IDENTITY

There are at least two critical things to understand what and how identity is. These two
things are as follows:

A. Identity is a Social Construction

Identity is the traits and characteristics, social relationships, roles, and social group
membership that define who we are. Richard Jenkins argues that social identity is "our
understanding of who we are and of who other people are, and conversely, other people's
understanding of themselves and of other people" (Jenkins, 1996). Jenkins' statement
shows us that identity is not something that is natural and determined by the Almighty.
Identity can be negotiated and created in the process of interaction between humans.

Identity is formed through comparing and seeing whether there are similarities and
differences between one individual and another. People who feel that they and other
people are the same, will differentiate their identity from others who are believed to be
different and do not have the same identity.

For example, suppose I feel that I have certain similarities with certain groups, for
example, the same gender, religion, age, sexual orientation, and skin color. In that case, I
will refer to myself and the same group as "us" (us). Meanwhile, I will refer to these
different groups as "them" or liyan (the other). What differentiates "us" (us) and "them"
(them) are the similarities and differences.

For Jenkins, "social identity is a matter of meaning", and the meaning in question is
socially constructed. So, these similarities and differences are constructed, not a matter
of essential human differences. In his writing, Jenkins gives an example of when
someone is transitioning to become an older adult and a retiree. Change is not just about
numbers, but there are consequences in identity and social roles that accompany it.

For example, I just celebrated my 65th birthday, the retirement age. My birthday is not
just a change in age from 64 to 65. At the same time, I received a retirement letter, free
train tickets for seniors, and discounted rates for health care. What is the
impact? I suddenly felt weak, I felt like a different person. That getting old,
wrinkled, reduced energy is a necessity. But how identities and roles change is a
construction. My skin is wrinkled, yes. But wrinkles mean weak construction. That’s
reduced my energy, and it is natural, but suddenly I become weak and need help from
others is a part of construction.

Social construction is something we understand through social interactions between

individuals. Therefore, according to Jenkins, identity is integral to social life. Identity is
formed through efforts to distinguish the identities of different groups that can be
associated with other people. Awareness of different identities makes us have
assumptions about which individuals with personalities will deal with us and how we
will relate to them. How we treat other people (whether they are the same or different
from us) will determine how we will relate to them.

One thing that needs to be underlined is this: our understanding of different identities
may be limited or even completely wrong, but it is an integral part of social life and
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makes interaction possible. That is why Jenkins concluded, "Without social identity,
there is, in fact, no society" (tanpa identitas, tak ada masyarakat).

A. Identity is a Process of "Becoming"

Stuart Hall explains that identity is not a "finished" process; identity is never
perfect/complete and will never be final/ending. Identity is always in the process of
formation. So, identity is a process of "becoming". Identity is not fixed but fluid and
constantly changing. Identity is a process that never ends. Identity can be changed
according to specific history, time, and space.

For example, my identity as a woman, lecturer, Muslim, heterosexual, and Javanese is

not a fixed entity. My identity is not something fixed. My identity in the past, present,
and future will continually change. I'm Javanese. Are the characteristics fixed? Certainly
not. My Javanese-ness (kejawaan) is always changing because being Javanese is not just
because I was born in Java, I am of Javanese descent, or I grew up in Java. However, the
concept of Javanese-ness (kejawaan) is also relative. The definition of Java is not just a
place but is attached to various characteristics. Javanese can mean being born in Java,
being able to speak Javanese, behaving like a Javanese, and so on. This is, of course,
related to the previous understanding that identity is a construction.

Discussing identity can be very complex. I will discuss several topics in the following
discussion, including identity based on sex/gender and ethnicity/race. Apart from that,
there are several other discussions, such as class identity (rich/poor), religion
(Muslim/non-Muslim), identity based on age (child-teen/young-old), marital status
(single-married-divorce), education level (low-high), residence (urban-sub urban), and
so on.

Differences in identity as a result of identifying similarities and differences give rise to

classifications between "us" (us) and "them" (them/other). Classifying "us" and "them"
often raises several problems of inequality. The problem of inequality gives rise to
problems of discrimination, stereotyping, and stigma from “us” against “them.” “We”
are always superior (superior) to “them.” For example, “we” who are heterosexual, have
light skin, and live in urban areas will feel superior to “them” who are homosexual, have
dark skin, and live in suburban areas.

In the end, “they” often refers to minority groups. In principle, identity is neutral.
Everyone will feel that their self and group identity is superior. Each “we” will feel that
their identity is the best and most accurate, and “they” are the inferior. However, this
world is not neutral. Certain groups have a unique position due to ownership of capital
and power. So, the term “we” places certain groups uniquely positioned. Meanwhile,
“they” are occupied by minority groups.

The following discussion of several identity elements will explore this further.

1. Identity: Sex vs Gender

Basic concept of Sex, Gender and Sexuality

At first glance, these three terms have little difference. However, in principle, it is very
different.

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Sex or gender is natural and biological. People are said to be male and female because
they have natural biological differences. A man is if he has a penis, an Adam's apple
(jakun), a mustache or beard, XY chromosomes, and high levels of testosterone.
Meanwhile, being a woman means having a vagina, breasts, a uterus, XX chromosomes,
and high levels of estrogen hormones.

The characteristics mentioned are natural permanent, and do not change except through
technological engineering. However, even so, technology is still unable to change it
functionally. For example, a man can change his gender to a woman through surgery,
but he will never be able to get pregnant and give birth.

Dominant gender ideology only understands that sex or gender can be divided into two,
namely men and women. Gender is understood as a binary opposition (two things that
are opposites: black/white, male/female). Even though, in reality, gender is a spectrum
(colorful). Between men and women, there are other genders that are categorized as third
gender or intersex.

Intersex is a term used for a variety of conditions in which a person is born with a sexual
anatomy and chromosomes that do not fit the typical definition of female or male. There
are three types of intersex, namely (1) Herma, when the testes and ovaries are in one
body and both functions together as reproductive; (2) Merma, if born with testes and
also has several non-functional-reproductive aspects of the female genitalia; (3) Ferma,
namely if you are born with ovaries and also several non-functional reproductive and
male genital aspects.

As a result of the dominant gender ideology not recognizing a third gender, a person
born with an intersex condition is often stigmatized as deviant, abnormal, or defective,
thus making them decide to undergo surgery to perfect their organs so that they
meet biological anatomical standards as male or female.

Gender is constructive or socially and culturally agreed upon. As a result, its nature
becomes relative and changes. Femininity and masculinity are gender categories. Both
are traits that are then culturally and socially attached to specific genders. Our culture
has agreed for generations that men have masculine traits while women have feminine
traits. For once, this is not something natural but culturally constructed so that it is
relative and changing.

Masculine traits are synonymous with violence, strength, aggressiveness, dominance,

and superiority. In contrast, feminine traits are those associated with gentleness,
compassion, weakness, submissiveness, and inferiority. The socio-cultural construction
that has been believed so far is that masculine traits are identified with men, while
feminine traits are attributed to women. So, if a man is a leader, strong, firm, and
breadwinner, this is cultural, not biological. It is the same as understanding that women
are gentle, full of compassion, caretakers of children, and caretakers of the household.

The result of this construction is that when there are feminine men or women who
are masculine, they will be considered something deviant and abnormal. Various
stigmas will be attached to individuals who deny this construction. The term "sissy" is
applied to feminine men, or "tomboy" to masculine women. Masculine women, although
considered deviant, are still more accepted in society than feminine men. Why? Our
society is patriarchal (giving preference to men). In a world that believes in patriarchal
ideology, men are considered extraordinary figures, while femininity is considered to
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tarnish this privilege. So, feminine men are hated because they have tarnished the
superiority of men. Meanwhile, masculine women are more accepted because their
masculine characteristics are identical to men who already have this privilege.

Sexuality contains very complex aspects in it. This concept is a comprehensive aspect of
life that includes sex, gender, sexual orientation, eroticism, pleasure, intimacy, and
reproduction. Sexuality is experienced and expressed in men's thoughts, desires,
fantasies, beliefs, values, behavior, habits, roles, and relationships.

Related to the issue of sexuality, there are essential concepts that participants also need
to understand, namely sexual identity and sexual orientation. Identity sexual is how a
person identifies themselves about their sexual orientation/behavior. Sexual identity
refers to sexual orientation. Sexual orientation is the gender to which a person is
attracted. There are several sexual orientations, such as heterosexual, homosexual,
bisexual, pansexual, and asexual.

1. Heterosexual, if someone is emotionally and sexually attracted to a different

gender
2. Homosexual, if someone is emotionally and sexually attracted to the same
gender
3. Bisexual is if someone is emotionally and sexually attracted to both men and
women, either at the same time or not at the same time.
4. Pansexual is if you are attracted to people regardless of their sex or gender
identity. Pansexual people may call themselves gender blind, stating that gender
and sex are not determining factors in their romantic or sexual attraction to
others.
5. Asexual is someone who has no emotional or sexual attraction to any sex or
gender.

In a patriarchal culture, the only acceptable sexual orientation is heterosexual.

Meanwhile, other orientations are not accepted and are considered deviant. Various
stigmas are attached to non-heterosexual people. Starting from being considered sinful,
diseased, social trash, and so on.

Problem Sex, Gender dan Sexuality

After you understand the concepts of sex, gender, and sexuality, can you see what
problems occur in identities related to sex, gender, and sexuality? As already mentioned,
the problem is the construction in our society, which adheres to a patriarchal culture,
which causes discrimination, stigma, and stereotypes in groups that have identities
outside patriarchal norms.

Patriarchal culture is a culture that prioritizes men. Men, as the central gender, have
masculine characteristics and are superior to women. This culture also recognizes
heterosexuality. So, identities outside these norms will be considered as "them/the
other", different, deviant. Who are "they"? Intersex people, "sissies," "tomboys," and
non-heterosexuals.

Can you name the forms of injustice in these groups? The following are examples of
such injustice:

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 1. Subordination: considering specific sexes or sexual identities to be inferior to
other sexes or sexual identities. For example, women are not suitable for certain
positions or professions.
2. Marginalization: marginalization of specific sexes or sexual identities. For
example, women do not deserve to be leaders; women are paid lower than men's
wages.
3. Stereotyping: inadequate labeling of specific sexes or sexual identities. For
example, the terms "sissy," "waving," widows who are considered
temptresses, etc.
4. Violence against specific sexes or sexual identities.
5. Double Burden, a double burden both domestic and public, on a particular sex or
sexual identity, usually occurs in women who have a career because they are still
burdened with the task of being a housewife. The same does not apply to men.

Cultural Identity (Ethnicity and Race)

According to Stuart Hall (2003), cultural or culture-based identity is always constructed

by history, society, culture, memory, fantasy, and myth. Therefore, cultural identity is
also shaped by discourses of power that occurred in the past through transformation and
difference. Just like sexual and gender identity, cultural identity cannot be separated
from issues of power. Whoever is in power will build a discourse about constructing a
particular cultural identity. There will be cultural constructions of those who are superior
and those who are considered inferior. In cultural identity, two concepts are often
discussed: ethnicity and race.

The word ethnicity is a predicate for the identity of a person, group, or individuals who
unite in a collectivity. The inherent characteristic of an ethnic group is the growth of a
"sense of community" among its members so that a sense of kinship arises.

Initially, ethnicity was considered a natural and biological phenomenon. The assumption
is that geographical boundaries or biological kinship patterns largely determine
ethnicity. However, ethnicity also refers to language, customs, norms, values, etc.
Ethnicity does not merely refer to geographical and biological things but also to
traits/character, behavior, roles, and so on, where this is no longer something natural but
a construction.

Ethnicity arises because it involves the idea of differentiation, the dichotomy of "us" and
"them," and differences in claims to the basis, origins, and characteristics of culture.
Ethnicity results from a process of relationship/interaction between individuals, not due
to a process of isolation, as is the view based on territory/territorial boundaries.

Ethnicity is a cultural concept that centers on norms, values, beliefs, symbols, and
cultural practices. The formation of ethnic groups relies on a culture that has developed
under specific historical processes and socio-political contexts and which forms a sense
of mutual belonging. In certain parts, the form of these ethnic groups is based on shared
mythological descent. However, ethnic groups are not based solely on

Primordial factors or universal cultural characteristics create the formation of particular

ethnic groups but are formed through practices unrelated to each other. Ethnicity is
formed by group identity and identified by signs, symbols, and ethnic conventions. For
example, being Javanese does not mean being born, living, or being of Javanese descent,
but certain symbols are agreed upon to be Javanese.
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Therefore, ethnicity is a rational concept regarding categories of self-identification and
social ascriptions; that is, what we think of as our identity depends on what we think we
are and are not part of. As a consequence, ethnicity must be understood as a process of
constructing limited formations and being maintained by specific socio-historical
conditions (Barker, 2000). Socio-historical conditions also perpetuate practices that
place certain ethnicities superior to others. For example, in Indonesia, the Javanese
ethnic group is higher in rank than the Papuan ethnic group, which is considered
primitive/barbaric and stupid. The movie of “Denias Senandung Di Atas Awan” can be
example to reinforces this understanding. This understanding related with the historical
and social context in Indonesia.

Race refers to biological characteristics like skin color, facial shape, or hair color. There
are various opinions regarding the various races in the world, one of which is, according
to A. L. Krober, are divided into 4, namely:

1. Mongoloid race, namely a race with yellow skin. National groups included in the
Mongoloid Race include Asiatic Mongloid (North Asia, Central Asia, and East
Asia), Malayan Mongoloid (Southeast Asia, the Indonesian Archipelago,
Malaysia, and the Philippines), American Mongoloid (Eskimos in North
America to the inhabitants of Terra del Frugo in South America)
2. Negroid race, namely a race with black skin. The national groups included in this
race include African Negroiud (African continent), Negrito (Central Africa, the
Malay Peninsula, and the Philippines), and Melanesian (Papua and Melanesia).
3. Caucasian race, namely a race with white skin. National groups belonging to this
race include Nordic (Northern Europe around the Baltic Sea), Alpine (Central
Europe and Eastern Europe), and Mediterranean (around the Mediterranean Sea,
North Africa, America, Arabia, Armenia, and Iran).
4. Particular races that cannot be classified, namely Bushman (Kahari Desert area
in South Africa), Veddoid (Inland Sri Lanka and South Sulawesi), Australoid
(indigenous Australians), Polynesian (Micronesian Islands and Polynesia), and
Ainu (Island Kurufoto and Hokkaido in northern Japan).

However, race as a form of identity is not universal, absolute, or essential; instead, it is a

culture that is constantly in process and unstable but stabilized through social practice.
Classification based on bloodline, type of person, or physical appearance, such as skin
color, is linked to intelligence or ability and used to rank certain groups. As a result,
there are superior groups and subordinate groups.

When racial classification is formed because of power with biological or physical

markings, racism occurs. It involves social, economic, and political subordination
through racial discourse. Thus, race is a social construction. For example, the Caucasoid
(white) race is superior to the Negroid (black) race, and the Mongoloid (ethnic Chinese)
race in Indonesia is an inferior race.

Race must also be understood through discourses of power that occurred in the past. The
practice of colonialism/colonization has had a real impact up to the present day. The
impact is not only in physical terms (the European Caucasian physique is considered
more excellent than the Malay physique, so many Malays want to marry Europeans to
"improve their offspring"; the Caucasian race (Caucasian) is considered superior
compared to other races), but also on how knowledge, language, values that are formed
by looking at the West (Europe/America) towards the East (Asia/Africa). As a
Westonizer, the West was considered superior, rational, and the owner of universal truth,
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while the East was considered uncivilized, irrational, and emotional. Just look at how the
majority of recognized knowledge comes from the West.

Thus, racial-cultural politics is a politics of representation that involves the struggle for
social and political power. To understand this, we can take several examples such as the
genocide of Jews by Nazi Germany or the Holocaust, racism against black people in
America, which had an impact on their access to health, education, economics, and the
law which was unequal to white people, discrimination in Rohingya ethnic group in
Myanmar.

In Indonesia, stereotypes of ethnic Chinese have been instilled since the Dutch East
Indies colonial rule. At that time, the Dutch divided society based on class and place of
residence and employed Chinese people as tax collectors so that the people hated them.
The first-class division is Europeans, the second is the Foreign East (Arab, Indian,
Chinese, Indo), and the third is the Bumiputera or "indigenous" people. The term native
is also problematic because the colonial government deliberately created it to instill the
view that "natives" and others are "foreigners." For example, Arabs are not considered
foreigners, while Chinese people are considered foreigners. As a result, the colored
Chinese ethnic group is represented as white, narrow-eyed, stingy, rich, and foreign.
Discrimination against Indonesians of Chinese descent even continued under the forced
assimilation regulations of the New Order until the 1998 tragedy with Chinese victims,
including the rape of Chinese women.

Still, in Indonesia, ethnic Papuans are a Melanesian race that only makes up 0.1 percent
of Indonesia's 250 million population, so ethnic Papuans most often experience
discrimination in various aspects of life, both social, economic, political, legal, and
human rights. The domination of the Malay race in Indonesia causes Malay people with
light brown skin to see Melanesian people with dark skin and curly hair as the lowest,
stupidest, and most left behind aspects of modernization progress. As a result of feeling
more dominant and intelligent, the Malay race continues to pressure the Melanesian race
politically, economically, legally, and governmentally.

By the ethnic group most frequently targeted by racism in Indonesia is the Papuan ethnic
group. Racial discrimination against Papuan ethnic groups continues throughout the
year. Since the seizure of the Papua region into Indonesia until now in 1963 until now.
This racial view continues to grow and develop in a structured manner so that
discrimination in daily interactions between the Malay race and the Melanesian Papuan
race is very clearly visible.