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EMERGING CYBER THREATS
AND COGNITIVE
VULNERABILITIES
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EMERGING CYBER
THREATS AND
COGNITIVE
VULNERABILITIES
Edited by
VLADLENA BENSON
University of West London, London, United Kingdom
JOHN MCALANEY
Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole Dorset, United Kingdom
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright
by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional
practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety
and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-12-816203-3
Contributors ix
Preface xi
Introduction 1
Features of cyber victimization 5
Factors leading to cyber victimization 11
Conclusion 17
References 18
Introduction 28
Terrorism 29
Cyberterrorism 32
Motivation 34
Advantage 35
Effects 35
Practices 37
Target 37
Query 1: If there is a cyberattack should it be labelled as cyberterrorism? 39
Query 2: What is the difference between cyberterrorism and hacktivism? 40
Query 3: Can I become a victim of cyberterrorism (Are cyberterrorists out to
target me personally?) 41
Query 4: When terrorists groups use cyberspace to communicate, recruit or
publicize their vision, mission and activities in a digital domain, can this be
considered cyberterrorism? 42
Query 5: Do cyberterrorists aim to steal money? 42
Convergence of physical and digital worlds 44
Composition of an attack 46
Fear 47
Myth or reality? 48
Conclusion 49
References 50
v
vi Contents
Introduction 54
Synthesis from ‘RuNet’ through the ‘Russian segment of the Internet’ to the
‘unified information space’ 55
Sociocultural approach to the Russian sense of information security 57
Fear-based template for the isolation rhetoric 59
Celebrating and awarding the ‘Russian way’ of doing things 60
Cleaning together for safer information environment and creating a ‘psychological
firewall’ 63
‘Russian segment of the Internet’ e a state-controlled project for protecting
information security 66
Controlled digital harmony 68
References 68
Introduction 74
Factors influencing perceptions of risk and reactions to risk 75
Understanding public reactions to malicious cyber incidents 82
Case studies of cyberattacks 85
Conclusions 89
References 89
Further reading 92
Introduction 94
Cybersecurity 94
Information privacy 97
Behaviour 100
Religiosity 103
The study 104
Conclusion 111
References 111
Contents vii
Introduction 118
Theoretical concept: defensive realism and cooperation in the cyberspace 119
The United States, China and Russia’s strategic posturing in cyberspace 125
Cyberspace capabilities and the offenceedefense balances of the
United States, China and Russia 132
The United States, China and Russia’s communications regarding
cooperation and confrontation in cyberspace 135
Conclusion 139
References 140
Further reading 143
Introduction 146
The problem of investigating cybercrime 147
Research methodology 150
Results and discussion 152
Techniques 152
Legislation 154
Policy/strategy 157
Best practice/training 158
Summary, conclusions, and future work 160
References 160
Further reading 162
Introduction 164
The role of information and communication technologies on performance and
internationalization activities of SMEs 165
SME security challenges and cybercrime risks associated with the use
of information and communication technologies 166
The costs of cybercrime to firms’ financial performance and reputation 168
Conclusions and future directions for research 169
References 170
viii Contents
Introduction 176
Military influence operations 177
Cyber personalities as a target audience 181
Cyber personalities in adaptive target audiences 188
Conclusion 191
Discussion 192
References 194
Introduction 198
Legislation concerning privacy issues 199
Central concepts 202
Management of situational awareness in Finland 209
Tracking in the everyday life of citizens 213
Research method and process 215
Findings 216
Discussion 220
Conclusions 221
References 223
Index 227
Contributors
ix
x Contributors
xi
xii Preface
1
Factors leading to cyber
victimization
Peter J.R. Macaulay1,2, Oonagh L. Steer2,
Lucy R. Betts2
1
Staffordshire University, Stoke-on-Trent, United Kingdom; 2 Nottingham
Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom
O U T L I N E
Introduction 1
Features of cyber victimization 5
Efficiency of information and communication technologies 5
Anonymity 6
Bystanders 8
The bully-victim role 9
Factors leading to cyber victimization 11
Conclusion 17
References 18
Introduction
amongst young people (Ofcom, 2016). While the Internet affords many
social and recreational benefits, it also offers numerous positive impli-
cations across a variety of industry sectors (Finkelhor, 2014). Despite this,
the increased access to online communication can increase vulnerability
to a variety of online risks including harassment, cyberbullying and other
cyberthreats on privacy or online data (Livingstone, Haddon, Görzig, &
Ólafsson, 2011). Although experiences online including pornography,
contact with strangers, sharing personal information, exchanging explicit
personal photographs (i.e. sexting) and hacking may not lead to harm,
their existence could increase the probability of harm. While experience
with these cyberthreats can lead to negative experiences and adverse
consequences, not all result in actual harm (Livingstone & Smith, 2014).
Livingstone and Smith (2014) outlined different categories of online risks,
including content, contact and conduct risks. Content risks involve the user
being the recipient of age-inappropriate content, for example, young
users accessing pornography. Contact risks are where the user is the
recipient of an initiated online communication from another individual,
where they intend to bully, groom or manipulate the targeted user.
Conduct risks consider the digital footprint and the online behaviour of the
user as part of a larger network of interactions (Livingstone & Smith, 2014;
Smith & Livingstone, 2017). These risks and threats result in cyber
victimization in the virtual community. ‘Cyber victimization’ has been
used broadly (Law, Shapka, & Olson, 2010) to define other cyberattacks
including cyber aggression, cyber bullying and cyber threats, while others
use ‘online harassment’ to define online attacks (Hinduja & Patchin,
2010). This chapter will discuss cyber victimization across perspectives of
cyber aggression, cyberbullying and cyber threats and crimes.
Aggression is defined as any behaviour that involves intent to cause
harm to the targeted individual (Baron & Richardson, 1994). While
aggression has predominantly been a concern in the offline environment,
the development of digital technologies has seen the rise of aggressive
acts in the virtual community. While there are many forms of cyber
aggressive acts or threats, cyberbullying is more specifically refined
through a set of recognized criteria. Cyberbullying is defined as ‘an
aggressive intentional act carried out by a group or individual, using
electronic forms of contact, repeatedly and over time against a victim
who cannot easily defend him or herself’ (Smith et al., 2008, p. 376). Like
bullying in the offline environment, cyberbullying consists of three
distinct criteria: intent to cause harm, repetition and an imbalance of
power, which makes the victim feel defenceless (Olweus, 1993; Smith
et al., 2008; Vandebosch & Van Cleemput, 2008). Despite this, definitional
issues arise with applying repetition and power imbalance in the online
environment. While bullying in the real world can be identified as an
ongoing incident, with the imbalance of power portrayed through
Introduction 3