,
the authors managed to transition to a monostable structure effectively.
Alternatively, both stable equilibrium states can be actively or pas-
sively achieved from the other state. This implies that the proposed
control technique demonstrated the potential for reversible dynamic
snap-through using surface-bonded MFC actuators. Moreover, dynamic
snap-through can be accomplished even in the presence of adverse
pressure gradients.
17
Composite Structures 329 (2024) 117756
As far as the authors are aware, Liu et al. [135] are the only re-
searchers, up to the current time, who have carried out an FSI analysis
validated through wind tunnel tests. Their investigation focused on can-
tilevered bistable hybrid symmetrical laminates (BHSLs) subjected to
uniform aerodynamic loading. They employed a three-dimensional FE
structural model developed using Abaqus, and the aerodynamic loading
was calculated using the commercial software XFLOW (cf. Fig. 21).
This methodology allowed them to examine the dynamic response of
the bistable structure under wind loading conditions. The experimental
findings unveiled a gradual shift in the laminate’s vibration response
from single-well behavior to cross-well behavior as the wind velocity
increases. Moreover, the frequency of the cross-well vibration increased
alongside the increase in wind speed (see Fig. 22). This behavior is
expected, given the laminate’s shift from small amplitude oscillations,
D.M. Lemos et al.
Fig. 22. Tip displacement response of the bistable plate under increasing wind velocity [135]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
representing oscillations around a single stable state, to the snap-
through oscillation regime characterized by oscillations around both
stable states. Similar patterns have been observed in previous studies
on dynamic snap-through phenomena. The numerical model results
demonstrate good agreement with the experimental results, highlight-
ing the model’s capacity to accurately simulate the behavior of bistable
laminates subjected to aerodynamic loading.
Bistable composite laminates found application as air inlets as well.
In their work, Daynes et al. [139] manufactured an air inlet concept
comprising a compliant bistable composite laminate. This laminate is
affixed to the external aerodynamic surface at one end, extending into
the aircraft, where it is clamped at the opposite end. This air inlet
features a multistable structure, exhibiting high stiffness in its open and
closed states. However, it significantly reduces stiffness while transi-
tioning between these stable states, facilitating rapid snap-through and
snap-back motions.
4.1. Concluding remarks
In numerous aerospace concepts utilizing bistable composite lami-
nates, the focus lies on morphing applications due to their inherent two
stable positions. The literature shows that the application of morphing
bistable composite structures holds significant promise for enhancing
the performance of future air vehicles, as they offer advantages such
as lighter actuation systems and extended fatigue life, contributing to
overall improvements in aerospace technologies. Additionally, integrat-
ing low-energy morphing structures can lead to notable advancements
in the field, enabling efficient adaptations to varying conditions.
While progress has been made, certain aspects still warrant atten-
tion. There remains a gap in conducting comprehensive fatigue analysis
to verify the longevity of these morphing structures. Besides that,
further exploration is required to understand the dynamic aeroelas-
tic responses, including phenomena like flutter, in bistable composite
structures subjected to aerodynamic loading. Furthermore, enhancing
the reliability of numerical models remains a priority, necessitating
studies that directly compare simulation results with real-world ap-
plications and experimental data. To summarize, the effort to fully
realize the capabilities of bistable composite morphing structures con-
tinues, presenting numerous chances to enhance these technologies and
improve the aerospace area.
18
Composite Structures 329 (2024) 117756
5. Conclusions
Bistable laminates have captured the interest of researchers due
to their potential as promising morphing structures. These laminates
feature two stable states, wherein the structure persists until a critical
force is locally applied, transitioning between its stable states position.
Many works have explored this innovative category of structures, cov-
ering everything from their initial cured shapes to their applications
within the aerospace field. While promising theoretical and experimen-
tal findings have been documented, substantial room for improvement
and development remains before bistable laminates can be seamlessly
integrated into the future of aerospace. The need for enhanced models
to better predict room-temperature shape is evident, along with the
necessity for numerical models that can effectively capture the intricate
static and dynamic responses associated with snap-through phenomena.
Moreover, a noticeable gap in the literature is the absence of studies
that directly compare numerical and experimental models. Given the
diverse triggers for snap-through, identifying the most reliable and
effective trigger method is still an open question. Furthermore, the opti-
mal utilization of bistable laminates in real-world applications, whether
as standalone bistable structures or as compliant internal elements,
has yet to be definitively determined. This calls for comprehensive
investigations in these areas. As the aerospace community strives for
progress, it is imperative that future studies address these critical gaps
and challenges to unlock the full potential of bistable laminates in
aerospace applications.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Diego Magela Lemos: Conceptualization, Methodology, Visualiza-
tion, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Flávio D.
Marques: Methodology, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing
– review & editing. António J.M. Ferreira: Methodology, Supervision,
Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re-
lationships which may be considered as potential competing inter-
ests: Diego Magela Lemos reports financial support was provided by
National Council for Scientific and Technological Development.
D.M. Lemos et al.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the financial support of the National
Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Brazil
(grants 306824/2019-1 and 140445/2021-8).
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