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 g.r.berridge

DIPLO M A CY
theory and practice
 Diplomacy

“Probably the most prolific contemporary writer on diplomacy is Professor Geoff

R. Berridge. Each of his many books is impeccably well written and full of insights
into the fascinating formation of modern diplomacy.”
—Robert William Dry, New York University, USA, and Chairman of AFSA’s
Committee on the Foreign Service Profession and Ethics

“I discovered Geoff Berridge’s book on diplomacy after serving as a diplomat for over
30 years. It is well-researched, sophisticated, inspiring and, where the subject invites
it, suitably ironic. I used the 4th edition with my students and will now continue
working with the 5th edition.”
—Dr Max Schweizer, Head Foreign Affairs and Applied Diplomacy, ZHAW School of
Management and Law, Switzerland

“Berridge’s Diplomacy is an enlightening journey that takes the student, the practitio-
ner and the general reader from the front to the backstage of current diplomatic
practice. The thoroughly updated and expanded text—also enriched with a stimulat-
ing new treatment of embassies—is an invaluable guide to the stratagems and out-
comes, continuities and innovations, of a centuries’ long process.”
—Arianna Arisi Rota, Professor of History of Diplomacy at the University of
Pavia, Italy

“This is an excellent text-book which fills a gap in the current writing on diplomacy.”
—Lord Wright of Richmond, Permanent Under-Secretary of State at the Foreign
Office (UK), 1986–91

“This book remains the best introduction to the subject.”

—Alan Henrikson, Director of Diplomatic Studies, The Fletcher School of Law and
Diplomacy, USA

“Berridge is the leading authority on contemporary diplomatic practice.”

—Laurence E. Pope, former US ambassador and senior official at the Department
of State

“Berridge’s study of diplomacy is the standard text on the subject—succinct yet sub-
stantial in content, lucid in style.”
—John W. Young, Professor of International History, University of Nottingham, UK
 G. R. Berridge

Diplomacy
Theory and Practice
G. R. Berridge
Politics and International Relations
University of Leicester
Leicester, UK
DiploFoundation
Geneva, Switzerland

ISBN 978-3-030-85930-5    ISBN 978-3-030-85931-2 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-85931-2

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the
whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does
not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective
laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or
omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: The front cover shows a meeting in Geneva in 2016 of the World Health Assembly, the main
decision-making body of the World Health Organization. Credit: Xinhua / Alamy Stock Photo.

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Also by G. R. Berridge
BRITISH DIPLOMACY IN TURKEY, 1583 TO THE PRESENT: A Study in the
Evolution of the Resident Embassy
BRITISH HEADS OF MISSION AT CONSTANTINOPLE, 1583–1922
THE COUNTER-REVOLUTION IN DIPLOMACY and Other Essays
DIPLOMACY AND SECRET SERVICE: A Short Introduction
DIPLOMACY AT THE UN (co-editor with A. Jennings)
THE DIPLOMACY OF ANCIENT GREECE: A Short Introduction
DIPLOMATIC CLASSICS: Selected Texts from Commynes to Vattel
DIPLOMATIC THEORY FROM MACHIAVELLI TO KISSINGER (with
Maurice Keens-Soper, and T. G. Otte)
A DIPLOMATIC WHISTLEBLOWER IN THE VICTORIAN ERA: The Life
and Writings of E. C. Grenville-Murray
ECONOMIC POWER IN ANGLO-SOUTH AFRICAN DIPLOMACY:
Simonstown, Sharpeville and After
EMBASSIES IN ARMED CONFLICT
GERALD FITZMAURICE (1865–1939), CHIEF DRAGOMAN OF THE
BRITISH EMBASSY IN TURKEY
INTERNATIONAL POLITICS: States, Power and Conflict since 1945,
Third Edition
AN INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS (with D. Heater)
THE PALGRAVE MACMILLAN DICTIONARY OF DIPLOMACY: Third
Edition (with Lorna Lloyd)
THE POLITICS OF THE SOUTH AFRICA RUN: European Shipping and
Pretoria
RETURN TO THE UN: UN Diplomacy in Regional Conflicts
SOUTH AFRICA, THE COLONIAL POWERS AND ‘AFRICAN DEFENCE’:
The Rise and Fall of the White Entente, 1948–60
TALKING TO THE ENEMY: How States without ‘Diplomatic Relations’
Communicate
TILKIDOM AND THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE: The Letters of Gerald
Fitzmaurice to George Lloyd
For Jack Spence
 Preface and Acknowledgments

This edition of Diplomacy: Theory and Practice has been updated throughout
and—despite the excision of some long passages that I concluded were either
out of place or no longer important—considerably expanded. With the
Covid-19 pandemic in mind and because I had ignored it in previous edi-
tions, health diplomacy finds a major place for illustrative purposes. Among
other subjects new to this edition are capacity-building in following up,
embassy branch offices, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change,
interpreters at summits, and—unavoidably—the diplomatic implications of
former US President Donald J. Trump. Subjects covered in the previous edi-
tion but to which increased attention is given in this one include the use of
embassies for transnational repression, video-conferencing, Twitter, intelli-
gence officers on special missions, and the variation in representative offices
by degree of diplomatic status.
An innovation to which I must give special notice is the addition at the end
of each chapter of a list of ‘Topics for seminar discussion or essays’. This draws
not only on my teaching career but also on my long experience of vetting
draft exam questions while an external examiner at five British universities. A
good question should be short and clear—and provoke thought, which is
therefore what I have tried to achieve on these lists. A few cautions: first, very
few of these questions can be answered well by reliance on this book alone,
hence the ‘Further reading’; second, some questions overlap, which does not
matter unless they are used by a lecturer setting an exam; and third, most lists
feature a comparative question (e.g., ‘Compare the roles of Austria and

ix
x Preface and Acknowledgments

Switzerland in conflict resolution’ in the chapter on mediation), for advice on

answering which, as well as on other points, see ‘7 common pitfalls to avoid
in writing essays and dissertations’ on my website.
In order to give better guidance on further reading at the end of each chap-
ter, here and there I have annotated the works listed. Other things being
equal, I have also given preference to sources freely available on the Internet.
As in earlier editions, I have avoided providing URLs for such sources, partly
because they are often so long, partly because they tend to change or disap-
pear, and partly because it is usually easy enough to find a web resource via a
search engine; I simply add ‘[www]’ to a reference available on the Internet at
the time of writing, although a few might be behind paywalls.
I do not believe that footnotes or endnotes are appropriate for a textbook.
However, sources for quotations must be provided and I do this by means of
in-text citations of full references to be found at the end of the book. Also,
where a box relies chiefly on primary sources I provide these at the foot of the
box itself.
The sources for unreferenced recent events are usually serious news agencies
such as Reuters, news websites such as Politico, and online versions of newspa-
pers such as The Guardian (which has no paywall). For many points in the
text, the sources are my own earlier writings or works listed in ‘Further read-
ing’ that should be fairly obvious. Works listed in ‘References’ at the end of
the book include all those cited in the text, together with the more important
among those on which I have drawn that are not listed in ‘Further reading’. In
providing book titles, it is an idiosyncrasy of mine that I put the name of the
publisher before place of publication, because I find this intuitive and because
publishers have been doing the same thing on the title pages of their own
books for well over half a century. (Students beware! You will probably incur
the wrath of your tutors if you follow my example.)
As usual, I have prepared the Index myself. Due to production difficulties
and space limitations, it is much shorter than before and I have concentrated
the entries on diplomatic activity, procedures and institutions at the expense
of countries and—with notable exceptions—persons. I believe the Index is
not seriously the worse for its relative brevity.
For valuable observations on parts of the text of this edition, I am grateful
to Christiaan Sys, Petru Dumitriu, John W. Young, Keith Hamilton, and my
daughter Willow Berridge. For sharing with me raw data from her research on
health attachés, I am in debt to Sabrina Luh. I must also mention Jelena
 Preface and Acknowledgments xi

Jakovljevic, who has for many years expertly managed my website, on which
the book is updated. Finally, I wish to thank most warmly the two anony-
mous readers of my proposal for this edition for giving me valuable ideas that
have shaped the final draft and Anne-Kathrin Birchley-Brun of the publisher
for her patient and prompt support throughout. The responsibility for all
remaining deficiencies is mine alone.

Leicester, UK G. R. Berridge

May 2021
 Online Updating

For each chapter in the book there is a corresponding page on my website,

which is hosted by DiploFoundation. These pages contain further reflections,
any corrections needed, and details of recent developments. Among other
things, the website also has pages on ideas for dissertation and thesis topics,
primary sources for study, recommended reading, and advice on essay and
dissertation writing. Please visit http://grberridge.diplomacy.edu/ Links to
other sites/organizations made to the content of this book by the publisher do
not necessarily reflect the views of the author.

xiii
 Contents

1 The Foreign Ministry  1

Staffing and Supporting Missions Abroad    5
Policy-Making and Implementation   6
Coordination of Foreign Relations   12
Dealing with Foreign Diplomats at Home   15
Building Support at Home   16
Summary  17
Further Reading  17

Part I The Art of Negotiation  21

2 Prenegotiations 23
Agreeing the Need to Negotiate   24
Agreeing the Agenda   27
Agreeing Procedure  29
Secrecy  30
Format  30
Venue  33
Delegations  36
Timing  38
Summary  39
Further Reading  39

3 ‘Around-the-Table’ Negotiations 41
The Formula Stage   41
The Details Stage   45

xv
xvi Contents

Difficulties  46
Negotiating Strategies  47
Summary  50
Further Reading  50

4 Diplomatic Momentum 53
Deadlines  55
Self-imposed Deadlines  55
External Deadlines  56
Symbolic Deadlines  58
Overlapping Deadlines  59
Metaphors of Movement   60
Publicity  63
Raising the Level of the Talks   65
Summary  66
Further Reading  67

5 Packaging Agreements 69
International Legal Obligations at a Premium   70
Signaling Importance at a Premium   71
Convenience at a Premium   73
Saving Face at a Premium   74
Both Languages, or More   75
Small Print  76
Euphemisms  78
‘Separate but Related’ Agreements   79
Summary  80
Further Reading  81

6 Following Up 83
Early Methods  84
Monitoring  87
Review Meetings  90
Capacity-Building  94
Summary  95
Further Reading  95
 Contents xvii

Part II Diplomacy with Diplomatic Relations  99

7 Embassies101
The Normal Embassy  105
The Fortress Embassy  115
The Mini-Embassy  118
The Militarized Embassy  119
Summary 121
Further Reading  122

8 Telecommunications125
Telephone Diplomacy Flourishes  126
Video-Conferencing Peaks  133
Summary 137
Further Reading  138

9 Consulates141
Consular Functions  146
Career Consuls  149
Honorary Consuls  152
Consular Sections  154
Summary 155
Further Reading  155

10 Secret Intelligence159
Ambassadors as Agent-Runners  160
Service Attachés  161
Intelligence Officers  163
Cuckoos in the Nest?  169
Summary 175
Further Reading  176

11 Conferences179
International Organizations  181
Procedure 183
Venue 183
Participation 184
Agenda 189
Public Debate and Private Discussion  190
Decision-Making 191
xviii Contents

The ‘New Multilateralism’  195

Summary 196
Further Reading  197

12 Summits199
Professional Anathemas  200
General Case for the Defense  203
Serial Summits  204
Ad hoc Summits  206
The High-Level Exchange of Views  208
Secrets of Success  209
Summary 212
Further Reading  213

13 Public Diplomacy215
Rebranding Propaganda  215
The Importance of Public Diplomacy  217
The Role of the Foreign Ministry  219
The Role of the Embassy  222
Summary 225
Further Reading  226

Part III Diplomacy Without Diplomatic Relations 229

14 Embassy Substitutes231
Interests Sections  231
Consulates 236
Representative Offices  238
Front Missions  242
Summary 243
Further Reading  244

15 Special Missions247
The Advantages of Special Missions  247
The Variety of Special Missions  249
Unofficial Envoys  249
Official Envoys  251
To Go Secretly or Openly?  255
Summary 257
Further Reading  258
 Contents xix

16 Mediation261
The Nature of Mediation  262
Different Mediators and Different Motives  264
Track One  264
Track Two  267
Multiparty Mediation  268
The Ideal Mediator  270
The Ripe Moment  273
Summary 274
Further Reading  275

Conclusion: The Counter-revolution in Diplomatic Practice277

References281

Index295
 Abbreviations

AU African Union [formerly Organization of African Unity]

BCE Before the Common Era [aka ‘BC’]
CGTN China Global Television Network
CHOGM Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting
COP Conference of the Parties [as in COP21, the twenty-first conference of
the parties to the UNFCCC]
CSCE Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe
CSO Civil Society Organizations
DFAT Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade
EU European Union
FAC Foreign Affairs Committee [British House of Commons]
FAO UN Food and Agriculture Organization
FAOHC The Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection of the [US] Association
for Diplomatic Studies and Training
FARA Foreign Agents Registration Act [US]
FCO Foreign and Commonwealth Office
FCDO Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office
FRUS Foreign Relations of the United States
FOIA Freedom of Information Act
G7 Group of Seven
G20 Group of 20
GAVI Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization
GCHQ Government Communications Headquarters [British]
GRU Glavnoye Razvedyvatelnoye Upravleniye [Russian—formerly Soviet—
military intelligence]
HHS Health and Human Services, US Department
Humint human intelligence-gathering

xxi
xxii Abbreviations

IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency

ICJ International Court of Justice
ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross
ILC International Law Commission
IMF International Monetary Fund
ISC Intelligence and Security Committee [British]
JCPOA Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action [for Iran’s nuclear program]
KGB Komitet Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosti [Committee for State
Security]
KRG Kurdish Regional Government
MIRV multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicle
MOU memorandum of understanding
MSF Médecins sans Frontières [Doctors without Borders]
NGO non-governmental organization
NPT Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
NSA National Security Agency [US]
OAS Organization of American States
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
OHCHR Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, UN
OIG Office of Inspector General [US Department of State]
OSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
P5 Permanent 5 [on the UN Security Council: Britain, France, PRC,
Russia, United States]
P5+1 P5 plus Germany
PCO Passport Control Officer
PLO Palestine Liberation Organization
PNA Palestinian National Authority
PNGed declared persona non grata—no longer welcome
PRC People’s Republic of China
QDDR Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review [US]
SALT I Strategic Arms Limitations Talks [first negotiations, 1969–72]
S&T Science and Technology
Sigint Signals intelligence
SIS Secret Intelligence Service [British; also known as MI6]
SVR Sluzhba Vneshney Razvedki [successor to the KGB—Russian
External Intelligence Service]
TECRO Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office
TPO trade promotion organization
UNESCO UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNFCCC UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNICEF UN Children’s Fund, formerly UN International Children’s
Emergency Fund
 Abbreviations xxiii

UNMOVIC UN Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission

UNSCOM UN Special Commission [on Iraq]
USIA United States Information Agency
USINT US Interests Section Cuba
USIP United States Institute of Peace
VCCR Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (1963)
VCDR Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961)
WMD weapons of mass destruction
WHO World Health Organization
WTO World Trade Organization [formerly General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade]
 List of Boxes

Box 1.1 ‘Department of Foreign Affairs’ to ‘Department of State’ 2

Box 1.2 Communications with Embassies 3
Box 1.3 Foreign Ministries: Formal Titles Making a Point, and Some
Metonyms4
Box 1.4 Crisis Management 7
Box 1.5 Should the Foreign Ministry Control Development Aid? 14
Box 2.1 The Geneva Conference Format for Middle East Peace
Negotiations32
Box 3.1 Formula for an Anglo–Turkish Alliance, 12 May 1939 42
Box 3.2 Nuclear Talks with Iran: The Details Stage 45
Box 3.3 The Cost of Making Major Concessions Too Early 49
Box 4.1 The Non-paper 54
Box 4.2 The Chinese ‘Deadline’ on Hong Kong 56
Box 4.3 The Good Friday Agreement, 1998 59
Box 5.1 Treaty Registration with the UN 71
Box 5.2 The ‘Treaty’ So-called 72
Box 5.3 A Peace Treaty in the Wrong Language 75
Box 6.1 Thai Tribute to the People’s Republic of China 85
Box 6.2 Special Group on Visits to Presidential Sites: Iraq, 26 March–2
April 1998 88
Box 6.3 The International Commission 91
Box 7.1 Locally Engaged Staff and Diplomatic Immunity 106
Box 7.2 Embassy Branch Offices 107
Box 7.3 The Economic and/or Commercial Section 107
Box 7.4 The Health Attaché 108
Box 7.5 Embassies and Transnational Repression 114
Box 8.1 The White House–10 Downing Street Hotline 126
Box 8.2 The Reagan–Assad Telephone Call 130

xxv
xxvi List of Boxes

Box 9.1 The Main Differences Between Diplomatic and Consular

Privileges and Immunities 145
Box 9.2 European Convention on Consular Functions (1967) 146
Box 9.3 Disgusted in Ibiza 148
Box 9.4 Consular Districts 151
Box 10.1 The British Secret Intelligence Service (SIS) 164
Box 10.2 SIS and Passport Control Officer Cover 164
Box 10.3 British Consulate-General Hanoi During the Vietnam War 166
Box 10.4 Sigint Bases in Soviet Diplomatic and Consular Posts in the
Cold War 168
Box 10.5 The State–CIA ‘Treaty of Friendship’, 1977 170
Box 10.6 The Raymond Davis Affair, Pakistan 2011 171
Box 10.7 The Five Eyes’ Alliance 174
Box 11.1 The International Sanitary Conferences, 1851–1938 180
Box 11.2 GAVI, the Vaccine Alliance 186
Box 11.3 The UN Security Council: Question of Reform 188
Box 11.4 Inflated ‘Delegations’ to the World Health Assembly, 2019 194
Box 12.1 Philippe de Commynes 201
Box 12.2 The Funeral Summit 207
Box 12.3 The Role of the Interpreter 211
Box 13.1 Twitter 218
Box 13.2 ‘News Management’: Correcting Foreign Diplomatic
Correspondents220
Box 14.1 Protecting Powers and the VCDR (1961) 232
Box 14.2 Protecting Powers: When the Old System Lingers 233
Box 14.3 Diplomatic Acts and the VCCR (1963) 237
Box 14.4 The Consulates in Jerusalem 238
Box 14.5 The US/PRC Liaison Offices, 1973–1979 239
Box 15.1 The New York Convention on Special Missions (1969) 248
Box 15.2 About Lord Levy: Tony Blair’s Personal Envoy to the Middle
East and Latin America 249
Box 15.3 James Clapper’s Secret Mission to North Korea, November 2014 254
Box 16.1 Good Offices, Conciliation, and Arbitration 262
Box 16.2 Dr Bruno Kreisky 266
Box 16.3 Armand Hammer: Citizen-Diplomat 268
Box 16.4 Action Group for Syria 269
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Claudio Merulo (1533–1604) (Madrigal Play)

Vincenzo Galilei (1533–1591)
Giulio Caccini (1546–1618)
Emilio del Cavalieri (1550–1602)
Jacopo Perti (1561–1633)
Claudio Monteverde (1567–1643)
Francesco Manelli (1595–1670)
Benedetto Ferrari (1597–1681)
Francesco Cavalli (1602–1676)
Giacomo Carissimi (1604–1674)
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Giovanni Legrenzi (1625–1690)
Domenico Gabrieli (1640–1690)
Alessandro Stradella (1645–1681)
Alessandro Scarlatti (1659–1725)
Jacopo Antonio Perti (1661–1756)
Attilio Ariosti (1666–1740)
Antonio Lotti (1667–1740)
Giuseppe Porsile (1672–1750)
Marc Antonio Buononcini (1675?–1726)
Antonio Caldara (1678?–1736)
Niccolo Antonio Porpora (1686–1766)
Leonardo Vinci (1690–1730)
Leonardo Leo (1694–1744)
Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (1710–1736)
Nicola Jommelli (1714–1774)
Nicolo Piccinni (1728–1800)
Giuseppe Sarti (1729–1802)
Antonio Sacchini (1734–1786)
Giovanni Paisiello (1741–1816)
Domenico Cimarosa (1749–1801)
Antonio Salieri (1750–1825)
Niccolo Vaccai (1790–1848)
Gioachino Antonio Rossini (1792–1868)
G. Saverio Mercadante (1795–1870)
Giovanni Pacini (1796–1867)
Gaetano Donizetti (1797–1848)
Vincenzo Bellini (1801–1835)
Errico Petrella (1813–1877)
Giuseppe Verdi (1813–1901)
Carlo Perdrotti (1817–1893)
Alberto Randegger (1833–1911)
Amilcare Ponchielli (1834–1886)
Filippo Marchetti (1835–1902)
Arrigo Boito (1842–1918)
Luigi Mancinelli (1848–1921)
Niccolo Ravera (1851)
Alfredo Catalani (1854–1893)
Giacomo Puccini (1858–1924)
Ruggiero Leoncavallo (1858–1919)
Sylvio Lazzari (1858) (Living in Paris)
Alberto Franchetti (1860)
Pietro Mascagni (1863)
Franco Leoni (1864)
Crescenzo Buongiorno (1864–1903)
Giacomo Orefice (1865–1923)
Ferruccio Busoni (1866–1924)
Francesco Cilèa (1866)
Umberto Giordano (1867)
Giovanni Gianetti (1869)
Antonio Luzzi (1873)
Italo Montemezzi (1875)
Domenico Monleone (1875)
Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari (1876)
Franco Alfano (1877)
Stefano Donaudy (1879)
Ottorino Respighi (1879)
Alberto Iginio Randegger (Austrian) (1880–1918)
Ildebrando Pizzetti (1880)
G. Francesco Malipiero (1882)
Giuseppe Gino Marinuzzi (1882)
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Francesco Santoliquido (1883)
Adriano Lualdi (1887)
Vincenzo Davico (1889)
Ettore Lucatello (?)
Victor de Sabata (1892)

Spanish

Salvador Giner (1832–1911)

Felipe Pedrell (1841–1922)
Tomas Breton y Hernandez (1850)
Amedeo Vives (?)
Costa Nogueras (?)
Isaac Albeniz (1861–1909)
Enrique Granados (1867–1916)
Manuel de Falla (1876)
Joan Manen (1883)
Maria Rodrigo (1888)

South America

Carlos Gomez (Brazilian) (1839–1896)

José Valle-Riestra (Peruvian) (1859)
Antonio Berutti (Argentine) (1862)

French

Robert Cambert (1628–1679) (Wrote with Perrin)

Jean Batiste Lully (Italian) (1632–1687)
Pascal Colasse (1649–1709)
Marin Marais (1656–1728)
André Campra (1660–1744)
André Destouches (1672–1749)
Jean Philippe Rameau (1683–1764)
Egidio Romualdo Duni (Italian) (1709–1775)
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778)
François André Danican Philidor (1726–1795)
Pierre Berton (1727–1780)
Pierre Alexandre Monsigny (1729–1817)
François Joseph Gossec (1743–1829)
André Ernest Modeste Grétry (1741–1813)
Luigi Cherubini (Italian) (1760–1842)
Jean François Lesueur (1760–1837)
Étienne Henri Méhul (1763–1822)
Gasparo Luigi Pacifico Spontini (Italian) (1774–1851)
François Adrien Boieldieu (1775–1834)
Nicolo Isouard (1775–1818)
Daniel François Esprit Auber (1782–1871)
Louis Joseph Ferdinand Hérold (1791–1833)
Jacques F. F. E. Halevy (1799–1862)
Adolphe Adam (1803–1856)
Hector Berlioz (1803–1869)
Napoleon Henri Reber (1807–1880)
Félicien C. David (1810–1876)
Ambroise Thomas (1811–1896)
Louis Lacombe (1818–1884)
Charles François Gounod (1818–1893)
Jacques Offenbach (German) (1819–1880)
Victor Massé (1822–1884)
Edouard Lalo (1823–1892)
Louis Ernest Reyer (1823–1909)
Florimond Ronger Hervé (1825–1892)
Alexandre Charles Lecocq (1832–1918)
Camille Saint-Saëns (1835–1921)
Ernest Guiraud (American) (1837–1892) (Born in New Orleans)
Théodore Dubois (1837–1924)
Georges Bizet (1838–1875)
Clément P. Léo Délibes (1839–1891)
Félix Victorin de Joncières (1839–1903)
Emmanuel Chabrier (1841–1894)
Jules Massenet (1842–1912)
Emile Paladilhe (1844)
Joseph Arthur Coquard (1846–1910)
Robert Planquette (1848–1903)
Benjamin Godard (1849–1895)
Augusta Holmès (British) (1849–1903)
François Thomé (1850–1905)
Alexandre Georges (1850)
Vincent d’Indy (1851)
Hillemacher Frères (Brothers) Paul (1852) Lucien (1860–1909)
Raoul Pugno (1852–1914)
Andre Messager (1853)
Samuel A. Rousseau (1853–1904)
Ernest Chausson (1855–1899)
Alfred Bruneau (1857)
Georges Hüe (1858)
Gustave Charpentier (1860)
Gabriella Ferrari (1860)
Pierre de Bréville (1861)
Claude Achille Debussy (1862–1918)
Xavier Leroux (1863–1919)
Camille Erlanger (1863–1919)
Gabriel Pierné (1863)
Paul Vidal (1863)
Alfred Bachelet (1864)
Alberic Magnard (1865–1914)
Paul Dukas (1865)
Albert Roussel (1869)
Florent Schmitt (1870)
Henri Büsser (1872)
Deodat de Sévérac (1873–1921)
Henri Rabaud (1873)
Reynaldo Hahn (Venezuelan) (1874)
Max d’Ollone (1875)
Antoine Mariotte (1875)
Maurice Ravel (1875)
Raoul Laparra (1876)
Jean Nouguès (1876)
Henri Février (1876)
Louis Aubert (1877)
Gabriel Dupont (1878–1914)
Félix Fourdrain (1880–1924)
Albert Wolf
Roland Manuel (1891)
Arthur Honegger (1892)
Darius Milhaud (1892)

Belgian

André Ernest Modeste Grétry (1741–1813) (Lived in Paris)

François Auguste Gevaert (1828–1908)
Pierre Benoit (1834–1901)
Jan Blockx (1851–1912)
Edgar Tinel (1854–1912)
Valentin Neuville (1863)
Paul Gilson (1865)
Alfred Kaiser (1872)
Charles Radoux (1877)
Albert Dupuis (1877)
Joseph van der Meulen (?)

Dutch

Anton Berlijn (1817–1870)

Johan Wagenaar (1862)
Jan Brandt-Buys (1868)
Cornelis Dopper (1870)
Charles Grelinger (?)

Swiss

Emile Jacques-Dalcroze (1865)

Gustave Doret (1866)
Othmar Schoeck (1886)

German

Heinrich Schütz (1585–1672)

Johann Thiele (1646)
Johann Christoph Pepusch (1667–1752) (Lived in London)
Johann Conradi (1670?–?)
Reinhard Keiser (1674–1739)
Johann Mattheson (1681–1764)
George Frederick Handel (1685–1759)
Johann Adolph Hasse (1699–1783)
Karl Heinrich Graun (1701–1759)
Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714–1787)
Johann Adam Hiller (1728–1804)
Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf (1739–1799)
Abt (Georg Joseph) Vogler (1749–1814)
Johann Friedrich Reichardt (1752–1814)
Peter von Winter (1754–1825)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791)
Joseph Weigl (1766–1846)
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827)
Christoph Ernst Friederich Weyse (Danish) (1774–1842)
Konradin Kreutzer (1780–1849)
Ludwig (Louis) Spohr (1784–1859)
Carl Maria von Weber (1786–1826)
Peter Joseph von Lindpainter (1791–1856)
Giacomo Meyerbeer (1791–1864) (Lived in Paris)
Heinrich Marschner (1795–1861)
Karl Gottlieb Reissiger (1798–1859)
Gustav Albert Lortzing (1801–1851)
Otto Nicolai (1810–1849)
Friedrich von Flotow (1812–1883)
Richard Wagner (1813–1883)
Franz von Suppé (Austrian) (1819–1895)
Peter Cornelius (1824–1874)
Felix Draeseke (1835–1913)
Max Zenger (1837–1911)
Hermann Goetz (1840–1876)
Victor Nessler (Alsatian) (1841–1890)
Heinrich Hofmann (1842–1902)
Ignaz Brüll (Austrian) (1846–1907)
August Bungert (1846–1915)
August Klughardt (1847–1902)
Cyril Kistler (1848–1907)
Ivan Knorr (1853–1916)
Engelbert Humperdinck (1854–1921)
Heinrich Zöllner (1854)
Paul Geisler (1856–1919)
Wilhelm Kienzl (1857)
Alexander von Fielitz (1860)
Maria Joseph Erb (Alsatian) (1860)
Emil Nikolaus Reznicek (Austrian) (1861)
Ludwig Thuille (1861–1907)
Hugo Kaun (1863)
Felix Weingartner (1863)
Richard Strauss (1864)
Waldemar von Bausznern (1866)
Max Schillings (1868)
Hans Pfitzner (1869)
Siegfried Wagner (1869)
Alexander von Zemlinsky (Austrian) (1872)
Leo Fall (Austrian) (1873–1925)
Paul Graner (1873)
Waldemar Wendland (1873)
Julius Bittner (1874)
Arnold Schoenberg (1874)
Joseph Gustav Mrazek (Austrian) (1878)
Franz Schreker (Austrian) (1878)
Edgar Istel (1880)
Walter Braunfels (1882)
Egon Wellesz (Austrian) (1885)
Alban Berg (Austrian) (1885)
Paul Hindemith (1895)
Erich Korngold (Austrian) (1897)
Karl Krafft-Lortzing (?–1923)
Ignatz Waghalter (20th Century)

Czecho-Slovakian

Bedrich (Friedrich) Smetana (1824–1884)

Eduard Napravnik (1839–1916)
Antonin Dvorak (1841–1904)
Zdenko Fibich (1850–1900)
Leos Janacek (1855–1928)
Hans Trnecek (1858–1914)
Josef Bohuslav Foerster (1859)
Emil Nikolaus Reznicek (1861)
Karl Kovarovic (1862–1920)
Karel Weis (1862)
Stanislaus Suda (1865)
Karl Navratil (1867)
Vitezslav Novak (1870)
Adolf Piskacek (1874)
Camillo Hildebrand (1876)
Otakar Ostrcil (1879)
Otakar Zich (1879)
Rudolf Karel (1881)
Bohuslav Martinu (1890)

Hungarian

Karl Goldmark (1830–1915)

Alphons Czibulka (1842–1894)
Jeno Hubay (1858)
Julius J. Major (1859)
Emanuel Moor (1862)
Georg Jarno (1868–1920)
Béla Bártok (1881)
Emil Abrányi (1882)

Scandinavian

Johan P. E. Hartmann (Danish) (1805–1900)

Ivar Hallstrom (Swedish) (1826–1901)
Eduard Lassen (Danish) (1830–1904)
Emil Hartmann (Danish) (1836–1898)
Anders Hallen (1846)
Peter Lange-Müller (Danish) (1850–1926)
Christian Sinding (Norwegian) (1856)
Gerhard Schjelderup (Norwegian) (1859)
August Enna (Danish) (1860)
Wilhelm Stenhammar (Swedish) (1871)
Hakon Boerresen (Danish) (1876)
Paul August von Klenau (Danish) (1883)
Ture Rangstrom (Swedish) (1884)

Finnish

Jan Sibelius (1865)

Selim Palmgren (1878)
Armas E. Launis (1884)

Russian

Michail I. Glinka (1804–1857)

Alexander S. Dargomyzsky (1813–1869)
Alexander Serov (1820–1871)
Anton Rubinstein (1830–1894)
Alexander P. Borodin (1834–1887)
César Cui (1835–1918)
Modest Moussorgsky (1839–1881)
Peter I. Tchaikovsky (1840–1893)
Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov (1844–1908)
Michail Ippolitov-Ivanov (1859)
Anton Arensky (1861–1906)
Alexander Gretchaninov (1864)
Alexander Glazounov (1865)
Vladimir Rebikov (1866)
Arseni Korestchenko (1870)
Serge Rachmaninov (1873)
Igor Stravinsky (1882)
Serge Prokofiev (1891)

Polish

Ladislas Zelenski (1837–1921)

Sigismund Noskowski (1846–1909)
Ignace Jan Paderewski (1860)
Karol Szymanowski (1883)
Ludomir von Rozycki (1883)
Raoul Koczalski (1885)

Roumanian

Theodor Flondor (? 1908)

English

Thomas Campion (1575–1620)

John Coperario (1580)
William Lawes (1582–1645)
Henry Lawes (1596–1662)
John Banister (1630–1679)
Matthew Lock (1632?–1677)
Henry Purcell (1658–1695)
Thomas Arne (1710–1778)
William Shield (1748–1829)
Stephen Storace (1763–1796)
Henry R. Bishop (1786–1855)
John Barnett (1802–1890)
Julius Benedict (1804–1885)
Michael William Balfe (1808–1888)
George A. MacFarren (1813–1887)
William Vincent Wallace (1814–1865)
Frederic Clay (French) (1838–1889)
Arthur Sullivan (1842–1900)
Alfred Cellier (1844–1891)
Alexander Campbell Mackenzie (1847)
A. Goring Thomas (1851–1892)
Charles Villiers Stanford (1852–1924)
Frederick Corder (1852)
Frederic Hymen Cowen (Jamaica) (1852)
Ethel Mary Smyth (1858)
Isidore De Lara (1858)
Marie Wurm (1860) (Living in Germany)
Liza Lehmann (1862–1918)
Edward German (1862)
Frederick Delius (1863)
Eugene d’Albert (1863) (Living in Germany)
Edward Woodall Naylor (1867)
Gustav Holst (1874)
Josef Holbrooke (1878)
Albert Coates (Russian) (1882)
Hubert Bath (1883)
Lord Berners (1883)

American

William H. Fry (1813–1864)

George Bristow (1825–1898)
John Knowles Paine (1839–1906)
Frederic Grant Gleason (1848–1903)
William J. McCoy (1848)
Max Vogrich (Transylvanian) (1852–1916)
George W. Chadwick (1854)
Julian Edwards (English) (1855–1910)
Humphrey John Stewart (English) (1856)
Richard Henry Warren (1859)
Reginald De Koven (1859–1920)
Victor Herbert (Irish) (1859–1924)
Pietro Floridia (Italian) (1860)
Walter Damrosch (1862)
Horatio W. Parker (1863–1919)
Ernest Carter (1866)
N. Clifford Page (1866)
Paolo Gallico (Austrian) (1868)
Wallace A. Sabin (English) (1869)
Louis Adolphe Coerne (1870–1922)
Joseph C. Breil (1870–1926)
Henry K. Hadley (1871)
Frederick Converse (1871)
Arthur Nevin (1871)
Mary Carr Moore (1873)
Theodore Stearns (?)
Frank Patterson (?)
John Adam Hugo (1873)
Albert Mildenberg (1878–1918)
Ernest Bloch (Swiss) (1880)
Charles Wakefield Cadman (1881)
Simon Buchhalter (Russian) (1881)
Lazare Saminsky (Russian) (1883)
Louis Gruenberg (1884)
W. Frank Harling (?)
Isaac Van Grove (?)
Timothy Spelman (1891)
Eugene Bonner (?)
 Modern Ballets

Russian

Peter I. Tchaikovsky (1840–1893)

Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov (1844–1908)
Alexander Glazounov (1865)
Arseni Korestchenko (1870)
Nikolai Tcherepnin (1873)
Igor Stravinsky (1882)
Maximilian Steinberg (1883)
Serge Prokofiev (1891)

Polish

Karol Szymanowsky (1883)

Alexandre Tansman (20th Century)

French

Léo Délibes (1836–1891)

Emanuel Chabrier (1841–1894)
Jules Massenet (1842–1912)
Vincent d’Indy (1851)
André Messager (1853)
Alfred Bruneau (1857)
Gabriel Pierné (1863)
Erik Satie (1866–1925)
Charles Silver (1868)
Florent Schmitt (1870)
Jean Roger Ducasse (1875)
Maurice Ravel (1875)
Louis Aubert (1877)
Louis Durey (1888)
Roland Manuel (1891)
Darius Milhaud (1892)
Arthur Honegger (1892)
Germaine Taillefer (1892)
George Auric (1898)
François Poulenc (1898)
Henri Sauguet (20th Century)

Italian

Franco Alfano (1877)

Ottorino Respighi (1879)
Ildebrando Pizzetti (1880)
G. Francesco Malipiero (1882)
Alfredo Casella (1883)
Vittoria Rieti (1898)

Spanish

Manuel de Falla (1876)

Hungarian

Béla Bártok (1881)

Scandinavian

Kurt Atterberg (Swedish) (1887)

Austrian

Arnold Schoenberg (1874)

Egon Wellesz (1885)

Czecho-Slovakian
Karl Kovarovic (1862–1920)
Georg Kosa (1897)
Bohuslav Martinu (1890)

English

Arthur Seymour Sullivan (1842–1900)

Ralph Vaughn Williams (1872)
Gustav Holst (1874)

American

Henry F. Gilbert (1876–1928)

John Alden Carpenter (1876)
Charles Griffes (1884–1920)
Emerson Whithorne (1884)
Deems Taylor (1885)
Cole Porter
Leo Sowerby (1895)
 INDEX

A
Absolute music, 239–40, 242, 397, 422
Abt, Franz, 423–4
Adam de la Halle, 102, 112, 125
Aida, Verdi’s, 379–81
Albéniz, Isaac, 453–4
Alcuin, 76
Alfred the Great, 93
Alphonso XII of Spain, 453
Ambrose, St., 71, 72
America, see United States
American Academy in Rome, 507–8
American composers, 475 ff.
American folk music, 140–5
American Music Guild, the, 506–7
American opera companies, 514
American patrons of music, 512–13
American song writers, recent, 509–10
American symphony orchestras, 513–14
Anglican church, founding of, 188
Anglin, Margaret, 469
Antiphony, use of, by the Greeks, 41;
introduction into church music, 70
Apollo, 33–4
Arabia, music of, 55 ff., 209, 210;
the Arab scales, 58–9;
instruments of, 59–61
Arcadelt, Jacob, 157
Armide, Dvorak’s, 447
Arne, Dr. Thomas, 200, 339
Assyrian music, 24–5
Atonality, 517, 529
Auber, Daniel François Esprit, 333–4
Aulos of the Greeks, 42–3
Austrian National Hymn, written by Haydn, 282
Automatic pianos, 316–19
Aztecs, music of the, 53–4
B
Bach, Johann Christian, 254
Bach, Johann Christoph, 254
Bach, Johann Sebastian, 208, 211, 238, 240;
account of his life, 244–50;
his works, 250–3;
his sons, 253–4;
comparison with Handel, 255–6
Bach, Karl Philip Emanuel, 249, 253–4
Bach, Wilhelm Friedemann, 253
Bach Festival, yearly, at Bethlehem, Pa., 252, 464
Bagpipes, the Roman tibia, 45;
use of, by the Hindus, 66;
of the Bohemians, 135;
 of Scotland, 138
Baif, Jean Antoine, his club of poets and musicians in France, 177
Balakirev, Mily, 444–5
Balfe, Michael William, 341
Ballad, the, and the ballet, 122
Ballet, the, at the French court in second half of the 16th century, 178
Band, the difference between, and an orchestra, 234
Bantock, Granville, 543
Barber of Seville, Rossini’s, 337
Bards of ancient Britain, 89–91
Barnby, Joseph, 340
Bartlett, Homer W., 490
Bartok, Béla, 536–7
Bauer, Marion, 507
Bax, Arnold, 544
Bay Psalm Book, the, 458
Bayreuth, 371–2, 373
Beach, Mrs. H. H. A., 480–1
Beaumont and Fletcher, 173
Bede, the venerable, 75–6, 92
Beethoven, Ludwig van, 293 ff.;
account of his life, 295–302;
his friendships, 298–9;
The Moonlight Sonata, 300, 304;
his three periods, and works during, 301–2;
his opera Fidelio, 302, 305, 306, 326;
influence upon the growth of music, 303–5;
as a composer of instrumental music, 305–6;
his preference in pianos, 313;
the Kreutzer Sonata, 324;