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Rohingya Refugee
Crisis in Myanmar
Ethnic Conflict and
Resolution
Edited by
k u dr e t bü l bü l
m d. n a z m u l i sl a m
m d. s a j i d k h a n
Rohingya Refugee Crisis in Myanmar
Kudret Bülbül • Md. Nazmul Islam
Md. Sajid Khan
Editors
Rohingya Refugee
Crisis in Myanmar
Ethnic Conflict and Resolution
Editors
Kudret Bülbül Md. Nazmul Islam
The Presidency of Foreign Relations Department of Political Science and
and Protocol, The Grand National Public Administration
Assembly of Turkey (TBMM) Ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt University
Ankara, Turkey Ankara, Turkey
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to
the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore
189721, Singapore
To our parents and Rohingyas around the World
Preface
The recent coup in Myanmar and the detention of the democratic leaders
is what makes our book more relevant and timelier. The things unfolding
in Myanmar have surprised the whole world with its latest military coup
and a subsequent emergency declaration in 2021. This edited book dis-
cusses the current crisis of ethnic Rohingyas in Myanmar from their his-
tory, policy and politics and, most importantly, focusing on Rohingya
ethnic conflict and resolution, whereas China, India, other international
actors and big power’s role has been described to understand the policy
challenges and current situations in resolving the Rohingya crisis.
The book covers global politics as well as regional responses to
Myanmar’s Rohingya crisis, focusing more on the regional policies and
politics of South and Southeast Asia, including China, India, Bangladesh
and Myanmar. Also, it evaluates whether actual activities of repatriation
agreement are holding official priorities of Bangladesh and Myanmar gov-
ernment. Moreover, this book discloses whether regional countries such as
India and China are interested in the Rakhine State of Myanmar to resolve
this humanitarian vulnerability beyond their foreign policy. Eventually,
this book offers an account of a previously little known, yet much-
discussed, role of media from Bangladesh and India and international
actors, including Western and Turkish approach, INGOs and NGOs con-
tributions, Myanmar government’s policy and politics and Bangladesh’s
response towards Rohingya with the detailed discussion on Rohingya
challenges in Bangladesh, whether and how Rohingya case could be veri-
fied under international law, human trafficking in particular reference to
Rohingya, and finally identity and humanitarian-based resolution with
vii
viii PREFACE
special stories, experiences from the top activists and leaders from the
Rohingya diaspora. Readers will discover an entirely new perspective on
the integration and future of Rohingya refugees in the post-Rohingya
influx era of Bangladesh. It also examines the neighbouring nations’ cur-
rent policies and challenges in dealing with the region’s ongoing refugee
movements. Considering the economic as well as the political significance
of Myanmar, it will give a brief discussion from West to East overview of
the Rohingya crisis beyond refugees.
This edited book focuses on the Rohingya refugee crisis beyond history
and politics within the 16 chapters’ framework. This book is based on
primary and secondary research, largely drawn from literature, descriptive,
fact-finding and fieldwork data. This book is contributed by prominent
scholars and academicians who are very well known in the field of politics,
refugees, migrations, media, international law and Rohingya crisis.
Nevertheless, this book contains 16 chapters under two specific thematic
areas such as policy and politics of Rohingya crisis beyond the refugees and
Rohingya ethnic conflict and resolution, but in the analytical section, the
book emerged as several thematic, theoretical and experimental
discussions.
The first chapter, “Pre-historical Identity of Rohingya: Exploring Islam
and the Historical Identity of the Muslim Kingdom in Arakan” by Ali
Dadan and Abdur Rahman Fuad, assesses how Islam came into the Arakan
and its internal diffusion process. The authors explained some key assets of
Muslim development and how it progresses in Arakan that predominantly
reflected the glorious period of Arakanese Muslims. At the outset, Dadan
and Fuad emphasise the pre-Islamic history of Arakan, generally, about
the first Arakanese kingdom, founded in B.C. 2666.
Nebile Pelin Mantı and Dilara Nur Cansu Islam identify the three legal
themes, including genocide, forced migration and forced labour, whether
the Myanmar government and its security forces act against Rohingya eth-
nic in Rakhine state qualifying any breach under international law, in
Chap. 2, “Genocide, Forced Migration, and Forced Labour: A Case Study
on Rohingya People Under International Law”. In this case, the authors
analysed the “elements of genocide” in the theoretical frame with contex-
tual evidence from international organisations’ reports, think tanks and
newspapers. The theoretical frame consists of the previous decisions given
by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia,
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, International Criminal Court
and International Court of Justice.
PREFACE ix
of the Rohingya crisis and responses from Western countries where they
illustrate how Western countries could channel their efforts through
ASEAN to contain and moderate violence against the Rohingyas.
In Chap. 14, “INGOs and NGOs Strategies for Social Cohesion: The
Case of Rohingya Refugees in Bangladesh”, Aghna Shujat, Md. Sajid
Khan and Md. Nazmul Islam explain non-governmental organisations’
strategies for social cohesion of Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. To
achieve a better understanding of INGOs’ and NGOs’ strategic policies
towards Rohingya refugees, the authors focus on systematic literature
review on social cohesion. Considering social cohesion as a multidimen-
sional concept, the authors analyse INGOs’ and NGOs’ work and activi-
ties towards Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh.
In Chap. 15, “Identity and Humanitarian Based Approach: Resolution
and Resolving the Rohingya Refugee Crisis”, Sanjida Parveen and
Mehebub Sahana examine the relationship between forced migration,
resultant identity crises and humanitarian solution for Rohingya crisis. In
this chapter, the authors argued why Rohingya had been deprived of their
identities of being not just Muslims but human beings. Authors clarify a
historical demographic assessment of Rohingya through the relation of
the nation-state and its borders, their exclusions and the magnitude of ill-
treatment due to migration to neighbouring countries.
The final chapter, “Looking Past, Moving Future: Stories from the
Spectacle of Rohingyas”, is an editorial desk-based analysis, which explores
the problems and difficulties that Rohingya refugees are facing in their
host country. Editors employed this chapter as thematic analysis, which
aimed to find out the Rohingya’s current problems and regional and inter-
national responses with the short and long-term solutions of Rohingya
ethnic conflict and resolution, where editors identified the future of
Rohingya people and Rohingya refugees in around the world. Editors
used semi-structured interviews to get reliable data, where Rohingya lead-
ers and activists were taken as a purposive sample for proceeding with
this study.
This is a study of the Rohingya historical, political, ethnic and policy
crises, from South Asia to Southeast Asia and from regional politics to
PREFACE xiii
Indeed, writing a book project such as this when the world is trying to
recover from the deadly global pandemic is undoubtedly a challenging and
difficult task. It took active engagements and persistent efforts from many
institutes and individuals to make this book project possible. The unique
idea for this project came from discussions between the editors, which
started in the late 2017s. Islam’s work on “Questioning the Rohingya
Ethnic Minority Beyond the Foreign Policy of Bangladesh and Myanmar”
presented as a paper on Rohingya at Kartepe Summit in 2018, organised
by Kocaeli Municipality in Turkey led him to realise the striking lack of fit
between his subject areas and the possible conflict resolution for Rohingya
refugee crisis in Myanmar. Bülbül’s regular engagements with academia
and civil society organisations and voluntary activities for Rohingya left
him with the impression that there was slight if any original development
of academic works on Rohingya. Besides, his collaborative work with dif-
ferent bureaucratic and academic environments in Turkey underlined to
him the dependence of much humanitarian and academic role for Rohingya
people in Myanmar. Khan’s consistent academic role in refugee and migra-
tion studies left him with the idea that there was little academic discussion
on the Rohingya refugee crisis from the regional perspective.
We are indebted to all those individuals and institutions providing intel-
lectual stimulation and practical support for completing this book project.
First and foremost, we wish to show our sincere gratitude and respect to
our parents and other family members who were our backbone during
these challenging times. In this tiring journey, our family had always
encouraged us and walked along with us to make our long-standing dream
xv
xvi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
come true. Our deepest appreciation and gratitude to all talented and col-
laborative authors for their timely submission at this difficult time.
Certainly, each contributor deserves our heartfelt gratitude and apprecia-
tion for their invaluable inputs and suggestions during the whole book
publication process.
We would like to thank the Library authority of T.C. Cumhurbaşkanlığı
Millet Kütüphanesi, Ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt University, Saarland
University, Greifswald University, Trento University, European Court of
Human Rights (ECHR), Hacettepe University, Ankara University,
Istanbul University, Aligarh Muslim University, Jawaharlal Nehru
University, University of Dhaka and University of Chittagong for allowing
us to work on this book project during the last five years and want to thank
several student research assistants at Ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt University,
who have participated in this project at various stages. We would also like
to thank various authorities and institutions such as Presidency for Turks
Abroad and Related Communities (YTB) and Ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt
University Migration Application and Research Center (AYBUMPC) for
giving us a platform for continuing our research. The editorial team at
Palgrave Macmillan deserves special appreciation, especially; thanks are
also due to Sandeep Kaur, Tikoji Rao Mega Rao and Susan Westendorf,
our editor and project coordinator at Palgrave Macmillan, whose efforts
have contributed to the timely publication of the book.
We also extend our deep gratitude to all the people who readily agreed
to become responsive to our study, especially to the current and former
Myanmar and Rohingya leaders, activists, researchers and organisations
for providing us with valuable information regarding the past, present and
future of Rohingya. We are highly indebted for their cooperation and as
participants in this book project. In addition, we would like to acknowl-
edge and thank all our friends and well-wishers who have directly or indi-
rectly helped us in the study as well as in other work.
xvii
xviii Contents
Index413
Notes on Contributors
Editors
Kudret Bülbül graduated from Faculty of Political Sciences, Istanbul
University, in 1991. He holds a master’s degree from the same university
for his study titled “Prince Said Halim Pasha as a Political Thinker”. He
holds a PhD (2004) with the thesis titled “Globalization, Culture, and
Politics: Globalisation Approaches in Turkish Intellectual and Political
Life” from the Department of Political Science at Ankara University. He
became associate professor in 2007. In 1995, Bülbül stayed in London for
academic and research purposes and was a visiting scholar at The University
of Kansas, USA, between 2000 and 2002. He worked at Kırıkkale
University and Ankara University between 1993 and 2010.
Bülbül held various positions in the bureaucracy between 2010 and
2017. He served as Deputy Undersecretary for the Undersecretariat of
Public Order and Security for nearly four years and Acting Undersecretary
for a period. He was a President of Presidency for Turks Abroad and
Related Communities under Prime Ministry (YTB) for nearly three years
and Counsellor for Turkish Prime Ministry for a short period. He is a
professor of Political Science at Ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt University. At the
same time, He has been serving as a Head of Foreign Relations and
Protocol Department of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (TBMM).
Bülbül wrote weekly articles translated into 35 languages for Turkish Radio
and Television Corporation (TRT) nearly for two years and made weekly
programmes for TRT Radio Voice of Turkey in 2018 and 2019. Taking an
active role in many non-governmental organisations and think tanks
xxi
xxii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
Title: Paita
Translator: L. Onerva
Language: Finnish
Kirj.
Anatole France
L. Onerva
SISÄLLYS:
1. Kuningas Kristoffer, hänen hallituksensa, tapansa ja
sairautensa.
2. Tohtori Rodrigon parannuskeino.
3. Herrat Nelilehti ja Pyhä-Sylvanus etsivät onnellista miestä
kuninkaan palatsista.
4. Hieronymus.
5. Kuninkaallinen kirjasto.
6. Volmarin herttua.
7. Rikkauden suhde onneen.
8. Pääkaupungin salongit.
9. Onni olla rakastettu.
10. Onko onni siinä, että olemassaolon-tunto lakkaa.
11. Sigismundus Dux.
12. Onko pahekin avu.
13. Kirkkoherra Puolikinnas.
14. Onnellinen ihminen.
Anatole France