VOL 7 NO 1

Bichi Journal of Technology Education (BIJOTE)
ISSN: (PRINT): 2006-9715; (ONLINE: 2735-9514) Volume 7, Issue 1 (July, 2024), PP 1 – 7
REVIEW OF TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND

TRAINING (TVET) POLICY IN NIGERIA FOR NATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
Salisu Umar 1, *
umrbdw@gmail.com
Adamu Sa'idu 1
adamugiwa77@gmail.com
Mohammed Yau Barde 1

muhammadyaubarde@gmail.com
and
Yahaya Musa 2
yahayamusabindawa20050@gmail.com
1Department of Electrical Electronics Technology,
School of Secondary Education (Technical),
Federal College of Education (Technical), Bichi Kano - Nigeria
2
Department of Building Technology,
Federal College of Education (Technical), Bichi Kano – Nigeria
*Corresponding author
Abstract: Technical vocational education and training (TVET) in Nigeria aims to assist the federal
and state education authorities in their effort to revitalize, reform, and expand the provision of skills,
vocations, science, and technology to meet the nation’s present and future socio-economic needs. While
the set goals in the National Policy blueprint are specifically meant to achieve the objectives of TVET,
any form of defect recorded while formulating the blueprint will automatically affect the goal’s
achievement. For this reason, the researchers in this paper reviewed the provisions of the National
Policy on TVET in Nigeria by highlighting the policy objectives and the challenges confronting the
National Policy on TVET in Nigeria and proffering solutions to avert the trend. It is therefore
recommended that adequate resources should be allocated to technical and vocational education.
Inadequate funds affect the provision of essentials such as well-equipped laboratories and workshops,
relevant textbooks, and training manuals.
Keywords: National Policy, Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET), National
Development
I. INTRODUCTION
In a country where sustainable national development, employment generation, improved quality of life,
and poverty reduction are at the forefront of their social and economic agenda, Technical, Vocational
Education and Training (TVET) are critical aspects of learning for the citizenry. In Nigeria, the training
of technical and vocational individuals has been confronted with problems from policy formulation to
policy implementation.
https://www.bijote.com/BIJOTE/about/submissions
Review of Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Policy in Nigeria for National
Development
This has over time produced a ripple effect on our curriculum and the overall development of Western
education in Nigeria. According to the Federal Republic of Nigeria (2014), TVET refers to those aspects
of educational processes involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and
related sciences, as well as the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understandings, and knowledge
relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life. This aspect of education is what
Okorafor and Nnajiofo (2017) referred to as education on the application of skills to support life.
Vocational education refers to skill-based programs that are designed for skill acquisition at lower levels
of education. Vocational education programs focus on specific vocations for entry into a defined
workplace.
Technical education, on the other hand, is not designed for any particular vocation but provides general
technical knowledge. This type of education prepares people for entry into recognized occupations at a
higher level but usually lower than the first degree (Okoye&Arimonu, 2016; Opoko et al. 2018). Okoye
and Arimonu (2016) while highlighting some of the issues and challenges confronting technical and
vocational education in Nigeria submitted that there is a missing link in Nigeria’s development policy.
Policies are generally formal and written statements that guide the decisions and actions of governments
in the strategy implementation of programs. Therefore, the national policy on TVET is a driving tool
that shows the country's development and implementation of technical and vocational education
programs. While the set goals in the National Policy blueprint are specifically meant to achieve the
objectives of TVET, Adelodun (2010) submits that any form of defect recorded while formulating the
blueprint will automatically affect goal achievements. For this reason, the researcher of this paper
reviews the provisions in the National Policy on TVET in Nigeria by highlighting the policy objectives,
the image of TVET in Nigeria, and the challenges confronting the national policy on TVET in Nigeria
and proffer the solutions to avert the trend.
II. CONCEPTS OF TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

(TVET)
Technical and vocational education is used as a comprehensive term in the educational process
involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences and the
acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding, and knowledge relating to occupations in various
sectors of economic and social life (FGN, 2014). Okorafor and Nnajiofo (2017) define vocational
education as a form of education whose primary purpose is to prepare persons for employment in a
recognized occupation. In the same vein, he defines technical education as a post-secondary vocational
training program the major purpose is the production of technicians.
The terms technical education and vocational education are often used interchangeably but, they are
separate and distinct terms. For the purpose of this paper, there is a need to do some clarifications.
Vocational education refers to skill-based programs which are designed for skill acquisition at lower
levels of education. Vocational education programs focus on specific vocations for entry into a defined
workplace. Technical education, on the other hand, is not designed for any particular discipline but
provides general technical knowledge. This type of education prepares people for entry into recognized
occupations at a higher level but usually lower than the first degree. In fact, technical and vocational
education is usually a merger of technical education and vocational education i.e. the inclusion of basic
technical and scientific knowledge with the skill-based vocational program.
According to Uwaifo (2015), technical education is the training of technically oriented personnel who
are to be the initiators, facilitators, and implementers of the technological development of a nation. In
his own opinion, this training of its citizens on the need to be technologically literate would eventually
lead to self-reliance and sustainability. He observed that technical education more than any other
profession has a direct impact on the development of the country.
Again, technical education contributes so much ranging from electrical and electronics technology,
metalwork technology, mechanical/automobile technology, building technology, woodwork
technology etc, technical education is practical-oriented education which makes it unique in its content
and approach thereby demanding special attention. Unfortunately, despite all the glaring contributions
of technical and vocational education in our nation, Nigeria is yet to accord this type of education the
attention it deserves. This is one of the major reasons for the rising unemployment, poverty, and
unabated crimes in society today.
Development
III. TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING (TVET) POLICY IN

NIGERIA
For a long time, there has been a misconception that TVET means the type of education and training
given to people that could never study science or arts in the school system and are therefore regarded
as dropouts from the system or those that are not intelligent enough to pass good examinations for entry
into higher institutions such as universities. Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is
designed to offer people the opportunity of improving themselves in their general proficiency,
especially in relation to their present or future occupation. According to Olaitan (2014), it is established
that formal Western education in Nigeria started with vocational education when the first Europeans
that came to Nigeria employed our ancestors as gardeners, laundry men, carpenters, cooks, stewards,
tailors, and even house builders, etc. Although these new trades or occupations were not called
vocational, they form a major part of what we know today as vocational education. In Nigeria’s
education policy document, vocational and technical education is clearly distinguishable from literacy
or academic education. Section 5, paragraph 29 of the National Policy on Education notes that
vocational education is a form of education that is obtainable at technical colleges (FRN 2014).
This is equivalent to senior secondary education but designed for individuals to acquire practical skills,
basic and scientific knowledge, and the attitude required to be craftsmen and technicians at the sub-
professional level (Akanbi, 2017). The Revised Edition of the National Policy o Education (FRN, 2014)
section 7, paragraph 40, attempted a more comprehensive definition of the subject as those aspects of
the educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related
sciences and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to
occupation in various sectors of economic and social life.” The 2014 edition of NPE (FRN, 2014)
section 3, paragraph 49 refers to those aspects of the educational process involving, in addition to
general education, the study of technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills,
attitudes, understanding, and knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and
social life as TVET.
The definitions of TVET in the 2014 edition of NPE are:
 An integral part of general education
 A means of preparing for occupational fields, for effective participation in the world of work.
 An aspect of life-long learning and preparation for responsible citizenship.
 An instrument of promoting environmentally sound sustainable development, and
 A method of alleviating poverty, especially through pre-technical, vocational, and technical
education.
These definitions are comprehensive, with the final item being the current driver of practice in Nigeria.
TVET is also emphasized in section 3, paragraph 58, of NPE (FRN, 2014) as regards the curriculum of
vocational enterprise institutions (VEI) that it shall cover all vocational and craftsmanship areas such
Adire and other indigenous fabric making, artisans, apprenticeship, etc.
IV. POLICY OBJECTIVES

The National Policy on Education implemented in 1977 and most recently revised in 2014 describes
the main priorities and ways to achieve them for all aspects of the Nigerian Education System (Akinyele
& Bolarinwa, 2018). The objectives of Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Nigeria
were stated in the National Policy on Education and were believed to have the capacity to advance the
economy of the nation if properly implemented and monitored. The objectives as stipulated in the
National Policy on Education are to:
 Provide trained manpower in the applied sciences, technology, and business, particularly in craft,
and advanced craft at technical levels.
 Provide the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural, commercial, and
economic development.
 Give training and impart the necessary skills to individuals who shall be economically self-reliant.
In pursuant to these, the Federal Government of Nigeria recognized that TVET is an integral part of
technological development; a more significant proportion of education expenditure shall continue to be
devoted to technical and vocational education at the Federal and State levels (FRN, 2014). The policy
Development
further stated that, in recognition of the fundamental importance and cost-intensive nature of TVET, the
government shall provide adequate funds for Technical and Vocational Education in Nigeria. The policy
document further stated that: The purpose of the development of individuals is to enable them to
contribute to the development of society. For this reason, the plan lays emphasis on Technical and
Vocational Education as the master key to unlocking our future.
The Federal Government further emphasized in its bid to strengthen the TVET program in Nigeria by
stating that: The ability of Nigeria to realize the vision of becoming one of the twenty largest economies
in the world by the year 2020 is largely dependent on the capacity to transform its youths into highly
skilled and competent citizens. It is for this reason that commitment to TVET must be strengthened.
V. THE IMAGE OF TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

(TVET) IN NIGERIA
Vocational and technical education has been accorded a very low image in the country. It has been
regarded as education specifically meant for those who could not meet the rigors of academics in the
classroom, that is, the dropouts. Every Nigerian wants to live a life that is adorned by individuals in
society. According to Olaitan (2014), vocational education in Nigeria has been taken to mean education
for mentally retarded, physically handicapped, and socially maladjusted students. In some instances,
vocational and technical education has been referred to as education which can easily be acquired by
underachievers, those with low intelligence, and dropouts from the formal school system. Another
misconception has been that vocational and technical education does not require much academic work
which gives the impression that its programs are exclusively meant for the handicapped and those who
are unable to continue with regular academic programs of the school system. He also observed that
vocational education has the potential role of transforming the nation economically and in technology.
However vocational education’s ability to meet this challenging potential is frustrated by the public
lack of awareness of the true value of vocational and technical education to the nation.
VI. CHALLENGES OF TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

(TVET) IN NIGERIA
According to the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE), TVET in Nigeria is facing the
following challenges (UNESCO, 2019):
1. Gender inequality: Gender inequality in TVET has been a long-term problem in Nigeria. The
majority of students who enrolled in TVET programs are males, with less percentage of the total
enrolment in TVET being females.
2. Inadequate infrastructure: Access to TVET is constrained by inadequate and obsolete
infrastructure, as promising projects often fail even if they have good pedagogical schemes. There
is a lack of practical laboratories, and workshops and a limited number of lecture rooms. The
inadequate infrastructure also hinders the institution’s ability to catch up with the latest technical
developments.
3. Funding: The issue of financing TVET is a topic of key importance in Nigeria. Currently, the
budgetary allocation to TVET institutions is barely insufficient for institutions to be sustainable.
The share of the budget remains low, even though there are indications that TVET students are
better integrated into the labor market.
4. Capacity Development for Teachers and Trainers: There is an inadequate provision for teacher
training. As TVET institutions fail to equip teachers with corresponding qualifications and
knowledge, these teachers and trainers also fail to teach students and pass on skills and knowledge
fit for the present and future labor markets.
5. ICT in TVET: TVET has evolved from training skilled operators to training knowledgeable
professionals. However, as institutions often have inadequate ICT facilities to integrate e-learning,
TVET institutions find it hard to improve the quality of teaching and learning outcomes.
VII. SOLUTIONS OF TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

(TVET) IN NIGERIA
1. Tackle Negative Stereotyping: A first step in this direction should be an intensive campaign in the
media and other fora to popularize TVET and highlight its benefits to the citizenry and nation at
Development
large. There should be a policy framework that actively supports TVET and removes the current
discrimination it faces. The dichotomy in the rewards system between products of conventional
school system and those of TVET needs to be addressed right from the stage when students are
admitted to schools. Choice of school should be based on aptitude and interest and not only
academic grade as currently is the case. Similarly, remuneration for work done should be based on
quantifiable output and contributions and not mere paper qualification, as is sometimes the case.
2. Improve the Status of TVET to make it more attractive: The government should enhance the value
of TVET and make it more appealing to the public. This can be done by inviting notable resource
persons, successful TVET graduates and other role models to motivate the trainees and create
awareness on the benefits of TVET to the nation. Creating cultural and heritage linkages to TVET
and promising support in the form of grants, further training and networking to graduates will also
go a long way in making TVET more attractive.
3. Adequate Financing: In realizing the vital roles of TVET, the government needs to channel
sufficient funds towards TVET. This is an idea earlier canvassed by Adefunke (2020). It is
acknowledged that government alone may not be able to fund TVET. Thus, there is need for
collaboration with other stakeholders like private sector, donor agencies and non-governmental
organizations in this direction. Notable among the private sector are all enterprises or businesses
that benefit from the products of TVET.
4. Create Synergy among TVET Stakeholders: Although most of the TVET institutions are
government owned, there exist a handful of institutions owned or supported by the private sector
and non-governmental and community based organizations. It was observed that there is no
harmony between the curricula and quality of products from these institutions. There is need to
harmonize these in order to enhance the status of TVET. In doing so however, the content of the
curricula and pedagogic approach including methods of assessment should be flexible enough to
accommodate the variations in the personal characteristics of trainees. This may include levels of
literacy, physical, mental and other challenges. Flexible programmers will attract a wide variety of
people, bearing in mind that some individuals are more pragmatic in their thinking and reasoning
and may therefore require different modes of instructor/trainee interaction to bring out their best.
Effective synergy among stakeholders will also help in identifying the actual need of the industries
or business environments where products are to function. This is important especially in view of
the competitive business environment occasioned by globalization on one hand and the prospects
for international outsourcing it offers on the other hand. To this end, there is need to introduce
entrepreneurial development in the curricula of TVET considering that many of the products will
be expected to not only be self-employed but creators of employment for others.
5. Provision of Adequate Training Facilities and Materials: For effective training to take place, three
things must be available, namely: the trainee’s instructors and training facilities and materials. The
facilities and training materials create conducive teaching/learning environment for both the
instructor and his trainee. They will include adequate size and number of laboratories (including
computer/digital laboratories), workshops, classrooms and libraries, adequately furnished with
appropriate furniture, machines, tools, gadgets and resource materials as the case may be. These
must however be current and in tandem with prevailing best practices.
6. Staff Training and Welfare Programs: In order to improve the quality of teaching/training, the right
caliber of staff must be in place. There should also be staff continuous development schemes that
are aimed at improving the quality of delivery by TVET staff. Staff continuous development
programmes will include in house and external seminars, workshops or postgraduate training
programmes aimed at exposing staff to new skills, networking opportunities and international best
practices. In addition, attractive welfare packages like bonuses and sponsorship to exhibitions and
awards will go a long way in not only attracting staff but retaining them.
VIII. CONCLUSION
It has been emphasized that Technical vocational education and training (TVET) in Nigeria aims to
assist the federal and state education authorities in their effort to revitalize, reform and expand the
provision of skills, vocations, science and technology to meet the nation’s present and future socio-
economic needs. There has been a weak capacity in ministries to promote, monitor and engage
Development
stakeholders and policymakers. Incorporating stakeholders at the local and state levels could further
strengthen the achievement of the goals and objectives of Technical Vocational Education and Training
in Nigeria. Thus, this paper concludes that there is need for a paradigm shift in the practice of TVET
through police review and reforms.
IX. RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Adequate resources should be allocated to technical and vocational education. Inadequate funds
affect the provision of essentials such as well - equipped laboratories and workshops, relevant
textbooks and training manuals.
2. Vocational and technical education requires skilled and proficient teachers. Teachers’’ preparation
should be given a priority attention. There is the need for regular in-service training for teachers of
technology to upgrade their skills.
3. There is the need for our technical institutions to establish good relationship and linkages with
similar institutions abroad as this will promote cross-fertilization of ideas and enhance technology
transfer. By doing this the technical institutions will have access to new developments, exchange
programmes and other numerous benefits available at those institutions whose technical
programmes are well developed.
4. When there is collaboration between technical institutions and industries, the relationship will
enable the parties appreciate and understand their needs and proffer the right solutions for the
benefits of the society.
5. The curriculum taught in our technical and vocational education institutions should be reviewed to
meet the demands of the labour market. There is need to start the teaching of industry-based policy
that will increase employment opportunities for school leavers of vocational and technical
institutions. It will also provide ample opportunities for school dropouts.
6. The government should urgently remove the dichotomy that exists between University and
technical institution. Polytechnic institutions should be made to award degrees. This will not only
attract more qualified students to vocational/technical education but will also encourage exchange
of qualified lecturers/instructors between the two systems.
7. It is important to monitor and regulate the informal sector that produces most of our artisans. Such
training outfits can be licensed to certify trainees at the end of the apprenticeship period on behalf
of the government. Through this way, charlatans can be easily identified and separated.
X. REFERENCES
Adefunke, T.J., Olaitan O.F ( 2020): Critique of the National Policy on Technical, Vocational Education
and Training (TVET) in Nigeria. 2nd International Conference, the Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro, 10th -
11th Nov., 2020.
Adelodun, G. A. (2010). A critique of the blueprint on education for the gifted and talented persons in
Nigeria. International Journal of Educational Science, 2(2), 69 - 73.
Akanbi, G. O. (2017). Prospects for technical and vocational education and training (TVET) in Nigeria:
Bridging the gap between policy document and implementation. The International Education Journal:
Comparative Perspectives, 16(2), 1-15.
Akinyele, T. A. &Bolarinwa, F, F. B. (2018). Prospects, issues and challenges of technical and
vocational education and training (TVET) in revamping Nigeria depressed economy. International
Journal of Vocational and Technical Education Research, 4(1), 1-18.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2014).National policy on education (Revised Edition).Yaba Lagos:
NERDC Press.
Okorafor, A. O. &Nnajiofo, F. N. (2017). TVET policies and practices in Nigeria: Why the gap.
European Journal of Education Studies, 3(4), 612-624.
Okoye, R. &Arimonu, M. O. (2016). Technical and vocational education in Nigeria: Issues, challenges
and a way forward. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(3), 113-118.
Development
Olaitan, S. O. (2014). The future of technical and vocational education in Nigeria. Conceptual issues,
social and economic implications of vocational and technical education in Nigeria. Umunze, Research
and Publication unit FCE (T).
Oluwale, B. A., Jegede, O. O. &Olamade, O.O. (2013). Technical and vocational skills depletion in
Nigeria and the need for policy intervention. International Journal of Vocational and Technical
Education, 5(6), 100-109.
Opoko, A. P., Badmus, F. O., Abiola, I. T., Odizia, C. I., Oluwole, O. O., Pamilerin, D. E., Rotimi, D.
O., Chima, N.O., Mabadeje, J. & Otusemade, T. O. (2018). The role of technical and vocational
education and training (TVET) in nation buildiing: A review of the Nigerian case. International Journal
of Mechanical Engineering and Technology, 9(13), 1564-1571.
UNESCO (2019). TVET country profile: Nigeria. National Board for Technical Education, Nigeria.
Uwaifo V.O (2015). ‘Technical Education and it’s Challenges in Nigeria in the 21st century’.
International NGO Journal. Vol.5 No. 2, p. 40 – 44
ISSN: (PRINT): 2006-9715; (ONLINE: 2735-9514) Volume 7, Issue 1 (October, 2023), PP 8 – 12
EFFECTS OF FEEDING SWEET POTATOES BASED DIETS

ON ECONOMICS OF PRODUCTION OF BROILER
FINISHERS
Garba Saleh (PhD) 1, *
garbasaleh2@gmail.com; +2348131659711
and
Halliru Sanusi 2
1&2
Department of Agricultural Education,
School of Secondary Education (Vocational),
Abstract: This study conducted to find out the effect of feeding sweet potatoes meal (SPM) based diets
on economics of production of broiler finishers as replacement to yellow maize. Four weeks feeding
trial conducted on one hundred and eighty (180) Rose broiler chicks of twenty-eight day-old, weighed
randomly and distributed to four dietary treatments (45 birds per treatment and 15 per replicate). The
birds fed sweet potato meal containing diets to replace yellow maize at different treatment levels at 0,
25, 50, and 75%, respectively in a complete randomized design (CRD) for a period of four (4) weeks
period. Vaccination programs strictly followed. The data generated subjected to analysis of variance
(ANOVA) using SAS (2007) software. The result indicated that all proximate parameters show
significant differences (P<0.05) between treatments. The result of economic production revealed that
there is reduction in total feed cost as the level of SPM is increased from 0 – 75% as replacement level
for yellow maize. Therefore, this study recommended that SPM could be incorporate into diet of broiler
finishers up to 25% as replacement level for yellow maize and it is evident that the use of SPM can
reduce the cost of broiler birds’ production.
Keywords: broiler finishers, feeding, sweet potatoes, yellow maize, economic production.
I. INTRODUCTION
Chickens’ population in Nigeria accounts 145 million chickens’ population (Saleh, 2019). This high
number requires adequate feed s for optimum production. In Nigeria sweet potatoes are cheaper than
maize which is notably and widely used as poultry feed and the crop is used as a partial substitute for
cereal feed ingredients, particularly maize (Saleh and Sanusi, 2021). FAO (2019) states that feed
presents the largest input cost for poultry producers, accounting for up to 75% of total costs. However,
the cost of production of broiler meat has remained high due to high cost of feed. However, to
compensate for this change, alternative feed ingredients must be identified and must be able to replace
maize either totally or partially and must not have a deleterious effect on the efficiency of broilers; that
is, it must not reduce feed efficiency, dressing percentage, and must produce a product of the same or
superior quality (Saleh and Sanusi 2016). Odebode et al (2008) indicates that the sweet potato can
replace maize in terms of nutrients for broiler production. This study was carried out to compare and
evaluate the effect of feeding sweet potatoes meal (SPM) based diets on economics of production of
broiler finishers.
Effects of Feeding Sweet Potatoes Based Diets on Economics of Production of Broiler Finishers
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Experimental location
The study was conducted for a period of 28 days at the Department of Agricultural Education Teaching
and Research Farm, Federal College of Education [Tech] Bichi, Kano State Nigeria. The farm is located
within the college at about 40km west of Kano city in Bichi Local Government area of Kano State. The
State is situated in the Sahelian geographic region, South of the Sahara in the north-western Nigeria,
481 metres (1,578 feet) above sea level within longitude: 8°31′00″ E and latitude: 12°00′00″ N
(Wikipedia, 2018; Dateandtime.info, 2018).
Experimental Feeds Preparation

The principal ingredient for the experimental feed is sweet potatoes, which obtained from the sweet
potato (Ipomoea batatas). The potatoes chopped with sharp knife; sun dried on a floor for a period of 3
– 4 days depending on sunlight intensity and finally milled and produced 4 sweet potatoes meals for
broiler finisher to replace maize at 0, 25, 50, and 75 % and coded as A, B, C and D levels as presented
in Table 1. The diets formulated and balanced according to recommendations by NRC (1994).
Other feed ingredients include the following: maize, soya bean, groundnuts cake, wheat offal, bone
meal, salt, vitamin, premix, methionine, and lysine, which purchased from Bichi and Kano metropolitan
market.
Proximate Analysis of the Experimental Diets

All the four (4) feed samples were taken to the laboratory for proximate and analyzed for dry matter
(DM), crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), ether extract (EE) and ash according to AOAC (1990) as
presented in Table 2.
Experimental birds and their management

One hundred and eighty number of four-week old broiler chicks allocated to four (4) treatment groups
in a Complete Randomized Design (CRD). Forty-five (45) birds allotted to each diet, fifteen (15) birds
per replicate. The birds randomly selected and then weighed at the start of the experiment, each week
thereafter and lastly, at the end of the study. This done at the same time and day of the week. Vaccination
programs strictly followed.
Economic Analysis
Economic indices were determined which include cost of feed per kg, total feed cost, daily feed cost,
feed cost/kg gain and feed conversion ratio.
Experimental Design and Statistical analysis

Completely randomized design was used in this study. The data generated was subjected to analysis of
variance (ANOVA) using SAS (2007) software. Where differences in means manifest, the Duncan’s
multiple range test (DMRT) used to separate them at (P< 0.05) level of probability.
Table 1: Composition of Broiler Finishers diets Containing Sweet Potatoes Meal

Ingredients (%) Experimental Treatments
A B C D
Sweet Potatoes Meal 0 13.75 27.5 41.25
Yellow Maize 55 41.25 27.5 13.75
Soya bean 25 25 25 25
Groundnut Cake 15 15 15 15
Bone Meal 4 4 4 4
Salt 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Vitamin Premix 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Methionine 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Lysine 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Total 100 100 100 100
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Proximate analysis of broiler finisher containing sweet potatoes meal
Table 2 shows the proximate compositions of the experimental diets and test ingredients fed to broiler
finishers. All the parameters show significant differences (P<0.05) between treatments. Ether extract
(EE) of 9.13% obtained in this experiment was higher than the 2.7% reported by Monday and Mueller
(1977). However, highest the crude fibre content of 7.5% obtained is higher than 6.67% obtained by
Yakubu (2014) on cooked sweet potatoes meal fed broiler finishers and was below than 9.22%
previously obtained by Afolayan (2010) on sweet potato meal as a source of energy in the diets of
chickens. However, all the other CF treatments show significant difference (P<0.05) and were fall
within the normal value of feeding broilers. However, Crude protein (CP) content was higher for
treatment B (24.1%) and lowers in treatment D (19.3%) but all the values were within the
recommendations of NRC (1994). Energy (Cal/g) is higher in treatment A 4210.7 Cal/g and lowest in
treatment C 3997.2 Cal/g. were higher than 3050kcal/g DM reported by Afolayan, (2010) on sweet
potatoes meals.
Table 2: Proximate analysis of broiler finisher containing sweet potatoes meal

Treatments
Parameters A B C D SEM
Dry Matter 95.2b 96.4a 95.3b 95.5b 0.03
Ash 9.30c 10.1a 9.24d 9.80b 0.01
Ether Extract 9.1a 7.6c 5.1d 8.2b 0.01
Crude Fibre 6.5b 7.5a 6.5b 6.7b 0.006
Crude Protein 24.0a 24.1a 20.6b 19.3b 0.01
Energy (Cal/g) 4210.7a 4018.4b 3997.2b 4032.1b 1.99
SEM: standard error of mean a.b, c Means on the row with different superscripts are significantly
(p<0.05) different.
Feeding of Sweet Potatoes Based Diets on Economics of Production of Broiler Finishers

Results on economics of production of broiler finishers fed SPM shown in Table 3. The feed cost in this
report were not significantly affected (P>0.05) by the inclusion of SPM based diets while all other
parameters were significantly affected (P<0.05) by the inclusion of SPM based diets. The cost of
producing a bird with control diet was significantly higher (P<0.05) than the rest of the test treatments.
Zero percent SPM group recorded the best cost of feed per kg gain which was statistically the same
(P>0.05) with the group twenty-five, but they were better than the rest of the treatments. This showed
that the cost of using control and 25% CSPM diets were most economical in producing a unit weight of
broiler chicken as they gave the best-feed efficiency and conversion ratio. The result confirmed the
findings of Feltwell and Fox, (1979), Nesheim et al. (1979) and Yakubu (2014) who suggested that a
unit cost of feed used in producing a unit of poultry meat should have the greatest importance rather
than the conversion ratio of the feed. Therefore, it is evident that the use of SPM can reduce the cost of
broiler birds’ production.
Table 3: Economics of production of broiler finishers fed sweet potatoes diet
Treatments
Parameters A B C D SEM
Feed cost (₦ /Kg) 100.2 98.4 96.7 94.9 0.10
Total feed cost (₦) 78.5a 66.83b 68.73ab 57.95b 0.34
Daily feed cost (₦) 2.80a 2.39b 2.46ab 2.07 0.16
Feed cost/kg weight gain (₦) 152.7a 155.9a 161.3c 156.4b 0.38
a a b b
FCR 1.52 1.59 1.67 1.66 0.84
SEM: standard error of mean. abcMeans on the row with different superscripts are significantly
(P<0.05) different. *Feed cost/kg was calculated on the bases of prevailing market prices of
ingredients as at January 2020 ($1Dollar = N360.00).
IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The results of this study showed that inclusion levels of sweet potatoes from 0 – 75% as replacement
for yellow maize in broilers’ finisher diet reduced the cost of production and health status to the animals.
Therefore, this study recommended that SPM could be incorporate into diet of broiler finishers up to
25% as replacement level for yellow maize. Moreover, the result of this experiment should be used to
improve sweet potatoes production and utilizations in Nigeria.
V. REFERENCES
Afolayan, S.B. (2010). Evaluation of sweet potato meal as a source of Energy in the diets of chickens.
Ph.D. Desertation Department of Animal Science, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.
AOAC., (1990). Official Method of Analysis (15th edition). Association of Official Analytical
Chemists. Vol. 1 Arlington, Virginia, USA.
Dateandtime.info (2018). http://dateandtime.info/citycoordinates.php?id=2335204 This page was last
edited on 18 March 2018, at 13:29.
FAO (2019). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Carryover in feed and Transfer
From Feed to Food of Unavoidable and Unintended Residues of Approved Veterinary Drugs. Joint
FAO/WHO Expert Meeting, FAO Animal Production and Health/Report 13. FAO Headquarters, Rome,
Italy. p 5
Feltwell, R.Y and Fox, S.V.D. (1979) Practical Poultry feeding. Laber and Labor Ltd. And ELBS,
London.
Monday, N. I and Mueller, T.O (1977). Potato discoloration in relation to anatomy and lipid
compostion. Journal of Food Science; (42); 14 – 18.
National Research Council (NRC). 2001. Nutrient requirements of dairy cattle. 7th revised edition.
National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
Odebode, S. O. Egeonu, N and Akoroda, M. O. (2008). Promotion of sweetpotato for the food industry
in Nigeria. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, 14 (No 3) 2008, 300-308 Agricultural Academy.
Saleh, G. (2019). Commercial Ram Fattening Techniques in Nigeria. Ahmadu Bello University Press
Limited, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria. p 5.
Saleh, G and Sanusi, H (2021). Nutritional Potentials of Sweet Potatoes Based Diets on Growth
Performance of Broiler Finishers. Proceedings of 26th Annual Conference of ASAN-NIAS, Uyo,
Nigeria. Pp 272 – 276.
Saleh, G. and Sanusi, H. (2016). Haematological and Serum biochemistry Response of Finisher
Broiler Fed Graded Levels of Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batata) Meal as Replacement for Yellow Maize.
Scientific Journal of Microbiology (2016) 5(9) 128-133. Journal homepage: www.Sjournals.com
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (2018). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kano. This page last edited on
18 March 2018, at 13:29.
Yakubu I. J. (2014). Optimum level of utilization of cooked sweet potato meal (Ipomoea batatas LAM)
in broiler chicken diets. Un-published M.Sc. Dissertation, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of
Agriculture Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. pp 68 – 74.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledged the Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND) on behalf of the Federal
College of Education (Technical) Bichi, Kano State, Nigeria, for the support of this research project.
USE OF IMPROVED GROUNDNUT VARIETIES FOR

IMPROVING LIVELIHOOD OF RESOURCE-POOR
IN WATARI IRRIGATION SCHEME, KANO STATE
Yahaya Umar1
Surajo Isah Aliyu2,
&
Idris Ja,afar Abdullahi3
1&3
Department of Agric. Education,
School of Vocational and Entrepreneur Education,
Kano State College of Education and Preliminary Studies,
P.M.B.3145, Kano - Nigeria.
2Departmentof Agric. Education,
School of Vocational Education,
Federal College of Education (Technical) Bichi,
P.M.B. 3473, Kano State, Nigeria
yahayaumarjafar3@gmail.com
Abstract; Improved groundnut varieties (Samnut 22 and Samnut 25) was introduced to irrigation
farmers under Watari Irrigation Scheme, Kano State. This is because farmers abandon groundnut
production under rain fed because of its low yield and are not skillful in its production under irrigation.
Three varieties were used; two improved varieties and the farmer’s Local variety (kwankwaso).
Recommended agronomic practices were given to three different varieties allocated in Plot A (Samnut
22), Plot B (Local variety), and Plot C (Samnut 25), respectively by the farmers at the same field size
of 0.04ha each. Final yields indicated that the two improved varieties surpassed the local variety in
both pod and haulm yields as evident by the production of 85.10kg of the pod and 208.85kg of haulm
with an economic value of N53,200.00 from plot A, 50.20kg of the pod and 198.20kg of haulm with
economic value of N34, 000.00 from plot C as against 20.05kg of the pod and 74.85kg of haulm with
economic value of N15, 400.00 from plot B. Hence, Samnut 22 variety is high yielding and has more
economic value for both pod and haulm based on the result obtained. Therefore, the adoption of these
varieties would improve the farmer’s productivity, income generation and raise their standard of living.
Keywords: Improved, Varieties, Groundnuts, Samnut 22, Samnut25, Local Varieties.
I. INTRODUCTION
The FAO Statistical Corporate Database indicates that the world's groundnut (Arachis hypogea)
production reached roughly 53.6 million tonnes in 2022, with a harvested area of about 31 million
hectares. Africa contributes to around 14.5 million tonnes which is equivalent to 31.8 % of the world's
production (FAO, 2021 in full). Although groundnut pod yields in Africa are substantially lower (964
kg/ha) than the average global yields (350 kg/ha), Nigeria comes in third place behind China and India
in terms of groundnut production in 2019 with an annual production of 4.5 million tonnes after China
and India (Desmae et al 2022 – not in ref). Nigeria's top groundnut-producing states include Niger,
Kano, Jigawa, Zamfara, Kebbi, Sokoto, Katsina, Kaduna, Adamawa, Yobe, Borno, Taraba, Plateau,
Use of Improved Groundnut Varieties for improving livelihood of resource-poor in Watari Irrigation
Scheme, Kano State
Nasarawa, Bauchi, and Gombe (Garko et al., 2016). In Kano state, 1.5 tons of groundnuts were
produced per hectare on average in 2020 (Onuwa, Mailumo and Muhammed, 2020).
Groundnut is usually grown as a smallholder crop in the semi-arid tropics under rain-fed conditions. It
is an important crop in many countries, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, where it is a good source of
protein (25%-34%), cooking oil (48%-50%), and vitamins. The haulm is a good source of feed for
livestock, especially during the dry season when fresh green grasses are not available. This serves as an
additional source of income for farmers in the dry season when fodder is in high demand (Ajeigbe et.al.,
2015 – write them all for the first time, then subsequently you can use et tal). However, Ajeigbe et.al.,
(2015) further reported that dry season groundnut production plays a key role in the economics of
Nigeria as a basic source of food, income, and employment, especially for farmers in Fadama areas.
The research plan is to introduce improved varieties of groundnut to resource-poor irrigation farmers
under the Watari irrigation scheme because, several local varieties had been cultivated in the area with
minimum output (both pod and haulm).
The introduction of Samnut 22 and Samnut 25 with their agronomic practices would increase both
farmer’s productivity and production for domestic consumption, fodder for livestock and income as
well as raising their living standard. Farmers association in the scheme was used for easy transfer of
ideas and adoption. Information obtained would be useful to farmers of Watari Irrigation Scheme and
all stake holders in groundnut production.
The study area was one of the public irrigation schemes developed by Kano State Government aimed
at increasing crop production and livelihood of rural farmers (Muhammad et al., 2014 – they are only
3, so write them all ). Similarly, ISDP – in full (2022), reported that Watari irrigation scheme has the
potential to increase crop production of rural farmers by providing water for both wet and dry season
farming of major high-value crops. Moreover, KSADP – in full (2021) – (not in ref), report showed that
the Watari irrigation scheme is expected to boost irrigation farming and food security in the state. The
Scheme is located in Watari River valley in Bagwai Local Government which is 18km from Bichi. It is
located on latitude 12.020N and longitude 8.030E in the Valley of Watari River, a tributary of Challawa
River (Nasidi et al., 2016). The soil is predominantly sandy loam with some clay loam, and it has a low
organic matter content and a moderate fertility level (Adamu G. K 2013). The metrological data
obtained from the area indicated an average relative humidity of 33.5% during the dry season and 74.5%
in the wet season, with an average minimum temperature of 140c and an average maximum temperature
of 38.20C. It also has a monthly average precipitation of 66.5mm during the wet season per month
(Muhammad et al., 2014). The scheme is relatively new with most farmers owning their land, small
scale farmers dominate the scheme. Some farmers in the scheme produce crops such as rice, wheat,
vegetables, and legumes (Groundnut and cowpea) (Shanono et al., 2022 – in full).
II. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The broad objective of the study is to introduce improved groundnut varieties to resource-poor farmers
in Watari Irrigation Scheme while the specific objectives are to:
1. Introduce improved groundnut varieties for increasing productivity to watari irrigation
farmers
2. Introduce recommended agronomic practices of producing groundnut under irrigation.
3. Determine the profitability of the groundnut production under irrigation farming.
III. METHODOLOGY
Descriptive statistics was used to achieve objectives one and two. Gross Margin analysis was used to
achieve objective three.
GM = GI – TVC
Where
GM = gross margin
GI = gross income
TVC = total variable cost
Scheme, Kano State
TVC = (X1 + X2 + …….X14)
Where
X1 = cost of land clearing
X2 = cost of seed
X3 = cost of dressing chemical
X4 = cost of ploughing
X5 = cost of ridging
X6 = cost of planting
X7 = cost of weeding
X8 = cost of fertilizer
X9 =cost of irrigation labor
X10 =cost of pesticides
X11= cost of harvesting
X12 =cost of bags
X13=cost of labor
X14= cost of transportation
GI = output x price
Kebbeh et al.(full) (2003) reported that, land in the scheme belongs to the farmers who are organized
in water user association (up to 30 associations per block). The total number of farming families in the
scheme was about 3000 with about 150 registered associations out of which 10 associations were
randomly selected and each was represented by 3 farmers whom were purposely selected based on their
positions and given a sample size of 30 farmers.
The data was collected using documentation of activities during research implementation. Oral
interview and direct observation as well as structured questionnaire were administered. The agronomic
data collected include; number of pod per plant, weight of pod per plant, weight of haulm per plant, pod
yield per plot and haulm yield per plot.
The project introduced the following operation to achieve the objectives.
Site Selection
The field selected for the study was well drained loamy sand soil, very close to water source.
Land Preparation
Hand operated tools such as rakes and cutlasses were used to clear the area. The field area was 10x62m
(0.062ha) and well pegged. It was later divided in to 3 equal plots (A, B and C) with dimension of
10x20m(0.04ha) each, in which plot A carries Samnut 22, plot B carries local variety (Kwankwaso) and
plot C carries Samnut 25, with discard of 1meter between each plot after harrowing, 10.04kg of N P K
15:15:15 and 1.5kg of SSP were mixed up and incorporated in to the soil in which 3.85kg of fertilizer
were applied to 0.04ha each.
Ridging
Ridges were constructed manually at 0.75m width (inter-row spacing).
Planting
The improved groundnut seeds Samnut 22 and Samnut 25 was sourced from Centre for Dry Land
Agriculture Bayero University Kano. It was treated with chemical fungicide melaxyl (apron star). One
sachet (10g) of chemical was used to treat 3kg of seeds. Two seed per hole were sown on ridges at a
depth of about 5cm by hand at intra-row spacing of 20cm.
Weeding/Pest control
Hoe weeding was done at first 3 and 6WAP. Cypermethrin (300ml per 60 liter of water was used
throughout the operation), where 100ml was dissolved in 20 liter of water and sprayed 3times for plant
protection.
Scheme, Kano State
Harvesting
The time of harvesting was chosen that maximum yield of mature pods was obtained. Samnut 25 was
firstly harvested on 18th April, 2022 after slight change of the foliage and pod examination (yellowish
color of leaves, brown and darken veins of inner pods). Secondly, Samnut 22 was harvested on 15th
may, 2022 and finally the local variety on 18th May, 2022.
Drying
Drying was done after threshing. Its aim is to reduce the moisture contents of pod from around 40% to
less than 10%. It is also sensitive not to dry too rapidly or at high temperature. Drying may be either
natural or artificial.
Yield Determination
The two improved varieties have high oil content estimated at 45% s(Samnut 22) and 51.5 %( Samnut
25).The on station potential yield is about 2-2.5t/ha and 2.5-3t/ha (Ajeigbe et al., 2015).
IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The results obtained from the field are discussed in the following tables below;
Agronomic Parameters taken at Demonstration Plots
Table 1. Comparing Average Weight of Pod and Haulm/Plot in (kg)
Varieties Weight of Pod (kg) Weight of haulm (kg)
Local Variety( kwankwaso) 20.05 74.85
Samnut- 22 85.10 208.50
Samnut-25 50.20 198.20
Source: field survey, 2022
Comparing Average Weight of Pod and Haulm/Plot

After harvest, difference in pod/haulm weight between the varieties were compared as shown in Table
1 above. It can be seen that Samnut 22 has the highest pod weight of 85.10kg followed by Samnut 25
with 50.20kg as against Local variety (kwankwaso) with 20.05kg. However, in terms of haulm, Samnut
22 has the weight of 208.50kg followed by Samnut 25 with 198.20kg as against Local variety
(kwankwaso) with 74.85kg. This shows that, Samnut 22 has the highest pod and haulm weight which
signals that adoption of Samnut 22 will increase the income as well as raise standard of living of the
farmers.
Cost and Returns Analysis
Table 2. Farm revenue/commodity sales for variety A
Variables Quantity in (kg) Unit Price(N/kg) Value (N)
Pods 85 500 42,500
Haulm(6bags) 150 72 10,800
GI - - 53,300
TVC - - 16,600
GM - - 16,700
Table 2 shows that N16, 600 was the Total Variable Cost spent for the production of variety A, where
85kg of pods and 150kg(6bags) of haulm where realized and sold at unit price of N500/kg of pod as
well as N72/kg of haulm each. The Gross Income was N53, 300 which gave the Gross Margin of N36,
700. The results indicated that there will be more appreciable price when Samnut 22 variety is adopted
and produced.
Scheme, Kano State
Table 3. Farm revenue/commodity sales for variety B

Variables in (kg) Quantity in (kg) Unit Price( N/kg) Value (N)
Pods 20 500 10,000
Haulm (3bags) 75 72 5,400
GI - - 15,400
TVC - - 15,800
GM - - -400
Table 3 shows that, N15,800 was the Total Variable Cost spent for the production of variety B, where
20kg of pods and 75kg (3bags) of haulm were realized and sold at unit price of N500/kg as well as
N72/kg of haulm each. The Gross Income was N15,400 which gave the Gross Margin of –N400. The
results indicated that, there is no profit rather than loss when farmers continue with the production of
their Local variety (Kwankwaso).
Table 4. Farm revenue/commodity sales for variety C
Variables Quantity in (kg) Unit Price (N/kg) Value (N)
Pods 50 500 25,000
Haulm(5bags) 125 72 9,000
GI - - 34,000
TVC - - 16,300
GM - - 17,700
Table 4 shows that, N16,300 was the Total Variable Cost spent for the production of variety C, where
50kg of pods and 125kg (5bags) of haulm were realized and sold at unit price of N500/kg as well as
N72/kg each. The Gross Income was N34,000 which gave the Gross Margin of N17,700. The results
indicated that, there is profit when Samnut 25 variety is produced.
Table 5. To determine the profitability between variety A, B and C
Varieties Total Variable Gross Income(N) Gross Margin (N)
Cost(N)
Local Variety 15,800 15,400 -400
Samnut- 22 16,600 53,300 36,700
Samnut- 25 16,300 34,000 17,700
Determination of Profitability between varieties A, B, and C
From table 5, the Samnut 22 has higher profit followed by Samnut 25 while total loss was obtained
from local variety (kwankwaso). This indicates that farmers were not getting any economic benefit from
the local variety (kwankwaso) as such; if they adopt improved varieties especially Samnut 22 will raise
their economic status.
V. SUMMARY
The purpose of this research is the introduction of improved groundnut varieties Samnut 22 and Samnut
25 to resource-poor irrigation farmers in Watari Irrigation Scheme Kano State. The research commences
on 18/01/2022. Need assessment was carried out followed by demonstration method of extension which
was used to train a group of 30 farmers in the scheme. The general objectives of the research were to
introduce improved groundnut varieties to resource-poor farmers and to draw their attention towards its
production. Interactions were made with the farmers to share experiences within the farmers group. It
is expected that adoption of the practice would help them to diversify their production level and improve
their economic standard. The demonstration plots were cleared, established and planted. The size of the
Scheme, Kano State
plots was 0.04ha of each variety A, B and C. The seed was planted at 20cm intra and 75cm inter row
spacing, 2 seed were planted in a hole. First and second weeding was carried out at 3WAP and 6WAP,
irrigation was carried out at 7-10 days’ interval. Basal application of N P K 15:15:15 plus SSP was done
during land preparation. A pesticide (Cypermethrin) was applied 3 times at 4WAP, 7WAP and 9WAP.
Harvesting was completed on 18/05/2022.
VI. CONCLUSION
Improved groundnut varieties Samnut 22 and Samnut 25 are high yielding varieties with pod and haulm
yield of 1.3-2.1 t/ha and 4.9-5.2 t/ha respectively. With stronger farmer group adoption of the varieties
especially Samnut 22 based on the result obtained from the study, it can be concluded that, the
innovation has the ability to improve the condition of resource-poor farmers through economic gain by
getting higher yield.
VII. RECOMMENDATION
Samnut 22 Variety is high yielding for both pod and haulm based on the result obtained. Therefore,
with farmer’s group adoption, would improve the farmer’s productivity, income generation as well as
raise their standard of living.
VIII. REFERENCES
Ajeigbe H. A., Farida W., Candidus A. E., Ayuba K., Babu N. M., Damilola E. and Abubakar I.
(2015). A Farmer Guide to Profitable Groundnut Produc-tion in Nigeria, International Crop Research
Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics Kano. oar.icrisat.org/groundnut. Pp 1-27.
Food and Agriculture Organization (2021). African Groundnut Contribution.
Food and Agriculture Organization. (2022). FAO REPORT.
Garko M. S, Mohammed I. B., Yakubu A, I., and Muhammad Z. Y. (2016). Performance of Groundnut
(Arachis hypogea L.) Varieties as influenced by weed control treatments in Kano State of Nigeria.
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publication. – Not cited
ISDP and IAEA (2022). The Global Muslim Philantropy Fund for Children Lives and Livelihood Fund
COP27-Sharm El-Sheikh. – write in full
Kebbeh M., Haefele S. and Fagade S. O. (2003). Challenges and Opportunities for improving Irrigated
Rice Productivity in Nigeria, The Nigerian Rice Econo-my in a competitive World: Constrains,
Opportunities and Strategies Choice, West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA) Abidgan,
Cote- d’I vore. Pp 7
Muhammad D., Garba U. A. and Audu I. (2014). Spatial and Temporal variation of Irrigation water
quality in Watari Irrigation Scheme. Jorind 12(2) ISSN 1596-8308, www.transcampus.org/journals,
www.ajol.info/journal/jorind. Pp 337-338.
Murtala Adewale (2021 November 25), KSADP to boost Irrigation farming with 1000ha expansion
project at Watari.The Guardian newspapehttpss//Guardian,ng/news/ksadp – Not cited
Nasidi N. M., Shanono N. J. and Bello M. M. (2016). Performance Evaluation of Water Conveyance
System at Watari Irrigation Project (WIP) Proceedings of the ISTEMS Multidisciplinary Cross Border
Conference University of Professional Studies, Accra Ghana. Pp 105-110
Onuwa, Mailumo and Muhammed (2020). Profitability Analysis and Determinant of Groundnut
(Arachis hypogea) Production in Danbatta Local Government Kano State, Open Journal of Agricultural
Science Volume I Pp 31- 39.
Shanono N.J.,Usman N. Y.,Muazu H. I.,Dantala Zakari,Umar S. I., Amin S. A. and Nasidi N. (2022).
Sustainability – Based Review of Irrigation Schemes Performance for Sustainable Crop Production in
Nigeria. Recent Advances Pp 73.
CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION IN GENERAL

EDUCATION AND SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION
IN NIGERIA
Zainab Rabe Abdullahi1

&
Mujidat Salahudeen2
1
Department of Learning Disabilities
School of Special Needs Education
2 Department of Curriculum and Instructional Technology,
School of General Education,
zainabrabe@gmail.com
Abstract ; This paper focused on curriculum implementation of general education and special needs
education in Nigeria. The paper therefore examine the concept of general education and curriculum,
special needs education, curriculum implementation in general education and in special needs
education, the paper explain the challenges in curriculum implementation in general and special needs
education which include; lack of teaching participation in decision making and curriculum planning,
lack of sufficient finance, inadequate funds provision, inadequate educational facilities, lack of assistive
technology devices etc. however the paper extremely discuss the effective curriculum implementation
in general and in special needs education, it also highlight the curriculum design in general and in
special needs education. Conclusions were drawn.
Keywords: curriculum, implementation, general education, special needs education
I. INTRODUCTION
A curriculum is a planned sequence of learning experiences. It represents the expression of educational
ideas in practice. Oke and Odetokun (2002), viewed curriculum as a course of study containing the
body of subject matter officially taught in schools. The curriculum is the heart of a student’s educational
experience. The curriculum is a college’s or universities primary means of changing students, directions
valued by the faculty. Curriculum should be reviewed and, if necessary, revised on a regular basis,
better to serve the changing needs of both students and society broadly.
Curriculum encompasses the practice of educational design, based on sound understanding of how
people with and without special needs learn and how they develop as capable individuals with different
subject specialism’s. Learning transforms life changes, and the relationship learners have to the
curriculum is not simply as consumers of educational product. Therefore, special education curriculum
should be planned in a way that would provide opportunities, activities, and experiences for educating
the special needs children.
Curriculum Implementation in General Education and Special Needs Education in Nigeria
II. CONCEPT OF GENERAL EDUCATION AND CURRICULUM

General education refers to educational foundation of skills, knowledge, and habit of mind, and values
that prepares students for success in their majors and their personal and professional lives after
graduation. Curriculum is a guided experience under the guidance of the school. A curriculum means a
plan of what the school intends to do. Neagley and Evans (1967) in Cyril (2000) defines a curriculum
is all the planned experience provided by the school to assist learners maintaining the designated
learning outcomes to the best of their abilities. Taba (1962) defines the curriculum as a plan fry learning,
while Beauchamp (1972) calls the curriculum a document designed to be used as a point of departure
for instructional planning. Okora (2003), has regarded curriculum as the life wire aid the heart of every
educational programme. It is an embodiment of all the knowledge, skills and attitudes which a nation
through her schools, imparts to her citizens. He also viewed curriculum as the vehicle through which
the school strives to achieve educational aids, be they, those of the nation, state or Local Government
or even community, which makes a curriculum a planned and unplanned experiences which learners
receive in the process of their formal or semi-formal education for the purpose of becoming rounded
persons who can make meaning full contributions to the betterment of their society and the world. It is
therefore the blue-print or instrument by which school seeks to translate the hope and values of the
society in which it operates into concrete reality.
III. CONCEPT OF SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION

National Policy on Education (2004) defined Special Needs Education (SNE) as the education of
children and adult who have learning difficulties because of the different kinds of handicaps – blindness,
partial – sightedness, deafness, hardness of hearing, mental retardation, social maladjustment, limb
deformation or malformation etc; due to circumstances of birth, inheritance, social position, mental and
physical health patterns, or accident later in life. As a result, such children and adult are unable to cope
with the regular school class organization and methods. Special needs education in the above definition
is a formal, special educational training given to the people (children and adults) with special needs,
who fall into two categories: the disabled and the gifted and talented. The disabled include the children
and adult with hearing impairment, visual impairment, physical and health impairment, intellectual
disabilities, learning disabilities, multiple handicap… emotional disturbance. On the other hand, the
gifted and talented are in other end of the spectrum of special needs. Their teaching and learning
methods of traditional formal setting may be inappropriate.
Nigeria’s National Policy on Education (2004) stated the three key objectives of special needs education
as to:
1. To give concrete meaning to the idea of equalizing educational opportunities to all children,
disabilities notwithstanding.
2. Provision of adequate education for all people with special needs in order that they may fully
contribute their quota to the development of the nation.
3. Diversified and appropriate curriculum for all the beneficiaries.
IV. CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION IN GENERAL EDUCATION

Lambart and Morgan, (2009), explain that, the past two decades the school curriculum has become
distractive farces at work in the society and will offer to its participant’s the sift of transformation. Its
goal will not be, as it is now, a share variety of experience but self-directed and purposeful changes.
One necessary in its true sense does not means uniformity, but rather unity in diversity in other words
cultural diversity in preserved and protected while the global good and not the local or natural good,
takes priority.
Therefore, the emphasis for curriculum development could include the follows:
1. Consultation as a tool for decision making
2. Ethical and moral principles as guide for actions
3. Egoless evaluation of one’s own strengths and weaknesses.
4. Creative and disciplined initiatives for the common good
5. Using systematic reflection to guide “learning by doing”
6. Investing power and resources into educational activities.

7. Inspiring in others a visionary future based on shared values and principles
8. Fostering relationships based on inter consecutiveness mutuality and service.
Therefore, emphasis in the curriculum should be placed on the students’ moral responsibility to search
for and recognize truth. Such recognition most inevitably leads the students to apply that truth in all
aspect of his/her life.
The curriculum must encourage students to find principles that can serve as the basis for their lives.
These principles will serve as a driving force for their decisions and actions. Also in addition to their
steadfastness to their adopted principles, the curriculum must teach students to remain open to the
investigation of new principles so as to allow for continuing growth in Nigeria secondary schools and
the society as a whole.
V. CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION IN SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION

Azanor et al (2015) explains nine steps that teachers in inclusion classrooms should consider when
adapting their curriculum and instruction to meet the needs of diverse learners; Create a plan for
adapting material, identify and evaluate the demands that student are not meeting, develop goals for
teaching strategies and making adaptations, determine whether content or format adaptations are
needed, identify the features of the materials that need to be adapted, determine the type of adaptation
that will enable the student to the demand, inform students and parents about the adaptation, implement,
evaluate and adjust the adaptation, fade the adaptation when possible.
VI. CHALLENGES IN CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION IN GENERAL AND

SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION
Nigeria is ladened by a number of problem when curriculum implementation is concerned here are some
of the problem declining in the quality of education in Nigeria and it has its challenges in the
implementation of curriculum in Nigeria. In the implementation of regular education curriculum, it is
faced with problems such as; Lack of teacher participation indecision making and curriculum planning,
Lack of sufficient finance, Frequent turnover of teachers, Policy changes, Rapid increase in knowledge,
Review when needed, Poor Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Lack of trained and
well informed teachers, Inflexibility, Unwelcoming attitude to changes, and Many Examination body.
However, in the implementation of special needs education curriculum in Nigeria, the following
challenges have been identified. Ozoji (2005) explains that implementation of special needs education
curriculum it is faced with problems such as; attitude of teachers, society and administrators towards
the education of persons with special needs, lack of assistive technology and devices, inadequate funds
provision, inadequate specially trained personnel e.g sign language and brail list, and architectural
barriers. Ibrahim (2014) added that some challenges hindered effective implementation for special
needs education in Nigeria are; inadequate educational facilities, poor teacher training and poor policy
implementation. However Adesisi, et al (2014) cited the following barriers to special needs education
as they can arise from a government’s failure to make available the needed accommodations and
infrastructural provisions which include; inadequate and unassessed funding, negative attitudes, barriers
of access to education, policy issues, unavailable of facilities, poverty, barriers of parents involvement,
non-implementation and inadequate funding for inclusive education, lack of supporting legislation,
inadequate/unemployment of professionals and administrative barriers.
VII. EFFECTIVE CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION IN GENERAL AND SPECIAL

NEEDS EDUCATION
Effective Implementation of Curriculum at the Secondary School education in Nigeria is as follows:
1. Monitoring colleagues to do their administrative task by head teachers and principles
2. Curriculum should be reviewed periodically.
3. Admission to senior secondary schools should be based on merit.
4. Teachers should be up date and also engage in research.
5. Infrastructure and curriculum should berevamped.
6. Learning curriculum, methodology and environment should be revamped, update and

restructured with qualified and trained teachers.
7. Teachers should be employed based or qualification not connection.
8. Teachers should be paid adequately, and
9. Teachers should be trained and retrained to upgrade their knowledge.
The national center on accessible instructional materials lists several specific strategies that the general
education teacher can use to modify his or her curricula and instructional methods to benefit students
with special needs:
1. Incorporating choices in both assignments and the order in which the students complete the
assignments [reduces off-task behavior].
2. Priming or pre-practice, which is when the teacher previews the assignments or activities, will
help increase attention.
3. Partial participation, or multi-level instruction, allows students to participate in regular class
activities with modified assignments.
4. Giving clear directions will help students understand tasks.
5. Giving appropriate, immediate feedback will help students be aware of what behaviours are
and are not desirable.
VIII. PRINCIPLES FOR CURRICULUM DESIGN IN GENERAL AND SPECIAL

NEEDS EDUCATION
Curriculum should be designed on the basis principles, however Azanor at el (2015) outline seven (7)
principles for curriculum, those principles are as follows:
1. Challenges and enjoyment
2. Breadth
3. Progression
4. Depth
5. Personalisation and choice
6. Coherence
7. Relevance
These principles must be taken into account in designing curriculum for all children and young people
including those with disabilities. They apply to the curriculum both at an organizational level and in the
classroom and in any setting where children and young people are learners. The principle will assist
special and regular education teachers and schools in their practice and as basis for continuing review,
evaluation and improvement.
IX. CONCLUSION
Curriculum is a plan of learning which usually contains statement of aims and specific objectives, which
indicate some selection and organization of content, and which implies or manifest a certain pattern of
learning and teaching (ie methodology) it also include a programme of evaluation of outcome. Essential
curriculum involves the determination of the behavioural changes expected of the learners (objectives)
what consideration the child has to study in school? How such could be studies? (process/methodology)
where the study will take place? (context or environment) and finally how to learning will be evaluated.
X. REFERENCE
Adesisi, O. R., Jerry, E. J., Rasaki, A. S., & Igwe, N. E. (2014). Barriers to Special Needs Education
in Nigeria. International Journal of Education and Research. 2 (11), 453-458.
Azanor, F. O., Isola, S. A. & Ajobiewe, T. A. (2015) Essential of special needs education: A practice
guide of teachers. Pee & Gee: Press and Publishers.
Douglas, O., Mwaokugha, and Maggalin, M. (2017). Corruption in the Education Industry in Nigeria:
Implication for National Development.
Durojaie, F. (2017). Corruption and Education in Nigeria Retrieved from sunnewsonline.com
2017/31/10 - 17.
Federal Government of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education. Lagos: NERDC press.
Ibrahim, K. (2014). Challenges Hindering Effective Implementation of Inclusive Education in

Nigeria. National Journal of Inclusive Education. 2(1), 103-104.
Lambert, M., and Morgan, J. (2009). Corrupting the Curriculum? The case of Geography: Lodan
review of Education, 2009. 7 (2) Retrieved from www. Ingentaacooeat.com,1/11/2017.
Lawal, G. and Tobi, A. (2006). Bureaucratic Corruption Good Governance and Development. The
Challenges and Prospects Institution Building in Nigeria in. Journal of Applied Sciences Research. 2
(10), pp 642-649.
Nicholls state university. (2019). what is General Education https://www.nicholls.edu
Okorafor, A. O., Okorafor, P. N., Wogu, S. N. (2017). Effect of Nigeria Political Dispensation and
Curriculum and Instruction atthe Tertiary Institution. Retrieved from: https:www.research gate.net
24/10/2017.
Okorafor, P. N. (2003). The Essential of Curriculum. Owerri crown Publisher, Ltd
2003.
Ozoji, E. D. (2005). Introduction to Special Needs Education and Rehabilitation for Beginner
Professionals. Jos: Deka Publication.
Oke, C. S. & Odetokun, A. A. (2002). Curruculum development. Ibadan: publications.
Ojiade, F. (2000). The professional Accountant and anti-corruption crusade in
ICAN News July/September.
Stephen, P. (2002). Education and Corruption: Presented to the International
Forum at Annual Meeting of the Association for the study of Higher Education (ASHE), Califonia.
Tirana, A. (2012). Education against Corruption: A Mammal for Teachers:
Project Ahainst Corruption in Albania (DACA).
Uche, N. (2009). Information and Communication Technology (ICT), in Teaching and Learning,
2009. Journal of Curriculum Thory and Practice. Top Goddy Nigeria Ltd.
World Bank, (1998). Partnerships for Development: Proposed actions for the World Bank; A
discussion paper. 20th May, wash ton DC. Word Bank.
PRODUCTION OF BIOETHANOL FROM SORGHUM STALK

GROWN IN KAURA NAMODA
HASSAN A.B1, *;
AHMED ALI ABBAS1;
AHMED UMAR1;
HUSSAINA O. TANKO1;
YEMISI ADEGBOYE1
&
AUGUSTINA OBUCHI1
1
Department of Science Laboratory Technology
School of Science and Technology
The Federal Polytechnic, Kaura Namoda
Zamfara State - Nigeria
Abstract: The potentials of sorghum stalk as an alternation crop for ethanol production was
investigated in this study. Initially, the enzymatic hydrolysis of sorghum stalk was optimize, and the
hydrolysate produced under optimal condition was used for ethanol production with an industrial strain
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, resulting in an enthanol concentration. The sorghum stalk was submitted to
acid pretreatment for hemicelluloses removal and hydrolysis and flocculant strain of Saccharomyces
cerevisiae was to evaluate fermentability of the hemicellelosic hydrolysate. This process yielded an
ethanol concentration.
Keywords: Bioethanol, Grown, Kaura Namoda Production, Sorghum Stalk
XI. INTRODUCTION
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) also known as great millet, durra, jowai, jowar, or milo is a grace species
cultivated for its grain, which is used for food for humans, animal feed, and ethanol production.
Sorghum originated in Africa, and is now cultivated widely in tropical and sub-tropical region. Sorghum
is the world’s fifth-most important cereal crop after rice, wheat, maize, and barley, with 59.34 million
metric tons of animal global production in 2018 s. bicolor is typically an annual, but some cultivars are
perennial. It grows in clumps that may reach over 4m high. The grain is small, ranging from 2 to 4mm
in diameter. Sweet sorghum are sorghum cultivars that are primarily grown for forage syrup production
and ethanol: they are taller than those grown for grain.
The leading producers of S. bicolor in 2011 were Nigeria (12.6%). Mexico (11.2%), and the united state
(10,0%). Sorghum grows in a wide range of temperatures, high altitudes and toxic soils. And can
Production of Bioethanol from Sorghum Stalk Grown in Kaura Namoda
remove growth after some drought. It has five features that make it one of the most drought resistant
crops.
It has a very large root-to-leaf surface are ratio
In times of drought, it rolls it leaves to lesson water loss by transpiration
If drought continues, it goes into dormancy rather than dying
Its leaves are protected by a waxy cuticles
It uses c4 carbon fixation thus using only a third the amount of water that the plants require.
Sorghum in the United States was first recorded by Ben Franklin in 1757. Richard Pankhusted (1907)
reports that in 19th century Ethiopia durra was “often the first crop grown on newly cultivated land’’
explaining that this cereal did not require the thorough ploughing other crops did, and its root not only
decomposed into a good fertilizer, but they also helped to break up the soil while not exhausting the
subsoil.
Biomass is organic materials that are made from plants and animals and it is a renewable source of
energy. Biomass contains stored energy from the sun. Plants absorb the sun energy in a process called
photosynthesis. When biomass is burned, the chemical energy in biomass is released as heat. Biomass
can be burned directly or converted to liquid biofuels or biogas that can be burned as fuels here and
some example of biomass and there uses for energy, wood and wood processing wastes it burned to
heat building to produced process that in industry and to generate electricity.
Agricultural crops and wastes materials – burned as a fuel or converted to liquid bio-fuels, food, yard
and wood wastes in garbage-burned to generate electricity in power plants. Converting biomass to
energy, solar biomass, such as wood and garbage can be burned directly to produce heat. Biomass can
also be converted into a gas called biogas or into liquid bio-fuel such as ethanol and biodiesel. These
fuels can then be burned for energy (Knight and Chris, 2013). Sorghum is cultivated in many parts of
the world today. The grain finds use as human food, making liquor, animal food, or bio-based ethanol.
Sorghum grain contains gluten free. High in resistant search and more abundant and diverse phenolic
compounds compared to other major cereal crops.
Ethanol is either produced from petroleum or biomass that is often referred to as bio-ethanol include
corn, switch grass sugarcane or other biomass, the feedstock undergo fermentation during which contain
species of yeast digest the sugar contained in the feedstock. The process release bio-ethanol and carbon
dioxide ethanol is mainly produced in Brazil, United States, Europe and south African (Urbarkchuk et
al., 2005).
Bio-based ethanol in Australia, south America, and the united stated ,sorghum grain is used primarily
for livestock feed and in a growing numbers of ethanol plants in some countries, sweet sorghum stalks
are used for producing bio-fuel by squeezing the juice and then fermenting it into ethanol.
Statement of Problem
In the recent past, there has been a serious concerned about air pollution arising from combustion of
fossils fuel leading to increase in greenhouse gases (GHLIS). Consequently, it has become necessary to
evaluate alternative energy sources that are renewable, sustainable, efficient, cost effective, convenient
and safe. Continuous burning of fossils fuel increased emission of greenhouse gasses to the atmosphere
and causes global warming. As a result, renewal and non-food competitive feedstock such as sorghum
stalk is desirable for the production of alternative fuel.
Several biomasses had been exploited as alternative energy source. However, production of bio-ethanol
from stalks of sorghum grown in Kaura Namoda is yet to be documented. It is believed that this project
work will not only solve or minimize the negative effect of combustion from fossils fuel but will
additionally address the environmental issues arising from indiscriminate dumping of this waste from
the large sorghum farm in Kaura Namoda.
Aim of the Study

This research work is aimed at producing bio-ethanol from stalk of sorghum grown in Kaura Namoda.
Objectives of Study
1. To determine the concentration of simple sugar produced from hydrolyzed stalk sorghum
grown in Kaura Namoda before and after hydrolysis.
2. To determine the concentration of bio-ethanol produced from sorghum stalk grown in Kaura
Namoda.
II. MATERIALS AND METHOD
1. Source of Material
Maize cobs were collected from the farm area of Kaura Namoda town.
2. Equipment
Weighing balance, Heating mantle
3. Reagents
H2SO4 Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Yeast) purchased from Nigerian chemical market and Acetate
buffer (prepared in the lab).
All other chemicals and reagents are obtained from the SLT Department, Federal Polytechnic Kaura
Namoda’s Laboratory.
Methods of Collection and Preparation
The sorghum stalk was obtained from the farm area around Kaura Namoda. The sorghum stalk was
thoroughly wasted with water, and was allowed dried for three day. It was pounded into fine material
using mortar and pestle. The fine material was sealed in a polythene bag then transported to school
laboratory for further process as required.
Sample Pre-treatment
40g of the sorghum stalk was weighted and added to a conical flask containing 500 ml distilled water.
Acid Treatment
H2SO4 was prepared and was added to the mixture, the mixture was emptied into a round bottom flask
of 100 ml. The content was stirred vigorously and later subjected to heating at 120℃ for 120mins. It
was removed and allowed to cool. After that it was thoroughly washed using running tap to wash out
acid. Litmus paper (blue) was used to test the absence of acid. The sample was allowed to dry under
room temperature for 24 hrs in preparation for alkali treatment. This was preceded by spectro-
photometric test to determine the glucose level.
Alkali Treatment
NaOH (1 M) was prepared and added 500ml distilled water in a conical flask. The dried sample was
also added to the mixture and stirred before it was poured into round bottom flask. This was also
subjected to heating at 120 ℃ for 1 hr. It was removed and was allowed to cool. The sample was
thoroughly washed with a running tap water to wash out the base. Litnus paper (red) was used to test
alkalinity. It was filtered and was allowed to dry under room temperature. After this, spectrophotometric
test was carried out to determine glucose level.
Figure1: Flow chart for the production process
XII. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Table 1: Concentration of glucose after acid and alkaline treatment
Treatment Glucose Concentration (mg/dl)
Acid 14.61±0.3
Alkali 23.10±0.01
Table 1 shows the results obtained from ethanol production using sorghum stalk as raw material.
It has been reported by earlier researchers that pre-treating biomass with both acid and alkaline enhances
the ethanol yield (Goshadrou et al., 2011). In their findings, the yield of hydrolysis of native bagasse
effectively improved after sodium hydroxide and concentrated sulphuric acid pretreatments. This is
attributable to a corresponding increase in the concentration of reducing sugar content of the bagasse.
Similar result was obtained in the present work as shown.
Result obtained from hydrolysis and fermentation of the reducible sugar to ethanol is shown in Table
II. A high yield of ethanol was recorded as a result of the moderately high concentration of glucose
generated from the pretreatment activity. An ethanol yield of 84% was obtained (Table II), indicative
of the fact that the biomass raw material used in this research is a promising alternative source of bio-
ethanol.
Ethanol fermentation from crude enzymes hydrolyzed sorghum stalk was analyzed in the present
research and results were given in Fig-1. The reducing sugar content was recorded maximum after 60
hours. Problems associated with the hydrolysis process need more improvements in order to reduce the
operating cost for an ethanol-producing plant that uses wood waste as feedstock. Furthermore, large
amounts of exogenous enzymes are required.
Table 2: Percentage of ethanol concentration obtained
Sorghum stalk Ethanol Concentration (%)

Ethanol 84
Table 2 and Appendices I-III show the results obtained for the various analysis performed and their
corresponding calibration curves. The findings of the present work corroborate findings of earlier
researchers. It has been established from the present work that biomass from locally grown cereals could
be useful as second generation bio-ethanol precursors.
Effect of pH Fermentation
In this present result as obtained 23.82 in Table (3). It prove that pH play a significant influences in
fermentation. According to Yul et al., (2015) a constant temperature of 37℃ and pH 4.0 - 4.5 are the
optimal range for bioethanol production. The present work was determined at room temperature similar
to the temperature proposed by earlier researchers; hence the result obtained in this study is within the
optimal range for Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Yeast). Consequently, maximum yield of ethanol is
achieved within a pH range of 4.0-4.5 (Barcelo et al., 2012). Therefore, at extremely low pH or
temperature, ethanol production is at its minimum. Enzymes are sensitive to temperature, and at high
temperature they are denatured (Kurma et al.. 2016).
XIII. CONCLUSION
The present study demonstrated that sorghum stalk is promising after natural energy crop for bio-
ethanol production that can make large contribution to the economic enhancement to our community if
properly harnessed also it will contribute to the global greenhouse revolution. This bagasse of sugarcane
littered our street corners dusts and sugarcane have short period of growth and it is almost all season
crop.
It was further suggested that the present research work concluded that sorghum stalk is not just an
alternative source of renewable energy but also a source of income generation to the community if
interested.
XIV. REFERENCES
Richard Pankhusted, biochemistry six edition, (Freemantha and Company, London, 1907)
Knight and Chris, Becoming the New Biofuel of Choice Available Online: http://duelingfuels.
com/biofuels/non-food-biofuels/algae-biofuel.php# more115N (accessed 04.07.16). (2013).
Urbarkchuk et al., Fuel Processing Technology 2005).Orerenl, R.P, (2001)., 71, 187 - 195.
Goshadrou et al., 2011., J.N., Lopes, C.E, De Franca. P, International Sugar Journal, 65, 1988, 405-410.
Yul et al., New Method for Micro determination of Amylase activity by the use of amylose as the
substrate (2015) (1954)., J. Biochem 41, 583- 603.
(Barcelo et al., The Physiology of Fungal Nutrition, Cambridge University press, Cambridge 2012).
(1995).. Pp 329-394.
(Kurma et al.. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research 2016). (2009)., 48, 3713- 3729.
Luccro, Pen alver, E. Moreno, Laguna, R Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66, 4456-4461.
(2000).,
McMerdun, T.A, Olley, J., Ratkusky, D.A, Ross, T./ International Journal Food Microbiology
73, 395-407. (2002).,
Misono, H.M., Yamaguchi, Y. Fermentation Technology 8, 210-218 Narendranath, N.V., Thomas,
K.C., Ingledew, W. M. (2001). Journal of American Society of Brewing Chemists, , 59, 187-194.
(1990),
Narendranath, N. V., Applied and Environmental Mcrobiology 71, 2239-2243. (2005).
Nigam, J,N., Journal of Biotechnology 72, 197-202. (1999).,
Pandey, A., Soccol, C.R., Nigam, P., Soccol, V.T. Biotechnological
Potential of agro-industrial residues (2000).1. sorghum stalk, Bioresour. Technol. 74, 69-80.
Phisala P. M., Srirattana, N. Tarthapanichakoon, W. Biochemistry Journal 28, 36-43. (2006).
Pramanik, K. Institution Chemistry Engineers 34, 487-492 (2003),
Redzepovie, S. Orlie, S, Sikira, S., Majdak, A. Pretorius, I. S Whiley Inter-science Journal 350. (2002).,
Rivera, M., Cardona, C.A., The Biotechnology of Ethanol Classical and Future Applications Ingenies
1'a Competitividad, 6, 17-25Roehr, M., (2006).
Saxena, R. C., Adhikari, D.K., Goyal, H.B. Renewable and sustainable Energy Reveiws 13, 167-
178. (2009).,
Rohowsky, B., Habler, T., Gladis, A., Remmele, E. Schleder, D. Faulstich, M Feasibility of
Simultaneous Saccharification and juice co-fermentation of hydrothermal pretreated sweet sorghum
bagasse for ethanol production, Appl. Energy 102, 211-219. (2013).
Southerland, W, M Foundation of Medicine Biochemistry church Livingstone Inc. New York.
(1990),
Sluiter, A. Hames, B. Ruiz, R. Scarlata, C. Sluiter, J. Tenpleton, D. Crocker, D. Determination of
Structural Carbohydrates and Lignin in (2008).
Biomass. NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory Laboratory Analytical Procedure (LAP). Issue
Date: 4/25/2008,.
Togarepi, E., Mapiya, C. Muchanyerayi, N., International journal of Biochemistry Research &
Review 2(2), 60-69. (2012).,
Torija, M.J., Roze's, N., Poblet, M, Guillamo, N., (2003) Mas, Antonic can lee uwn hock, 79,
345-352.
Yadav, B. Sheoran, A. Tan, U., Singh, D., Indian Journal Microbiology 37, 65-67 (1997).,
Taherzadeh, M. T., Karimi, K. Pretreatment of Ligno cellulose waste to improve ethanol and Biogas
Production 1 review Int. Vol. Sci 9(9), 1621-1651. (2008)
Taherzadeh, M. T., Karimi, K. Enzyme Base Hydrolysis Process for ethanol from cellulosic
materials Review Bioresources 2(4) 707-738 (2007).
Mosier, N., Wyman, C., Dale, B. Elander, R., Lee, Y. Holtzapple, M. Ladisch, M. Features of
Promising Technologies for pretreatment of lignocellulose biomas Bioresource. Technol, 96 96), 673-
686. (2005).
Wanga, L., Luo, K., Shahbazi, A. Optimization of simultaneous saccharification and fermentation for
the production of ethanol from sweet sorghum (sorghum bicolor) bagasse using response surface
methodology Ind. Crop Prod. 42, 280-291. (2013).
Woods, J. The Potential of Energy Production using Sweet Sorghum in Southern Africa, Energy Sustain
Dev 5(1), 31-38. (2001).
Zanin, G.M., Santana, C.C., Bom, E.P.S., Giodano, R.C.L., De Morals, F.F. Andrietta, S.R. Brazillian
Bioethanol program, Appl Biochem. Biotechnol. 84-86, 1147-1161. (2000).
GENDER DISABILITY AND INCLUSION BIAS: A BARRIER

IN ACHIEVING INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN NIGERIA
Zainab Rabe Abdullahi1

Department of Learning Disabilities
School of Special Needs Education
08039274884; zainabrabe@gmail.com
Abstract: Education is a fundamental right for all children, including those with disability, Women and
girls with disabilities however are subjected to double discrimination, sexism as well as disability bias.
They may be more vulnerable to paucities and social exclusion, and often have limited social, political
and economic opportunities and lack of access to basic services. Inclusive Education is an important
transformative agent that enhances the status of an individual in a society. It has also been recognized
as a fundamental strategy employed for development. Hence, inclusive quality education for the girl
child is not just an objective in itself, but a fact to accelerate political, social and economic advancement
of a society. Therefore, this paper explains how gender and inclusion bias turn out to be a barrier to
achieving inclusive education in Nigeria; it briefly highlights how Girls with disabilities are
particularly affected because of the intersection of gender inequality and disability discrimination,
education, Girls with disabilities are likely to have received less education than both non-disabled girls
and boys with disabilities. Barrier on disable girl’s child education had been discussed as well as
Barrier in achieving Inclusive Education in Nigeria. the paper provide proffer recommendations on
how effective Inclusive education can be an educational paradigm which possesses the capacity to
accomplish school accessibility, equality, and quality for all; regardless of differences or
circumstances, also inclusive education policies at the national and sub nationals can play in ensuring
all disable girls attain the basic educational level without discrimination or prejudice, and also to
improve inclusive education in Nigeria which includes: eliminating gender and inclusive disparity in
enrollment of students and also Collaborating with Government and all stakeholders in ensuring strict
implementation of policies and laws for gender sensitivity, creating national awareness in inclusive
education and advocate for increase political and financial commitments through encouragement and
sensitization of policy makers at all levels, parents, school authorities, other leaders and disable groups
themselves.
Keywords: Gender disability, Inclusion bias, Barriers, Inclusive Education, Nigeria
I. INTRODUCTION
People with disabilities are one of the world’s most marginalized sections of society. They face various
forms of discrimination in their daily life and are often excluded from social and political participation.
There is very little evidence that addresses the intersectional marginalization of girls with disabilities.
Discrimination is an enduring issue for all people with disabilities. Women and girls with disabilities
however, are subjected to double discrimination, sexism as well as disability bias. Needless to say,
women and girls of color who are disabled face a third layer of bias in the form of racism. (Froschl,
Rubin & Sprung, 1999). An estimated 1 billion people live with disabilities globally, and the disabled
population is considered the largest minority in the world and is increasing over time (WHO & World
Bank, 2018). Disability is a human rights issue (Mason, 2006) because people with disabilities
(henceforth PwDs) encounter disparities in their rights to health, education, employment, civil and
Gender Disability and Inclusion Bias: A Barrier in Achieving Inclusive Education in Nigeria
political participation because of their condition. Furthermore, there have been stances where the PwDs
have been subjected to forced sterilization, abandonment, regarded as lawfully incompetent, etc. (Tilley
et al., 2012). It is evident that people with disabilities do not have equal access to health care, education
and employment, etc. (WHO, 2011). They are more likely to be unemployed and generally earn less
even when employed (Mitra et al., 2011; Burchardt, 2005; Coleridge, 2005; Emmett, 2006).
They face unequal opportunities in education due to gender- and disability-related stereotypes, violence
and bullying against girls with disabilities, and physical, geographic, and informational barriers to
school attendance. (UNICEF, 2007; Rousso, 2003). As a result, girls with disabilities are less likely to
enroll in education, and have lower of attendance and completion rates, making disability one of the
most prominent factors in educational marginalization (Clarke & Sawyer, 2014). The girl-child
education in Nigeria from historical, social and economic viewpoint has unequal access to education in
relation to her male-child counterpart. This inequality could be due to the early sex role of the girls,
which influence the conceptualization of their later status, and occupational inclination. In most culture
in Nigeria, the female-child only played as subordinate role to the male child. The female-child is
neglected right from birth. The accessibility of schools can be a significant hindrance to girls’ enrolment
and retention in school. (Bichi & Imam, 2020) Female students with disabilities confront challenges
that differ from those faced by their peers, especially as they prepare to leave high school. (Froschl,
Rubin & Sprung, 1999).
II. CONCEPT OF GENDER DEFINITIONS

Gender refers to the expectations that people have from someone because they are male or female. It is
the socially constructed relationship between men and women. Thus Gender refers to the socio –
cultural definitions of man and woman and the way society assigns social roles. Gender refers to the
differences between women and men within the same household and between cultures that are socially
and culturally constructed and change over time. (Hans & Mohanty, 2016).
Gender and Disability

Both gender and disability have both traditionally been seen as a product of biology. Gender as a result
of biology has been thought to determine all manner of social behaviors on the part of men and women.
In a similar way disability as biology has been seen as determining disabled people's choices and
behaviors. The intersection of disability and gender is often analysed in terms of the prevalence of
disability amongst women and girls, and the impact of the ‘double’ or multiple discriminations
experienced by women and girls with disabilities. An estimated 19% of women have a disability,
compared to 12% of men, and in the global South, women constitute three quarters of people with
disabilities. A gendered analysis suggests that this higher prevalence is a result of social and cultural
norms relating to gender, including systemic exclusion from health care and education, poorer nutrition
and gender-based violence. (Institute of development studies, 2020).
Women and girls with disabilities are more likely to face discrimination and exclusion than people
without disabilities and compared with men and boys with disabilities. Women and girls with
disabilities are at a greater risk than those without disability of exclusion from screening for and
diagnosis of health problems. They face a number of barriers to accessing sexual and reproductive
healthcare and enjoyment of family life. Women with disabilities often have less access to assistive
devices, which are often not designed with their needs in mind. Women with disabilities experience
difficulties in relation to access to water and sanitation. Girls with disabilities are least likely to have
completed primary education, putting them at most risk of being left behind from early on. Women with
disabilities are much less likely to be in work than men with disabilities (20.1% compared to 58.6%)
and tend to earn less than men with disabilities, contributing to an increased risk of poverty. Women
with disabilities are twice as likely to experience domestic violence and other forms of gender-based
and sexual violence as non-disabled women. (Gender and disability in practice, 2020)
Furthermore, it is important to note that women with disabilities in Nigeria experience a wide variety
of discrimination and stereotypes about their capabilities and roles in society that are distinct from other
women and from men with disabilities. Women with disabilities face higher rates of unemployment and
increased barriers to receiving income support, and they are also more likely to live in poverty than men
with disabilities. They also experience lower rates of education and less access to proper hygiene and
care services. For instance, due to gender-based discrimination, women in Nigeria are valued less than
men with disabilities, because men with disabilities can still inherit property and land, carry on the
family name, and make family decisions. (Bamidele & Emmanuelar, 2021). Women and girls with
disabilities experience higher rates of gender-based violence, sexual abuse, neglect, maltreatment and
exploitation than women and girls without disabilities.
Women and Girls with Disabilities and Development
Women and girls with disabilities are estimated to represent up to 20 percent of the world’s female
population, the majority living in less economically developed countries, yet are under-represented and
under-served in every aspect of the international development field. Women with disabilities offer an
untapped resource for international development, as partners, staff and beneficiaries. They are under-
represented and under-served in every aspect of the international development field and are denied
significant participation in community projects, human rights organizations and international
development programs. (Hans & Mohanty, 2016).
Even among the disabled population, women with disabilities (henceforth WwDs) tend to be more
vulnerable due to gender disparity. ‘Women with disabilities suffer double discrimination, both on the
grounds of gender and of impairment. The social status of disabled women varies according to
individual circumstances and the community in which they live. (Froschl, Rubin & Sprung, 1999).
However, UNICEF (2013), added that, Girls with disabilities are disproportionately vulnerable to
discrimination and exclusion. The WHO World Report on Disability estimates that more females than
males are disabled over the course of their lifetimes due to factors such as poorer working conditions,
poorer access to quality health care, violence and childbirth. Girls with disabilities suffer a double
discrimination facing not only the stigma, prejudice and inequities encountered by many persons with
disabilities, but also exclusion as a consequence of gender discrimination. This makes them less likely
than either boys with disabilities or girls without disabilities to obtain health care, get an education,
receive vocational training, find employment or benefit from full inclusion in the social, political or
economic lives of their families. Girls and young women with disabilities are more likely to be
institutionalized. They are at increased risk of forced marriage, forced sterilizations and forced abortions
and are more likely to experience emotional, physical and sexual violence with increased risk to HIV
both within and beyond the household. Although girls with disabilities are less likely to marry, a
growing body of data shows that the majority of girls with disabilities will have children of their own.
Despite this, little is done to prepare them for relationships, or provide them with family planning
information so they can make their own decisions about when and with whom they have a family. They
often also receive little information on how to take care of their own children.
Disabled Girls’ Education
Disabled women are thought not to be usually married with families and paid jobs like their male
counterparts. Buttressing this, is stating that ladies are the more nurturing sex and they may be less
hesitant to accept date from disabled men than non-disabled men would do for disabled girls Obi (2007)
in Bamidele and Emmanuelar (2021). This is also recognized as why disabled boys are more readily
identified for education and self-sufficiency. Reiterating that: “women with disabilities are likely to
have received less education than both non-disabled women and men with disabilities. Women with
disabilities are five times as likely as women without disabilities to have less than eight years of formal
education; 17.4 percent of all women with disabilities have less than eight years of formal education as
compared to 3.5 percent of non-disabled women. Only 16 percent of all women with disabilities are
likely to have any college education compared to 31 percent of non-disabled women and 28 percent of
men with disabilities.” Obi (2007) in Bamidele and Emmanuelar (2021), further reveals that disabled
boys count for 51% of all learners in primary and secondary schools, up to 75% in special education
classes, and less than 10% of the total school age children. Judging from the above statistics, it becomes
glaring that disabled girls are educationally underrepresented. However, the reasons remain unknown.
Whereas pupils’ gender and education has been studied in Nigeria (Maduagwu, Carew, Fajonyomi, and
Maduagwu, 2014)
According to the 2011 World Disability Report 50.6% of males with disabilities have completed
primary school, compared with 61.3% of males without disabilities. Females with disabilities report
41.7% primary school completion compared to 52.9% of females without disabilities. Adult literacy
rates are extremely low, especially for women with disabilities. (Institute of development studies, 2020)
Research shows that 96% of boys have access to education compared to only 4% of girls. This was
attributed to a number of factors such as gender discrimination in favor of boys, sexual violence against
girls, and cultural rigidity against the girl child among others. (Gender and disability in practice, 2020)
III. BARRIER ON DISABLE GIRL’S CHILD EDUCATION
Barriers to girls’ education and gender parity in education are deeply entrenched in social norms and
reflected in institutional constraints and inadequate legislation and policies. Schools tend to mirror
patriarchal structures and reinforce traditional gender roles and stereotypes. (United nation girl’s
education initiative, 2017) Girls with disabilities are among the world’s most marginalized groups as a
result of social norms and cultural bias around both gender and disability. They have limited educational
opportunities and there is a lack of focus on them in education programming. There is also consistent
reference to girls with disabilities dropping out, more than boys, and often due to gender related
challenges. Cultural bias and rigid gender roles are the most frequently mentioned barriers to education
for girls with disabilities, especially around the expectation that they will not get a job or marry. Other
barriers include stigma, long distances from rural homes to schools without transport, inaccessible
school infrastructure (including WASH facilities), overprotection, lack of access to rehabilitation and
assistive devices, the increased risk of violence and harmful practices, early marriage, lack of positive
representation and role models, teacher training and attitudes, and low expectations. (IDS, 2020).
This perpetuates gender inequalities in each generation of school-going children are:
1. Inadequate legal frameworks and lack of policy enforcement mean that girls are often not
registered at birth. They are therefore not eligible for school enrolment or examinations.
2. Families often resist sending their daughters to school for fear of their safety and protection
from sexual violence, or because they don’t see the value of education for girls who are meant
to marry and focus on care for home and families.
3. Other social norms around traditional division of labour expect girls to take on unpaid care (e.g.
for siblings) and domestic work.
4. School-related gender-based violence is a major reason for children dropping out of school,
with girls experiencing predominantly sexual violence, and boys more often physical violence
from teachers, staff and peers. School-related gender based violence can occur during travel to
and from school and at school (empty classrooms, toilets, playgrounds).
5. Lack of appropriate sanitation, especially in the context of menstruation, accounts for girls
dropping out or regularly interrupting their education.
6. The consequences of sexual violence and harmful practices such as early marriage and Female
Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) coupled with an inflexible curriculum prevent girls from
returning to education, especially when they are pregnant or have small children.
7. Teachers’ expectations are often gendered and reinforce gender stereotypes and patriarchal
structures. Curriculum material and learning and teaching processes reflect malecentred
perspectives and power hierarchies.
8. Learning outcome differences (numeracy, literacy) between girls and boys are dependent on
location, poverty/wealth level, type and severity of disability, and ethnicity. Disparities are
often reinforced by gender stereotyping.
9. In some countries girls’ education is deliberately targeted, e.g. in Afghanistan, Nigeria, and
Pakistan. This results in girls being physically harmed or removed from school for their safety.
In regions of conflict and where people are displaced and separated from their homes and
families, girls are at even higher risk of losing out on an education.
However, United Nation Girls Initiative (2017) explain barriers in achieving inclusive education for
girls with disabilities as follows:
1. Enrolment
Cultural bias and rigid gender roles are the most frequently mentioned barriers to education for girls
with disabilities. It is often assumed that girls with disabilities will not marry. This can contribute to
further devaluation of a family in societies where girls are clearly of lesser value. As a result, girls with
disabilities are often hidden to avoid the associated shame and ostracism. A study in rural Iran, where
farming is the primary activity, emphasises the intersection between gender, disability and rurality
where educational opportunities are limited to begin with, and traditional patriarchal gender beliefs
further reduce educational chances for girls with disabilities. Education is seen as having the purpose
of getting a job. As girls in general, and girls with disabilities in particular, are not expected to work,
there is no perceived need for education. Their role will be entirely focused on unpaid care and domestic
work while being financially dependent on fathers and brothers.23 Economics are therefore connected
to gender roles. In impoverished families, resources have to be carefully managed. The value of
education (and subsequent investment) is most often reserved for boys as they are expected to return
the investment at some point by supporting the family. Boys with disabilities may still be expected to
marry and become breadwinners, and are therefore more likely to be sent to school than girls with
disabilities (and sometimes girls without disabilities).24 A study in the Middle East found that with
more resources available at family level, and precisely because they are not expected to marry and fulfil
the traditional roles of mothers and wives, girls with disabilities are given greater freedom and have
therefore greater access to education and vocational training. Because of the perceived lack of
traditional value, there is no fear for her safety as it is assumed that the disability renders her invisible
or undesirable.25 However, there is not enough global research on how and in which contexts wealth
influences the freedom of girls with disabilities to establish if the study is an isolated finding or
representative of access to education for girls with disabilities from middle and upper class families
2. Distance and transport
In rural areas, schools are more likely to be at a considerable distance from home, which would either
require boarding, long walks or costly transport. Overprotection of girls with disabilities often means
that they are kept at home because parents want to keep them close by. Even transport to schools close
to home may be necessary for a girl with limited mobility or a visual impairment. Gender bias in access
to rehabilitation and assistive devices such as wheelchairs, prosthetic and orthotic devices, means that
women and girls with disabilities are referred and fitted out less often than men and boys. Girls are
dependent on family members to carry them, or provide escort for safety and cultural reasons, which is
prohibitive in regard to time investment and costs, especially when parents are poor, and need to pursue
livelihoods.
3. Inaccessible infrastructure, toilet facilities and assistance
The absence of accessible school buildings and classrooms is a barrier for all children with disabilities.
Lack of accessible and/or separate toilets and washing facilities place a particular burden on girls with
disabilities who may need assistance with toileting, and menstruation management. A girl’s need for
help with such personal tasks is of concern especially in societies where modesty is emphasised. Lack
of provisions that may help girls with (and without) disabilities to manage their periods in a safe way
may reinforce stereotypical and negative attitudes about girls’ inability to function as students.
4. Violence and harmful practices
Whilst sexual violence is a potential risk for all girls, and to some degree boys, girls with disabilities
experience violence at much higher rates, and at more severe and chronic levels than their non-disabled
peers within the family, institutions, and the community. Girls with disabilities are perceived as
helpless, asexual and powerless and are therefore at particularly high risk, especially in residential
school settings. Girls with disabilities lack general education and sexual health education. They may
not recognise risks or know how to respond to sexual harassment or violence. Girls with intellectual
and hearing disabilities are the most at-risk groups of girls to experience sexual violence. Girls with
disabilities are less likely to report abuse, and if they do they are often considered not credible,
especially if they have a sensory, intellectual, or psycho-social impairment. The disability and gender
bias exhibited by authorities, e.g. police and community leaders, does not afford the girls enough
importance to take complaints of sexual violence and other forms of abuse seriously. In addition, the
myth (in many African countries) that having sex with a girl with a disability who is a virgin will cure
AIDS puts them at an especially high risk of HIV infection, pregnancy and other consequences of sexual
assault and rape – particularly in situations of conflict and displacement. Research conducted in the
USA found that girls with disabilities had higher rates of adolescent parenting than non-disabled girls,
and that sexual abuse was often the cause for the pregnancy. Girls with disabilities are also at risk of
being trafficked or sold into prostitution because their impairments are assumed to limit their chances
of escape.
5. School-related gender-based violence
Children with disabilities, those from ethnic minorities and orphans are at higher risk. School-related
violence is often referred to in the context of, for example, bullying, and gang violence, without
attributing violence to gender. Similarly, there is increased recognition that students with disabilities
face disability harassment. There is little attention to the combined sexual and disability harassment that
girls and young women with disabilities face. However, pilot studies from the USA suggest that girls
with disabilities face higher rates of abuse than boys who are disabled or girls without disabilities. When
violence is reported to management, institutional status and reputation take precedence over the rights
of girls with (and without) disabilities.
6. Early marriage
Early marriage is both a cultural expectation linked to gender roles, and a potential coping strategy for
economic survival. Many poor families will try to marry their daughters with disabilities as soon as
possible to transfer the burden of care and be assured that someone will take care of their daughter. This
puts these girls at higher risk of ending up in abusive relationships and prevents them from accessing
education. Lack of positive representation and role models Educational materials used by students with
disabilities show either a stereotypical or under-representation of women and girls with disabilities. The
lack of role models, i.e. women (and men) with disabilities, in educational material, in the media, and
as educators and mentors, underline their invisibility. Positive role models are needed to shift attitudes
and encourage girls with disabilities (and their families) to pursue education.
7. Teacher training and attitudes
Girls with disabilities can remain invisible in a competitive classroom climate when teachers have low
expectations of children with disabilities in general, and girls with disabilities in particular. Even in
special educational schools, teachers may be more trained in teaching life skills and vocational skills to
children with disabilities (for example embroidery for girls or carpentry for boys) and don’t focus
enough on academic achievements. Teachers often don’t have the skills to adapt their lessons and
material to specific impairments and different levels of severity of disability. In developing countries,
the move to universal free primary education has meant that the number of enrolled children in classes
has not been matched by teaching staff. In classrooms where the teacher- children ratio can be 1:100,
and education assistants or other support are not usually available, there is little time and opportunity
for teachers to support children with disabilities. Girls with disabilities are most likely to be overlooked.
Experiences of bullying, being outnumbered by male peers and being discouraged to succeed all
contribute to low self-esteem and a high drop-out rate.
8. Assistive devices, rehabilitation and special education services
Girls with disabilities have less access to assistive technology and rehabilitation, and are less likely to
receive additional educational support than boys. In industrialised countries, where school personnel
identify ‘special educational needs’, boys tend to be on teachers’ radar with behavioural issues and are
subsequently identified with perceived learning difficulties. Girls often don’t act out at school due to
cultural pressures. A study from Great Britain noted that particularly girls with emotional disabilities
had limited access to education services. Girls with disabilities in the USA often only received services
after they showed behaviours typical for boys who were already receiving special education and/ or
presented with more significant levels of disability than boys. Special education schools are most often
located in urban areas and are less accessible to rural children with disabilities, specifically to girls with
disabilities. In India, eight out of ten schools for blind students in New Delhi are boys-only schools,
even though there is a much higher rate of blindness among girls than boys.
9. Vocational training and careers advice
Vocational training and careers advice for adolescent girls with disabilities are often gender stereotyped,
guiding them towards lower paying jobs with fewer career advancements, or are discouraging them to
continue education beyond the most basic levels. The lack of adequate and more diverse vocational
training contributes to the higher unemployment rate among young girls with disabilities after they have
left school.
10. Costing
A 2016 report #Costing Equity – the Case for Disability-Responsive Education Financing, coordinated
by IDDC and Light for the World, calls for substantial additional investment in systemic reform to
achieve inclusive education. This would mean governments taking into consideration the higher costs
associated with the additional needs of some learners. However, investments in teacher training and
child-friendly, safer, and accessible infrastructures would benefit all children. Adapted learning
materials such as Braille, large print, audio and easy-read books, along with improved and accessible
Information and Communication Technology, are often not available in developing countries. This
would significantly increase educational opportunities and achievements of children and young people
with various impairments. Assistive devices are often not affordable for families of children with
disabilities, especially when they have to be regularly adjusted for growth. Inclusive budgeting with an
equity-focused gender and disability lens is essential to ensure that funds are available and appropriately
allocated. The report states that child-friendly inclusive education contributes to gender empowerment
and that gender-responsive budgeting has been crucial in understanding the impact of budgets on girls
and boys. However, there is no further emphasis on making budgets both disability- and gender-
responsive.
IV. A BARRIER IN ACHIEVING INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

There are many obstacles and barriers facing in achieving inclusive education in Nigeria which include;
lack of accurate data on children with disability, lack of knowledge and understanding of the concept,
lack of training and retraining of teachers on special education and finally inadequate funding (Sulaiman
and Isah, 2022). Eskay and Angie (2013) identify the following as the challenges facing inclusive
education in Nigeria:
1. Inadequate plan for the identification of children with special learning disabilities. There are no
specialist and experts that can help in the screening of learning disabled individual in Nigeria.
2. Most specialists’ needs schools and location in urban centers: where there is specialist, they
tend to choose urban areas and neglect rural areas.
3. Parents lack adequate information and guidance on available education centers. Most parents
in rural areas do not know the existence of specialist education centers in Nigeria. These centers
are mostly found in the state capitals and there is no enough sensitization to inform parents of
their existence.
4. Low standard of living of parents. Parents are not able to carter for the needs of normal students,
let alone to talk of individuals with special needs or learning disabled.
5. Government has no definite strategy to search for and identify children not attending school.
There is no data on the number of learning disabled, children attending school and those not
attending school.
6. Inadequate funding and ignorance of the community members of the effects of learning
disability on children.
However, Sulaiman and Isah (2022), added that, many barriers, hindrances and obstacles lay along
the path for the successful implementation of inclusive education in Nigeria. Nigerian pay more
attention to the management of literacy than inclusive education, teacher-student ration is very high
in most public primary school, secondary schools and tertiary institutions (more than hundred),
negative perception and attitudes of teachers and students on individuals with disabilities and lack
of professionalization on the part of teachers as regards teaching methods, recognition and
acceptance of learners with disability and special needs. According to the EFA Nigerian report
cards for 2005, 2006 and 2007, several important challenges still persist in the education sector.
The challenges to the educational system in Nigeria are; lack of available data on students and
teachers, inappropriate socio-cultural and religion practice, erratic and inadequate funding,
enforcement of instruction in the mother tongue, providing child-friendly environment. Mantey
(2014) maintained that, challenges associated with inclusive education are; poor parental
involvement and community participation, inaccessible buildings, large class size and high pupil-
teacher ratio. Panto (2015) pointed out that, the challenges of teaching children with hearing
impairment in an inclusive education are; inadequate infrastructure facilities, inadequate specialist,
irregular staff training and inadequate teaching/learning materials. Omede (2016) in Sulaiman and
Isah, (2022), opined that, the following challenges faced inclusive education in Nigeria ; expense,
misinformation, lack of qualified personnel, inaccessibility of the programme by students, lack of
Formal Education co-operation among teachers, community and government. Among the
constraints that impede effective implementation are; inadequate qualified teachers, insufficient
funds, inadequate teaching and learning facilities, poor motivation of teachers and lack of guidance
and counseling services. Universal Basic Education Board lamented that children with special needs
do not access education due to the followings; lack of equipments and facilities, misappropriate of
fund, lack of trained specialist, lack of accurate data (Isuad & Akinmosire, 2010).
V. CONCLUSION
Barriers to education have multiple and complex layers, all of which are interrelated in, at times,
complex ways. These include social norms, attitudes and value systems, political will, institutional
capacities and resources, technical knowledge and skills, and attitudes. Girls with disabilities are a large,
diverse group whose educational needs have been neglected by those committed to either gender equity
or disability equity. with available information suggesting girls with disabilities face many barriers to a
quality education. Double discrimination and underlying cultural biases based on gender and disability
are key reasons for this. Therefore, Girls and Gender with disabilities in Nigeria have dual form of
violence that is informed by their disability status and sex to contend with. This makes it imperative for
all relevant government agencies, concerned NGOs, policy makers, civil rights activists and
organizations to put all hands-on deck in order to champion the task of ensuring the inclusion of girls
with disabilities.
VI. RECOMMENDATIONS
The paper provides the followings recommendations;
1. Effective Inclusive education can be an educational paradigm which possesses the capacity to
accomplish school accessibility, equality, and quality for all; regardless of differences or
circumstances,
2. Inclusive education policies at the national and sub nationals can play in ensuring all disable
girls attain the basic educational level without discrimination or prejudice and also to improve
inclusive education in Nigeria which includes: eliminating gender and inclusive disparity in
enrollment of students. and also
3. Collaborating with Government and all stakeholders in ensuring strict implementation of
policies and laws for gender sensitivity, creating national awareness in inclusive education and
advocate for increase political and financial commitments through encouragement and
sensitization of policy makers at all levels, parents, school authorities, other leaders and disable
groups themselves.
VII. REFERENCES
Bichi, M. B. & M. A. Imam, M. A. (2020). Inclusive Education as a Panacea to the Challenges of Girl
Child Education in Nigeria. Kano Journal of Educational Psychology (KAJEP). (2) 2, pp.
2736 – 1365
Bamidele and Emmanuelar (2021). Educational Inequality and Gendered Disability in Nigerian
Community: What Guidance Counsellors and Mass Communicators must do for Concerned Pupils.
International Journal of Education, Learning and Development. (9)1, pp.15-29,
Clarke, D. and Sawyer, J. (2014). Girls, Disabilities and School Education in the South East Pacific
Region. UNGEI Draft Working Discussion Paper
Eskay, M. & Angie, O. (2013). Learners with Disabilities in an Inclusive Education Setting in Nigeria.
Implication for Administration. International journal of Administation 3(5), pp. 313-318.
GADIP. (2020). Uganda Key findings and recommendations NUDIPU. Lesotho and Uganda Short
version of the Gender and disability in practice. Gender Analyses 2020
Hans, A. & Mohanty, MS. (2016). Inclusion of Disability and Gender in Disaster Management and
Response. 9661_InclusionofDisabilityGender.pdf
IDS. (2020). Annotated bibliography: Disability and gender in low- and middle income countries
(LMICs). Inclusive futures promoting disability inclusion.
Isuad, A.K. & Akimusire, P.A. (2010). Facilitating Education of Children with Special Needs through
the Universal Basic Education Scheme. Multi-disciplinary Journal of Research Development. 15(3), 1-
6.
Merle Froschl, M., Rubin, E. & Sprung, B. (1999). Connecting Gender and Disability. Women’s
Educational Equity Act (WEEA) Resource Center at EDC, 55 Chapel Street, Newton, MA 02458 • 800-
225-3088
Mason, M. (2006). Disability Equality in the Classroom‐ a human rights issue. Gender and Education
Journal. 2(3), 363–366.
Mantey, E.G (2014). Accessibility to Inclusive Education for Children with Disability: A Case of Two
Selected areas in Ghana. Dissertation for Doctorate Degree in Education Science/ Psychology
Submitted to the University of Siegen, Germany.
Maduagwu, B.C., Carew, F.C., Fajonyomi, M.G. and Maduagwu, S.M. (2014). Relationship between
academic self-esteem and performance in English language and mathematics of primary school
pupils. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313755248. Accessed on 2020 April
15].
Pantric, E. (2015). Sustainable Implementation of Inclusive education Programme for Children with
Hearing Impairment in Nigeria: Strategies Involved. International Journal of Humanities, Social
Sciences and Education. 2(4), 162-165.
Rousso, H. (2003). Gender and Education for All: The Leap to Equality. UNESCO, Education for All
Global Monitoring Report, Background Paper.
Sulaiman, L. & Isah, A.M. (2022). Implementation of Inclusive Education in Nigerian Schools:
Challenges and Way Forward. International Journal of Formal Education. 1(3), 2720-6874.
www.academiczone.net
Tilley, E., Walmsley, J., Earle, S. and Atkinson, D. (2012). The silence is roaring’: sterilization,
reproductive rights and women with intellectual disabilities. Disability & Society, 27, 413–426
UNESCO (2005). Challenges of Implementing Free Primary in Kenya. UNESCO Assessment Report.
UNICEF (2007). Promoting the Rights of Children with Disabilities. Innocenti Digest No. 13.
World Health Organization (WHO) (2011) World Report on Disability. Retrieved from
http://www.who.int/disabilities/world_report/2011/report.pdf
UNICEF. (2013) Children and Young People with Disabilities Fact Sheet. Unite for Children. ©
UNICEF/BANA2007-00655/Naser Siddique.
UNGEI. (2017). Still left behind: Pathways to inclusive education for girls with disabilities. Hamish
Roberts, Planet Caravan, Arjun Kohli/Arete Stories/GCE UK
WHO and World Bank. (2018). Factsheet on Persons with Disabilities. Retrieved from
https://www.who.int/disabilities/world_report
USES AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF MEDICINAL PLANTS

HASSAN A.B1, *;
hassanadebayobamidele@gmail.com; 08034269002
AHMED ALI ABBAS1;
AHMED UMAR1;
HUSSAINA O. TANKO1;
YEMISI ADEGBOYE1
AUGUSTINA OBUCHI1
&
FADESIRE A.KAZEEM 2
1 Department Of Science Laboratory Technology
School Of Science And Technology
The Federal Polytechnic, Kaura Namoda
Zamfara State - Nigeria
2
Department of Food Science and Technology, Kaduna State University, Kaduna,
Kaduna State - Nigeria
Abstract: Medicinal plants are a vital component of non-timber forest products which are traditionally
used in healthcare and source of livelihood all over the world. In an over-populated country like
Bangladesh, the pressure on natural forests is immense; thus the cultivation of Medicinal plants can
significantly contribute towards improving the livelihood of poor people through enhancing biological
diversity. Notwithstanding the growing recognition of its importance and economic and ecological
potential, there has been little research on Medicinal plants especially on the cultivation importance
and its prospective fields in Bangladesh. Based on some research & survey reports the study explains
the importance of medicinal plants & prospects of those plants in our country. The total size of
medicinal plant market at wholesale prices was estimated at some US$14 million – corresponding to
17000tones of product. Local supply accounts for about 70% by volume and 40% by value. It assesses
the major importance, identifies some problems and challenges and indicates ways of maximizing the
potential of this important sector. The issues covered in this research include: existing research and
policy-making processes related to the Medicinal plants sector; contribution of medicinal plants in the
economy of Bangladesh as well as world trade, recent steps taken by govt. & non-govt. agencies to
enhance productivity in this sector.
Keywords: Health Benefits, Medicinal Plant, Uses
Uses and Health Benefits of Medicinal Plants
I. INTRODUCTION
The term of medicinal plants include a various types of plants used in herbalism and some of these
plants have a medicinal activities. These medicinal plants consider as a rich resources of ingredients
which can be used in drug development and synthesis. Besides that these plants play a critical role in
the development of human cultures around the whole world. Moreover, some plants consider as
important source of nutrition and as a result of that these plants recommended for their therapeutic
values. These plants include ginger, green tea, walnuts and some others plants. Other plants their
derivatives consider as important source for active ingredients which are used in aspirin and
toothpastes ( Bari et’al, 2012). It has been estimated that about 13,000 species of plants have been
employed for at least a century as traditional medicines by various cultures around the world. A list of
over 20,000 medicinal plants has been published, and very likely a much larger number of plants. These
days the term Alternative Medicine became very common in western culture, it focus on the idea of
using the plants for medicinal purpose. But the current belief that medicines which come in capsules
or pills are the only medicines that we can trust and use. Even so most of these pills and capsules we
take and use during our daily life came from plants. Medicinal plants frequently used as raw materials
for extraction of active ingredients which used in the synthesis of different drugs. Like in case of
laxatives, blood thinners, antibiotics and antimalarial medications, contain ingredients from plants.
Classification of Medicinal Plants
Classification of medicinal plants is organized in different ways depending on the criteria used. In
general, medicinal plants are arranged according to their active principles in their storage organs
of plants, particularly roots, leaves, flowers, seeds and other parts of plant. These principles are
valuable to mankind in the treatment of diseases. Reports on the classification of many plant species
yielding vegetable oils used in cosmetics and body and skin care preparations are sporadic or lacking.
(DeSilva, 2007)
Classification According to their Usage
The herbs are classified in four parts: medicinal herbs, culinary herbs, aromatic herbs, ornamental herbs
as follows:
1. Medicinal Herbs have curative powers and are used in making medicines because of their healing
properties like marigold, lemon balm, lavender, johnny-jump-up, feverfew etc.
2. Culinary Herbs are probably the mostly used as cooking herbs because of their strong
flavours like oregano, parsley, sweet basil, horseradish, thyme etc.
3. Aromatic Herbs have some common uses because of their pleasant smelling flowers or foliage.
Oils from aromatic herbs can be used to produce perfumes, toilet water, and various scents.
For e.g. mint, rosemary, basil etc.
4. Ornamental Herbs are used for decoration because they have brightly coloured flowers and
foliage like lavender, chives, bee balm, lemongrass etc (Bari M.S, et’al, 2012).
Classification according to the Active Constituents
According to the active constituents all herbs are divided into five major categories: Aromatic (volatile
oils), Astringents (tannins), Bitter (phenol compounds, saponins, and alkaloids), Mucilaginous
(polysaccharides), and Nutritive (food stuffs). (DeSilva, 2007)
Classification According to their Herbs
Herbs also can be classified as annuals, biennials, and perennials. Annuals bloom one season and then
die. Biennials live for two seasons, blooming the second season only. Once established, perennials live
over winter and the body, or its parts or organs, and most often affect the bloom each season. They can
last for many years with proper care. Annual herbs complete their life cycle in one year; start them from
seed. The annuals have to be seeded each year unless conditions are favorable enough in the garden to
seed themselves. (Burkill, 2005)
Aromatic herbs
The name is a reflection of the pleasant odour that many of these herbs have. They are used extensively
both therapeutically and as flavourings and perfumes. Aromatic herbs are divided into two
subcategories: stimulants and nervines. Stimulant Herbs increase energy and activities of respiratory,
digestive, and circulatory systems. E.g. fennel, ginger, garlic, lemongrass (Caniago et al., 2019).
Astringent Herbs
Tannins in Astringent Herbs have the ability to precipitate proteins, and this "tightens," contracts, or
tones living tissue, and helps to halt discharges. They affect the digestive, urinary, and circulatory
systems, and large doses are toxic to the liver. They are analgesic, antiseptic, an abortive, astringent,
emenagogue, hemostatic, and styptic.
Bitter Herbs
Bitter Herbs are named because of the presence of phenols and phenol glycosides, alkaloids, saponins
and are divided into four subcategories: Diuretic Herbs induce loss of fluid from the body through the
urinary system. The fluids released help cleanse the vascular system, kidneys, and liver. They are
alterative, antibiotic, ant catarrhal, antipyretic, and antiseptic, lithotripter, and blood purifier in
nature. asparagus, blessed thistle, burdock, butcher's broom, buchu, chaparral, chickweed, corn
silk, dandelion, dog grass, grapevine, and parsley (Caniago et al., 2019).
Mucilagenous Herbs
Mucilaginous herbs derive their properties from the polysaccharides they contain, which give these
herbs a slippery, mild taste that is sweet in water. All plants produce mucilage in some form to
store water and glucide as a food reserve. They eliminate the toxins from the intestinal system, help in
regulating it and reduce the bowel transit time. They are antibiotic, antacid, demulcent, emollient,
vulnerary, and detoxifier in nature. For e.g. althea, aloe, burdock, comfrey, dandelion, Echinacea,
fenugreek, kelp, psylium,slippery elm, dulse, glucomannan from Konjakroot, Irish moss, and mullein
(Chaum et al., 2004).
Nutritive Herbs
Wheat germ these herbs derive both their name and their classification from the nutritive value
they provide to the diet. They are true foods and provide some medicinal effects as fibber, mucilage,
and diuretic action. But most importantly they provide the nutrition of protein, carbohydrates, and fats,
plus the vitamins and minerals that are necessary for adequate nutrition. For example. rosehips, acerola,
apple, asparagus, banana, barley grass, bee pollen, bilberry, broccoli, cabbage, carrot, cauliflower,
grapefruit, hibiscus, lemon, oat straw, onion, orange, papaya, pineapple, red clover, spirulina, stevia.
Classification according to Nature
Natural products are compounds consisting essentially of carbon derived from natural sources and
that generally have very diverse and interesting properties. Some of the most relevant applications
of the Natural Organic Products are using it as Fuels, plastics, fats, soaps, sugars.
Petroleum (Petra = stone; Oil = oil) is a naturally formed by liquid mixture of hydrocarbons, which are
processed in the petrochemical industry through fractional distillation and cracking to gasoline, natural
gas, etc.
Drugs
Although there are many natural source plant products that are used as drugs, the synthesis of drugs is
well developed and provides a large amount of chemicals that are used as such. For example: sedatives,
anti inflammatories, diurethics, m and many constituents of plants such as alkaloids and is oprenoides
have been isolated from species, genera, families or specific plant. For example, the Opium
Poppy (Papaver somniferum) contains twenty alkaloids such as morphine, the baine, codeine, and
narcotine. They are all biosynthesized from precursor 1-bencilisoquinolina by active coupling
(Chowdhury et al., 2001).
Classification of medicinal plants based on their biogenesis
Although biogenesis and biosynthesis are terms that are used sometimes indiscriminately, it is
customary to use the first term for a hypothesis, and the last for a synthetic route tested
experimentally. The constituents of all plants and animals are biosynthesized in organisms through
enzymatic reactions. The most commonly source of carbon used is the glucose, which is
photosynthesized in green plants obtained from the environment heterotrophic organisms. The
relatively recent advances in biochemistry have greatly clarified the interplay between enzymatically
catalyzed reactions of the primary metabolites and biopolymers. These metabolites lead to secondary
metabolites, so called because it is obvious his role in the metabolism of many organisms (Caniago et
al., 2019).
II. PLANTS AS A BASIS OF SOME IMPORTANT DRUGS

Higher Plants have been used as a source of drugs by mankind for several thousand years. Infact, ancient
man was totally dependent on green plants for his day-today needs of medicaments. With the
development of modern medicine, synthetic drugs and antibiotics, the importance of plants as raw
material for drugs decreased considerably. However, plants were used as a basis of some of the
most important drugs, even in the modern system of medicine. With the advancement of synthetic
organic chemistry most of the active constituents of plants used in medicine were synthesized. At one
time it was thought that ultimately all the plant drugs would be obtained from synthetic sources.
Herbs used as Diuretics Medicinal herbs are the significant source of Diuretics. Mono and poly-herbal
preparations have been used as diuretics. According to one estimate, more than 650 mono and
poly-herbal preparations in the form of decoction, tincture, tablets and capsules from more than 75
plants are in clinical use are as follows
Medicinal Use of Mango tree Bark (Mangifera indica)
Mangifera indica is a species of mango in the Anacardiaceae family. It is found in the wild in India and
cultivated varieties have been introduced to other warm regions of the world. It is the largest fruit-tree
in the world, capable of a height of one-hundred feet and an average circumference of twelve to
fourteen feet, sometimes reaching twenty. Diuretic activity of Mangifera indica bark extract in rats
was studied by Shree devi. They use Ethyl acetate, ethanol and water extract of Mangifera indica for
evaluation of diuretic activity. Mimosa pudica also called sensitive plant, sleepy plant is a creeping
annual or perennial herb often grown for its curiosity value: the compound leaves fold inward and
droop when touched or shaken, to protect them from predators, re-opening minutes later. The
species is native to South America and Central America. It grows mostly in shady areas, under trees or
shrubs.
Garden Cress (Lepidium sativum)
Lepidium sativum known as garden cress belongs to the family Brassicaceae. The seeds and leaves of
the plant contain volatile oils. Garden cress seeds are bitter, thermogenic, depurative, rubefacient,
galactogogue, tonic, aphrodisiac, ophthalmic, antiscorbutic, antihistaminic and diuretic.
Asthma Plant (Euphorbia thymifolia)
Euphorbia thymifolia (Euphorbiaceae) is a small branched, pubescent, prostate annual herb, commonly
known as laghududhika or choti-dudhi. The leaves, seeds and fresh juice of whole plant are used in
worm infections, as stimulant, astringent.( Kane S R et. Al, 2015) investigated the diuretic activity of
crude ethanolic extract and fractions of Euphorbia thymifolia.
Garlic Plant (Allium sativum)
Allium sativum, commonly known as garlic, belongs to the family Liliaceae and genus Allium. Garlic
is used as carminative, aphrodisiac, expectorant and disinfectant in the treatment of pulmonary
conditions. Oil of garlic is used as anthelmintic and rubefacient. It has been noticed that garlic lowered
the blood pressure and level of cholesterol and also possesses strong antimicrobial activity (Desilva,
2007).
Pawpaw (Carica papaya Linn)
Carica papaya Linn belongs to family Caricaceae. Papaya fruits contains a mixture of cysteine
endopeptidases such as papain. Chympopapain A and B, papaya endopeptidase II, papaya
endopeptidase IV, omega endopeptidase, chinitase, protease-inhibitors, and proteins. Papaya fruits
possess wound healing properties, papaya latex was applied to the burn wound using hydrogel as a
vehicle system.
Goose berry (Phyllanthus)
Phyllanthus is a small shrub used in anti-inflammatory folk medicine in tropical and subtropical regions
in India and Srilanka. Four compounds, one benzenoid and three arylnaphalidelignans isolated
from whole plant showed growth inhibitory effect on production of cytokines . The use of
Phyllanthus as anti-inflammatory remedy in traditional medicine.
Curcuma longa (Haridra)
Traditionally, Curcuma longa, known as Haridra or Haldi or turmeric in India, belongs to the
family Zingiberaceae. It contains the active phytochemical such as alkaloid –curcumin which
possesses a range of pharmacological properties-anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antimicrobial, anti-

carcinogenic, anti-diabetic, and neuroprotective activities. (Barat, et al., 2022)
III. CONCLUSION
From the above review, it is obvious that there is growing economic value of medicinal plants that the
developing countries need to harness in order to improve their economic and health care delivery
systems. The major importance of the medicinal plants sector can be measured from the fact that herbal
medicines serve the healthcare needs of about 80 per cent of the world’s population. According to the
World Health Organization (WHO), the goal of ‘Health for All’ cannot be achieved without herbal
medicines and possible application can be made by with the demand for herbal medicines is growing in
developing countries, there are indications that consumers in developed countries are becoming
disillusioned with modern healthcare and are seeking alternatives. This has renewed interest by the
multinational pharmaceutical industry in bio prospecting. With this cautionary note, that herbal
medicines hold good future prospects and they should emerge as good substitutes or better alternatives
for synthetic chemicals-based allopathic drugs or may even replace them.
The results of the Uruguay Round show that the concessions given by developing countries were
generally more valuable than those they received from industrial countries. It is hereby suggested that
this outcome is explained by aggressive demands from industrial countries, and by the lack of resources
at the disposal of developing countries. These and other “structural factors”, weaken the negotiating.
IV. REFERENCES
Bari M.S et’al, An exploratory ethnobotanical study of the practice of herbal medicine by the Akan
Peoples of Ghana 2012). An exploratory ethnobotanical study of the practice of herbal medicine by the
Akan Peoples of Ghana. Alternative Medicine Review. 2005;10(2):111–122. (2012).
(DeSilva,) Economic evaluation and yield performance of some medicinal plants in coconut based
multistoried agroforestry systems. The Agriculturists, 10(1), 71-80. 2007
(DeSilva,). The status of Alien invasive species in Bangladesh and their impact on the ecosystems.In:
Balakrishna P, editor. Alien invasive species Report of workshop on Alien invasive species. Colombo
(Sri Lanka): IUCN Regional Biodiversity Programme of Asia. 1–7 2007
(Bari M.S, et’al, 2012). The anticancer effect of 2′-3′-dehydrosalannol on triple-negative breast cancer
cells. Anticancer Res. 2012;32(7):2801–2806. 2012.
(DeSilva,) Intake of butylated hydroxyanisole and butylated hydroxytoluene and stomach cancer risk:
results from analyses in the Netherlands cohort study. Food Chem Toxicol. 2000;38:599–605. 2007
Burkill HM. the useful plants of West Africa. Kew: Royal Botanical Gardens; 1985. (2005)
Burkill,) 1.2.2 Aromatic herbs Antioxidant activity and phenolic compounds of 112 traditional Chinese
medicinal plants associated with anticancer. Life Sci. 2004;74:2157–2184. 2005
Caniago, I., & Stephen, F. S.. Medicinal plant ecology, knowledge and conservation in Kalimantan,
Indonesia. Economic Botany, 52(3), 229-250. (2019)
(Chaum et al.).Physiological responses of Thai neem (Azadirachtasiamensis Val.) to salt stress for salt-
tolerance screening program.Sci Asia, 30, 17-23. 2004
(Chowdhury et al.,) Cytotoxic activity and cell cycle analysis of hexahydrocurcumin on SW 480 human
colorectal cancer cells. 2011;6(11):1671–1672. 2001
Chowdhury QI, editor. Bangladesh: State of bio-diversity. Dhaka (Bangladesh): Forum of
Environmental Journalists of Bangladesh (FEJB). 2001
Chu YL, Ho CT, Chung JG, Rajasekaran R, Sheen LY. Allicin Induces p53-Mediated Autophagy in
Hep G2 Human Liver Cancer Cells'. J Agric Food Chem. 2012 [Epub ahead of print] (2012)
DeSilva T. Industrial utilization of medicinal plants in developing countries. In: Medicinal plants for
forest conservation and health care. Rome (Italy): Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations. (Non-wood Forest Products; vol 11.) (2007).
EMERGING ISSUES IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC

TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE
WORKFORCE DEVELOPMENT
Hamisu Umar Bichi1, *
hamisubichi1@gmail.com
Adamu Sa'idu 1
adamugiwa77@gmail.com
&
Rabi’u Haruna 1
maizare@gmail.com
1Department of Electrical Electronics Technology,

Abstract: This paper focused on electrical and electronics technology education as an emerging issue
in vocational and technical education for sustainable workforce development in Nigeria. Vocational
education in particular is the cornerstone for any sustainable technological development. Its relevant
practical training components hold the key to Nigeria becoming technologically developed. However,
despite its contributions to societal and economic development, Nigerian leaders have not given this
aspect of education the attention it deserves. This could be one of the reasons for the nation’s
underdevelopment. This paper attempts to examine the concept of electrical and electronics technology
education in Nigeria, the concept of sustainable workforce development, the roles of electrical and
electronics technology education, the importance and challenges of electrical and electronics
technology education in Nigeria. The paper concluded that, electrical and electronics technology
education can be able to plays an important role in the sustainable workforce development of any
nation, not only Nigeria whenever there is adequate power supply to the nations’ industries and good
communication facilities despite the fact that, the nations are digitalized globally.
Keywords: Electrical technology education, electronics technology education, workforce, sustainable

development.
I. INTRODUCTION
The development of any nation hinges on the social and economic contributions of her citizens.
Educational, vocational and technical training plays a major role at promoting community and national
development. This is because the youth and graduates from tertiary institutions seems not equipped with
adequate skills that will enable them exploiting the natural resources that abound in Nigeria. Abdullahi
(1994) maintained that vocational and technical education involves the acquisition of techniques and
the application of the knowledge of the science for the improvement of man’s surrounding. This
includes dealing with manpower training in professional areas such as engineering, agriculture,
business, and home economics, among others. The skills involve practical works and application that
lead to particular occupation. Olaitan (1996) posited that unemployment leads to frustration and
disillusionment which may result in crime or drug abuse in a futile attempt to escape from and forget
Emerging Issues in Electrical And Electronic Technology Education for Sustainable Workforce
Development
the pains and humiliation associated with poverty and lack. The problem of unemployment, Olaitan
further stated, has worsened as millions of school leavers and graduates of tertiary institutions are not
gainfully employed. The reason is that they lack the necessary occupational skills that would enable
them to be self-employed and effectively function in today’s world of work. It is against this back drop
that this paper is looking at vocational and technical education as an imperative particularly in electrical
and electronics technology areas for sustainable workforce development in Nigeria.
Concept of Vocational and Technical Education
Education in general is an exercise that engages everyone. In other words, it is the only means through
which a society can become better. The Nigerian National Policy on Education (2004) defined
vocational and technical education as a comprehensive term referring to those aspects of the educational
process involving in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related science and the
acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to occupation in various
sectors of economic and social life. Vocational and technical education according to Oguntuyi (2013)
is an educational training which encompasses knowledge, skills, competencies, structural activities,
abilities, capacities and all other structural experiences for securing jobs in various sectors of the
economy or even enabling one to be self-dependent by being a job creator. The International Labor
Organization in Oluwale, Jegede and Olamade (2013) opined that vocational and technical education
can be seen as a vehicle for the development of marketable entrepreneurial skills. Ojimba (2012)
asserted that VTE is a form of education whose primary aim is to prepare persons for employment in
recognized occupations and this encompasses such fields of study as (agricultural education, fine and
applied arts education, business education and vocational trade in soap making, hairdressing, computer
training, electrical trade for repairs and maintenance of any types of electrical equipment among others.
Amoor (2009) saw VTE as the core of both individuals and society’s economy. The author further
stressed that through the acquisition of skills, individuals could explore their environment and harness
the resources within it, which could serve them and the society since the wealth of any nation determines
its development. Based on the above definitions, vocational and technical education is defined in this
work as a systematic training designed to enable learners acquire basic knowledge, skills and capacities
needed for efficient performance in a chosen occupations.
Concept of Sustainable Development
Sustainable workforce development has been defined by many scholars in various ways. According to
Nwogu (2009), the well-being of any nation largely depends on its sustainable economic development.
Usoro, Usoro, Akpan andOtu (2010), defined sustainable workforce development in terms of reduction
in the levels of poverty, illiteracy, and unemployment and income inequality. Kundan in Ugoh, (2008)
described sustainable workforce development as a construct, which envision development as meeting
the needs of the present generation without compromising the needs of the future generations. However,
Okala (2008) defined sustainable workforce development as the attainment of a number of ideas of
modernization such as a rise in productivity, social and economic equity, improve institutions and
values. In the view of Arogundade (2011) the major essential tool for achieving sustainable workforce
development should include:
1) Improving the quality of basic education.
2) Reorienting existing educational programmes to address sustainable development.
3) Developing public awareness and understanding.
4) Providing training for all sectors of private and civil society.
Kundan in Ugoh, (2008) further argued that continued sustainable workforce development is only
possible or assured when concrete steps are taken to make the youth acquire skills that will enable them
to be self-reliant and therefore become the tools for achieving development and its sustainability, their
intrinsic and extrinsic values, work and aspirations such that local and national needs
II. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND SUSTAINABLE WORKFORCE

DEVELOPMENT
To achieve sustainable workforce development, attention should be paid to strengthening the bridge
between education and preparation for the world of work with attention paid to improving vocational
education and training in Nigeria. It is clear that the current university curriculum in Nigeria reduces
socio-economic opportunities of those who are more oriented towards work than academics. Graduates
Development
of vocational and technical institutions are highly skilled entrepreneurs. They rely on their effort and
abilities. Nigerians hire foreign experts who are paid huge sums of money to build roads, bridges and
provide other infrastructural facilities. These people are graduates of vocational colleges.
Unemployment is everywhere in Nigeria because most of youths lack employability skills that are often
acquired from vocational schools. Vocational education entails the enrichment of the capabilities that
influence the effective psychomotor or cognitive domain of individuals in readiness for entry into the
world of work in order to satisfy would be met. In the view of Enahoro (2008), vocational education
training is utilitarianism and it is a concept of reorganizing the importance of labour. In addition, the
scholar asserted that vocational and technical education is the type of education Nigeria needs presently
to reshape her crumbling socio-economic status because it is the type of education directed towards the
preparation for occupational type since its recipients are equipped to face the challenges of the world
of work.
Roles of Vocational and Technical Education
The development of a nation’s economy is contingent on the quality of skilled human capital.
Vocational and technical education provides students with life skills that will make them to be
productive entrepreneurs as it engenders creative and innovative ideas; enlarges the economic pie and
increases personal freedom. The business environment is changing at a fast pace due to the rapid
emergence of technology and globalization. This has added to the increase in demand of valuable human
skills necessary to respond to such drastic changes for economic progress. As a channel for
entrepreneurial skill acquisition, VTE plays the role of improving the economic situation of Nigeria
through the training of the students in different specialized fields.
In line with the view of Lawal (2014) posited that for a country to advance socially, economically and
technologically, its citizen must be creative and productive to maintained workforce development with
a majority becoming job creators rather than seekers”. The author further emphasized that optimum
attention and recognition is to be giving to the promotion of VTE in Nigeria if the country wants to
attain great achievement of productivity and Sustainable workforce economic environment and natural
development. Therefore, vocational education practitioners have a role to play in terms of observing
and monitoring students’ behavior, attitudes and actions within the environment for proper skill
alignment. The behavior observed will help vocational and technical education practitioners to counsel,
guide and advice students on their choice of skills. This will help to ensure that students enrolled in
appropriate VTE discipline for effective performance and sustainability of the skills learnt.
Role of Electrical and Electronic Technology Education in Sustainable Workforce Development
Electrical and electronics technology education play several roles in sustainable workforce
development. These roles can be identified as follows:
1. Production of skilled Manpower: Nigeria today has many skilled electrical/electronic personnel who
work both in teaching service and industry. In our technical colleges, polytechnics and other tertiary
institutions, there are a teaming number of teachers in electrical/electronic who are very skilled in their
work (Ogunrinola, 2010). Though this number is inadequate in view of growing expansion (Ogunrinola,
2010 Yakubu & Mumah, 2010, Manabete, 2015), Nigeria has a well-trained technological manpower
with capabilities to man various aspects of development. In the power sector, Nigeria has skilled
personnel to handle power generation, transmission and distribution as well as telecommunication
problems. Today, Nigeria occupies a prominent place in the comity of nations just like South Korea,
the outstanding resource is the preference for scholars and this forms the basis for achieving fame,
wealth and power (Ogunrinola, 2010).
2. Acquisition of Economic Power: Madueme (2012) and Olatunji (2010) rightly observed that Electric
power is the life blood of physical and material development for any nation. Consequently, the
acquisition of electrical/electronic technology education by a developing country like Nigeria entails to
a large extent economic power (Aliyu, Ali & Haruna, 2018). Had it not been for the many problems
recorded in the power sector for decades now (Olatunji, 2010, Adegbemiro, 2020) which have impeded
economic growth, Nigeria would have generated enough revenue from that sector to make her
economically vibrant. All these problems however, can be dealt with given the correct attitude of mind
regarding maintenance leadership (Adegbomi 2010, Dakogol 2020, Manabete 2015, Sallah & Tama,
2015).
Development
3. Improvement in Living Standard: Electric power supply remains the most important resource for any
developing Nation. This is so because industrial activities depend to a large extent upon its availability.
Electrical/Electronic technology education therefore, will assure the strength of Nigerian industries and
the living standard of the Nigerian people (Dakogol, 2020). It must be made explicit here that
Electrical/Electronic education and the availability of electric power and electronic gadgets will
undoubtedly better living conditions in areas like heating, cooling, lighting and electronic T.V/Video
entertainment. The availability of electric power, coupled with useful electronic education has led many
homes to have their personal computers (PCS) for indoor use.
4. Complementing the effort of Government in Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution: The
process of electric power generation, transmission and distribution is not only a capital intensive
enterprise but it is also a complex arrangement that requires' a lot of skills and expertise. Because of
cost implications and problems relating to management and societal attitude to basic infrastructure
(Musa, 2019; Dakogol, 2020), constant power supply in Nigeria has been a mirage, despite government
large spending in the sector. In order, to complement the effort of government, Electrical/Electronic
technology education, acquired in school, has led well-meaning Nigerians in partnership with their
foreign friends, to design, construct and install their own power systems. The rise of Independent Power
Producers (IPP) came about out of necessity. Madueme (2012) related that when government saw the
need for the private sector to be involved in power generation, transmission and distribution, the
following private electric power companies, among others, came on board: Eleme Gas Turbine power
plant, Siemens Nigeria and Abuja Captive Power Plants. But for the effort of these private companies,
one would expect nothing from power holding company of Nigeria (PHCN) to save a sorry condition.
in other words, the effort of IPP is commendable in complementing PHCN by generating, transmitting
and distributing electric power to Nigerian industrialists and to other users.
5. Electrical and Electronic Technology Education in Manufacturing Activities: According to Manabete
2015 "a Nation's development is viewed in terms of manufacturing activities that go on in its industries
and the amount of goods turned out". Manufacturing is however, impossible without the skills and
knowledge which Electrical and Electronic technology education provides. The life blood of any
manufacturing industry is electric power. Machine tools industries, electrical and electronic appliances
and systems industries and a host of others, depend a great deal on electric power supply.
Electrical/electronic technology education and skill training are therefore, indispensable in the
production of goods and services.
6. Employment Generation: one of the problems besetting successive governments in Nigeria is
unemployment. Available statistics show that in 2017 about 50% of the population of Nigeria was
jobless (Yakubu & Mutnah, 2018). In that same year, the illiteracy rate was put at 57% (Obanya, 2018).
Even successive governments' concerted efforts to provide youths with self-sustaining jobs have yielded
very little dividend (Apagu, 2013). Poverty Alleviation schemes like National Poverty Eradication
Programme (NAPEP), Family Economic Advancement Programme (FEAP) and Youths Empowerment
Scheme (YES), all aimed at reducing poverty and hence empowering the Nigerian citizenry
economically (Egwuelu, 2012, Okoli 2017). It is sad to note however,” that about 60% of Nigerians
live below the poverty line while 50% of the population have access to save water Mornon, 2010. One
of the reasons is not farfetched the growing number of unemployed youths plying Nigerian labour
market in search of employment. Therefore, idealness has only increased the sorrow of the youth. The
trend has led to "increased hunger, illiteracy, poverty and disease" (Manabete, Zambwa & lkama, 2016.
It is difficult to name all the consequences: prostitution, Drug abuse, armed robbery (Akanbi & Ugheh,
2017). It has further been reported that unemployment in Nigeria has led to such frustration that many
families have suffered various degrees of psychological trauma (Akanbi & Ugbeh, 2017). Some have
even lost their lives. Electrical and Electronic technology education is therefore a viable option to deal
with unemployment. To achieve this, entrepreneurship in electrical/electronic may be necessary. The
work of Manabete and Kamaunji (2015) buttressed this position when they found that "employment in
small-scale electrical/electronic enterprises has the capacity to deal with prostitution, theft, robbery.".
Consequently, there are today a growing number of employed people in Electrical/Electronic who
passed through one form of training or the other. There are self-employed people doing generator and
motor repair work, Radio/Electronic repairs and television services. Though as road side mechanics,
they have been relevant and hence, in high demand to resuscitate Electrical/Electronic systems
Development
(Braimoh, 2018). Quite a number of them engage in the manufacture of Electrical/Electronic systems
and spare parts (Tika & Manabete, 2013. Now all these people are not only reducing the menace of
unemployment but they are also contributing to revamping the national economy (Sodiki, 2021).
7. The Enhancement of Communication: Even in classroom instruction, educational technology has
found a wide spread use. As sa'ad (2011) pointed out, Educational Electronic technology includes audio
materials (Radio and Cassette Recorder) visual materials (computer and audio visual materials like
television, video and modern computer games and programs). Speaking on the use of these items,
Onyejemezi (2011) said Radio and Television are products of the technological age designed among
other things to improve communication. The author improve education as well as expansion of
instructional techniques. The computer has been generally used in education in what is generally
referred to as Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI). Ametefe (2015) explained that CAI shows the
computer as a chain that includes a leaner, a computer, a programme and the output. Ametefe added
that CIA model of teaching presents the computer as a teaching machine. Instructional materials are
presented to students and the computer is able to interpret their responses. Electronic education acquired
through the use of the computer has found a very wide application in National development. Today,
private computer operators are in business in many cities and towns in Nigeria. The computer answers
many national developmental questions relating to population, economic growth and medical research.
Others are environmental disasters and budgetary allocation. The GSM handset in particular, has
enhanced communication among families. It is simple, cost-effective, time saving and convenient
(Aliyu, Ahmad & Haruna, 2018). It is apparent that there are more people who use the GSM handset
today than one or two years ago. This is obviously an aspect of human and technological development.
Many business contacts are easily done with the GSM handset. As the world is becoming a global
village, with the use of T.V and Radio Stations as well as the GSM handset, Manabete (2013) rightly
observed that the "gap between government and the rural population is gradually closing in. The
advocating by Aliyu , Ahmad and Haruna (2018). For Nigeria to have her own satellite came to reality
when on 27 September 2003 the Nigeria Sat1 was launched Manabete, (2013). This singular event
constitutes a critical milestone in Nigeria’s technological education. Consequently, the importance of
electronic education cannot be over emphasized.
III. PROBLEMS OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGY

EDUCATION IN SUSTAINABLE WORKFORCE DEVELOPMENT
Development, it is stressed does not take place in a vacuum, development is impossible without the
enabling environment. Consequently, Electrical/ Electronic technology education is impossible without
the necessary back up and support. In Nigeria, the following are some of the hindrances to
Electrical/Electronic technology education towards a sustainable national development.
1. The enabling environment is lacking: Electrical/Electronic technology education requires a well-

designed workshop or laboratory, tools, equipment, machinery and materials to undertake functional
education. When these things are lacking as Tsojon (2015) argued, the teacher is placed in a messy
state. Buttressing this point, Ngambuloh, 2015 stressed that in this information age, teachers must “be
kept abreast with the electronic gadgets necessary for efficient classroom interaction". Inadequate
supply of computers and consequently the inability of technical teachers to be computer literate and
irregular electric power supply have been identified as factors that impede effective electrical/electronic
technology Education Amelefe 2015, Sallah and Tama 2015).
2. Lack of commitment and sincerity in the execution of poverty alleviation Schemes: It will
undoubtedly be a wasted effort if formal Electrical/Electronic technology education, functionally given,
suffers in the hands of poverty alleviation programme implementers. Citing the guardian newspaper
(2014), Oderinde 2015 listed the main weaknesses of the National approach to poverty alleviation as
follows: (a) Lack of coordination which has given rise to duplication of efforts and resources, Waste,
Inefficiency and Conflicts. (b) Weak Monitoring and Evaluation Programmes. (c) Lack of Policy
Framework and National Strategy for poverty alleviation. (d) Non-sustainability of programmes and
frequent changes in poverty reduction initiatives, and (e) Lack of proper targeting of the poor for
assistance. Even after that assessment and government came in with National Economic Empowerment
Strategy (NEEDS), much still needs to be desired. NEEDS, as Oderinde 2015 pointed out, was designed
Development
to span over the period 2004-2007, having its formulated objectives to promote among others. All these
measures aimed to reduce poverty to the barest minimum. Today however, many Nigerians are
wallowing in abject poverty.
3. Inadequate funding: perhaps of the 4ms -Money, Materials, Machines and Man - which are essential
for any industrialization activity, money is the most important, this is because with money you will
purchase machines and materials and pay for human labour costs. On the other hand, if materials,
machines and men are available, industrial activities stand halted without money. The production
manager cannot afford to start production without money on ground to pay for workers and as well
undertake maintenance services. Writers are therefore, unanimous that Technical/Vocational Education
(TVE) has been under funded in this country Sallah and Tama 2015, Jen 2012, Manabete 2013). As a
capital intensive enterprise, if citizens must acquire skills that will make them functionally employed,
then TVE must receive adequate funding.
4. Lack of proper handling of resources: Nigeria has Coal, Petrol and Petroleum
Products, Zinc and Lead in many parts of the country Sallah and Tama, 2015). Beside these, the country
is blessed with abundant sunshine, What Nigeria lacks is how these natural resources could adequately
and properly be harnessed. Speaking in the same vein, Enernali (2018) decried the situation when he
said that Nigeria has the people, in their teaming dozens of millions. Enemali held that Nigeria does not
lack the potential manpower resources; the problem is that of harnessing. If Nigeria could use the
available skillfully trained manpower, which could advise and undertake developmental activities, the
country would have been able to bring together and harness the abundant natural resources towards a
meaningful Electrical/Electronic technology education.
5. The Attitude of Nigerians towards Basic Infrastructure: Oguntuase 2019 and
Isa (2013) argued that in Nigeria, public property is no man’s business. Therefore, it can be left to rot
away, stolen or vandalized any time. The Vandalization and stealing of PHCN facilities has been
reported Musa 2019; Olatunji, 2010; Dakogol, 2010). The carting away of useful tools, materials and
equipment securely stocked in foreign containers awaiting installation in our schools and colleges has
been reported an effective maintenance culture has led to the poor state of infrastructure. Ezugu's
(2010) work showed that in some schools and colleges, the workshop to house equipment and tools was
available but those tools and equipment were lacking. In other schools, the buildings to house the tools
and equipment were not available. Ezugu further explained that even where buildings, tools and
equipment were available, there was no electricity. This description is a clear picture of the Nigerian
education system. Because of this, teachers of Electrical/Electronic technology have found it very
difficult to undertake the acquisition of useful and valuable skills necessary for gainful employment.
6. Brain Drain: the problem with Nigeria is that stakeholders in education consider rise in wage bill as
not only a threat but a force that must be fought down. The chief executive's refusal to employ qualified
Nigerian Electrical/Electronic technology teachers for fear of wage rise has led us to the present poor
state of education in Nigeria Odigbo & Owaseye, 2015). In more than two decades, worsening
conditions of resources in schools across the country has resulted in some of the technical teachers
either putting in very little or in some cases as Tongpak and Habila 2018 rightly argued, lots of them
migrating to overseas countries in search of better conditions of service. Today, many technical schools
in Nigeria are without qualified Electrical/Electronic teachers.
IV. STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC

TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE WORKFORCE
DEVELOPMENT.
Development in the education sector is suggested for the enhancement of electrical/electronic
technology education for sustainable development:
(1.) An enabling environment must be consciously created Paying lip service to Technical/Vocational
education has only increased our problems a popular saying goes that "good soup na money make am."
government, the community and all stakeholders in education must rise up to the challenge of providing
adequate educational materials and facilities to undertake functional and durable electrical/electronic
Development
technology education for sustainable development, when money is mobilized adequately it is easier for
the 3ms of men, machine and materials to move.
(2.) Government and implementers of poverty alleviation schemes in TVE need to show commitment
and restrain in the use of financial and material resources, all allowances due to beneficiaries of such
schemes need to be paid on time and without any dubious activity. Government and the academia need
to work hand in hand to plan towards the proper harnessing of the Nation's abundant natural resources.
Nigeria has sunshine abundantly given her by the creator, what stops the proper harnessing of this
natural resource towards the provision of electric power? If this is done, the problem of the erratic
supply of electric power will be a thing of the past.
(3.) The right attitude: corruption and vandalization of public infrastructure are attitudes of the mind. It
appears that in spite of the campaigns in our mosques and churches the campaigns against corruption
and indiscipline by government, Nigerians have not imbibed any meaningful culture. It appears
Nigerians have not changed. Perhaps, if strict legislation is put in place and the leader is upright and
committed to observing every detail, Nigerian people will now begin to have positive attitude towards
educational infrastructure.
(4.) The welfare of the teacher of electrical/electronic technology education is a crucial factor to
consider. Investment in education, it is said, is investment in human capital. Government must not shy
away from the responsibility of paying and rewarding teachers, this only increases their output. A good
pay, welfare package and an environment conducive for teaching/learning will undoubtedly curb brain
drain in our institutions of learning.
V. CONCLUSION
Electrical/Electronic technology education is a vital component of TVE in Nigeria. By the acquisition
of useful skills, knowledge and attitude, individuals are able to fit very well in the society and contribute
their quota in Nation Building. The paper has discussed the roles of Electrical/Electronic technology
education in Sustainable workforce, the paper views that the skills acquired by this type of education
will not only make individuals to be well adjusted in the society but it will contribute to nation building
in areas Like Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution, Communication and
Employment Generation. Today, products of Electrical/Electronic technology education find
employment in various small scale entrepreneurships, employment in these fields has undoubtedly led
to a reduction in social vices like prostitution, theft and thuggery. However, Electrical/Electronic
technology education has several impediments among which are inadequate funding, lack of
commitment to poverty alleviation schemes and the ill-attitude of Nigerians toward basic infrastructure.
stealing and Vandalization of Electrical/Electronic materials has retarded progress in education
considerably to deal with these problems, the paper advocated for the adoption of the following
strategies: commitment on the part of government and stakeholders in the areas of funding and
execution of useful TVE programmes, proper harnessing of natural resources and the economic
empowerment of technical teachers as the work environment is made conducive for teaching/learning.
This way Nigeria will reap the full benefits of Electrical/Electronic technology education towards a
sustainable workforce development.
VI. RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Adequate resources should be allocated to technical and vocational education. Inadequate funds affect
the provision of essentials such as well – equipped laboratories and workshops, relevant textbooks and
training manuals.
2. Vocational and technical education requires skilled and proficient teachers. Teachers’ preparation
should be given a priority attention. There is the need for regular in-service training for teachers of
technology to upgrade their skills.
3. There is the need for our technical institutions to establish good relationship and linkages with similar
institutions abroad as this will promote cross-fertilization of ideas and enhance technology transfer. By
doing this the technical institutions will have access to new developments, exchange programmes and
other numerous benefits available at those institutions whose technical programmes are well developed.
Development
4. When there is collaboration between technical institutions and industries, the relationship will enable
the parties appreciate and understand their needs and proffer the right solutions for the benefits of the
society.
5. The curriculum taught in our technical and vocational education institutions should be reviewed to
meet the demands of the labour market. There is needed to start the teaching of industry-based policy
that will increase employment opportunities for school leavers of vocational and technical institutions.
It will also provide ample opportunities for school dropouts.
VI. REFERENCES
Adegbomi, S. A. (2010). Power production, transmission and distribution in Nigeria: problems,
prospects and solutions. Proceedings of the 7th National engineering conference, Kaduna polytechnic,
7(1), 108-110
Akanbi, A. A and Ugbe, A. S. (2017). Entrepreneurship among business graduates Bauchi Journal of
education, 7(1), 15-23
Aliyu, M. M, Ali, A. S & Haruna, S. M. (2018) Information technology: a basis for natural development.
Proceedings of the 51st National engineering conference, Kaduna polytechnic 5(2), 383-387
Ametefe, G.T.D. (2015). Information technology and teacher preparation for sustainable development
Nigeria. Nigerian journal of science, technology and environmental education, 7, 198-202
Apagu, V V. (2013).entrepreneurship development in vocational technical teacher education for
transforming Nigerian democratic government and to self-reliant economy: paradigm for small scale
industries. Journals of vocational and technology education 7,81-90
Aremo, A G. (2016). Appraising educational sector development in context of Nigeria’s economic
growth. Knowledge review, 13, (8), 121-128
Braimoh, D S. (2018). Relevance of roadside artisans in the development of technology education,
journal of association of teachers of technology, 2(1)
Dakogol, F W (2020). Power production distribution: problem, prospects and solutions. Proceedings of
the 7th National engineering conference, Kaduna polytechnics 7 (1), i 1 5-1 20
Dalha, M K. (2016). Introductory technology in secondary schools: an appraisal Dan Masani, a
multidisciplinary journal, (1), 9 1 -97
Egwuele, J .G. (2012). Funds for business education and self-reliance. Business Education Journal,
1194, 143-149
Enemali, J.D. (2018). Strategies for improving science and technology education for National
development. a paper presented at National engineering conference, arewa house Kaduna
Ezeigbo, O R. (2010). Technological development in Nigeria. Proceedings of 7th National engineering
conference, Kaduna polytechnic of (1), 13-16
Ezugu I. C. (2010). Equipment planning for technical education in Nigeria. Journal of education and
technology 7,154-158 Federal Government of Nigeria (2014). National policy on education Lagos:
NERDC.
Gulma, M A, (2019). The engineer in his society. Zaria, Ahmadu Bello University press
Madueme, T.C. (2012). Independent power producers and the power sector in Nigeria. Nigerian '
journal of industrial and systems studies, 1(2), 38-45
Manabete, S. S (2020) the application of engineering in Natural development: the Electrical/Electronic
prospective. Proceeding of the 3rd Asup conference,(!), 144-150
Manabete, S.S (2013).Electrical/Electronic Engineering Technology Practice for self-reliance in a
democratic Nigeria. Journal of vocational and technology education i, 96-99
Manabete, S.S. (2015). Technology education for sustainable development. Nigerian Journal of science,
technology and environmental education, 1, 143-152
Manabete, S.S. & Kamaunji, B.Z. (2015). Assessment of performance of indigenes and non-indigenes
in small scale electrical/electronic entrepreneurship in Adamawa state. Journal of issues in technical
teacher education, 2(4), 54-66
Manabete, S.S., Zambwa J. & lkama, J.D. (2016). Assessment of information and communication
technology (ICT) entrepreneurship in north-eastern Nigeria. Knowledge review, 1 1(8), 2-29 Maslow,
A. (2006) Motivation and Personality. Translated by J. Radizicki, Warsaw pp. 66-63.
Development
Momoh, A. (2010). Sustainable poverty alleviation in Nigeria: the role of the industry. Proceedings of
the 7th National Engineering Conference Kaduna polytechnic 7 (i) 94-99
Musa, O. I. (2019). Policy maker and technological development in Nigeria Journal of technical
education, 5, 47-52
Ngyambuloh, B.Z. (2015) Information Technology and teacher preparation for sustainable
development. Nigerian journal of science, technology and environmental education 1, 184-192
Obanya, P. (2018). Higher education for an emerging Nigeria. Paper presented at the 50th Anniversary
lecture of University of Ibadan
Oderinde, J.A. (2015). Industrial development: an instrument of poverty alleviation in Nigeria. Journal
of women in technical education, 4, 113-122
Odigbo, P.C. & Owaseye, E.O. (2015). Strategies for teaching entrepreneurship for self-employment in
polytechnics in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Professionally the Teacher, 1(1), 196-197
Ogunrinola, G.O (2010). Reassessing Nigeria technological strategies. Proceedings of the 7th National
Engineering Conference Kaduna Polytechnic 7( 1) 164-170
Oguntuasei, T.O (2019). Technology Education as a veritable means of promoting output of small scale
Agro-allied Industries in D.K Salam I, T.A.G Oladimeji & A W. Ajetunmobi (EDS) technology
education in Nigeria. Lagos NATT publication
Okoro, O.M (2016). Principles and methods in vocational and teaching education Nsukka: University
Trust Publisher
Olatunji, D.O (2020). Power production, transmission and distribution in Nigeria: problem, prospects
and solution. Proceedings of the 7th National engineering conference, Kaduna polytechnic, 7 (1) 180-
186
Sa'ad, S. U (2011). Issues and constraints in polytechnic education in Nigeria Yola: paraclete
publication
Sallah, D G & Tama, R (2015). Towards sustainable technological development in Nigeria. a critical
analysis. Nigeria journal of science and technology and environmental education 1, 160-165
Sodiki, J.I. (2021). Strategies for reinvesting in small scale business engineering based enterprises
Nigeria journal of engineering management 2 (2), 41-44
Tika, T. J & Manabete, S.S (2013) opportunities for advancement and employment in national technical
education for sustainable development in a democratic Nigeria. Journal of vocational and technology
education, 1, 91-95
ISSN: (PRINT): 2006-9715; (ONLINE: 2735-9514) Volume 7, Issue 1 (July, 2024) PP 53 – 61
APPLICATION OF TECHNOLOGY PEDAGOGICAL APPROACHES

FOR QUALITY ASSURANCE INSTRUCTIONS IN TERTIARY
INSTITUTIONS IN NIGERIA
1*
MUHAMMAD Umar Isa
2
Yahya Ibn SALIHU;
3Sadetu SHAIBU;
4Bashir SABO Abubakar;
&
5Halima ISA
1*
Department of Woodwork Technology Education, School of Secondary Education (Technical), Federal
College of Education (Technical) Bichi Kano State, Nigeria
1
*uisa483@gmail.com
2,3,4
Department of Building Technology Education, School of Secondary Education (Technical),
Federal College of Education (Technical) Bichi Kano State, Nigeria
2
yibnsalihu@gmail.Com, 3Sadetumomoh2@gmail.com, 4Shelter_wares123@yahoo.com
5
Department of Early Childhood Care Education, School of Education, College of Education Minna,
Niger State.
Corresponding Authors Email and Phone: uisa483@gmail.com 08063490445
Abstract: Instructional approaches at tertiary institutions across the globe have been transformed
towards technology pedagogical approaches. However, many tertiary institutions in Nigeria have not
adopted techno-pedagogical approaches in their instructional processes. Therefore, this study aims to
determine technology Pedagogical approaches appropriate for application in tertiary institutions of
Nigeria. A descriptive survey research design was employed for the study. The study was conducted in
tertiary institutions in North-western (NW) Nigeria. The population for the study comprised 545
involving early childhood Education, Technical Education, and Educational Technology lecturers in
tertiary institutions in NW Nigeria. Further, a stratified random sampling technique was used to sample
220 respondents. Data for the study were collected using a structured questionnaire validated by 3
experts. Equally, data for the study were analysed using SPSS version 25 to process the Mean and
Standard deviation for each questionnaire item. Findings from the result of the study revealed virtual
interactive instruction, flipped classroom instruction, online assessment among the elements of
technology pedagogical instructional approaches appropriate for application in tertiary institutions in
Nigeria. Finally, the study concludes by recommending to the stakeholders on tertiary institutions to do
the needful in implementing techno-pedagogical approaches in tertiary institutions of Nigeria.
Key Words: Application, Approaches, Technology Pedagogy, Tertiary Institutions, Quality Assurance
Instruction.
I. INTRODUCTION
The issue of quality assurance in tertiary institutions cannot be overemphasized due to its uniqueness
in ensuring appropriate instructional delivery. Quality assurance entails the process of ensuring quality
Application of Technology Pedagogical Approaches for Quality Assurance Instructions in Tertiary
Institutions in Nigeria
instructional delivery in institutions of learning to yield desired aims and objectives of an educational
program (Attaochu, 2013). Quality assurance also focuses on the adaptability of institutions of learning
to changes in the teaching and learning processes for quality instructional delivery (Anyim, 2021). In
this regard, technology advancements and innovations have continued to thrive in this 21st century era
in virtually all facets of teaching and learning particularly at tertiary institutions. This situation has led
lecturers and students in tertiary institutions clinched to modern advancements in technology for
effective instructional deliveries across the globe(Chukwuemeka, Nsofor, Falode, & Aniah, 2019).
Additionally, lecturers and students have been perceived literate in exploring technology on
instructional processes in different parts of the world. By extension, the emergence of technology in
instructional processes of tertiary institutions has rendered lecturers and students in a continues learning
situation (Adebusuyi, Bamidele, & Adebusuyi, 2020). Among the technology innovations in schools is
the application of Technology Pedagogy.
Technology Pedagogy or Techno pedagogy (TP) refers to the knowledge of how various technologies
can be applied in instructional processes which could influence the way and manner lecturers teach
(Santos & Castro, 2021). Also, Technology Pedagogy (TP) could be perceived as the means for
applying digital technologies in instructional process for easy assimilation and continues learning
process (Zinger, Tate, & Warschauer, 2017). Additionally, Agbo, Olaleye, Bower, and Oyelere (2023)
described TP as a learning atmosphere were technology plays an intermediary role in connecting the
different stakeholders within the teaching and learning context through the application of information
and communication technology. Essentially, ICT plays a major rule in the application of TP in
institutions of learning. Furthermore, the use of ICT in TP instructions cannot be overemphasized due
to its uniqueness in the connectivity of the instructional processes of the stakeholders involved
(Lecturers and students) (Olowokere, 2022). In this sense, various TP approaches have continued to
evolve in instructional processes some of which include e-learning, online learning, virtual interactive
instructions, flipped classroom and a host of others.
Accordingly, e-learning entails learning which encompasses all forms of blending of ICT gadgets and
modern telecommunication equipment such as video, audio, interactive board, projector, USB device
for effective instructions in educational institutions (Olowokere, 2022). Similarly online learning is a
learning process that involves the connection of digitally conveyed content, system-based
administrations, and mentoring bolster which require strategies and resources to support both students
and lecturers.(Krismiyati & Yulia, 2023). Virtual interactive instruction entails the process of using
three broad categories of technological tools: Real-time social media channels which include
WhatsApp, Telegram, YouTube, Facebook; Secondly, Asynchronous, which is a learning processes
involving the use of a Discussion board and Digital library; and thirdly, which is the Video conferencing
tools such as Microsoft Teams, Zoom, Google Hangout, WebEx, Skype, Google Meet, etc. (Olowokere,
2022). Flipped classroom entails utilization of digital technology in learning through uploading learning
videos, lecture notes and reading materials online for students’ access prior to classroom instructions
(Isa et.al., 2023). All these forms of TP approaches have tremendously contributed in shifting the
instructional processes of tertiary institutions from an obsolete teacher centred approach to a digitalised
student-centred approach.
However, despite the significant role TP approach to instruction has played in tertiary institutions of
learning, many tertiary institutions in Nigeria have not been implementing TP in their instructional
processes. A situation that has deterred the effectiveness of instructional processes in tertiary institutions
in Nigeria, especially in aspects of students acquittance with the use of ICT in learning, and for easy
application of ICT after graduation in the work place. In this regard, Ufua et al. (2021) stated that a
greater percentage of tertiary institutions in Nigeria have not implemented TP approaches of
instructions in terms of digitalisation of the learning process through virtual learning, adding that many
tertiary institutions still remained in the obsolete teacher centred approaches to instructions. Equally,
Awe (2021)asserted that tertiary institutions in Nigeria particularly universities require a paradigm shift
to a techno pedagogical approach, regrettably, the instructional processes in the universities have not
yet acknowledged the new age environment. TI in Nigeria have not yet fully integrated TP instructional
approaches due to lecturers inability to integrate technology in the learning processes, because lecturers
mindset is still adaptive to the obsolete teacher centred approach involving lecture methods which does
not encourage independence and creative learning (Dlamini & Nkambule, 2020). Further, the non-
application of TP approaches to instruction in TI of Nigeria has adversely affected TI from keeping
abreast with the global trends in the instructional processes. Consequently, the aftermath of non-
application of TP instructional approach in TI of Nigeria has resulted to producing graduates without
the requisite employability skills particularly in industries where technology continues to thrive(Isa,
Kamin, Salihu, Shuaibu, & Cledumas, 2020). Accordingly, Enendu and Nwosu-Chukwudi (2022)
remarked that TP instructional approach through online teaching and learning has come to stay, and is
no longer an option, unfortunately many TI in Nigeria have not employed TP, a situation that has
affected students career at the work place after graduation due to their inability to explore ICT
appropriately. Also, Tondeur, Scherer, Siddiq, and Baran (2020) stated that employers nowadays
measure employees competency through TP approaches and their ability to explore ICT, sadly many
developing countries could not prepare their graduates to meet the demands of employees in this regard,
and as such could not be employed.
Building on the above, in order to achieve quality assurance instructions in Nigeria TI and curtail
student’s unemployment after graduation, there is the need to shift the instructional processes from an
obsolete teacher centered approach to a TP approach involving digitalized learning for effective
instructions and enhance students ICT application skills for employment sustainability. Moreover,
studies about TP have been conducted in TI at different fields of learning across the globe. However,
studies related to application of TP instructions in TI in Nigeria have been inadequate, therefore, this
study was undertaken to determine TP approaches appropriate for application in TI of Nigeria to achieve
quality assurance instructions and enhance student’s employment sustainability. On this basis this
research was guided by the following research objectives and research questions.
Research Objectives
The main aim of the study is to determine TP approaches appropriate for application in TI of Nigeria.
Specifically, the study aims to:
1. Identify the extent of application of TP approach for quality assurance instructions in tertiary
institutions of Nigeria
2. Determine TP approaches appropriate for quality assurance instructions in tertiary institutions of
Nigeria.
Research Questions
1. What is the extent of application of TP approaches for quality assurance instructions in TI of Nigeria?
2. What are the TP approaches appropriate for quality assurance instructions in TI of Nigeria?
II. METHODOLOGY
Methodology entails the procedures involved in undertaken a study, in this sense, the methodology for
this study comprised research design, Study area, population and sample, instrumentation, Data
collection method, Data analysis technique. This research adopted a survey research, which entails
using questionnaire to gather information from respondents. A survey research is a systematic collection
of information from individuals using standardised procedures involving a representative sample from
the population of the study (Stockemer, 2019).
The study was conducted in North Western Nigeria involving tertiary institutions (Universities,
Polytechnics and Colleges of Education). The population for the study comprised 545 and involves
lecturers in the field of Educational technology, Technical education, and Early child hood education
in the TI in NW states of Nigeria. The reason for selecting these categories of lecturers in the TI is
because of their much relevance in the application TP in the teaching and learning processes. Further,
a Stratified Random Sampling (SRS) technique was used to sample 220 lecturers from 545 population
using Krejcie and Morgan (1970) table of sample size determination for a known population. According
to Krejcie and Morgan (1970), a sample of 220 can represent a population of 545 and generalise the
outcome of the finding’s to the entire population. A Stratified Random Sampling is a sampling
technique which involves chosen some group of items from a population based on classification and
random selection (Iliyasu & Etikan, 2021). SRS also involves separating the target population into
homogenous, mutually exclusive segment, and from each segment simple random sampling is chosen
to give each member an equal chance of being selected (Nguyen, Shih, Srivastava, Tirthapura, & Xu,
2021). In this regard, a random generation number was used to select each respondent from a stratum.
Additionally, stratum with much variable were given larger sample than those with lesser strata. Table
I shows the sample of the participating institutions.
Table I. Population and Sample of Respondents
S/N Institution State Sample
1 Federal University Dutse Jigawa 18
2 Kaduna Polytechnic Kaduna 20
3 Bayero University Kano Kano 31
4 Federal College of Education (Technical) Bichi Kano 28
5 Federal University Dutsinma Katsina 18
6 Hassan Usman Katsina Polytechnic Katsina 16
7 Usman Danfordio University Sokoto 24
8 Shehu Shagari College of Education Sokoto 23
9 Federal Polytechnic Kauran Namoda Kebbi 20
10 Federal College of Education (Technical) Gusau Zamfara 22
Total 220
The instrument used in collecting data for this study is a structured questionnaire developed by the
researcher and comprised 35 items with a 5-point Likert scale response options. The response options
are in two categories: First is to answer research question 1 with options as Highly Applied (HA) 5;
Applied (A) 4; Slightly Applied (SA) 3; Not Applied (NA) 2; Highly not Applied (HNA) 1. Second is
to answer research question 2 with response options as Highly Appropriate (HA)5; Appropriate (A)4;
Slightly Appropriate (SA)3; Inappropriate (I)2; Highly Inappropriate (HI)1. The questionnaire was
validated by 3 experts in the field of Educational technology, Technical education, and Early child hood
education. Equally, to ascertain the reliability of the validated questionnaire items, Cronbach’s Alpha
reliability was used to determine the reliability coefficient of the instrument through data obtained from
a pilot study conducted at Abubakar Tawa Balewa University Bauchi State, North Eastern Nigeria using
lecturers in technical education and educational technology. Furthermore, data from the pilot study
conducted were analysed using Cronbach’s Alpha reliability with the help of IBMSPSS version 25
statistical package software. Hence the reliability coefficient of the instrument stood at 0.92, indicating
a high reliability coefficient.
Data for the study were collected through personal visitation to the participating institutions with the
help of research assistants. The researcher with the help of a research assistant administered the
questionnaire to the lecturers who were given two weeks to respond. A return visit was made to the
institutions to retrieve the filled questionnaire through the research assistant after the expiration date.
However, the return rate yielded 92%.
Data for the study were analysed using descriptive statistical technique with the help of IBM SPSS
version 25 to process the mean and standard deviation. The results of the analysis are presented in table
II, and III. Further items with mean values 3.50 were considered Applied, and Appropriate, while items
with mean values below 3.50 were considered Not Applied and Inappropriate.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results are presented in tables 2 and 3
Research Question 1: What is the extent of application of TP approaches for quality assurance
instructions in TI of Nigeria?
Table 2: Extent of Application of TP Approaches for Quality Assurance Instructions in TI of
Nigeria.
S/ Item Statement
N Mean SD Remarks
E-Learning
1 Application of interactive board in instruction 2.4500 .94712 Not Applied
2 Application of overhead projector in instruction 2.4227 .92081 Not Applied
3 Application of computer in instruction 2.4091 .90957 Not Applied
4 Application of computer software for instructions 2.4773 1.58602 Not Applied
5 Application of monitor for projection/television 2.4409 .92710 Not Applied
Virtual Interactive learning
6 Application of social media channels such as face
book, Instagram, YouTube, wattsapp in instructions 2.4773 .96724 Not Applied
7 Application of digital library in learning 2.3773 .84855 Not Applied
8 Application of Video conferencing tools such as
Microsoft Teams, Zoom, Google Hangout, WebEx, 2.4455 .91248 Not Applied
Skype, Google Meet
9 Application of internet for research 2.3682 .91456 Not Applied
10 Application of virtual interactive learning for
students proposal presentations 2.4182 .95451 Not Applied
11 Application of virtual interactive learning for
students oral and viva presentations 2.5045 .93388 Not Applied
12 Application of the internet for students practical
projects presentations 2.4682 .89844 Not Applied
Flipped Classroom
13 Application of theoretical components outside
classroom instruction 2.3909 .88204 Not Applied
14 Application of student-centred learning for
discussion of study materials in classroom 2.7000 .97503 Not Applied
instruction
15 Application of the internet for uploading lecture
notes and materials for students access 2.4000 .91362 Not Applied
Online Learning/Assessment
16 Application of the internet for class attendance 2.4818 .89373 Not Applied
during instruction
17 Application of the internet for individual student
assessment 2.3045 .91311 Not Applied
18 Application of the internet for students self-
assessment 2.4318 .82754 Not Applied
19 Application of the internet for group assessment of
students 2.2364 .88030 Not Applied
20 Application of the internet for students project
presentation assessment 2.4000 .86747 Not Applied
Result presented in Table 2 shows that the data distribution of all items has their mean values below
3.50, indicating that the respondents are of the opinion that TP approaches have not been applied in
instructional processes at tertiary institutions of Nigeria. Similarly, result of data distribution in Table
2 also revealed that the standard deviation of all the items ranged from .82754 to 1.58602, indicating
that the mean responses of the respondents on all items are close to one another. Additionally, data
distribution as presented in table II, indicated that E-learning, virtual learning, Flipped classroom,
Online learning/Assessment have not been applied in the instructional processes of TI institutions in
Nigeria. This finding is in accordance with the views of Chukwuemeka et al. (2019) who asserted the
need for adopting techno-pedagogy in terms of e-learning, virtual learning in the instructional processes
of tertiary institutions so as to enable lecturers adaptable to changes in technology in teaching and
learning, unfortunately, these learning approaches have not been implemented in tertiary institutions in
Nigeria. In a similar vein, Agbo et al. (2023) emphasized the significant role of techno-pedagogy with
much emphasis on virtual reality in fostering effective instructional delivery, regrettably this approach
to instruction has not been adopted by many TI in Nigeria, a situation that has rendered instructional
deliveries in a continuous obsolete teacher centered approach. Equally, in line with this finding,
Olowokere (2022) stated that techno-pedagogy approach has impacted positively to instructional
processes in tertiary institutions in many parts of the world, however, tertiary institutions in Nigeria are
yet to adapt to its implementation.
Research Question 2: What are the TP approaches appropriate for quality assurance instructions in TI
of Nigeria?
Table 3. TP Approaches Appropriate for Quality Assurance Instructions in Tertiary Institutions
of Nigeria
S/N Item Statement Mean SD Remarks
E-Learning
21 Application of interactive board in instruction 4.2318 .77394 Appropriate
22 Application of overhead projector in instruction 4.1727 .83703 Appropriate
23 Application of computer in instruction 4.1364 .95542 Appropriate
24 Application of computer software for instructions 4.2409 .77115 Appropriate
25 Application of monitor for projection/television 4.2818 .77202 Appropriate
Virtual Interactive learning
26 Application of social media channels such as face book,
Instagram, YouTube, wattsapp in instructions 4.3409 .78639 Appropriate
27 Application of digital library in learning 4.1500 1.00239 Appropriate
28 Application of Video conferencing tools such as Microsoft
Teams, Zoom, Google Hangout, WebEx, Skype, Google 4.0136 1.17228 Appropriate
Meet
29 Application of internet for research 4.0636 .89929 Appropriate
30 Application of virtual interactive learning for students
presentations 4.2864 .88869 Appropriate
Flipped Classroom
31 Application of flipped classroom instructions 4.1136 .84982 Appropriate
32 Application of the internet for students attendance during
instruction 4.3273 .76581 Appropriate
Online Learning/Assessment
33 Application of the internet for submission of assignments 4.2636 .82956 Appropriate
34 Application of the internet for computer-based tests 4.2864 .80795 Appropriate
35 Application of the internet for students semester examination 3.9773 1.03564 Appropriate
As presented in Table 3, the overall data distribution revealed that the mean values of all the items are
above 3.50 indicating that the respondents’ opined to all items as appropriate approaches for quality
assurance instructions in TI of Nigeria. The result in table II also revealed that the standard deviation
of all the items ranged from .76581 to 1.17228 indicating that the respondent mean responses is close
to one another. Equally, results in table III indicated E-learning, virtual learning, Flipped classroom,
Online learning/Assessment as the appropriate approaches for quality assurance instruction in TI in
Nigeria. Furthermore, findings on e-learning is in accordance with the views of Dlamini and Nkambule
(2020) that instructional approaches in this 21st century era has transformed from a teacher centred to a
techno-pedagogy which emphasises the application of e-learning as the appropriate approach to
instructions in TI, the author further stated that adopting e-learning could redirect teaching and learning
in Nigeria TI to a 21st century learning model. Also, Zinger et al. (2017) attributed the success of
effective instructions to adoption of e-learning, stating further that, application of e-learning could
guarantee appropriate teaching and learning strategies in TI.
Findings on virtual interactive learning is in line with the views of Muhammad et.al (2023) who asserted
that adopting virtual interactive learning is the appropriate approach in achieving quality instructional
delivery in TI. The author further stated that through virtual interactive learning, access to knowledge
has been affordable to both lecturers and students. Similarly, Ufua et al. (2021) stated that through
virtual interactive learning, instructional processes have been simplified since learning could take place
anywhere and at any time, this indeed is appropriate in TI in Nigeria in a digitalised world. Accordingly,
Awe (2021) emphasises the appropriateness of TP in instructional processes, adding that virtual
interactive learning as one of the TP approaches is inevitable in TI considering the modern trends in
digitalisation of the teaching and learning process.
Moreover, findings on flipped classroom in tandem with the views of Awe (2021) that a flipped
classroom which involves uploading learning videos and materials for students access on line prior to
classroom instruction is an appropriate approach for effective instructions in TI. Equally, Muhammad
(2023), emphasises the appropriateness of flipped classroom in TI of Nigeria, stressing that through
flipped classroom students have the opportunity of exploring digital technology for interaction which
takes place in the classroom with theoretical aspects of learning done outside the classroom. Findings
on online assessment is in agreement with views of Noordin (2014), that assessment of student
performance is critical in instructional processes in this 21st century era, as such it is appropriate that
both individual and group assessment of students should be done on line. In a similar vein, Enendu and
Nwosu-Chukwudi (2022) postulated that online assessment technique has been considered much
appropriate during the pre and post pandemic era for assessing students’ learning outcome with its
assessment format and protocols which gives opportunity for self, individual, and group assessment.
IV. CONCLUSION
Achieving quality assurance in instructional processes of TI is important especially has the modern
trends in the 21st century is geared towards adopting technology approaches in learning. In this sense,
application of Technology Pedagogy approach to instructions becomes inevitable particularly at tertiary
institutions, and more specifically in Nigeria. Additionally, adopting TP in TI of Nigeria could lead to
quality assurance instructional delivery, and help close the skill gap experienced by students after
graduation, and enhance their employment sustainability. Findings from this study has revealed that TP
approach has not been implemented in TI in Nigeria. Findings also identified e-learning, virtual
interactive learning, flipped classroom, online assessment as the TP approaches appropriate for quality
assurance instructions in TI of Nigeria.
V. RECOMMEDATIONS
Based on the findings from this study, it is recommended that:
1. Government refocus the curriculum of TI in Nigeria at all levels to incorporate TP and enforce
strict compliance on its implementation.
2. Equally, the study recommends that TI should organise workshops and seminars for both
lecturers and students on the effective application of various TP instructional processes.
3. Also, government should provide the necessary TP instructional facilities (computers, smart
boards, internet etc) for effective application of TP, and enhance quality assurance instructions
in TI of Nigeria.
VI. REFERENCES
Adebusuyi, O. F., Bamidele, E. F., & Adebusuyi, A. S. (2020). Effects of in service Chemistry
Teachers’ Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge on Students’ Scientific Attitude and Literacy
in Southwestern Nigerian Secondary Schools. European Journal of Interactive Multimedia and
Education, 1(2), e02009.
Agbo, F. J., Olaleye, S. A., Bower, M., & Oyelere, S. S. (2023). Examining the relationships between
students’ perceptions of technology, pedagogy, and cognition: the case of immersive virtual reality mini
games to foster computational thinking in higher education. Smart Learning Environments, 10(1), 16.
Anyim, W. O. (2021). Sustainable Development Goal on Quality Education: A Review of E-Learning
Resources and Pedagogy in the University System. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal), 5578.
Attaochu, E. U. (2013). Quality assurance of teachers in the implementation of the curriculum of
technical and vocational education in colleges of education (technical) in North Cental Nigeria.
International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology (IJAVET), 4(2), 34-43.
Awe, B. A. (2021). Imperatives of Paradigm Shift in Current Pedagogical Strategies in Nigerian Public
Universities. American Journal of Educational Research, 9(1), 1-10.
Chukwuemeka, E., Nsofor, C., Falode, O., & Aniah, A. (2019). Assessing pre-service teachers’
technological pedagogical content knowledge self-efficacy towards technology integration in Colleges
of Education in South-west Nigeria.
Dlamini, R., & Nkambule, F. (2020). Information and Communication Technologies' Pedagogical
Affordances in Education. In.Critical Review of Literature. (Conference Paper Presentation)
Enendu, C. I., & Nwosu-Chukwudi, E. C. (2022). Perceived pedagogical approaches needed for
students'adaptability by business educators in a new normal. Nigerian Journal of Business Education
(NIGJBED), 9(1), 306-313.
Iliyasu, R., & Etikan, I. (2021). Comparison of quota sampling and stratified random sampling. Biom.
Biostat. Int. J. Rev, 10, 24-27.
Isa, M. U., Kamin, Y. B., Salihu, Y. I., Shuaibu, H., & Cledumas, A. M. (2020). Enhancing
Employability Skills of Woodwork Technology Education Students through Project Based Learning at
Colleges of Education (Technical) in Nigeria. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 8(9A), 31-
40.
Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational
and psychological measurement, 30(3), 607-610.
Krismiyati, K., & Yulia, H. (2023). The relationship between student engagement and their perception
of success in online learning. Jurnal Pendidikan Teknologi dan Kejuruan, 29(1).
Nguyen, T. D., Shih, M.-H., Srivastava, D., Tirthapura, S., & Xu, B. (2021). Stratified random sampling
from streaming and stored data. Distributed and Parallel Databases, 39, 665-710.
Noordin, M. K. (2014). Project-based Learning Framework for Non-technical Skills. Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia,
Olowokere, A. I. (2022). The impact of innovative pedagogical approaches among Nigeria universities
during covid-19. Zamfara Journal of Politics and Development, 3(3), 9-9.
Santos, J. M., & Castro, R. D. (2021). Technological Pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) in
action: Application of learning in the classroom by pre-service teachers (PST). Social Sciences &
Humanities Open, 3(1), 100110.
Stockemer, D. (2019). Quantitative methods for the social sciences a practical introduction with
examples in SPSS and Stata: Springer.
Tondeur, J., Scherer, R., Siddiq, F., & Baran, E. (2020). Enhancing pre-service teachers’ technological
pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK): A mixed-method study. Educational Technology Research
and Development, 68, 319-343.
Ufua, D. E., Emielu, E. T., Olujobi, O. J., Lakhani, F., Borishade, T. T., Ibidunni, A. S., & Osabuohien,
E. S. (2021). Digital transformation: a conceptual framing for attaining Sustainable Development Goals
4 and 9 in Nigeria. Journal of Management & Organization, 27(5), 836-849.
Zinger, D., Tate, T., & Warschauer, M. (2017). Learning and teaching with technology: Technological
pedagogy and teacher practice. The SAGE handbook of research on teacher education, 577-593.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE FOR PUBLISHING: THE

IMPACT OF CHATGPT ON BOOK PUBLISHING
EDUCATION IN NIGERIA
ABDULRASHEED A. AFOLABI 1, *;
&
FATAI O. JIMOH 2
1
Department of Printing Technology, Yaba College of Technology,
Yaba, Lagos - Nigeria
2
School of Communication, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
*Corresponding author: rasheedafo@gmail.com
Abstract: The publishing industry has undergone a shift since artificial intelligence (AI) emerged, and
the Nigerian publishing industry is not exempt. With a focus on the potential and difficulties that arise
in the context of formal education and professional training, this study investigates the influence of AI
on the Nigerian publishing business, with ChatGPT as a reference point. A review of works on the topic
published in the previous five years served as the study's primary source of secondary data. The
research results showed that AI has the ability to improve the publishing process for books by giving
publishers tools for better writing, editing, production, distribution, and marketing. The utilization of
AI, however, also presents several difficulties, including the requirement for publishers to adopt new
technology and the possible threat to the careers of publishing professionals. The study ends with
recommendations for publishers and policy-makers on how to take advantage of AI's benefits while
addressing its problems. This study adds to the expanding body of knowledge about how AI is affecting
the publishing sector, with a particular emphasis on the Nigerian setting.
Keywords: Artificial intelligence, book publishing, formal education, professional training
I. INTRODUCTION
Artificial Intelligence (AI) has been described as a technique whereby humans teach computers to
recognize patterns and detect new patterns. It entails creating algorithms that allow computers to quickly
process huge amounts of data, identify patterns within those data, and offer judgments or suggestions
based on those analyses (Luce, 2019). According to KnowledgeWorks (2021), AI is not entirely new to
the publishing industry, but it has, up until recently, had minimal impact on the content creation and
editing process. However, that is changing with advancements in natural language processing (NLP), a
branch of AI technology that identifies and analyzes the structure of words in order to understand the
meaning of content. With NLP technology, publishers can automate simple editing and formatting tasks
and focus their energy
Artificial Intelligence for Publishing: The Impact of Chatgpt on Book Publishing Education in Nigeria
on adding greater value to the content. There are also reports from Finch and Buchmesse (2019) and
Lebrun and Audet (2020) on the application of AI and machine learning in the marketing and
distribution of book publishing products.
However, the discourse on the impact of AI and machine learning got to a higher pitch since the release
of ChatGPT in November 2022 by OpenAI. Over the months there has been a flurry of debates, not
only on the effects of ChatGPT on publishing, but on all aspects of human endeavours. In the context
of this study, the concern is the impact of ChatGPT and other AI tools on formal book publishing
education and professional training in Nigeria. There is no doubt that capacity building plays a critical
role in the smooth running of the Africa publishing industry (Crabbe, 2007), just as it has been
established that formal book publishing education is crucial to providing the manpower needs of the
book publishing industry in Nigeria (Igwe et al, 2017). These educational programs play a vital role in
equipping individuals with the necessary skills and knowledge to thrive in the dynamic publishing
landscape. Therefore, exploring innovative approaches to enhance formal book publishing education in
Nigeria is of paramount importance.
By aiming to explore the impact of ChatGPT on formal book publishing education and professional
training in Nigeria, this article seeks to delve into the broad impact of AI technology on contemporary
book publishing practices. Through an investigation of trends in the use of ChatGPT and other AI
technologies in global book publishing practice, this study seeks to make a contribution to the existing
body of knowledge on the exigencies of training book publishers in AI-driven information cum creative
industries. The findings and insights gained from this research will provide valuable information to
educators, policymakers, and stakeholders in the publishing industry, thereby enabling them to make
informed decisions on the integration of AI technologies in publishing and media training. Furthermore,
this study will identify areas for improvement and provide recommendations for effectively
incorporating ChatGPT and similar AI tools into formal book publishing education and professional
training programs in Nigeria.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW

The impact of Large Language Models on the Publishing Sectors ChatGPT-3, a Large Language Model
of considerable magnitude, was developed by OpenAI. Its extensive repertoire of 175 billion parameters
enables it to accomplish a myriad of tasks, such as text generation, translation, and summarization.
Large Language Models, also known as LLMs, are computational systems that have been trained on
extensive text corpora with the primary aim of predicting the next word in a given context through the
use of probabilistic techniques. As highlighted by Kulesz (2022), the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI)
in the publishing industry predates the emergence of LLMs by several years. Nevertheless, the
utilization of such tools was largely uneven, as there were limited standardized or readily available
systems. Consequently, it was predominantly large companies, with greater access to talent, big data,
and computing power that could develop such technologies. The rise of AI in the publishing sector has
resulted in numerous attendant issues. Regarding the challenges that AI has presented in the publishing
industry, Kulesz (2022) observes that beyond the inequality of access to technology, one of the most
significant issues relates to its potential negative impact on employment. Industry experts have already
admitted that half a million human translators and 21,000 agencies could soon find themselves out of
work due to the progress made in the field of machine translation (Marr, 2018). In the press sector, it
was clear to many that AI could affect a considerable number of media workers (European Federation
of Journalists, 2018).
The above concerns were substantiated when Microsoft laid off dozens of journalists, editors, and other
employees at MSN News in May 2020, announcing that it would replace them with news-scanning
artificial intelligence (Robitzski, 2020). Although tech companies and AI start-ups often highlight the
positive impacts of automation, particularly the fact that AI can relieve workers of tedious tasks
(Narrativa, 2020), several scholars have expressed that this supposed "liberation" carries a genuine risk
of deskilling (European Federation of Journalists, 2018).
Overview of Formal Book Publishing Education and Professional Training in Nigeria

According to Fasemore (2005), the provision of publishing training in Nigeria was initially driven by
the demands of multinational companies in the 1940s and 1950s. These trainings were informal and
executed on-the-job. However, the establishment of formal publishing in Ghana, Nigeria, and Kenya
occurred following the attainment of independence from colonial rule. The Bellagio Publishing Group,
together with European organizations, endeavoured to enhance publishing opportunities and skills in
Africa in the late 1980s, which culminated in the formation of the African Publishers Network (APNET)
in 1992. APNET collaborated with universities in Cameroon, Ghana, Kenya, and South Africa to offer
certificate courses in publishing, which later progressed into degree programs. It is essential to note that
Nigeria did not share the same opportunities for certificate programs in publishing. UNESCO made an
attempt to establish publishing programs in Nigerian universities but was not successful. Nonetheless,
Yaba College of Technology responded positively to UNESCO's recommendations, and an agreement
was signed in 1982. The college initiated a Higher National Diploma (HND) book publishing program
in 1994. The program's curriculum includes courses on editorial procedures, printing and graphics,
information and digital technologies, general studies, research, and entrepreneurship. The curriculum
aims to provide both theoretical and practical instruction for a career in publishing and offers
employment prospects in the publishing industry or the establishment of publishing firms. Over the
years, the curriculum has undergone revisions to align with current industry requirements (Afolabi &
Jimoh, in-press).
While there are other academic programmes that offer limited courses in book publishing, such as mass
communication and library and information sciences, the HND book publishing programme at Yaba
College of Technology is the only specialized training programme in Nigeria’s formal education
system. Indeed, Biobaku (2011) highlights concerns about the scarcity of training opportunities for
publishing practitioners in Nigeria. A study involving publishers and scholars from Lagos, Ogun, and
Oyo States found that 78% of respondents agreed that publishers lack adequate training facilities in
Nigeria. Oso, Oloyede, and Biobaku (2009) also noted the scarcity of specialized formal training
programs in book publishing. They suggested that prospective publishers could receive training in mass
communication departments where a few book publishing courses are offered. However, these courses
are often considered subsidiary due to a lack of resources and are not given the same level of attention
as other courses. The same situation is observed in library and information science departments across
Nigeria. Igwe et al. (2017) report the absence of undergraduate degree programs in publishing and
express concern about its impact on national development in the digital economy.
Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Media Education and Training

The impact of artificial intelligence (AI) is a significant phenomenon, as numerous tasks are being
automated, and AI technology is increasingly widespread in various organizations. Shiohira (2021)
notes that this phenomenon has far-reaching implications for education and training institutions, thus
throwing up the imperative of equipping learners with skills relevant to the AI era. The expert highlights
that concerns about the impact of AI on the labour market and the skills gap have prompted a focus on
skills development, particularly in high-end jobs. It is worth noting that AI has applications across
different sectors, and its integration raises ethical, legal, and moral challenges for individuals
irrespective of their education or profession.
In a similar vein, Pavlik (2023) examines the utilization of ChatGPT in journalism and media education.
The scholar emphasizes the importance of educating journalism and media educators on the potentials
and limitations of AI, such as its ability to analyze vast amounts of information, generate news
automatically, and improve accuracy and fairness. However, it is essential to address the downsides,
such as introducing bias or errors and the impact on jobs, while also discussing ethical implications.
Pavlik (2023) concludes that although ChatGPT exhibits an impressive level of knowledge and
produces accurate written expression, it still has limitations in terms of critical thinking and creativity.
Therefore, further research is necessary to assess critically the relevance of AI platforms like ChatGPT
in journalism and media education, considering their impact on academic integrity.
Nonetheless, not all media scholars embrace the idea of incorporating ChatGPT and other AIs into
media and communications practice, much less allowing for their deployment in media training. Sundar
and Liao (2023:165), describing the emergence of ChatGPT as “an existential crisis that strikes at the
heart” of journalism and communication, wonder about the future of legions of humans who earn a
living by writing and communicating if a machine can write coherently in response to a question. They
also complain that ChatGPT and other AI tools sometimes churn out results that are almost, but not
quite, meaningful. As they note;
Although ChatGPT is good at mimicking human writing style, it lacks a real understanding of the object
or phenomenon that it is describing. The same is true with news written by AI writers. These writers
lack journalistic principles or routines and can only mimic the style of journalistic prose. Unlike human
journalists, AI writers cannot possibly interview original sources, but only look up existing information
that could be considered original sourcing (like sports scores and financial market behaviour of the day),
leaving plenty of room for creating misleading information based on statistical co-occurrence of words
in history (Sundar & Liao, 2023:174).
Despite these concerns, Sundar and Liao (2023) posit that it is incumbent upon communication
researchers to aid in the discovery of optimal practices for leveraging AI writing tools to generate the
requisite information. Furthermore, they emphasize the importance of engaging in discourse with AI
writing system designers to explore novel opportunities for empowering users.
III. METHODOLOGY
This investigation employs a desk research methodology to examine the influence of ChatGPT on
formal book publishing education and professional training in Nigeria. Desk research entails the
collection and analysis of extant literature, academic papers, reports, and pertinent online sources to
gather insights and cultivate a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter (Hague, 2022). A
thorough search of scholarly databases, academic journals, conference proceedings, and reputable
online sources was conducted to identify pertinent literature on formal book publishing education, AI
in education, and the integration of AI-based tools in publishing education. Subsequently, an analysis
of the secondary sources generated was undertaken. Given the exploratory nature of the study, desk
research is considered appropriate to provide adequate insights into the impact of ChatGPT on formal
book publishing education in Nigeria by synthesizing existing knowledge and insights. It affords an
opportunity to gather diverse perspectives, identify trends, and scrutinize the challenges and
opportunities associated with integrating ChatGPT in publishing education.
IV. FINDINGS
AI and the Book Publishing Industry
Lebrun and Audet (2020) posit that AI and the book publishing industry are natural allies. They note
that the persistence and resilience of the book publishing ecosystem can be attributed to a shared cultural
ideology that balances competition with a sense of community. Despite facing various challenges such
as time constraints and the need for adequate resources to support operations and facilitate structural
changes, the industry remains steadfast. Furthermore, the researchers posit that to ensure the continued
success of this cultural niche, it is imperative to plan for the future and take specific actions towards
implementing new methods and models. On this basis, they propose a potential solution: a collaborative
effort among book industry stakeholders to leverage artificial intelligence and potentially pool data
resources.
Use of AI in content development and manuscript acquisition: Lebron and Audet (2020) assert that AI
has demonstrated its usefulness in assisting publishers in comprehending their audience, which is
imperative in book development. They expound that authors and publishers with the most sincere
intentions must always contend with the immeasurable when it pertains to the books they choose to
compose and publish: will the content resonate with its readership? As contemporary AI fundamentally
depends on the scrutiny of accumulated data, scholars disclose that it is plausible to extract data
(purchases, wish lists) from platforms such as Goodreads to construct a topography of readers'
preferences. To put it succinctly, AI can aid in identifying reading patterns with significantly greater
accuracy than conventional business analysis tools, which are generally limited to sales statistics. In
this regard, AI is a superb instrument for identifying commercial opportunities. Niche markets that an
author or publisher would not have identified as lucrative could be unearthed. According to Mcllory's
(2023) assertion, ChatGPT is poised to become the "patron saint of the slush pile" due to its remarkable
capacity to assess grammatical accuracy and logical coherence, thereby enabling it to provide an initial
evaluation of a book's overall quality. While it may not readily discern exceptional literary works, it
can effectively differentiate between valuable and worthless content.
However, the use of AI for content development in book publishing comes along with certain
limitations. As mentioned by Lebron and Audet (2020), the book industry presents a distinctive
ecosystem, which merits attention. Notably, avant-garde creations, that is, artistic productions that
deviate from the established norm, are likely to be overlooked by AI. Such a scenario could result in a
standardization of cultural production, given that AI can solely extrapolate from and respond based on
the information it has received
But, while some practitioners warmly embrace AIs like ChatGPT in their publishing operations, some
others are not so enthusiastic, while some others offer outright condemnation. For example, Bhosale
(2023), considers a scholar’s deployment of ChatGPT for the purpose of editing academic work as
likely to invite turbulence into their otherwise smoothly running scholarly journey. The expert opines
that utilizing ChatGPT as an editor in an academic context is fraught with the risk of introducing
inaccuracies and unreliable information into one's research, thereby guaranteeing a lack of accuracy and
reliability. This, in turn, is likely to cast doubt on the researcher's commitment to upholding the
principles of rigorous investigation and diligence. Bhosale (2023) asserts that ChatGPT may have
adverse effects that researchers may encounter in their academic pursuits if they rely excessively on it.
These encompass the risks of text and idea plagiarism as well as the introduction of erroneous and
obsolete data. Additionally, the expert cautions that the utilization of AI tools in academic publishing
has long-term repercussions, such as the dearth of critical thinking and writing abilities, the absence of
a personal touch in research, and the perpetuation of a culture of taking shortcuts or producing low-
quality research. In general, Bhosale (2023) contends that human editors are indispensable in the
publishing industry since AI tools like ChatGPT do not offer constructive feedback and have a limited
grasp of research work, thereby impeding the effectiveness of any research endeavour. Moreover, they
may overlook the subtleties of the research domain, leading to ambiguity or incoherence in the
manuscript.
Similarly, Wen and Wang (2023) delve into the ethical quandaries that arise when ChatGPT is
employed in academic publishing. This is done in light of its proclivity to furnish erroneous information.
The authors place emphasis on the associated hazards that come with presenting incorrect data within
scientific settings, which can have a detrimental impact on decision-making and medical research
policies. In addition, they underscore the fact that ChatGPT cannot be regarded as a dependable source
of factual accuracy or reliable references. The researchers strongly advocate the need to temper
expectations and acknowledge that ChatGPT cannot supplant human expertise in areas requiring
specialized knowledge or innovative ideas within the academic research domain. In addition, Gendron
and colleagues (2022) adopt a critical stance in their examination of the employment of artificial
intelligence (AI) within the realm of academic publishing, with a specific emphasis on the potential
hazards it poses in the hands of large publishing conglomerates. Of particular concern is the progressive
erasure of human involvement in the roles of journal editor and reviewer, as AI and automated expert
systems gain ever-increasing sway over a variety of tasks and judgments that have traditionally been
executed by human beings.
The concerns expressed by experts such as Bhosale (2023), Gendron et al. (2022), and Wen and Wang
(2023), notwithstanding, research establish a rising usage of AI in scholarly publishing. For instance,
Razack et al (2021) conducted an investigation into the function of artificial intelligence (AI) in
scholarly publishing. Their findings indicate that AI is currently being utilized to enhance various
publishing processes, comprising literature search and information retrieval, manuscript preparation,
bibliography and citation management, target journal selection, plagiarism prevention, peer review and
quality assessment, along with editorial workflow and publication production. The authors posit that AI
has the potential to revolutionize scholarly publishing into a technology-driven industry that heavily
relies on big data and machine learning. Nonetheless, they concede that professionals may be hesitant
to embrace these changes due to concerns about job displacement. Ultimately, the researchers contend
that the scientific community must expeditiously adapt to advanced AI technologies to maintain
competitiveness.
A number of reports establish AI usage in various aspects of publishing. In the specific field of scholarly
publishing, Gabriel (2019) re-echoes the need for increased Artificial Intelligence (AI) usage in
scholarly communications, for both information providers and the research community, supported by
the case studies of how Elsevier (an academic publisher) incorporated Machine Learning and NLP to
create technological and data-based solutions. Other examples include; using AI to identify suitable
peer reviewers for manuscript submissions (Upshall, 2019); improving processing efficiency (Huang,
2019); strengthening publishers’ core business (Finch & Buchmesse, 2019); generating content in the
publishing industry (Zhang et al, 2022; Huston, 2022); and demand forecasting (Wang et al, 2019).
AI as Support for Publishers: Artificial intelligence has the potential to greatly enhance the operational
efficiency of a publishing house, thereby enabling a more efficient allocation of resources. By means
of product listing optimization, the distribution of a publishing house's titles could be improved, and the
use of translation tools could facilitate the creation of rough drafts in languages that were previously
inaccessible, thereby reducing the time and financial resources required for such projects. Moreover,
AI could be employed to read manuscripts, allowing for preliminary classification of proposed texts
based on their genre, which could facilitate the matching of manuscripts with a publishing house's
readership. Furthermore, AI could identify the most opportune time for publishing a title, provide more
precise sales projections, and recommend printing an appropriate number of copies, which could permit
publishers to take risks with more challenging and less profitable titles.
Lebrun and Audet (2020) provide examples of two companies, QualiFiction and Booxby, which employ
artificial intelligence to assist publishers in the evaluation of manuscripts. QualiFiction's software
program, LiSA, scrutinizes a manuscript and subsequently generates a report for the publisher outlining
various parameters, including the degree of suspense, intellectual engagement required, sentence
structure complexity, and level of innovation compared to other texts in the publisher's catalogue.
Furthermore, the system delivers sentiment analysis, enabling the publisher to gauge the reader's
emotional response throughout the book, as well as their frequency. The software also adapts to the
publishing house's editorial line, eliminating youth fiction, for example, if the publisher only specializes
in detective novels. Similarly, Booxby offers a comparable service, utilizing text analysis to discern the
most effective marketing strategy for promoting the manuscript to the public.
AI for Optimized Promotion and Distribution: Lebrun and Audit (2020) posit that while the two
industries are traditionally intertwined, the potential impact of AI on the promotion and distribution of
books differs significantly. In terms of promotion, AI application primarily involves automating
recommendation systems. This can be exemplified through the automation of the standing order form
employed by publishing houses to determine book distribution to retailers (e.g. bookstores and big-box
stores), partially enabled by AI. This, as averred by Lebrun and Audet (2020), presents an opportunity
for promoters to establish contracts with bookstores to gain access to subsets of their data, enabling
mutual benefits. Consequently, promoters can monitor reading trends in serviced bookstores and
respond in real time- manually or automatically- by sending titles that cater to the bookstores' needs and
reading habits, thereby improving stock management. If data on books is appropriately refined and
categorized according to precise criteria, such as setting, presence of pets, or absence of violence, the
promoter's tools will be more efficient and relevant in providing recommendations to bookstores.
In the views of Mcllory (2023), online resellers tend to aggregate audiences into broad categories, while
AI disambiguates them, thus enabling writers and readers to establish direct connections. The expert
notes that as media continues to transform, AI plays a significant role in seeding new delivery channels,
ultimately leading to the evolution of marketing in publishing. Therefore, Mcllory (2023) considers this
to be the most powerful aspect of AI's involvement in book publishing, with the highest stakes.
However, the lack of widely available real-time sales information could hinder its progress. An
advantage would be held by subscribers to BookScan, a data provider for the book publishing industry
that compiles point-of-sale data for book sales. Competitive analysis, which can be effectively done by
GPTs, can also provide a compelling real-time picture of market trends, including books that are losing
sales and missed opportunities. Moreover, AI will finally deliver on the long-awaited promise of
efficient discovery, where writers can identify their ideal audience and readers can find their perfect
next read.
Improved Access to Books: It is noteworthy that online sales differ from sales in physical stores and
borrowing in libraries, as the latter offers a personal connection and feeling of trust between the reader
and the bookseller or librarian. Despite this, the potential of AI in the book industry should not be
underestimated, as it can provide valuable assistance with research and recommendations, thereby
opening up new business opportunities. In particular, algorithmic recommendation systems have proven
to be highly effective in processing data on contemporary book purchases and borrowings. The sheer
number of new titles published in Europe each year makes it impossible for bookstores and libraries to
keep them all in stock, let alone recommend them to readers. However, AI can address this issue by
offering solutions to these problems. Although many of these applications and software are still being
developed, the potential benefits of such technologies are already clear.
A high level of trust between the reader and the bookseller or librarian is crucial in developing such
applications or software, as it determines whether the reader will share personal preferences and benefit
from new recommendation tools in the future. Lebrun and Audit (2020) provide an example to
demonstrate how HarperCollins integrated BookGenie, a recommendation tool, into Facebook in 2017.
Book enthusiasts were able to utilize the "Message" button to engage with a chatbot and receive
recommendations for their next read. The tool was exclusive to HarperCollins' English page and aimed
to surpass recommendation systems that solely utilized books that were previously read. BookGenie
interacted with users to suggest titles that were tailored to their mood and reading preferences. It is
noteworthy that the chatbot solely recommended books from HarperCollins and not from competing
publishing houses.
Challenges in AI Usage in Book Publishing

One of the most pressing issues relates to the potential impact of AI on the employment prospects of
human writers. With increasing sophistication, AI can generate content of comparable quality to that
created by human writers, leading to a possible reduction in demand for human writers (Chen et al.,
2018). Moreover, the use of AI-generated content raises ethical issues concerning the genuineness of
the content and the responsibility of the creators (Kaplan and Haenlein, 2019). Similarly, Kovanović et
al. (2021) found that while AI can enhance the publishing process, it also presents challenges such as
copyright infringement, the necessity for human intervention, and the possibility of algorithmic
prejudice in a study on the impact of AI on the publishing industry in Serbia. Additionally, Das et al.
(2021) discovered that while AI has the potential to elevate the quality of writing, it also raises concerns
about the depreciation of creativity and the need for human oversight in a study on the impact of AI on
the writing industry in India.
However, certain solutions have been proposed to address these identified challenges. One potential
solution is to promote the development of hybrid writing models that utilize the strengths of both human
writers and AI technologies (Kaplan and Haenlein, 2019). This would entail leveraging AI to mechanize
repetitive tasks and enhance the writing process while retaining the creative input and oversight of
human writers. The weigh-in by Upshall (2019) on how publishers can use AI to solve business
problems in scholarly publishing is also instructive. The scholar posits that the integration of artificial
intelligence in the book publishing industry does not obviate the demand for human participation.
Although certain duties can be mechanized, the preservation of human configurability remains
imperative. Undoubtedly, individuals are indispensable in detecting and remedying partiality, which is
inherent in both algorithms and human judgment. Fundamentally, the ability to recognize bias and
employ measures to alleviate it is the crux of efficacious AI-driven methodologies.
V. DISCUSSION
Based on the need to examine the influence of ChatGPT on formal book publishing education and
professional training in Nigeria, a review of works on the subject matter was undertaken. It came to
light that AI and the book publishing industry are natural allies, but there are challenges such as the
impact on human writers' employment prospects and ethical concerns about AI-generated content.
Solutions include hybrid writing models that combine human creativity with AI technology and the
recognition of bias in AI-driven methodologies. Without a doubt, AI is increasingly used in scholarly
publishing processes, improving efficiency and enhancing book discovery. However, there are concerns
about the genuineness of AI-generated content, copyright infringement, and the need for human
oversight. Thus, while AI offers benefits, careful consideration is needed to address these challenges
and ensure a balanced approach in the industry.
With the rise of artificial intelligence (AI), its integration into various industries has become a subject
of interest. A study that takes a look at the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in content creation in the
context of book publishing by Onaja (2023) argues that as AI technology continues to develop and
become more accessible, it is likely that more Nigerian writers will turn to AI tools to assist them in
their work. In his words, “AI-powered writing tools are becoming increasingly popular, with businesses
and individuals using them to create everything from marketing copy to novels”. Apart from helping
writers overcome writer's block, Onaja notes that AI tools writing tools can help improve the quality of
writing.
The survey revealed that 41% of participants had used AI tools in their writing, with the most commonly
used tools being automated editing software (27%), content generators (18%), and text summarizers
(16%). However, the majority of participants (59%) had not used any AI tools in their writing. Among
those who had used AI tools, 72% reported that it had increased their efficiency and productivity, while
28% reported no change. Participants were asked about their attitudes towards AI-generated content,
and the results showed that 52% of participants were neutral or positive about it, while 48% were
negative. When asked about the potential impact of AI on the writing industry, 43% of participants
believed that it would have a positive impact, 29% believed it would have a negative impact, and 28%
were unsure. In brief, the findings suggest that while AI tools are being used in writing, the majority of
participants in the study have not yet adopted them. This could be due to a lack of awareness or access
to AI tools, or a preference for traditional writing methods.
The Imperatives for Re-jigging Formal Publishing Education in Nigeria

There is no doubt that a debate on the integration of AI tools into formal education is typically filled
with controversies. But there is the stark reality of reckoning with the use of AI-assisted systems in the
workplace. In his contribution to the ongoing discourse, Halaweh (2023) suggests that trainees be taught
the effective utilization of ChatGPT and other artificial intelligence as a means of generating ideas,
familiarizing themselves with specific topics, and producing possible codes for application programs.
It is, however, of utmost importance to note that the texts generated by ChatGPT cannot be considered
as a final output. To ensure academic integrity, it is imperative to employ reverse searching techniques
to obtain additional information and ideas. Moreover, proper citations must be provided. ChatGPT can
also be employed for the purpose of paraphrasing texts, checking English writing, and providing
suggestions for improvement. Furthermore, Halaweh (2023) proposes five essential strategies and
techniques to be implemented when students use ChatGPT, placing great emphasis on transparency,
credibility, academic honesty, and authentic learning. These strategies include explicitly stating the use
of ChatGPT in the course syllabus or assessments, evaluating and acknowledging the information
generated by ChatGPT, providing an audit trail of queries and a reflection report, ensuring
comprehension and understanding through viva and presentation, checking for similarity and
plagiarism, and documenting the steps taken when using ChatGPT. Furthermore, instructor-student role
swapping can be employed to assess critical and creative thinking, as well as ensuring authentic
learning.
Similarly, Villasenor (2023) posits an argument against the prohibition of advanced AI writing tools
like ChatGPT and instead advocates for instructing students on how to use them ethically and
productively. The scholar believes that learners ought to acquire the skills to prompt AI writing tools,
evaluate their output, and skillfully compose well-organized essays that integrate AI-generated text with
traditional writing. The impracticability and ineffectiveness of banning access to such tools are
highlighted, considering that students will inevitably find ways to utilize them. It is also noted that
enforcing the ban would be challenging and could result in false accusations and injustices.
Additionally, the author stresses the advantages of mastering the craft of writing while maintaining that
AI writing tools can bolster students' capacity to communicate, persuade, and attain their objectives
when used appropriately. The scholar encourages educators to embrace AI as a tool and prepare students
for a future where AI is integrated into various aspects of their careers.
However, a number of educators have openly expressed their disapproval towards the integration of AI
tools within the education system. An example of this can be seen in the concerns regarding academic
integrity raised by Sullivan et al (2023) in reference to the use of AI, particularly ChatGPT. The
potential for cheating, academic dishonesty, and increased plagiarism facilitated by AI tools has been
identified by the authors. Instances of ChatGPT being used to cheat on university entrance exams have
been noted, leading to the necessity of educating students on the appropriate use of AI in academic
settings. Several programs and technologies for detecting AI-generated content have been mentioned,
however, there is a disagreement on their efficacy. While some articles reviewed by Sullivan et al (2023)
provide examples of students caught using ChatGPT, others discuss the vulnerability of various
academic disciplines to AI tools. In a separate study, Oyelude (2023) posits that while ChatGPT may
have beneficial applications, its drawbacks could surpass them due to its inability to verify the origins
of information. Nonetheless, it is widely agreed that AI tools have become integral components of our
daily lives, rendering their presence irremovable.
VI. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RE-JIGGING FORMAL PUBLISHING

In light of the reality that AI tools have become features in the media systems across the world, it
appears more realistic to revise the curriculum of formal publishing education programs in Nigeria to
incorporate modern publishing practices and technologies that can be advantageous for the growth and
development of the industry. To achieve this, several recommendations are proposed: First, it is
recommended to update the curriculum of formal publishing education programs to include courses on
digital publishing, e-books, online platforms, content marketing, and data analytics. This is to ensure
that students are equipped with relevant skills to meet the demands of the industry. Second, fostering
collaborations between formal publishing education institutions and industry stakeholders such as
publishing houses, digital platforms, and literary organizations can provide students with practical
exposure, internships, and mentorship opportunities. This will bridge the gap between academia and the
publishing industry. Third, integrating digital tools and technologies into the teaching and learning
process is crucial. Students should be familiarized with e-publishing platforms, design software, content
management systems, and other digital tools used in the publishing industry. Fourth, encouraging
hands-on learning through practical projects and workshops is essential. This will provide students with
real-world experience and enhance their problem-solving abilities. Finally, encouraging research and
innovation in publishing-related areas is recommended. Supporting students in conducting research on
emerging trends, new technologies, and market demands will contribute to the growth of knowledge
and encourage forward-thinking practices within the industry.
VII. CONCLUSION
The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) within the book publishing sector presents a variety of
prospects and challenges. AI can be leveraged to facilitate content development, manuscript assessment,
and enhance promotional and distributional processes. Publishers can utilize AI to gain insight into their
readership, identify reading trends, and uncover niche markets. AI tools, such as ChatGPT, can aid in
the assessment of manuscripts and provide preliminary feedback. Additionally, AI has the potential to
augment operational efficiency, automate recommendation systems, and address limited accessibility
to books. Nevertheless, concerns regarding standardization, artistic innovation, and ethical
considerations emerge. Experts warn against excessive dependence on AI and advocate for hybrid
writing models that incorporate AI and human creativity. The integration of AI should be approached
with prudence, with human involvement to detect and mitigate bias. To integrate AI technologies into
publishing education, the curriculum should encompass courses on digital publishing, data analytics,
and content marketing. Collaboration between educational institutions and industry stakeholders is
essential, along with the integration of digital tools and the promotion of hands-on learning.
Encouraging research and innovation in publishing-related fields will contribute to industry progress
and knowledge development.
VIII. REFERENCES
Afolabi, A. A., & Jimoh, F. O. (2023). Publishing education in the emergent digital economy: A
focus on formal undergraduate training in book publishing in Nigeria. Babcock University
Journal of Education, 9(1), 107-125. Retrieved from
https://journal.babcock.edu.ng/article/96bb537d-6563-45ff-9bc2-d46db6dbb003
Bhosale, U. (2023, May 18). The Limitations of ChatGPT: How human editors remain
indispensable in academic writing. https://www.enago.com/academy/negative-costs-of-
using-chatgpt-to-edit-research-manuscript/
Biobaku, Lanre, (2011). Professionalism in Book publishing in Nigeria: How far, so far? IRCAB
Journal for Social and Management Science, 1(1):181-188
Crabbe, R. (2008). Equipping to compete: Capacity building in African book publishing industry.
Proceedings of the Nigeria International Book Fair and NBFT National book fairs 2007. Lagos:
Nigerian Book Fair Trust.
Fasemore, Akin (2005). Training the Requisite Book publishing personnel: Challenges and Prospects.
In Adesanoye, F, and Ojeniyi, Ayo (eds) Issues in Book publishing in Nigeria; 219-226. Ibadan:
Heinemann Educational Books (Nigeria) plc.
Finch, G., & Buchmesse, F. (2019). The Future Impact of Artificial Intelligence on the Publishing
Industry. Livre blanc. Retrieved from
https://www.kidstarapp.com/storage/app/public/papers/6IPGoLaDzt0aOrMnAFq5jphalu1CgTBTIErk
CNNg.pdf
Gabriel, A. (2019). Artificial intelligence in scholarly communications: An elsevier case study.
Information Services & Use, 39(4), 319-333. DOI: 10.3233/ISU-190063
Gendron, Y., Andrew, J., & Cooper, C. (2022). The perils of artificial intelligence in academic
publishing. Critical Perspectives on Accounting, 87, 102411.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpa.2021.102411
Halaweh, M. (2023). ChatGPT in education: Strategies for responsible implementation.
Contemporary Educational Technology, 15(2), ep 421: 1-11.
Hague, P. (2022). Market Research in Practice: An introduction to gaining greater market
insight. (4ed). London: Kogan Page
Huang, A. (2019). The Era of artificial intelligence and big data provides knowledge services for the
publishing industry in China. Publishing Research Quarterly, 35(1), 164-171.
Huston, J. (2022). Artificial Intelligence as a Content Creator in the Publishing Industry. Book
Publishing Final Research Paper. 65 https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/eng_bookpubpaper/65
Igwe, K. N. & Ugwuogu, U. and Issa, A.O. (2017). Institutionalizing Education for Publishing in
Nigerian Universities: Rationale, Imperatives and Sample Curriculum in the 21 st Century.
Journal of Applied Information Science and Technology, 10(11), 34-42.
Mcllory, T. (2023, June 2). AI Is About to Turn Book Publishing Upside-Down. Publishers Weekly.
Retrieved from https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/digital/content- and-e-
books/article/92471-ai-is-about-to-turn-book-publishing-upside-down.html
Onoja, B. (2023) Implication of AIs on the Nigerian Writing Industry: Opportunities and Challenges.
Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4397406 or
http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4397406
Oyelude, A. A. (2023). Much ado about ChatGPT: libraries and librarians perspectives. Library Hi
Tech News, 40(3), 15-17.
Pavlik, J. V. (2023). Collaborating With ChatGPT: Considering the Implications of Generative
Artificial Intelligence for Journalism and Media Education. Journalism & Mass Communication
Educator, 78(1), https://doi.org/10.1177/10776958221149577
Razack, H. I. A., Mathew, S. T., Saad, F. A., & Alqahtani, S. A. (2021). Artificial intelligence-
assisted tools for redefining the communication landscape of the scholarly world. Science
Editing, 8(2), 134-144.
Shiohira, K. (2021). Understanding the impact of artificial intelligence on skills development.

Bonn: UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and
Training. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED612439.pdf
Sullivan, M., Kelly, A., & McLaughlan, P. (2023). ChatGPT in higher education: Considerations for
academic integrity and student learning. Journal of Applied Learning and Teaching, 6(1).
Sundar, S. S., & Liao, M. (2023). Calling BS on ChatGPT: Reflections on AI as a
Communication Source. Journalism & Communication Monographs, 25(2), 165-180.
Upshall, M. (2019). Using AI to solve business problems in scholarly publishing. Insights, 32(1).
Wang, X., Yucesoy, B., Varol, O., Eliassi-Rad, T., & Barabási, A. L. (2019). Success in books:
predicting book sales before publication. EPJ Data Science, 8(1), 1-20.
Wen J, Wang W. (2023) The future of ChatGPT in academic research and publishing: A commentary
for clinical and translational medicine. Clin Transl Med.;13: e1207.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ctm2.1207
Zhang, L., Qu, J., Jie, J., & Liang, N. (2022). The Impact of Big Data on Traditional Publishing. In
China’s Publishing Industry in the Era of Big Data; 55-76. Singapore: Springer
IMPROVEMENT OF TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL

EDUCATION AND TRAINING TO ENHANCE
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
OGUNLEYE U. O.
Usmy Global Multipurpose Ventures, No. 7, Ogunleye Street, Blc Biket Hospital,
Osogbo, Osun State - Nigeria.
*Corresponding author: usmyp5@gmail.com/ +234 7039530771
Abstract: Technology has played a critical role for all of humanity in terms of advancement and
progress. Indeed without the development of human potentials/abilities in Nigeria, the economy
development of the country will crumble. This paper explain economic development, Technical and
Vocational Education and Training (TVET), Goals/Objectives of Technical and Vocational Education
and Training in the National Policy of Education in Nigeria, Importance of Technical and Vocational
Education and Training in Nigeria, way of improving TVET to enhance economy development in
Nigeria The last part of the paper contains conclusion and recommendations on the improvement of
TVET To Enhance Economy Development In Nigeria
Keywords: economic development, Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET)
I. INTRODUCTION
Economic development is the process of improving the economic well- being of a country
through efforts that entails job creation, tax base enhancement and job retention of people living
in that country. Reverse is the case in Nigeria, the economic development calls for urgent,
practical reform and innovation to bring it in line with other developed country. In the first part
of 2023, Nigeria’s economic growth weakened and real gross domestic product (GDP) growth
fell from 3.3 % on 2022 to 2.4% year on year in Q1 2023. The challenging global economic
context has put pressure on Nigerian’s economy. However, Technical and Vocational
Education and Training (TVET) play the major role in determining the economic development
and performance of the country.
Concept of Technical and Vocational Education and Training
Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) is a form of education designed to equip the
learners with necessary competencies for gainful employment. Jeerapattanatorn (2013) defined
Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) as the education which aims to equip people with
knowledge, skills and competencies required in particular occupations or more broadly in the
labour market. According to Idris, and Mbudai (2016), Technical and Vocational Education
(TVE) is described as the training given to individuals for the implementation of technological
development of a nation. Based on the definitions above, it could be deduced that the important
features of Technical
and Vocational Education (TVE) include among others, its orientation towards the world of
work and the acquisition of employable and entrepreneurial skills for gainful employment. This
is to say that TVE form of education is expected to provide Nigeria citizens with the
competencies needed to be productive and enterprising so as to enhance economy development.
Considering the high rate of unemployment which brought about increase in poverty level, one
wonders whether TVE as practiced in Nigeria has been able to fulfill its objective of equipping
Nigeria citizens with the necessary competencies for self reliances and gainful employment in
order to develop the economy of the nation
Historically, hands-on learning has been in practice in Nigeria (although in informal way)
before the introduction of western education. Western education was brought to Nigeria with
the advent of colonialism and their mission was to produce clerks, teachers and interpreters
who could facilitate their trade (Iwuanyanwu, 2018). According to Fafunwa (1982), the first
attempt to recognize technical education programme was its incorporation into the 1946 Ten
Year Education Plan with the purpose of preparing students for entry-level jobs in occupations
and to be productive members of the society. In 1982, the Nigerian education system witnessed
the full implementation of the 6-3-3-4 system of education that emerged with variety of reforms
(Ofoha, Uchegbu, Anyikwa & Nkemdirim, 2009). According to Obidile (2018) explained that
the reforms brought about the introduction of vocational subjects into the curriculum of
secondary schools in Nigeria, this include the prevocational subjects to be offered at the junior
secondary schools, the vocational subjects to be offered at the senior secondary schools and
post-vocational subjects to be offered in tertiary institution.
Pre-Vocational Level
Pre-vocational subjects is an integration of applied sciences, home economics, agricultural
sciences designed for junior secondary schools in Nigeria. This aspect covers the new
Curriculum Developed by Nigeria Education Research and Development Council (NERDC)
for the Nine-Year Basic education programme. Obidile (2018) explained that the main purpose
of prevocational subjects at the junior secondary schools was to expose the students to various
vocational areas for them to appreciate and develop interest to build future career in vocational
and technical education specific areas. This programme in the content of this study prepare the
students for National Education Council (NECO) which they take when the reach Junior
Secondary School (J.S.S.) 3. The scheme contains a broad range of home economic, basic
science and technology subjects that are designed to engaged and stimulate students’ interest
in science especially agriculture which is unarguably one of the main stay of Nigeria
economics.
Vocational level
Vocational level in Nigeria prepare individual for a specific job. This equips individual with
the skills and qualities required to do a particular job, such as computer networking, fashion
designing, agriculture, auto repairing, fabrication and welding mention but a few. This type of
education makes it easier for the students to find employment. Usually, it is seen that employers
prefers to hire a students who has done a vocational course rather than a college pass out
because the students already possesses the right temperament, qualities, skills and education
for the job and the employers feel that the applicant/individual will be more successful than a
regular college pass out due to his knowledge.
At the senior secondary level, TVE encompasses a wide range of areas of specialization which
include but not limited to electrical engineering trade, applied electricity, electronics,
mechanical engineering trade, auto mechanics, general metal work, civil engineering trade,
building construction, wood work, home economics, business education, home management,
food and nutrition, clothing and textiles. Other trade subjects include: auto body repair and
spray painting, auto parts merchandizing, welding and fabrication, electrical installation and
maintenance work, Radio and TV servicing, electrical appliances repair, block/brick laying and
concrete work, carpentry and joinery, furniture making, upholstery, garment making, textile
trade, dyeing and bleaching, printing and photography trade, mining trade, transportation trade,
beauty culture and cosmetology trade, tourism and hospitality trade, leather goods,
manufacturing, keyboarding, shorthand, data processing, store keeping, book keeping and
GSM maintenance (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2009).
The National Policy on Education emphasized that the TVE graduates from secondary school
should be able to secure employment at the end of the whole course or after completing one or
two modules of employable skills. Furthermore, that they should be able to set up their own
businesses, become self-employed and employ others or pursue further education in advance
craft in tertiary institutions such as polytechnics or colleges of education (technical) and
universities.
Post-Vocational Level
At the tertiary level, Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) is an umbrella which covers
so many units which include Agricultural Education Unit, Home Economics Unit, Business
Education Unit which comprises Office Technology and Management (OTM) (formerly
known as Secretarial Education), Accounting Education, Commerce and Cooperative
Education, Computer Education and Distributive/Marketing Education. Another unit in TVE
at the tertiary level is Industrial and Technology Unit which comprises Electrical, Mechanical,
Building & Woodwork and Metal Work Education. Interested candidates who obtain up to the
required scores are usually assigned into these units during admission (Obidile, 2018).
II. GOALS/OBJECTIVES OF TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL

EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN THE NATIONAL POLICY OF
The goals of TVET in Nigeria were stated in the NPE and were believed to have the capacity
to advance the economy of the nation if properly implemented and monitored. According to
Obasanjo (2012), an objective that education must achieve in order to make it more relevant to
the country’s development is the promotion of the culture of productivity by enabling every
individual to discover the creative genius within. The individual must apply this creative genius
within him/her to improve existing skills and techniques for performing specific tasks, thereby
increasing the efficiency of personal societal efforts; indeed, this is related to the goals of TVET
as stipulated in various versions of the NPE:
1. provide trained manpower in the applied sciences, technology and business, particularly
in craft, and advanced craft at technical levels; (NPE, 1998, sec. 5, para 31)
2. provide the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural,
commercial and economic development; (NPE 2004, sec. 7, para. 42)
3. Give training and impart the necessary skills to individuals who shall be economically
self-reliant. (NPE 2013, sec. 3, para. 50).
In spite of these goals for education, the state of technical and vocational education and training
in Nigeria calls for urgent attention. The country educational system requires urgent, practical
reform and innovation to bring it in line with international best practices. This practice wills
equip the young people of Nigeria to handle the never-ending demand of the 21st century.
Importance of Technical and Vocational Education and Training in Nigeria

Technical and vocational education and training will equip students in Nigeria with the
practical skills needed to survive in the world of work. This education system designed to
educate youths and adults with the specific skills needed to survive in the ever changing labour
market because the narrative of the basic academic education is gradually changing from basic
paper credentials to skill-based qualification which can be applied practically in the workplace
and contributes to the economic development of the nation.
III. WAY OF IMPROVING TVET TO ENHANCE ECONOMY
DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
The following are the way of Enhancing TVET for the economy development in Nigeria.
1. Training and retraining of TVET teachers/lecturers:
Training and retraining of TVET teachers enable the teacher to teach any vocational
subjects, getting industries to be mentors to enable the department to train students who
are suitably skilled for the workplace. Obidile (2018) explained that Just as the
saying goes ‘one cannot give what one does not have’. Training and re-training of the
TVE teachers are of paramount importance. TVE teachers should always receive
adequate training and re-training for professional development. be up-to-date, they should
always move with the positive changes which are usually
observed in the teaching and learning processes. It is expected that teachers should
take the lead in the positive changes that usually occur in education sector. Recently,
the information and communication technology (ICT) facilities were introduced in
the teaching and learning processes, it is expected that these facilities should be
introduced and adequately used in the training and re-training programmes of the
teachers. Changes in these new technologies should always be acknowledged and
improved technology should be used in the training and re-retraining programmes of
TVE teachers so as to enhance their skills to tackle the ever rising changes and
demands of skills by the industries and labour market. As technological
development is becoming rampant, it is important that TVE teachers should be
regularly trained and re-trained with improved and up-to-date technologies so as to
produce competent graduates who could compete favourably in this era of
technological changes and challenges.
2. Modern workshops/ laboratories for skill acquisition:
For improved economy development of Nigeria, adequate equipment, laboratories and
modern workshop should be provided and utilized in the TVET programme. The same
tools and equipment used in the industries should be used in the TVE programme. Most
TVE teachers and lecturers have use the available tools (obsolete tools and equipment) to
teach because of the non-availability of the improved tools and equipment and this could
lead to the production of graduates who could neither be self-reliance and also get job in
the industries due to lack of appropriate skills required to operate modern industrial
equipment. Similarly, Oviawe and Uwameiye (2010) reported that most TVE institutions
lack the tools and equipment necessary for practical TVE education. According to the
authors, the little equipment in workshops and laboratories are often obsolete, bearing little
or no resemblance to the technologies currently used by the 21st century workplace. For
improved economy development of Nigeria, adequate equipment, laboratories and
workshops should be provided and utilized in the TVE programme.
3. Availability of ICT facilities:
With provision of ICT facilities, teacher can easily access online databases, educational
websites, and digital libraries that provide vital information related to their lesson. This
also help teachers to create more diverse and engaging lesson that cater for their students.
4. Adequate Funding:
Poor funding of TVET programme contributed to the problem we are currently facing in
Nigeria. Lack of funds can lead to staff retention problem, poor facilities, brain drain
syndrome, inadequacy mention but a few which affected TVET in achieving its goals.
Obulor (2006); Offiong, Akpan and Usoro (2013); Okwelle and Wordu (2016) observed
that funding is one of the major challenges confronting TVE in achieving its objectives.
For the TVE programme to live up to expectation, the practice requires adequate funding
for infrastructure maintenance, technological facilities’ repair and renewal and regular
purchasing of improved equipment and tools that meet the industrial and environmental
needs and demands. This entails that sufficient funds should be provided to the TVE
programme by the TVE stakeholders in partnership with the government, for effective
running of the TVE programme. Furthermore, adequate funding is also needed in the TVE
programme to assist the TVE graduates who have demonstrated reasonable innovative
skills to become employers of labour.
5. Collaboration of Industries and TVET institution centre:
The National police on Education placed little emphasis on TVET institutions and
Industries collaboration which crumble the economy development of Nigeria. The
government should incorporate the collaboration of TVET institutions-industries into
National Police on Education in Nigeria and TVET curriculum be reviewed to include the
same. Oviawe, Uwameiye and Uddin (2017) stated that for TVE in Nigeria to achieve its
envisaged objectives, it must be properly strengthened through school-workplace training
collaboration. It is worthy to note that if the TVE training given to citizens do not
commensurate with the skills required in the industries and market, there would be
incompatibility which could lead to increase in the rate of unemployment and
underemployment. It is therefore imperative that TVE administrators should often
ascertain the needs and demands of the local environment, the market and the industries
with a view to structuring the TVE curriculum to meet these needs so that TVE graduates
could fit in appropriately in the world of work.
6. Conducive classroom:
A setting which allows for a free exchange of ideals, thoughts and skills among the
teachers, instructors and students to achieved the expected TVET educational goals by
consider the physical, psychological, social and cultural need of TVET students
IV. CONCLUSIONS
TVET is expected to provide citizens of Nigeria with the competencies needed to be productive
and enterprising so as to enhance economy development of the nation. Considering the high
rate of unemployment which brought about increase in poverty level, where people who are
able to work and are willing to work could not create or find jobs. One wonders whether TVE
as practiced in Nigeria has been able to fulfill its goals and objective of equipping its citizens
with the necessary competencies for gainful employment and to be self-reliance in order to
contribute to economy development of the country.
V. RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the finding, the following recommendation were made:
1. Government should provide modern workshops/ laboratory for skill acquisition in
schools
2. Government should organized seminars and workshop to keep TVET teachers update
on the current development in the field of TVET
3. Government should provide adequate ICT facilities to school for teachers to utilize
4. TVET programmes should collaborate with industry for the teacher to learn what
skills needed by students to function in the world of work.
VI. REFERENCE
Fafunwa, B. (1982). The History of Education. Ibadan: Macmillan Publishers.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) (1998). National policy on education. Lagos: Nigerian
Educational Research Council (NERDC) Press.
Federal Republic of Nigeria FRN, (2009).National Policy on Education. Lagos:
NERDC.
Idris, A. & Mbudai, Y. (2016). Technical and vocational education: Challenges
towards youth’s empowerment in Kano State, Nigeria. Journal of Technical
Education and Training (JTET), 9(1), 1-12.
Iwuanyanwu, E. C. (2018). Restructuring higher education in Nigeria. A paper
presented at the Faculty of Education public lecture, Awka, Nigeria, June 12-
14.
Jeerapattanatorn, P. (2013). Current issues on vocational and technical education in
Nigeria.Journal of Educational and Social Research, 3(10), 121-125.
Obasanjo, O. (2012, January 26). Education and development. A Lecture delivered at the
Graduation Ceremonies of University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria.
Obidile J. 1. (2018). Strategies for Improving Technical and Vocational Education (TVE)
Programme to reduce Unemployment in Nigeria. NAU Journal of Technology & Vocational
Education, 3(1), 1-10.
Obusor, A. E. (2005). The implementation and constraints of technical and vocational
education: Component of the National Policy on Education (NPE). A paper presented at the
National Seminar on Vocational and Technical Education and Training, Kaduna, Nigeria,
October, 15-17.
Offiong, A. A., Akpan, A. G. & Usoro, S. H. (2013).Funding of vocational technical education
in Nigeria in times of global economic recession. International Journal of Arts and Humanities,
2(2), 149-158.
Ofoha, D., Uchegbu, C. N., Anyikwa, B. & Nkemdirim, M. (2009). A critical
appraisal of the mode of implementation of Nigerian secondary school
curriculum: Towards socio-economic empowerment of the youths. Education
Research Network for West and Central Africa, 2(1), 13-21.
Okwelle, P. C. & Wordu, C. C. (2016).Attitudes of private sectors towards funding of
Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) programmes in Rivers State.African
Journal of Vocational Education, 5(1), 82-87.
Oviawe, J. I. & Uwameiye, R. (2010). Availability of human and material resources for
teaching blocklaying and concrete works in technical colleges in Edo State. Ebonyi Technology
and Vocational Education Journal, 1(1), 37-47.
Oviawe, J. I., Uwameiye, R. & Uddin, P. S. O. (2017).Bridging skill gap to meet technical
vocational education and training school-workplace collaboration in the 21st
century.International Journal of Vocational Education and Training Research,3(1), 7-14.
FACTORS AFFECTING STUDENTS' ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN

BASIC ELECTRICITY IN SOME SELECTED TECHNICAL
COLLEGES IN KANO METROPOLITAN
1ANIEKAN UDOM,
1RABIU HARUNA⁕,
1ADAMU SAIDU,
&
1HABIBU GUDA RANO
1
Department of Electrical and Electronic Technology Education, School of Secondary Education
(Technical), Federal College of Education (Technical) Bichi, Kano, Nigeria
*Corresponding author: maizare@gmail.com
Abstract: The study evaluated some factors affecting students’ academic performance in Basic
Electricity in some selected Technical Colleges in Kano metropolitan. To achieve that, objectives were
set to assess the impact of communication, learning facilities, and proper guidance of students’
academic performance in Basic Electricity in some selected Technical Colleges in Kano metropolitan.
Questionnaire was developed and shared to 265 participants to gather data to answer the research
questions and test hypotheses, of which 256 were fit for use. The cluster mean scores for each research
objective were computed, and the results showed the objectives as stated were all significant. The
ANOVA test was used to test for statistical difference between the means for the hypotheses. The results
indicate that communication, learning facilities, and proper guidance all affect significantly the
academic performance of students in some selected technical Colleges in Kano metropolitan. The study
concludes that communication, availability of learning facilities, and proper guidance are all important
factors that influence the students’ academic performance in Basic electricity.
Keywords: Academic Performance, Basic Electricity, Communication, Learning Facilities and

Proper Guidance.
I. INTRODUCTION
The increasing concern towards the academic performance of students in recent years is high especially
in the technical secondary schools. As the world is growing fast in the usage of technology, every nation
is putting in her best to see that they are not left behind. The Nigerian government is not an exemption
because it has ensured technical and technology subjects are taught right from the primary school down
to the tertiary institution; and a lot has been invested with the expectation that at the end of a student’s
study, the student will be able to contribute technically to the development of the nation.
The Nigerian government seeks to enhance the technical skills of its population as can be seen in the
number of programmes aimed at technical skill acquisition and policies in that regard. Okoye and
Arimumna (2016) states that Technical Education as enshrined in the Nigerian national policy on
education is concerned with qualitative technological human resources development directed towards
a national pool of skilled and self-reliant craftsmen, technicians and technologists in technical and
vocational education fields. It is seen that tools, equipment, machines, skilled personnel as well as
proper funding and supervision are needed to actually move technology to another level in the nation.
The National Policy on Education (FGN, 2014) also defines technology education as that aspect of
Factors Affecting Students' Academic Performance In Basic Electricity At Some Selected Technical
Colleges In Kano Metropolitan
education which leads to the acquisition of practical and applied skills as well as basic scientific
knowledge.
However, there are many factors that affect the learning of technical subjects among students in Nigeria.
These factors are internal and external classroom factors and these factors strongly affect the students’
academic performance. Internal classroom factors include students’ competence in English, class
schedules, class size, English text books, class test results, learning facilities, homework, environment
of the class, complexity of the course material, teacher’s role in the class, technology used in the class
and exams systems (Mushtaq& Khan, 2012).
External classroom factors include extracurricular activities, family problems, work and financial,
social and other problems. Research studies shows that, students’ academic performance depends on
many factors such as learning, facilities, gender and age differences, etc. can affect student performance
(Yakubu, 2015). All these factors will be grouped into general systems of communication, guidance
and learning facilities.
Shakeel and Chinapah (2019) analyzed the contextualized determinants affecting the academic
achievement of secondary school students in Mauritius. A mixed methodology was used to understand
the effect of the determinants on students’ achievement considering the academic progression of
learners from one point (CPE: Examination marking the end of primary schooling) to another (NG9A:
Check point assessment after three years of secondary schooling). The first phase had a non-positivist
epistemological stand using the qualitative method of ‘focus group discussion’ to identify the
determinants and then validate the TIMSS questionnaire. The second phase had a post-positivist
epistemological stand where an amended version of the standardized international questionnaire TIMSS
was administered to collect data from a sample of 600 students. The primary data were analyzed to
produce a Linear Multiple Regression Model. The findings reveal that 90.1%achievement can be
explained by the variables of school leadership, student, socio-economic factor, and teacher. The model
shows that school leadership has a higher positive correlation on students’ achievement followed by
student factor, tuition teacher, school teacher and socioeconomic status.
Gabone, Graham, Yaa and Fabea (2015) study was carried out in order to ascertain the impact of
guidance and counselling on academic performance. The study area was the Dormaa Senior High
School in the Dormaa Central Municipality of the Brong-Ahafo Region of Ghana. Pre-test and post-test
control group design was applied for the study. An experimental design was used as the research frame
for the study. 40 students were selected; 20 for experimental group and 20 for control group for the
study. Two hypotheses were formulated to keep the study in focus. Data from respondents were
gathered by the use of interviews. The results of the findings revealed that there is no significant
difference of pre-test scores of experimental and control groups. However, significant difference was
realized between post-test scores of experimental and control groups with regards to academic
performance.
The review of related literature consisted of four parts: theoretical framework, conceptual framework,
empirical studies and summary of the review. The theory reviewed was the general systems theory,
social learning theory, and the adult attachment theory.
The general systems theory focuses on the arrangement of and relations between the parts and how they
work together as a whole, which is often referred to as a holistic approach to understanding phenomena.
The social learning theory posits that learning takes place in a social context; that is through interaction.
Children learn about somebody or something, from something or somebody. The adult attachment
theory contends that children are born with a psycho‐biological system, the so‐called attachment
behavioral system that motivates them to seek or maintain proximity to an attachment figure. The
attachment figure is usually a primary caregiver, who is identified by the child as protecting the child
from threat.
The major concepts reviewed in the study were academic performance and Basic electricity. Academic
performance as a measure of the indicative and responsive abilities that express, in an estimated way,
what a person has learned as a result of a process of education or training while Basic Electricity as
used in this study is a subject taught in Senior Secondary Schools with the objectives of exposing the
students to electricity generation, theory and use of electricity. Factors affecting students’ academic
performance were discussed according to the objectives of the study.
A few empirical studies were reviewed and the findings are quite diverse. However, the majority of
studies reviewed are in support of a positive relationship between communication, guidance, learning
facilities, and family stress on academic performance of students.
Research Questions: The research questions were drafted from the research objectives as follows:
1. What is the effect of communication on students' academic performance in Basic Electricity in

some selected technical colleges in Kano Metropolitan, Kano State?
2. Do learning facilities affect students' academic performance in Basic Electricity in some
selected technical colleges in Kano Metropolitan, Kano State?
3. To what extent does proper guidance affect students' academic performance in Basic Electricity
In some selected technical colleges in Kano Metropolitan, Kano State?
Research Hypotheses
Ho1: Communication has no significant effect on students' academic performance in Basic

Electricity in some selected technical colleges in Kano Metropolitan, Kano State.
Ho2: Learning facilities have no significant effect on students' academic performance in Basic
Ho3: Proper guidance has no significant effect on students' academic performance in Basic
II. METHODOLOGY
The study used the survey research design. A survey research design allows for collecting, describing
and analyzing of data from a large population with the main objective of identifying the present
conditions and facts about such a given population. Since the study is aimed at finding opinions from
respondents about factors that affect student’s academic performance, a survey research design is more
appropriate.
The area of the study is Kano Metropolitan, Kano state. The district comprises of 6 cores urban Local
Government Areas. That is, Kano Municipal, Fagge, Dala, Gwale, Tarauni and Nasarrawa and 2 per-
urban local governments (Ungogo and kumbotso). This status means the area sees a lot of commercial
activities and teeming with people from different parts of the country and beyond.
The population of the study is 848, eight hundred and forty-eight students across four Government
Technical Colleges in Kano Metropolitan. The sample size was determined using the Krejcie& Morgan
formula. The sample size of the study is 265 students. Random sampling method was used to select the
respondents.
A questionnaire was used in gathering data. The questionnaire was divided into three sections. Section
A focused on the bio-data of the respondents while the Section B focused on getting responses on
academic performance in Basic Electricity. To do that, the grades in the subject are been required. The
grades were ranked very poor (below 30), poor (30-50), good (50-70), and excellent (above 70). Section
C solicited responses based on the research objectives. Section C is a modified four-point Likert type
scale of strongly agree (SA), agree (A), Disagree (D), and strongly disagree (SD) and these were
assigned numerical values of 4, 3, 2, and 1 points respectively. In order to take a decision, a cut-off
point of 2.50 (Ukonze& Juliana 2016) was used. Any variable with a mean of 2.50 and above indicates
that it is a determinant of students’ academic performance.
The instrument was taken for face and content validation to an expert in Technical and Vocational
Education and another expert in Measurement and Evaluation. To ascertain the internal consistency of
the questionnaire items, the instrument was administered to 40 students, 10 each, from four selected
technical colleges outside the case study. The administered copies of the questionnaire were collected
and analyzed with Cronbach Alpha using statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS Version 23.0)
to measure the consistency, based on the three scales for each objective. Items for communication factor
had a Cronbach alpha of 0.921, learning facilities 0.865, and proper guidance 0.921. The result obtained
from the analysis showed the reliability coefficient alpha for the instrument is 0.90. According to
Emaikwu (2011), the nearer the correlation to 1, the more reliable the result and this proved that the
instrument was reliable and appropriate for the study.
The researchers enlisted the help of 2 research assistants. The research assistants were assessed based
on communication skills, attention to detail, and critical thinking skills critical to the research objectives.
The questionnaires were administered to the respondents and collected the same day to enhance return
rate.
Percentage distribution was used to analyze demographic variables of the study. Research questions
were analyzed using descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation and a mean cut-off point of
2.50 based on the modified Likert type scale was assigned for significant decision making. Thus, the
mean values equal to or exceeding 2.50 was considered significant. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
was used to analyze the data for hypotheses testing. ANOVA is a technique for testing simultaneously
whether two or more population means are significantly different (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001).
III. RESULTS
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics

Frequency Percentage
Age
13-15 27 10.55
16-18 178 69.53
19+ 51 19.92
Total 256 100
Sex Male 256 100

Female 0 0
Total 256 256
Class
NTC1 21 8.20
NTC2 217 84.77
NTC3 18 7.03
256 100
Average scores in
Basic Electricity
Below 30 21 8.20
30-50 95 37.11
50-70 105 41.02
above 70 35 13.67
256 100
Source: Author’s Compilation, 2022
From Table 1 the age distribution of the respondents shows that the majority of the respondents, 178
(69.53%) fall between the ages of 16-18, the remaining fall between 13 and15 years (10.55%) and 19
years and above (19.92%). The majority fall into that age group because the majority of the respondents
were in NTC2 (84.77%), as some of the Technical Colleges did not have the capacity to offer NTC3
syllabus to the pupils and transferred their students to other technical colleges to complete their
education.
From table 1, we also observe that there were no females in the samples for Technical Colleges at the
levels of NTC 1-3. This means females are not enrolled in technical colleges, or even if they did, they
would be very few in number. The reason for this cannot be stated in this research as we did not envisage
such a scenario, and did not design the study to capture the reasons for this situation, but we can
hypothesize that the stereotype of associating Technical Subjects or courses to males still hold sway in
this study area, at least at the secondary level.
The academic performance of the students in Basic Electricity was measured by the average scores of
each respondent in the subject. From Table 1, 21 respondents (8.20%) scored 30 or below percent, while
95 respondents (37.11%) scored between 30 and 50 percent, 105 (41.02%) scored between 50 and 70
percent, and the rest representing 13.67% scored 70 percent or more. On the aggregate, over 57% of the
students had a pass mark in Basic Electricity,
Descriptive Mean Analysis of Research Question 1:
Table 2: Descriptive Mean Analysis of Research Question
Item Mean Standard Decision
Deviation
1 Communication on academic performance 2.78 0.926 Significant

2 Learning Facilities on academic performance 2.97 0.857 Significant
3 Proper guidance on academic performance 2.74 0.898 Significant
Source: Authors’ compilation, 2022
Table 2 shows the mean scores of participants to the research questions. Communication as a factor that
affects student’s academic performance in basic electricity among some selected Technical Colleges in
Kano metropolitan has a cluster mean of 2.78, Learning facilities has a cluster mean score of 2.97, and
proper guidance has a cluster mean score of 2.74. This implies that all the items on the questionnaire
had mean scores that were greater than the mean cutoff point of 2.50, signifying that all three variables
are significant in the student’s academic performance in basic electricity among some selected
Technical Colleges in Kano metropolitan.
Table 3: Correlation Matrix
Correlations
Average Communication Learning Proper
scores in BE facilities guidance
Pearson 1
Average scores in Correlation
BE Sig. (2-tailed)
N 256
Pearson .174** 1
Correlation
Communication
Sig. (2-tailed) .005
N 256 256
Pearson .210** .252** 1
Learning facilities Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .000
N 256 256 256

Pearson .036 .084 .672** 1
Correlation
Proper guidance
Sig. (2-tailed) .567 .180 .000
N 256 256 256 256
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 3 shows the correlation between the variables in the study, correlation is the measure of
association between variables. From the table, we can see that students’ academic performance (average
scores in BE) and communication is positive. This means that as communication variable increases or
improves. Student’s academic performance should improve too. Although the level of this association
is weak at only 17.4%.
The association between learning facilities, proper guidance and student’s academic performance is also
positive with a weak correlation co-efficient of 21% and 3.6% respectively.
Test of Hypotheses
Test for Hypothesis 1: Communication has no significant effect on students' academic performance
in Basic Electricity in some selected technical colleges in Kano Central, Kano State.
Table 4
ANOVA
Average scores in BE
Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 35.152 9 3.906 6.952 .000
Within Groups 138.207 246 .562
Total 173.359 255
Source: SPSS Version 21.
Using the results of ANOVA in Table 4, the p value of is 0.000, which is less than 0.05. This means
that the null hypothesis should be rejected, and the alternate hypothesis which states communication
has a significant effect on students' academic performance in Basic Electricity in some selected
technical colleges in Kano Central, Kano State, be accepted.
Test for Hypothesis 2: Learning facilities have no significant effect on students' academic
performance in Basic Electricity in some selected technical colleges in Kano Central, Kano State.
Table 5
ANOVA
Between Groups 66.290 13 5.099 11.525 .000
Total 173.359 255
Using the ANOVA results in Table 5, the p value of is 0.000, which is less than 0.05. This means that
the null hypothesis should be rejected, and the alternate hypothesis which states that learning facilities
have significant effect on students' academic performance in Basic Electricity in some selected technical
colleges in Kano Central, Kano State, be accepted.
Test for Hypothesis: Proper guidance has no significant effect on students' academic performance in
Basic Electricity in some selected technical colleges in Kano Central, Kano State.
Table 6
ANOVA
Between Groups 66.290 13 5.099 11.525 .000
Total 173.359 255
Using the ANOVA results of in Table 6, the p value of is 0.000, which is less than 0.05. This means
that the null hypothesis should be rejected, and the alternate hypothesis which states that proper
guidance has significant effect on students' academic performance in Basic Electricity in some selected
technical colleges in Kano Central, Kano State be accepted.
IV. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
The study found that communication, learning facilities and proper guidance where are significant
factors in the academic performance of the students.
Another aspect observed, which could be of help to the students was the use of Hausa language to
explain some concepts to the students. About 82% of the students (see Q2 in Appendix C) agree that
some concepts were explained in the Hausa language. This is in line with the National policy on
education that recommends that indigenous languages be used for studies in pre-primary, primary and
secondary education. This was informed by the global awareness that using mother tongue in teaching
is best for pupils at the early stages, as proved by research carried out by UNESCO (1953).
Although, the strategy may have appeared to work in this arrangement where the students seem to have
a grasp of the Hausa language. In settings where the students are having challenges hearing the native
language, it becomes problematic to select what indigenous language to further elaborate on a concept.
Noble (2016) found that students’ academic accomplishments and activities, perceptions of their coping
strategies and positive attributions, and background characteristics (i.e., family income, parents’ level
of education, guidance from parents and number of negative situations in the home) were indirectly
related to their composite scores, through academic achievement in school.
The learning environment is a key contributor to the academic performance of the students. Libraries,
computer labs, conducive classrooms, create the enabling environment for students to learn. For a
technical subject as basic electricity, where some practical is needed to better explain some concepts, a
workshop is necessary in the schools. From there questionnaire, 79% of the respondents (See Q7,
Appendix) agreed that the schools had a functional workshop and the same percentage agreed that they
have had practical classes in the same workshops.
The study found also that proper guidance has a significant impact on students’ academic performance.
Guidance is of the factor through which a student can improve his study attitudes and study habits and
is directly proportional to academic achievement. The students who are properly guided by their parents
and students have performed well in the exams. The guidance from the teacher also affects the student
performance. The guidance from the parents and the teachers indirectly affects the performance of the
students (Hussain, 2014).
The result of the present study indicated that the provision of guidance and counseling services in the
schools has made students developed positive attitudes or characters toward their school life. The result
is in agreement with the report of Mwangi (2014) which states that guidance and counseling services
result in a positive attitude towards good value and self-discipline. Also, Nweze and Okolie (2014)
confirmed that guidance and counseling services improve students’ academic performance and self-
understanding and foster a positive attitude toward career choice. However, this study showed that over
57% of the students (See Q17, Appendix C) have not benefitted from the services of a guidance
counsellor as it pertains to making a career choice, as they have not discussed the issue with the guidance
counsellor.
This important finding underscores the significance of guidance and counseling in the schools, which
is their duty to enlighten the students about requirements and condition of success, advantages and
disadvantages, opportunities and prospects in the different lines of work. Students know much about
career choice and where to pursue their choice and career.
V. CONCLUSION
The conclusion of this research is based on the results of the data analysis and discussion in the previous
chapter. Communication, availability of learning facilities, and proper guidance are all important
factors that influence the students’ academic performance in Basic electricity.
VI. RECOMMENDATIONS
1. The learning facilities such as workshops and libraries should be enhanced and students be
exposed to them more.
2. More diverse means should be sought to improve on the already established methods of
communication in class, by using practical demonstrations as well. The reliance on explaining
in another language may not help in some cases where the class is multi-ethnic in constitution.
3. Although schools have guidance and counselling units, they do not visit often for career advice.
The students should be encouraged to visit this unit for career advice or private issues that
border them.
VII. REFERENCES
Ali, N., Justoff, K., Ali, S., Mokhtar, N., &Salamt, A. S. A. (2015). The factors influencing students'
performance at UniversitiTeknologi MARA Kedah, Malaysia. Canadian Research and Development
Centre of Sciences and Culture, 3(4), 35-45.
Ambursa, A. (2010). Developmental competence and resilience: Academic and emotional functioning
in the context of community violence. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and
Social Sciences, 65(11-A), 4112.
Asiabaka, I. P. (2008). “The Need for Effective Facility Management in Schools in Nigeria. New York:
Science Journal, 1(2), pp. 10-21 (2008).
Bandura, D. (1977). Perceived parental social support and academic achievement: An attachment theory
perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(2), 369-378.
Caballero, Anderson, J. R., Horowitz, J. L., & August, G. J. 2017Factors affecting students' academic
performance. Global Journal of Management and Business Research, 12(9), 17-22.
Ebizie, G., Thabat, W., Awuzie, D., &Bimbpe, S. (2016) Self-efficacy and academic success in college.
Research in Higher Education, 40(6), 677-706.
Egbochukwu, A. (2018) Effective guidance and counseling programs in secondary schools: Issues and
roles in students’ career decision making. Research in Higher Education, 1(2), 430-450.
Emaikwu, E. (2011). An examination of the interrelationships between self-esteem, others'
expectations, family support, learning approaches and academic achievement. Studies in Higher
Education, 33(2), 127-138.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2014). National Policy on Education Lagos, Federal Government Press.
Frenz, R. (2016). The advantages and disadvantages of communication in an organization. Retrieved
from http://smallbusiness.chron.com/advantages-disadvantages-communication-organization
Gabone, A., Graham, D., &Fabea, F. (2015). Effective guidance and counseling programs in secondary
schools: Issues and roles in students’ career decision making. Journal of Child Psychology and
Psychiatry, 33(6), 999-1010.
Hussain, C. (2014). Effect of guidance services on study attitudes, study habits and academic
achievement of secondary school students. Bulletin of Education and Research, 28(1), 35-45.
Muro, S., & Jeffrey, R. J. (2014). Classroom assessment for learning. Educational Leadership. 1(60),
40-43.
Mushtaq, I. & Khan, S. N. (2012). Factors affecting students' academic performance. Global Journal
of Management and Business Research, 12(9), 17-22.
Mwangi, D. (2014). Friends, family, and neighborhood: Understanding academic outcomes of African
American youth. Urban Education, 37(3), 408-431.
Noble, D. (2016). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success?
Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855.
Nweze, T. and Okolie, U. (2014). Effective guidance and counseling programs in secondary schools:
Issues and roles in students’ career decision making. Journal of Research and Methods in Education.
4:63-68.
Ogbu, J. O. (2010). Two views of one relationship: Comparing parents' and young adult children's
reports of the quality of intergenerational relations. Journal of Marriage & the Family, 61(4), 858-870.
Okoye, R. &Arimumna, M. O. (2016). Technical and vocational education in Nigeria: Issues and a way
forward. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(3), 113-119.
Pereira, A. (2018). Important disadvantages of oral communication. Retrieved from
htttp://www.preservearticles.com/important-disadvantages-of-oral-communication.html
Pizarro, S. (2015). Is it too early to evaluate the effectiveness of early intervention? PsycCRITIQUES,
33(7), 600-601.
Shakeel, O. & Chinapah, T. (2019). Sources of distress among New Zealand adolescents. Journal of
Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33(6), 999-1010.
Suleiman, J. (2017). Improving academic achievement: Impact of psychological factors on education.
San Diego, CA US: Academic Press.
Tabachnick, B.G., &Fidell, L.S. (2012). Using multivariate statistics. Boston, MA: Pearson, Allyn, &
Bacon
Ukonze, B. & Juliana, S. (2016). Factors affecting students’ academic performance. Journal of
Management and Business Research, 12(9), 16-22.
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) (2006). EFA Global
Monitoring Report 2006. Literacy for life. Paris.
Victor, R. (2015). Family support, family income, and happiness: A 10-year perspective. Journal of
Family Psychology, 22(3), 475-483.
Wunti, T. (2014). Friends, family, and neighborhood: Understanding academic outcomes of African
American youth. Urban Education, 37(3), 408-431.
Yakub, A. (2015). Research information and recommendations to improve sports facilities in
university,” Thesis report submitted to the Superior University Lahore.
ROLES OF GOVERNMENT AS A SENIOR SECONDARY

SCHOOL SUBJECT IN PROMOTING CITIZENSHIP
EDUCATION IN ENUGU STATE, NIGERIA
1CALISTA CHINWE EZEODO
&
2 SUNUSI MUHAMMAD KANI, Ph.D ⁕

1
Department of Social Science Education,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka
calista.ezeodo@unn.edu.ng
2
Department of Educational Foundations
Aliko Dangote University of Science and Technology, Wudil
*Corresponding author: smkgwale@yahoo.com
Abstract: The study sought to determine the roles of Government as a subject senior secondary
school in promoting citizenship education in Enugu State. The study adopted a descriptive
survey research design. The total population of the study comprised eight hundred and ten
students (810) from public senior secondary schools. A sample size of 81 was determined using
Taro Yamane formula. The instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire titled
“roles of Government as a subject in promoting citizenship education in senior secondary
schools.” Data collected were analyzed using mean, standard deviation and t-test. The result
of the study revealed among others that the study of Government as a subject in secondary
school helps students to develop attitude of self-reliance, provides students with the ideas of
fundamental rights, expose learners to civic skills of the country, expose learners to obligations
of citizens to the state and help to encourage political participations. The study recommended
among others that secondary school administration should encourage teachers who teach
Government to update their teaching methods in the classroom to improve the quality of
teaching and learning.
Keywords: Government, Citizenship Education, Government Curriculum, Secondary
Education
I. INTRODUCTION
The issue of citizenship hinges primarily on a person wanting to be associated with a country and the
country striving to satisfy that person’s needs. It is a give and take relationship. Hence, every country
prescribes terms of citizenship, the rights of the individual’s terms of citizenship, the rights of the
individual obligations to the state (Martins, 2020). Historically, in Nigeria context, persons can become
citizens by birth, registration or naturalization. The constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria states
that a citizen by birth is every person born in Nigeria whose parents or anyone of whose grandparents
belong to a
Roles of Government as a Senior Secondary School Subject in Promoting Citizenship Education in Enugu
State, Nigeria
community indigenous to Nigeria. Onuora (2014) argued that Citizenship by naturalization is granted
through application to the president of a country. However, a certificate of naturalization is granted on
condition that among other things, persons who are up to eighteen (18) years and above. By registration, a
person becomes a Nigeria citizen if married to a citizen of Nigeria. In all these types of citizenship, it is
expected that such persons are of good character have shown the intention to domicile in Nigeria and are
willing to make a useful contribution to the advancement, progress and wellbeing of Nigeria.
Furthermore, the federal republic of Nigeria stipulates fundamental rights, which her citizens should enjoy.
These rights are basically in line with the United Nations 1949 Universal declaration of human rights. The
rights of Nigeria citizens as stipulated in the constitution are rights to: life, dignity of the human person,
personal liberty, fair hearing, private and family life, freedom of thought, conscience and religion, freedom
of expression, and the press, peaceful assembly and association, freedom of movement, freedom from
discrimination. Also, enshrined in the constitution is that the property of Nigerian citizens shall not be
compulsorily taken into possession by the government except in the manner prescribed by law (Federal
Republic of Nigeria, 1979). On the other hand, citizens of Nigeria also have duties and obligation to fulfill
to the Nigerian state. These includes paying taxes, obeying the laws, assisting law enforcement agents in
their functions, loyalty to the government of the day, participation in the political process, readiness to serve
in the armed forces whenever called upon also willingness to participate in the national youth service a
program compulsory for all youth graduates from institutions of higher learning, respect for the national
flag taking pride in signing the national anthem, obeying the content of the anthem and other national
symbols.
The knowledge of citizenship is expedient before citizenship education. Citizenship education can be
defined a deliberate preparation of the citizen’s social, civil and political rights in the state as well as their
duties and obligations towards the state (Ekemba, 2006). Citizenship education according to Hender (2018)
is a vehicle through which citizens can learn the right attitudes and values system of their country. Ogu
(2015) states that citizenship education is a systematic and orderly method of transmitting knowledge,
skills, positive political, economic, social and administrative cultures to the citizens of a state for national
development. The evidence of effective citizenship education should be shown by people’s competence in
exhibiting appropriate personal values based on sound knowledge, moral and ethical decision-making, and
participation in public and individual activities that contribute to community development and nation
building.
Citizenship education aims to foster functional skill that will help the citizens to live peaceful among others
and contribute effectively to the overall development of himself and his community. Adegbenjo (2012) had
opined that society used to accord priority to the inculcation of values of social responsibility, political
participation, job orientation and spiritual and moral uprightness in the citizens, which are the core thrust
of citizenship education. Mbakwe (2018) suggested that citizenship education ultimately aimed to nurture
a child with supreme value, necessary for social recognition. In such societies, a child rights from birth is
exposed to series of rites aimed at integrating the child to core societal values and norms. The Igbo’s for
example, conceives education as a process of weaning the newborn child away from his animal nature and
bring out the imbedded humanity in him. Every human being is usually conceived of as destined for
communal life. Thus, Education is worthwhile when it helps individual to be sociable, acquire skills and
self-awareness in relations to himself, his follows, family and community at large.
Conversely, citizenship education is vital for the preparation of students so that they can play an active role
in societal development. The importance of citizenship education in a country that is transitioning into a
democratic system can never be over emphasized. Citizenship education help in molding students to be
more responsive and self-reliant when dealing with the issues and problems associated with living in a
diverse society. It also offers students extensive knowledge skills and understanding in regards to public
values. Akuta (2019) argues that the subject of civic values might differ in citizenship education from one
locality to the other. Moreover, these civic values of a citizen often has both rights and responsibilities, for
example, while freedom equal protection of laws, and property right are the rights of citizens, paying taxes,
State, Nigeria
obeying laws, a personal obligation to the public good is the associated duties of citizens in respect to the
civic values. In fact, Citizenship education plays a decisive role in developing student’s knowledge and
understanding of their rights and duties.
In line with this above assertions, Government as a senior secondary school subject needs to be taught in
ways that will encourage national morals and ethics among students, which is the focus of citizenship
education. Therefore, in order to promote citizenship education in Nigeria especially among senior
secondary school students, there is the need to revisit and acknowledge the linking roles of senior secondary
school Government in facilitating the process. However, the term Government means different things to
different people, some scholars views Government as a process; others as an institution and some others as
a subject (Iroegbu, 2015). Meanwhile, this study focuses mainly on the perception of Government as an
academic field of study. Government as an academic field of study refers to agencies, political institutions
and dynamics of the state (Anyaele, 2014). There are several sub-disciplines within the field of
Government, which includes public administration, international relations, political theory, political
economy and comparative politics. The study of Government is called political science in higher institution
of learning and it is of a great important because it allows students to understand their role; as citizens and
to understand the ways in which our Government and its systems operate.
More so, the roles of Government as a subject of study in secondary schools are of great importance to the
contemporary Nigeria society. The wide scope of Government curriculum, containing wide range of issues,
such as citizenship, democracy, political parties and party system, pressure group, public opinion, electoral
process, organization of election, electoral commission, political participation, fundamental human rights,
rule of law and nationalism accelerates the positive molding of students’ attitudes and character into
responsible Nigerian citizens. Conversely, the core objectives of Government as a subject can only be
achieved through effective classroom interaction which create equitable chance for students irrespective of
gender; this implies that classroom interaction should among other things creates the desire and equal
opportunity for understanding in both male and female students. Gender refers to specific cultural patterns
of behavior that are attributed to human sexes. Gender according to Lahey (2015) is a psychological
experience of being male or female. It is also refers to all the characteristics of male and female, which a
particular society has determines and assigned each sex. However, it has been observed by scholars that
gender determines the quality of grades and level of academic performance of students. There are other
factors which can account for the good or poor academic performance in secondary school subjects
particularly Government like; the type of learning materials available in the schools, home environment
and school location.
Meanwhile, Ezeora (2014) defined school location as a community in which a geographical school or
institution is located, such as village, hamlet, rural area, urban area and others where educational objectives
intended to achieve. School location is one of the social institutions that is responsible for the development
and training of mind and skills of man. It is as a result of this obvious truth that every society or nation
accords great emphasis to education both in terms of quality and access towards achieving Government as
a subject among senior secondary schools student. Bloodsworth (2012) pointed out that Nigeria
Government in post independent era to massively establish secondary schools both in urban and rural areas
cannot be underscored. It absorbs the product of secondary education and serves as an input unit for tertiary
education.
In the light of the above expositions, Arif (2017) attributed students’ academic performance to school
location environment. Thus, suggest that school environment located in a rural area may contribute to low
standard of learning because of insufficient materials, unqualified teachers and lack of classroom
management that can impede the achievement of objectives of Government curriculum in secondary
schools as a result the above challenges confronting them. This implies that as the school location differs,
the level of academic performance may also differ. Hence, the consequence is that the quality of education
may not be even; and the national policy of education for a democratic, egalitarian society cannot be attained
unsentimentally.
State, Nigeria
Government curriculum is designed to expose senior secondary students to the knowledge of basic concepts
of Government such as political ideologies, arms of Government, structures, systems of governance,
federalism in Nigeria, constitutions, constitutional development, citizenship, principles of democratic
government, electoral system, electoral management body, political parties, party systems, pressure groups,
public opinion, mass media, international organizations, military rule in Nigeria; and to acquire the needed
experiences, knowledge, skills ideas and attitudes to function effectively in a society. Accordingly, the
Federal Ministry of Education (2007) stated that the objectives of senior secondary school Government
curriculum include: to enable students understand the concept, principles, institutions and process of
Government; become active participants in the democratic process of the nation and their local
environments, appreciate the role of Nigeria as a member of the international community, appreciate the
challenges and dynamics of past and present Government in Nigeria and the world, recognize the role of
ICT in e-government and in fostering the process of Governments in the world and recognize his role as an
informed citizen and his contribution towards the achievement of national development which are the core
thrust of citizenship education. However, despite the lofty objectives of Government curriculum, there is
increasing rate of civic ills, which can linked to the low performance of students in WASSCE in recent
years.
Despite the provision made to introduce learners to Citizenship Education in senior secondary schools
Government, it is widely acclaimed that very little attention is given to citizenship education contents at the
senior secondary school level. This situation threatens the development of the youth to become good
citizens who are prepared to shoulder the responsibilities of contributing to nation building. The upsurge of
moral decadence among the youth these days seem to attest to the fact that citizenship, education is either
“untaught”. This is also supported by evidence that young people graduate from senior high schools with
little or no knowledge of or interest in community participation and decisions that affect their lives which
has led a rise in political apathy, increase violent crime rate, the resurgence of banditry the decline of
volunteerism in community activities and the breakdown of moral fabric and democratic deficit.
The major aim of Citizenship Education is to equip students with the practical skills of making meaningful
contribution towards the development of their society. However, despite the importance of Government in
promoting the learning of Citizenship Education in senior secondary schools, there are reports of bad
citizenship and low performance of students in Government in external examinations, which can be linked
to the upsurge of insecurity and unpatriotic behaviors of some Nigerians. It is on this note that the
researchers therefore sought to find out whether students do not hold the right perceptions of citizenship
education or the knowledge of the roles Government as a senior secondary school subject play in promoting
Citizenship Education
.
Objectives of the Study
Specifically, the study sought to:
1. Determine the roles of Government as a subject in promoting citizenship education.
2. Identify the factors militating against learning of citizenship education contents in Government
curriculum in senior secondary schools.
3. Ascertain the extent gender influence students learning of citizenship education contents in
Government curriculum in senior secondary schools.
4. Ascertain the challenges militating against the learning of citizenship education contents in
Government curriculum with respect to school location.
Research Questions
The following research question guided the study.
1. What are the roles of Government as a subject in promoting Citizenship Education?
2. What are the factors militating against the learning of citizenship education contents in Government
curriculum in senior secondary schools?
State, Nigeria
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were formulated to guide the study:
1. There is no significant difference in the mean responses of male and female students on the roles
of Government as a secondary school subject in promoting citizenship education.
2. There is no significant difference in the mean responses of students from rural and urban schools
on the challenges militating against the learning of citizenship education contents in Government
curriculum.
II. METHODOLOGY
The design for this study is a descriptive survey research design. The study was carried out in Nsukka Local
Government Area of Enugu State. The population of the study comprised eight hundred and ten students
(810) from public senior secondary schools. A sample size of 81 was determined using Taro Yamane
formula. A structured questionnaire with the title “role of Government as a school subject in promoting
citizenship education in senior secondary schools (RGSSPCESS) was used to collect the data. The
researchers visited five (5) senior secondary schools to administer the questionnaires to senior secondary
school students with the help of research assistants by visiting each school per day. Mean and standard
deviation were used to answer the research questions. Whereas t- test was used to answer hypotheses at
0.05 level of significance. The reason for using mean, standard deviation and t-test was that it allows for
the objective measure of opinion, or subjective data that could provide a basis for comparison.
III. RESULTS
Research Question 1: What are the roles of government as a subject in promoting citizenship education?
Table 1: Mean ratings of students' responses on the roles of Government as a subject in promoting
citizenship education in Nsukka Local Government Area of Enugu State.
S/N ITEM STATEMENTS N MEAN SD DECISION
1 Provides students with the idea of fundamental rights 210 2.88 0.76 Accepted
2 Helps the students to develop attitude of self-reliance 210 3.26 0.70 Accepted
3 Helps the learners to become patriotic citizens 210 3.03 0.19 Accepted
4 Expose learners to civic skills of the country 210 2.65 1.07 Accepted
5 Equips learners with the skills to be law abiding citizens 210 2.70 0.78 Accepted
6 Help to encourage political participation among students 210 3.32 1.12 Accepted
7 Gives learners ideas on the duties of the state to its citizens 210 3.03 0.19 Accepted
8 Gives students insight about the policies and programmers 210 3.32 0.72 Accepted
of Government
9 Create awareness on the duties of citizens 210 2.78 1.04 Accepted
10 Exposes learners to obligations of citizen to the state 210 2.99 1.06 Accepted
11 Helps to guide the community 210 2.93 0.48 Accepted
12 Manage the economy 210 2.65 0.80 Accepted
13 Conducting foreign relations 210 2.98 0.39 Accepted
Table 1 indicated the responds on the roles of Government as a subject in promoting citizenship education.
The mean scores of 2.88, 3.26, 3.03, 2.65, 2.70, 3.32, 3.03, 3.32, 2.78, 2.99, 2.93, 2.65, and 2.98
respectively, are above the 2.50 benchmark for acceptance of the items. Thus indicated that providing
student with the idea of fundamental rights, helping the student to develop self-reliance, helping the learners
to become patriotic citizens, exposing learners to civic skills, equipping learners with the skills to be law
abiding citizens, encouraging political participation among students, giving learners ideas on the duties of
the state to its citizens, giving students insight about the policies and programmes of Government, creating
State, Nigeria
awareness on the duties of citizens, exposing learners to the obligations of citizens to the state, guiding the
community, managing the economy, and conducting foreign relations are the roles of Government as a
subject in promoting citizenship education. However, the standard deviation scores of 0.76, 0.70, 0.19, 1.07,
0.78, 1.12, 0.19, 0.72, 1.04, 1.06, 0.48, 0.80, and 0.39, revealed high variability in the mean scores of
students' responses.
Research Question 2: What are the factors militating against the learning of citizenship education contents
in Government curriculum in senior secondary schools?
Table 2: Mean ratings on the factors militating against the learning of citizenship education contents in
Government curriculum in senior secondary schools.
S/N ITEMS STATEMENTS N MEAN SD DECISION
14 Lack of professional teachers 210 3.03 0.94 Accepted
15 Lack of relevant instructional materials 210 3.32 0.72 Accepted
16 Abstract nature of some concepts in Government 210 2.65 0.19 Accepted
17 Non- utilization of modern innovative teaching methods 210 2.75 0.94 Accepted
18 The problem of individual difference in learners 210 3.03 0.19 Accepted
19 Poor funding 210 2.65 1.07 Accepted
20 Unconducive learning environment 210 2.99 1.06 Accepted
Table 2 shows that the factors militating against students learning of citizenship education contents in
Government curriculum in senior secondary schools include all items with mean scores of 3.03, 3.32, 2.65,
2.75, 3.03, 2.65, and 2.99 respectively, falls within the criterion mean requirement of 2.5 and above.
Therefore, the findings revealed that lack of professional teachers, lack of relevant instructional materials,
abstract nature of some concepts in Government, non-utilization of modern innovative teaching methods,
the problem of individual difference in learners, poor funding, and unconducive learning environment are
the perceived factors militating against students learning of citizenship education contents in Government
curriculum in senior secondary schools in Nsukka local government area of Enugu State. The standard
deviation scores of 0.94, 0.72, 0.19, 0.94, 0.19, 1.07 and 1.06 on the other hand indicated less variability in
the students responses.
Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference in the main responses of male and female students on the
role of Government in promoting citizenship education in Nsukka local government area of Enugu State.
Table 3: t-test analysis on mean ratings difference in male and female respondent on the role of Government
in promoting citizenship education in Nsukka local government area of Enugu State
Institution N MEAN SD T Df Sig.(2-tailed)
Male 210 3.25 .60 .183 150 0.855
Female 210 3.23 .38
The data in Table 3 is the t-test analysis of mean responses of male and female students on the role of
Government in promoting citizenship education in Nsukka local government area of Enugu State and the
result showed that the t-test value of .183 was significant at 0.855 since the sig value 0.855 is above 0.05
level of significant, the null hypothesis of no significant difference was not rejected. Hence, both male and
female respondents uniformly agreed that Government as a subject play significant roles in promoting
citizenship education in Nsukka Local Government Area of Enugu State.
State, Nigeria
Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the mean responses of students from rural and urban
schools on the challenges militating against the learning of citizenship education contents in Government
curriculum in Nsukka local government area of Enugu State.
Table 4: t-test analysis on mean ratings of students from rural and urban schools on the challenges
militating against the learning of citizenship education contents in Government curriculum in Nsukka local
government area of Enugu State
Location N MEAN SD T Df Sig (2-tailed)
Rural 210 3.13 .37 .519 150 0.605
Urban 210 3.17 .59
The data in the table 4 is the t-test analysis of mean difference of students from rural and urban schools on
the challenges militating against the learning of citizenship education contents in Government in Nsukka
local government area of Enugu State and the result showed that the t-value 0.519 was significant at 0.605.
The 0.605 sig value is above the 0.05 level of significance, hence the null hypothesis of no significant
difference was upheld. Therefore, both rural and urban students uniformly agreed that Government as a
subject play significant roles in promoting citizenship education in Nsukka Local Government Area of
Enugu State.
IV. DISCUSSION
Roles of Government as a Subject in Promoting Citizenship Education in Nigeria
The finding of the study as shown on Table 1 revealed that the roles of Government as a subject in
promoting citizenship education include: providing students with the ideas of fundamental rights, helping
the students to develop attitude of self –reliance, helps the learners to become patriotic citizens, expose
learners to civil skills of the country, equips learners with the skills to be law abiding citizens, helps to
encourage political participating among students, giving learners with ideas in the duties of the state to its
citizens, giving students insight about the policies and programmers of government, creates awareness on
the duties of citizens, expose learners to obligations of citizens to the state, helping to guide the community,
manage the economy and conducting foreign relations. This is in line with Adegbenjo (2012) who stated
that the roles of Government as a subject in promoting citizenship education are on a high extent. The
findings of Ogu (2015) is equally in support of the findings above as he is of the view that some of the
items such as exposing learners to become patriotic citizens, conducting foreign relations, manage the
economy, exposes learners to obligations of citizens to the state and giving students insight about the polices
and programmers of Government are vital functions that will to improve students who are learning
citizenship as a Sub topic in Government.
Factors militating against students learning of the citizenship education contents of Government
curriculum in senior secondary schools
The findings of the study as indicated that the factors militating against the students learning of citizenship
education contents in Government curriculum in senior secondary schools include; lack of professional
teachers, lack of instructional materials, abstract nature of some concepts in Government, non-utilization
of modern innovative teaching methods, the problems of individual difference in learners, poor funding,
State, Nigeria
and unconducive learning environment. In line with the findings, Bloodsworth (2012) noted that poor
funding, lack of instructional materials and unconducive learning environment are the key challenges
confronting students’ learning of senior secondary school subjects.
Mean ratings of male and female students on the roles of Government as a secondary school subject
in promoting citizenship education
The t-test analysis with regards to hypothesis one indicated that there was no significant difference between
the mean ratings of male and female students on the roles of Government as a secondary school subject in
promoting citizenship educated in Nsukka local government area of Enugu State, therefore both male and
female students believe that Government as a secondary school subject play a significant role in promoting
citizenship education through providing students with the ideas of fundamental rights, helping the students
to develop attitude of self-reliance, helps the respondent opinions which includes; providing students with
the ideas of fundamental rights, helping the students to develop attitude of self-reliance, helps the learners
to become patriotic citizens, expose learners to civil skills of the country, equips learners with the skills to
be law abiding citizens, helps to encourage political participating among students, giving learners with ideas
in the duties of the state to its citizens, giving students insight about the policies and programmers of
government, creates awareness on the duties of citizens, expose learners to obligations of citizens to the
state, helping to guide the community, manage the economy and conducting foreign relations.
Mean ratings of rural and urban students on the challenges militating against the learning of
citizenship education contents in Government curriculum in Nsukka local government area of Enugu
State
The t-test analysis on hypothesis two shows that there was no significant difference between the mean
scores of rural and urban students. Thus, lack of professional teachers, lack of instructional materials,
abstract nature of some concepts in Government, non-utilization of modern innovative teaching methods,
the problems of individual difference in learners, poor funding and unconducive learning environment are
the challenges militating against the learning of citizenship education contents in Government curriculum
in rural and urban schools in the Local Government Area.
V. CONCLUSION
Government as a subject promotes learning of citizenship education by providing students with the ideas
of fundamental rights, helping the students to develop attitude of self –reliance, helps the learners to become
patriotic citizens, expose learners to civil skills of the country, equips learners with the skills to be law
abiding citizens, helps to encourage political participating among students, gives learners the ideas of the
duties of the state to its citizens, provides students with insight about the policies and programmes of
government, creates awareness on the duties of citizens, expose learners to the obligations of citizens to the
state, provides a guide in managing the economy and conducting foreign relations. The factors militating
against the learning of citizenship education contents in Government curriculum in senior secondary
schools include lack of professional teachers, lack of instructional materials, the abstract nature of some
concepts in Government, non-utilization of modern innovative teaching methods, the problems of
individual difference in learners, poor funding and unconducive learning environment.
VI. RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made;
1. Teachers who teach Government in senior secondary school should update their teaching methods
in the classroom to improve the quality of teaching and learning. This is best achieved through the
revision of the educational system and by offering much-needed training courses especially for
Government teachers.
State, Nigeria
2. The government at all level should work on the construction of more school buildings in
cooperation with international educational organizations as this will help to address overcome the
problem of overcrowding in schools that can hinder the learning of citizenship education contents.
3. The managements of secondary schools should create the enabling environment and provide
adequate incentives for Government teachers to facilitate the teaching and learning of
Government.
4. The government should take the required steps to promote national identity, develop peace,
security and improve the quality of life for its citizen. This is likely to have a positive effect on the
promotion and the advancement of citizenship education in the society.
VII. REFERENCES
Adegbenjo, B.E. (2012). Secondary school teacher’s perceptions of the role of government in fostering
citizenship competencies, Journal of Education and Training Studies.1 (2), 126-135.
Akuta, V.C. (2019). Citizenship education for schools and colleges in Nigeria/KauraNamoda:
Midas Equitable Publishers.
Anyaele, B.N. (2014). Forms of government in J. Okpala and Adeyemi, M.B. (Eds), Fundamentals of Social
Studies for Universities, 113-125.
Arif, B.N. (2017). Influence of school location on students’ achievement in social science using concept
mapping as an instructional strategy. Nigerian Social Science Education Review (NSSER), 391), 116-123.
Bloodsworth H. K (2012). Stratification in academic secondary program and educational inequality in Isreal
and the United States. Comparative Education Review, 44(1), 54-80.
Ekemba, K.S. (2006). The morality of democratic citizenship: Goals for citizenship education in the
republic’s third century. Calabasa, Califonia: Center for citizenship education.
Ezeora, B. F (2014).The foundations of modern political thought. The Renaissance. Cambridge University
Press.
Federal Ministry of Education (FME, 2007). National Senior Secondary School Curriculum: Government
Abuja: NERDC.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 1979). National policy on Education. Lagos: NERDE Press.
Hender, G.O. (2018). Political science education and contemporary Nigeria, Nigeria Journal of Social
Studies Review, 2(1), 25-38.
Iroegbu, E.A. (2015). Foundation of government and politics. Onitsha: Africana.
Lahey, N.K. (2015). A handbook on principles and methods of teaching. Onitsha: West and Solomon.
Martins V. C. (2020). Eassy on Government as a Citizenship. London: Continuum.
Ogu, D.O. (2015). Citizenship education and civic consciousness among secondary school students in
Kwara Students by Olatide A.E. and Alonge, R.A: Journal of Social Studies, XVIII (2) October 2015.
Onuora I. V (2014). Contemporary dilemmas of Isreal citizenship. Citizenship studies, 12(3), 195-201.
Yamane, Taro. (1973). Statistics: An introductory analysis. London: John Weather Hill, Inc
PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING: A STRATEGY TO FOSTER

21ST CENTURY CRITICAL THINKING AND PERSEVERANCE
IN BUILDING TECHNOLOGY STUDENTS
Jibril Wushishi AHMED1*
&
Alhassan Ndagi USMAN2
2
Department of Technical Drawing, School of Technical Education, Niger State College of Education,
Minna, Nigeria.
2
Department of Building Technology, School of Technical Education Niger State College of Education,
Minna, Nigeria.
*Corresponding author: jibrilushishi@gmail.com
Abstract: In today's rapidly changing education landscape, it is vital to promote critical thinking and
perseverance among students pursuing careers in Building Technology Education (BTE). This article
investigates the incorporation of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) as an instructional approach to address
these needs. PBL is a comprehensive teaching approach that not only improves students’ problem-solving
abilities but also encourages critical thinking and perseverance when faced with complex challenges.
Critical thinking is fundamental to 21st-century education, and PBL seamlessly supports its development.
Through PBL, students encounter real-world problems, prompting them to critically analyze and assess
information. PBL provides an excellent setting for students to develop resilience as they tackle authentic,
real-world problems. They learn to overcome setbacks, adjust their approaches, and persevere until they
find solutions, building the perseverance necessary to succeed in the dynamic construction industry. The
implementation of PBL in the 21st century is complex yet adaptable. With advancements in technology and
the growing complexity of real-world challenges, PBL gives students a platform to apply their critical
thinking and perseverance skills in a setting that mirrors the demands of the modern world. This approach
equips students not only with specific subject knowledge but also with the ability to collaborate effectively,
communicate, and adapt to evolving technologies, all of which are essential qualities for success in BT.
Keywords: PBL, BTE, Critical Thinking, Perseverance, and 21st Century Skills
I. INTRODUCTION
In this 21st century, the setting of education is continually evolving, driven by technological advancements
and the changing demands of the workforce. Within this context, it is imperative to equip students pursuing
State, Nigeria
careers in Building Technology (BT) with the skills necessary to thrive in a dynamic and complex industry.
Fundamental among these attributes are Critical Thinking and Perseverance, which are essential for solving
complex problems and steering the challenges of modern construction practices (Lamb et al., 2017).
Problem-based Learning (PBL) emerges as a strategic pedagogical approach that not only addresses these
imperatives but also aligns seamlessly with the demands of the 21st century (Aker, 2019). This paper sets
the stage for a broad exploration of the integration of PBL as a pedagogical strategy to stimulate critical
thinking and perseverance among building technology students. It digs into the significance of critical
thinking and perseverance in the field, discusses the essence of PBL as an instructional approach, and
stresses the relevance of applying PBL in the context of the 21st century. Throughout the discussion,
relevant citations from scholarly sources are included to provide a well-rounded understanding of the topic
Critical thinking and perseverance are two essential skills for students pursuing careers in BT (Lamb et al.,
2017), given the intricacies and challenges inherent in the construction industry. BT, encompasses areas
such as architectural design, construction management, and civil engineering (Ejdys, 2018), demands a high
level of problem-solving ability and resilience. Critical thinking involves the ability to analyze, evaluate,
and synthesize information in a logical and systematic manner (Ejdys, 2018; Thornhill-Miller et al., 2023).
In the context of BT, critical thinking is essential for various aspects of the profession. It enables students
to assess the structural integrity of designs (Obaju et al., 2022), make informed decisions about materials
and construction methods (Lushnikova, 2016), and troubleshoot issues that may arise during construction
projects (Idowu, 2019). Critical thinking skills are particularly crucial in ensuring the safety and
sustainability of buildings and infrastructure (Martin et al., 2021). Perseverance, often referred to as
resilience or courage, is the determination to persist in the face of challenges and setbacks (Tsai &
Morissette, 2022). BTE students frequently encounter obstacles and unexpected complications during
construction (Melenbrink et al., 2020). These challenges can range from budget constraints to adverse
weather conditions to design flaws. Without perseverance, students may become discouraged, leading to
project delays or compromises in quality (Boles & Whelan, 2017). In contrast, students who nurture
perseverance are better equipped to overcome obstacles, adapt to changing circumstances, and achieve
successful project outcomes
To nurture critical thinking and perseverance among BT students, facilitators must employ effective
pedagogical strategies and PBL is one such approach that has gained recognition for its capacity to develop
these skills. Ali (2019) sees PBL as an active student-centered instructional approach that places real-world
problems at the center of the learning experience. In a PBL setting, students collaborate to solve real world
problems, often drawn from professional practice (Barell, 2010). These problems are complex and open-
ended, requiring students to engage in critical analysis, research, and creative problem solving (Gonzalez,
2019). Through this process, students not only acquire subject-specific knowledge but also develop a range
of transferable skills, including critical thinking and perseverance. PBL is most appropriate to nurturing
critical thinking in BT students (Seibert, 2021). In a PBL scenario, students are presented with a problem
that mirrors those encountered in the field (Ali, 2019). They are encouraged to question assumptions,
consider multiple perspectives, and evaluate information critically (Albar & Southcott, 2021). PBL
facilitates the development of analytical skills, the ability to synthesize information, and the capacity to
make informed decisions a hallmark of critical thinking (Dabbagh, 2019).
In essence, the main objectives of this paper include the emphasizing of PBL as a pedagogical approach
that can be used in developing skills in BT students, highlighting the developing nature of the field of BT
and how education in this area must adapt to technological advancements and the changing demands of the
State, Nigeria
construction industry and, providing a comprehensive overview of BT, its components, and its relevance
in preparing professional for the ever-evolving challenges of the construction industry
The 21st century is characterized by unprecedented technological advancements. BT students must not only
be proficient in traditional construction methods but also adapt to emerging technologies such as Building
Information Modeling (BIM) and sustainable design software. PBL offers an ideal platform for integrating
technology into the learning process, allowing students to apply critical thinking and perseverance in the
context of contemporary tools and techniques (Setyani & Susilowati, 2022). The construction industry is
evolving (Ahmed & El-Sayegh, 2020), with increased emphasis on efficiency, and innovation (Yang et al.,
2019). PBL equips students with the problem-solving skills and perseverance needed to address the
intricacies of viable construction practices and evolving regulatory requirements (Tan, 2021). This prepares
them to be valuable contributors to the industry's ongoing transformation. Therefore, the integration of PBL
into BT surfaces as a strategic approach to nurture critical thinking and perseverance among students. This
introduction has highlighted the significance of these skills in the field, elucidated the advantages of PBL
as a pedagogical strategy, and underscored the relevance of applying PBL in the 21st century
Building Technology Education (BTE)

The field of Building Technology is dynamic and continually evolving. Technological advancements, such
as robotics, artificial intelligence, and 3D printing, are reshaping construction practices (Yang et al., 2019).
BTE as a field under Technical Vocational Education (TVE) must keep pace with these changes, ensuring
that students are well equipped to harness emerging technologies. Moreover, the growing emphasis on
sustainable and environmentally friendly building practices necessitates a deep understanding of green
construction methods, energy-efficient design, and sustainable materials (Ahmed & El-Sayegh, 2020). BTE
programs TVE must adapt to these sustainability trends to address the global demand for eco-friendly
buildings. BTE plays a pivotal role in preparing individuals for careers in the construction and architectural
industries. It equips students with the knowledge, skills, and practical experience necessary to design,
construct, and manage the built environment (Obaju et al., 2022). In an era of rapid technological
advancements, sustainability concerns, and evolving building practices, building technology education
must continuously adapt to meet the demands of the 21st century.
BT typically begins with an in-depth study of architectural design principles (Obaju et al., 2022). Students
learn how to create functional, aesthetically pleasing, and sustainable building designs. They explore
various architectural styles, materials, and spatial arrangements. Another key component is the
understanding of construction techniques, which are fundamental to BT (Melenbrink et al., 2020). Students
delve into the intricacies of construction processes, including site preparation, structural systems, building
materials, and safety protocols. They gain hands-on experience through practical exercises and site visits.
A comprehensive grasp of building materials is also essential (Lushnikova, 2016). Students learn about the
properties, applications, and sustainable aspects of various construction materials, from traditional choices
like concrete and steel to emerging technologies like smart materials and 3D-printed components. Students
explore green building practices, energy-efficient designs, renewable energy systems, and environmentally
responsible construction methods (Nguyen et al., 2022). They analyze the life cycle of buildings to
minimize their environmental impact.
BT is evolving with the integration of technology (Ejdys, 2018). Students are introduced to Building
Information Modeling (BIM), computer-aided design (CAD) software, and digital construction
management tools. These technologies enhance design accuracy, project management, and collaboration
among stakeholders. Lastly, building codes and regulations vary by region and are constantly updated.
Students are educated on local and international building codes, zoning laws, and safety standards. They
learn how to navigate regulatory requirements to ensure compliance in their projects. In a nutshell, BTE is
State, Nigeria
a crucial cornerstone in shaping the architects and construction professionals of tomorrow. It equips
students with the expertise needed to navigate the complexities of modern construction and architectural
practices (Idowu, 2019). As the field evolves to meet the challenges of the 21st century, BT continues to
be at the forefront of innovation, sustainability, and excellence in the built environment.
Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

PBL is a dynamic and learner-centered instructional approach that has gained prominence in education.
PBL is founded on the principle of active, experiential learning (Christie & De Graaff, 2017), where
students tackle authentic, real-world problems to develop both subject-specific knowledge and a range of
transferable skills (Savery, 2015). At the center of PBL is the introduction of real-world problems that are
complex, open-ended, and reflective of challenges encountered in every field of endeavor including BT
(Hmelo-Silver, 2004). These problems could involve designing sustainable buildings, optimizing
construction processes, or resolving issues related to structural integrity. By engaging with such problems,
students gain practical insights and are motivated by the relevance of their learning. In PBL, students take
on an active role in their education because they are presented with complex problems with identifying
what they need to learn to solve it (Jabarullah & Hussain, 2019). This self-directed learning process
encourages students to take ownership of their education (Leary et al., 2019), develop research skills
(Charokar & Dulloo, 2022), and become lifelong learners (Ali, 2019) which is an essential attribute in the
fast-evolving field of BT.
Collaboration is a central component of PBL (Dolmans et al., 2015). Students work in teams to brainstorm
solutions, share perceptions, and collectively analyze the problem (Shimizu et al., 2021). This collaborative
environment echoes the teamwork and interdisciplinary nature of construction projects, where architects,
engineers, and builders must work together effectively. PBL inherently fosters critical thinking as students
engage with real-world problems, they are encouraged to question assumptions, seek evidence, and evaluate
the validity of proposed solutions (Nobutoshi, 2023). They develop the capacity to analyze information
critically and make informed decisions (Suhirman & Ghazali, 2022), a skill crucial for addressing the
multifaceted challenges in building technology. Though PBL emphasizes student autonomy, instructors
play a critical role as facilitators. They guide the learning process, provide feedback, and ensure that
students stay on track. Facilitators also pose probing questions to stimulate critical thinking and encourage
students to consider multiple perspectives (Matlala, 2021).
PBL has the following advantages in BTE

PBL aligns education with real-world practice, helping students see the direct relevance of their studies
(Sukackė et al., 2022). This contextual learning is particularly valuable in building technology, where
theoretical knowledge must be applied to practical scenarios. It should be noted that PBL goes beyond
content knowledge to develop a range of skills, including critical thinking and perseverance (Tang et al.,
2020). These skills are invaluable for addressing the multifaceted challenges in the construction industry,
where projects often encounter unexpected hurdles. The inherent engagement in PBL motivates students to
invest in their learning. The satisfaction of solving real problems and seeing the tangible results of their
efforts can be a powerful motivator in BT programs (Baden & Major, 2004). PBL prepares students for the
realities of professional practice in BT (Ali, 2019). It stimulates the problem-solving and collaboration
skills required in the field, making graduates better equipped to transition into the world of work seamlessly
(Ornellas et al., 2019).
The adaptability of PBL makes it easy to incorporate emerging technologies and sustainability
considerations, ensuring that students are prepared for the evolving landscape of BT (Dolmans et al., 2016).
The concept of PBL holds significant promise for BT programs. By immersing students in real-world
problems, promoting critical thinking, and nurturing perseverance, PBL equips them with the skills and
mindset necessary for success in the dynamic and complex field of BT. As educators continue to explore
State, Nigeria
and refine PBL approaches, they are better positioned to prepare the next generation of BT professionals
who can innovate, solve challenges, and contribute to the sustainable development of our built environment.
Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is a fundamental cognitive skill that involves evaluating information, arguments, and ideas
in a systematic and rational manner (Thornhill-Miller et al., 2023). Martin et al. (2021) refer to it as a skill
that is highly valued in education, professional settings, and everyday life. Critical thinking is often
considered essential for making well-informed decisions and solving complex problems. One of the key
aspects of critical thinking is the ability to question assumptions and scrutinize evidence objectively
(Seibert, 2021). It involves being open-minded and willing to consider alternative viewpoints, even if they
challenge one's beliefs. As Richard Paul and Linda Elder, prominent scholars in the field of critical
thinking, have emphasized, critical thinking is about “thinking about your thinking while you're thinking
to make your thinking better” (Elder & Paul, 2020).This meta-cognitive approach is crucial for improving
one's thought processes.
Critical thinking also requires the ability to recognize and avoid common cognitive biases and logical
misconceptions knowing fully well that these biases and misconceptions can alter our reasoning and lead
to incoherent conclusions (Suhirman & Ghazali, 2022). Critical thinking helps individuals recognize and
mitigate biases, promoting more accurate and rational decision-making. Furthermore, critical thinking
fosters effective communication and problem-solving skills (Thornhill-Miller et al., 2023). When
individuals can think critically, they are better equipped to articulate their ideas, support their arguments
with evidence, and engage in constructive dialogue with others. This is particularly important in a diverse
and interconnected world where collaboration and the exchange of ideas are essential (Dabbagh, 2019).
However, it's essential to admit that critical thinking is not a panacea. It requires time and effort to develop,
and individuals may still fall prey to cognitive biases or make errors in judgment. Moreover, critical
thinking is not immune to misuse (Retnawati et al., 2018); it can be employed to rationalize one's
preconceived notions or manipulate information to support a particular agenda.
In fact, Critical thinking is a valuable skill that empowers individuals to approach information and
problems with clarity, objectivity, and rationality (Martin et al., 2021). It enables them to make more
informed decisions, communicate effectively, and navigate a complex and information-rich world.
Nevertheless, it is not a guarantee against all forms of bias or error, and its effectiveness depends on the
commitment of individuals to continually improve their thinking processes.
Critical Thinking in BT through PBL
Critical thinking is a foundational skill that is indispensable in the field of BT. It involves the ability to
analyze, and evaluate information logically and systematically, ultimately leading to well-informed
decision-making (Thornhill-Miller et al., 2023). In the context of BT, fostering critical thinking is not just
desirable but essential. PBL serves as an ideal framework for developing and enhancing critical thinking
skills in building technology students. BT professionals are routinely tasked with addressing complex and
multifaceted problems (Nguyen et al., 2022). Whether it's optimizing construction processes, designing
sustainable structures, or ensuring structural integrity, the construction industry presents challenges that
demand critical thinking. To succeed in this field, students must develop the capacity to dissect intricate
State, Nigeria
issues, analyze data, and devise effective solutions (Li et al., 2017). PBL, with its emphasis on authentic,
real-world problems, provides a learning environment that mirrors the challenges of complex problem-
solving faced by professionals in the field (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). PBL requires students to actively engage
with real-world problems, encouraging them to question assumptions, seek evidence, and evaluate potential
solutions (Baden & Major, 2004). This active engagement is a crucial component of critical thinking
development. By immersing themselves in authentic scenarios, students are prompted to think deeply,
analyze information from multiple angles, and critically assess the feasibility and effectiveness of their
proposed solutions (Thornhill-Miller et al., 2023). This process of active engagement with real-world
problems cultivates their ability to think critically about complex problems, a skill they will undoubtedly
rely on throughout their careers.
Critical thinking thrives on inquiry and exploration. PBL, by design, compels students to take ownership
of their learning and embark on a quest for knowledge (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980). When faced with a
problem, students must identify gaps in their understanding, research relevant information, and apply
newfound knowledge to the problem-solving process (Yew & Goh, 2016). This inquisitive approach not
only deepens their understanding of BT but also hones their critical thinking abilities. They learn how to
evaluate the credibility of sources, make evidence-based judgments, and adapt their strategies as new
information emerges. Furthermore, critical thinking is enriched when students engage in collaborative
learning environments that expose them to diverse perspectives and ideas (Thornhill-Miller et al., 2023).
PBL thrives on collaboration, as students work in teams to analyze and solve problems (Dolmans et al.,
2015). Through this collaboration, they are exposed to a range of viewpoints, encouraging them to consider
alternative solutions and challenge their own assumptions (Wang et al., 2016). This collaborative approach
fosters a robust critical thinking process as students learn to appreciate the complexities of real-world
problems and the value of diverse insights.
Facilitators play a pivotal role in nurturing critical thinking within the PBL framework (Widiawati et al.,
2018). They guide the learning process, ask probing questions, and provide feedback that encourages
students to think critically about their problem-solving approaches (Dochy et al., 2003). Facilitators also
model critical thinking by demonstrating how to approach complex problems systematically and
analytically (Widiawati et al., 2018). Therefore, critical thinking is a foundational skill that is integral to
success in the field of BT. PBL offers an effective platform for developing and honing critical thinking
skills in BT students (Abdelkarim et al., 2018). By engrossing students in real-world problems, promoting
active engagement and inquiry, encouraging collaboration, and providing guidance (Albar & Southcott,
2021), PBL equips students with the cognitive tools necessary to analyze complex issues, make informed
decisions, and excel in their careers as professionals (Allen et al., 2011). As educators continue to harness
the potential of PBL, they contribute to the cultivation of a new generation of critical thinkers poised to
address the evolving challenges of the construction industry.
Perseverance
Perseverance is often acclaimed as a virtue and a key factor in achieving success. It is the quality of
persisting in one's efforts and goals despite facing obstacles, setbacks, or difficulties (Tsai & Morissette,
2022; Wheatley, 2010). While there is certainly merit in recognizing the importance of perseverance, it's
essential to critically examine this concept and its implications. One common argument in favor of
perseverance is that it leads to resilience and character development (Colognesi et al., 2020). Facing
challenges and overcoming them can indeed build resilience and character strength. However, it's important
to recognize that perseverance alone is not a guarantee of success (Seibert, 2021). The phrase "persevere at
State, Nigeria
all costs" can sometimes be misleading, as it may lead individuals to persist in endeavors that are ultimately
futile or detrimental to their well-being. Moreover, the emphasis on perseverance can sometimes downplay
the importance of adaptability and the ability to recognize when it's necessary to change course. Blindly
persevering in a particular direction, even when evidence suggests it's unwise, can lead to wasted time and
resources.
Critics of the “cult of perseverance” argue that it can lead to a stigma against quitting or changing one's
mind, even when it's the most rational choice (Dabbagh, 2019). Psychologist Adam Grant, in his book
"Originals: How Non-Conformists Move the World," suggests that giving up on certain ideas or projects
can be a sign of wisdom and creativity, not weakness (Tsai & Morissette, 2022). Moreover, the pressure
to persevere in the face of adversity can be detrimental to mental health. It can contribute to stress, burnout,
and a sense of inadequacy when individuals feel compelled to constantly push themselves beyond their
limits (Schooner et al., 2017). In a balanced perspective, perseverance should be seen as a valuable trait
when applied judiciously (Wheatley, 2010). It should be coupled with the ability to assess situations
critically, knowing when to persist and when to pivot. This nuanced approach to perseverance recognizes
that success often requires both determination and adaptability (Seibert, 2021). While perseverance is
undeniably an important quality that can lead to resilience and personal growth (Colognesi et al., 2020), it
should be examined critically and applied judiciously. Blindly adhering to the idea of “never giving up”
can lead to negative consequences, and it's crucial to balance perseverance with adaptability and self-care.
Perseverance in BT through PBL
Perseverance, often referred to as courage or resilience (Colognesi et al., 2020), is a critical trait for success
in the field of BT. It involves the determination to persist in the face of challenges, adapt to setbacks, and
maintain motivation toward achieving long-term goals (Duckworth et al., 2016). In BT, where projects
often encounter unexpected hurdles and complexities, cultivating perseverance is essential. PBL offers a
favorable environment for nurturing perseverance among students. The field of BT is replete with
challenges that require students to demonstrate perseverance. Construction projects can face delays due to
weather, budget constraints, design flaws, and regulatory changes (Niazi & Painting, 2017). Such
challenges demand resilience and determination from BT professionals. Perseverance is the driving force
that helps students endure these difficulties and stay committed to achieving project success. PBL is
uniquely positioned to cultivate perseverance because it immerses students in authentic, real-world
problems (Tan, 2021). These problems are often complex, multifaceted, and open-ended, closely mirroring
the challenges faced in the construction industry (Dabbagh, 2019). As students engage with these problems,
they are compelled to persevere in their pursuit of solutions. They learn to adapt their strategies, endure
setbacks, and maintain their motivation throughout the problem-solving process.
Perseverance goes hand in hand with adaptability and resilience. In PBL, students are encouraged to adapt
their approaches as they encounter obstacles or new information (Ali, 2019). This adaptability reflects the
real-world necessity of adjusting construction plans and strategies in response to unexpected issues.
Through PBL, students develop the capacity to persevere by being resilient in the face of adversity and
maintaining their commitment to achieving project goals. Further, PBL fosters collaborative learning and
shared resilience, with students working in teams to solve problems (Dolmans et al., 2015). Collaboration
not only reflects the teamwork required in the construction industry but also provides a support system for
students (Idowu, 2019). When facing challenges, students can lean on their peers for emotional and
intellectual support, reinforcing their perseverance. The shared experience of overcoming obstacles in a
team setting strengthens their collective resilience. Moreover, facilitators play a vital role in nurturing
State, Nigeria
perseverance within the PBL framework (Albar & Southcott, 2021). They provide guidance,
encouragement, and feedback that help students stay motivated and committed to solving complex
problems (Dörnyei & Muir, 2019).
Facilitators can also model perseverance by demonstrating how to approach challenges methodically. PBL
often involves long-term projects that require sustained effort over an extended period (Tan, 2021). This
extended engagement with a single problem cultivates perseverance as students must stay dedicated to the
project's goals and see it through to completion. It teaches them the value of persistence and the rewards of
enduring commitment. Consequently, perseverance is an indispensable quality for BT professionals. PBL
provides a fertile ground for nurturing this attribute among students. By immersing them in authentic,
complex problems, encouraging adaptability and resilience, promoting collaboration, and providing
facilitator support, PBL equips students with the determination and persistence required to overcome
challenges in the construction industry (Gonzalez, 2019). As educators harness the potential of PBL to
cultivate perseverance, they prepare students to thrive in the face of adversity and excel in their careers as
BT professionals.
Fostering Critical Thinking and Perseverance
In today's interconnected and rapidly changing world, students must develop not only subject-specific
knowledge but also a set of 21st-century skills. These skills include critical thinking, perseverance,
communication, collaboration, and adaptability (Holman & Švejdarová, 2023). PBL naturally fosters these
skills as students work together to solve complex problems that reflect real-world challenges (Setyani &
Susilowati, 2022). Additionally, the collaborative nature of PBL prepares students to thrive in team-oriented
environments, a common feature of the modern workplace. The century has brought about significant
transformations in the field of BT. With rapid advancements in construction materials, methods, and
sustainability practices (Holman & Švejdarová, 2023); the industry has evolved, demanding a new set of
skills and approaches from professionals. PBL has emerged as a transformative educational strategy
perfectly suited to prepare students for the complex and dynamic challenges of 21st-century BT by:
Addressing Real-World Intricacies: In the 21st century, BT professionals are confronted with
increasingly complex projects that require innovative solutions. PBL places students at the center of real-
world problems, reflecting the intricate challenges encountered in the field (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). Whether
it's designing energy-efficient buildings, optimizing construction processes, or ensuring sustainability, PBL
immerses students in authentic scenarios that demand creative problem-solving.
Nurturing Critical Thinking: Critical thinking is a basis for success in 21st-century BT, where
professionals must analyze, evaluate, and adapt to diverse challenges (Retnawati et al., 2018). PBL naturally
fosters critical thinking by encouraging students to question assumptions, explore various viewpoints, and
make evidence-based decisions (Thakur et al., 2018). As they engage with complex problems, students
develop analytical skills and the ability to synthesize information, which is a hallmark of critical thinking.
Embracing Technological Advancements: The 21st century has witnessed a technological revolution in
the construction industry, with Building Information Modeling (BIM), advanced materials, and digital tools
becoming integral (Ejdys, 2018). PBL seamlessly integrates these advancements into the learning process.
Students engage with revolutionary technologies to solve problems, gaining practical experience that aligns
with the demands of modern construction practices (Seibert, 2021).
State, Nigeria
Encouraging Sustainability Practices: Sustainability has become a central concern in 21st-century BT.
PBL provides a platform for students to explore sustainable design, materials, and construction techniques
within the context of real projects (Abdelkarim et al., 2018). By addressing sustainability challenges, PBL
prepares students to contribute meaningfully to environmentally responsible construction practices.
Fostering Collaboration and Communication: In the modern construction industry, projects often
involve multidisciplinary teams that require effective communication and collaboration (Dolmans et al.,
2015). PBL, which emphasizes teamwork and peer interaction (Abdelkarim et al., 2018), cultivates these
essential soft skills. Students learn to share ideas, work harmoniously with diverse team members, and
present their solutions effectively, a skill, vital for success in 21st-century BT.
Building Resilience and Adaptability: The 21st-century BT setting is marked by constant change and
unforeseen challenges. PBL teaches students to persevere through difficulties, adapt strategies as needed,
and remain resilient in the face of setbacks (Duckworth et al., 2016). This ability to endure and adapt is an
asset in a field where projects often encounter unexpected obstacles.
Preparing for Emerging Trends: PBL is inherently flexible and adaptable, making it well-appropriate for
addressing emerging trends and practices in BT (Thomas et al., 2015). As new techniques and sustainability
requirements surface, PBL can be easily adjusted to incorporate these developments into the curriculum,
ensuring that students are prepared for the evolving industry landscape.
S/No 21st Century Skill Gap How PBL Addresses the Gap
1 Leadership Responsibility PBL sometimes involves leadership roles within teams.
Students gain experience in leading and taking
responsibility for project outcomes, promoting leadership
skills and accountability.
2 Critical Thinking PBL immerses students in complex, real-world problems,
encouraging them to analyze and synthesize information
critically. Students learn to question assumptions and
make informed decisions.
3 Creativity and Innovation PBL encourages students to think creatively as they seek
novel solutions to authentic problems. It fosters an
environment where innovative ideas are welcomed and
explored
4 Communication and Collaboration PBL emphasizes teamwork, requiring students to
collaborate, communicate, and share ideas effectively
with their peers. This reflects the collaborative nature of
modern workplaces
5 Technological Literacy PBL often incorporates technology in problem-solving.
Students become familiar with using various tools,
software, and digital resources to find solutions, aligning
with technological literacy needs
6 Information Literacy Through PBL, students engage in research to find relevant
information for solving problems. They learn to evaluate
the credibility of sources, scrutinize through data, and
extract valuable insights.
7 Global Awareness PBL often involves diverse, real-world scenarios,
fostering an appreciation for global issues and diverse
perspectives. Students learn to work with individuals from
various backgrounds
State, Nigeria
Table 1: 21st Century Skills Gap and How PBL Addresses the Gap
The application of PBL in 21st-century BT aligns perfectly with the evolving needs of the building industry.
By immersing students in authentic, complex problems, fostering critical thinking, integrating technology,
promoting sustainability, and nurturing collaboration, PBL equips future BT professionals with the skills
and mindset necessary to succeed in a rapidly changing and challenging field. PBL not only prepares
students to address the demands of contemporary construction practices but also positions them as
innovators and leaders in shaping the technologically advanced built environments of the future. Table 1
shows some 21st-century skills gaps and how PBL addresses these gaps.
Conclusion
PBL aligns seamlessly with the demands of the modern era, which require a broader spectrum of skills
beyond subject-specific knowledge. Through authentic problem-solving experiences, PBL promotes
critical thinking by encouraging students to analyze, and synthesize information in a systematic and logical
manner. It prompts them to question assumptions, consider multiple perspectives, and make informed
decisions skills that are not only vital in BT but also universally valuable in navigating the intricacies of
today's world. Perseverance, another indispensable quality in BT and beyond, is nurtured within the PBL
framework. As students engage with real-world problems, they learn to endure setbacks, adapt strategies,
and maintain motivation in the face of complex challenges. PBL's emphasis on adaptability, resilience, and
determination equips students with the courage required to succeed not only in their educational journey
but also in their future careers. In fact, PBL is a dynamic and learner-centered pedagogical approach that
not only bridges skills gaps but also prepares students to excel in BT and other professional fields. By
fostering critical thinking and perseverance while aligning with the multifaceted requirements of the 21st
century, PBL equips students with the knowledge, skills, and mindset needed to succeed, innovate, and
contribute to a sustainable and dynamic future.
Reference
Abdelkarim, A., Schween, D., & Ford, T. (2018). Advantages and disadvantages of problem-based learning
from the professional perspective of medical and dental faculty. EC Dent Sci, 17(7), 1073-1079.
Ahmed, S., & El-Sayegh, S. (2020). Critical review of the evolution of project delivery methods in the
construction industry. Buildings, 11(1), 11.
Aker, M. (2019). A conceptual kaleidoscope: Higher education academics activating problem-based
learning and engaging 21st century skills Concordia University Chicago].
Albar, S. B., & Southcott, J. E. (2021). Problem and project-based learning through an investigation lesson:
Significant gains in creative thinking behaviour within the Australian foundation (preparatory) classroom.
Thinking Skills and Creativity, 41, 100853.
Ali, S. S. (2019). Problem based learning: A student-centered approach. English language teaching, 12(5),
73-78.
Allen, D. E., Donham, R. S., & Bernhardt, S. A. (2011). Problem‐based learning. New directions for
teaching and learning, 2011(128), 21-29.
Baden, M. S., & Major, C. H. (2004). EBOOK: Foundations of Problem-based Learning. McGraw-hill
education (UK).
State, Nigeria
Barell, J. (2010). Problem-based learning: The foundation for 21st century skills. 21st century skills:
Rethinking how students learn, 175-199.
Barrows, H. S., & Tamblyn, R. M. (1980). Problem-based learning: An approach to medical education
(Vol. 1). Springer Publishing Company.
Boles, W., & Whelan, K. (2017). Barriers to student success in engineering education. European Journal
of Engineering Education, 42(4), 368-381.
Charokar, K., & Dulloo, P. (2022). Self-directed Learning Theory to Practice: A Footstep towards the Path
of being a Life-long Learne. Journal of Advances in Medical Education & Professionalism, 10(3), 135.
Christie, M., & De Graaff, E. (2017). The philosophical and pedagogical underpinnings of Active Learning
in Engineering Education. European Journal of Engineering Education, 42(1), 5-16.
Colognesi, S., Van Nieuwenhoven, C., & Beausaert, S. (2020). Supporting newly-qualified teachers’
professional development and perseverance in secondary education: On the role of informal learning.
European journal of teacher education, 43(2), 258-276.
Dabbagh, N. (2019). Effects of PBL on critical thinking skills. The Wiley Handbook of problem‐based
learning, 135-156.
Dochy, F., Segers, M., Van den Bossche, P., & Gijbels, D. (2003). Effects of problem-based learning: A
meta-analysis. Learning and instruction, 13(5), 533-568.
Dolmans, D., Michaelsen, L., Van Merrienboer, J., & Van der Vleuten, C. (2015). Should we choose
between problem-based learning and team-based learning? No, combine the best of both worlds! Medical
teacher, 37(4), 354-359.
Dolmans, D. H., Loyens, S. M., Marcq, H., & Gijbels, D. (2016). Deep and surface learning in problem-
based learning: a review of the literature. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 21, 1087-1112.
Dörnyei, Z., & Muir, C. (2019). Creating a motivating classroom environment. Second handbook of English
language teaching, 719-736.
Duckworth, A. L., Gendler, T. S., & Gross, J. J. (2016). Situational strategies for self-control. Perspectives
on Psychological Science, 11(1), 35-55.
Ejdys, J. (2018). Building technology trust in ICT application at a university. International Journal of
Emerging Markets, 13(5), 980-997.
Elder, L., & Paul, R. (2020). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your learning and your life.
Foundation for Critical Thinking.
Gonzalez, L. (2019). The Problem-Based Learning Model. 2019 Eighth International Conference on
Educational Innovation through Technology (EITT),
Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational
psychology review, 16, 235-266.
Holman, D., & Švejdarová, E. (2023). The 21st-Century Empowering Wholeness Adaptive (EWA)
Educational Model Transforming Learning Capacity and Human Capital through Wholeness Systems
Thinking towards a Sustainable Future. Sustainability, 15(2), 1301.
State, Nigeria
Idowu, A. W. (2019). Skills required for building technology capacity building as perceived by technical
educators in Nigeria South-West Colleges of Education. Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational
Research and Policy Studies, 10(6), 391-394.
Jabarullah, N. H., & Hussain, H. I. (2019). The effectiveness of problem-based learning in technical and
vocational education in Malaysia. Education+ Training.
Lamb, S., Maire, Q., & Doecke, E. (2017). Key skills for the 21st century: An evidence-based review.
Leary, H., Walker, A., Lefler, M., & Kuo, Y. C. (2019). Self‐Directed Learning in Problem‐Based Learning:
A Literature Review. The Wiley Handbook of problem‐based learning, 181-198.
Li, D., Chen, X., Zhang, Z., & Huang, K. (2017). Learning deep context-aware features over body and
latent parts for person re-identification. Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern
recognition,
Lushnikova, N. (2016). Approaches to teaching building materials and technologies for energy-efficient
sustainable construction. Budownictwo i Architektura, 15(3).
Martin, T. J., Serrano-Estrada, L., & Esteve-Faubel, J.-M. (2021). Critical thinking: a base for Urban
sustainable development. Higher Education Research & Development, 40(2), 309-324.
Matlala, S. (2021). Educators’ perceptions and views of problem-based learning through simulation.
CURATIONIS Journal of the Democratic Nursing Organisation of South Africa, 44(1), 2094.
Melenbrink, N., Werfel, J., & Menges, A. (2020). On-site autonomous construction robots: Towards
unsupervised building. Automation in construction, 119, 103312.
Nguyen, L., Yuan, Z., & Seed, G. (2022). Building educational technologies for code-switching: Current
practices, difficulties and future directions. Languages, 7(3), 220.
Niazi, G. A., & Painting, N. (2017). Significant factors causing cost overruns in the construction industry
in Afghanistan. Procedia Engineering, 182, 510-517.
Nobutoshi, M. (2023). Metacognition and Reflective Teaching: A Synergistic Approach to Fostering
Critical Thinking Skills. Research and Advances in Education, 2(9), 1-14.
Obaju, B. N., Fagbenle, O. I., Amusan, L. M., & Musa, S. (2022). Building technology training and student
work readiness.
Ornellas, A., Falkner, K., & Edman Stålbrandt, E. (2019). Enhancing graduates’ employability skills
through authentic learning approaches. Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning, 9(1), 107-120.
Retnawati, H., Djidu, H., Kartianom, A., & Anazifa, R. D. (2018). Teachers’ knowledge about higher-order
thinking skills and its learning strategy. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 76(2), 215.
Savery, J. R. (2015). Overview of problem-based learning: Definitions and distinctions. Essential readings
in problem-based learning: Exploring and extending the legacy of Howard S. Barrows, 9(2), 5-15.
Schooner, P., Nordlöf, C., Klasander, C., & Hallström, J. (2017). Design, System, Value: The Role of
Problem-Solving and Critical Thinking Capabilities in Technology Education, as Perceived by Teachers.
Design and Technology Education, 22(3), n3.
Seibert, S. A. (2021). Problem-based learning: A strategy to foster generation Z's critical thinking and
perseverance. Teaching and Learning in Nursing, 16(1), 85-88.
State, Nigeria
Setyani, N. S., & Susilowati, L. (2022). The Effect of E-Problem Based Learning on Students' Interest,
Motivation and Achievement. International Journal of Instruction, 15(3), 503-518.
Shimizu, I., Matsuyama, Y., Duvivier, R., & van der Vleuten, C. (2021). Contextual attributes to promote
positive social interdependence in problem-based learning: a focus group study. BMC medical education,
21(1), 1-9.
Suhirman, S., & Ghazali, I. (2022). Exploring Students’ Critical Thinking and Curiosity: A Study on
Problem-Based Learning with Character Development and Naturalist Intelligence. International Journal of
Essential Competencies in Education, 1(2), 95-107.
Sukackė, V., Guerra, A. O. P. d. C., Ellinger, D., Carlos, V., Petronienė, S., Gaižiūnienė, L., Blanch, S.,
Marbà-Tallada, A., & Brose, A. (2022). Towards active evidence-based learning in engineering education:
A systematic literature review of PBL, PjBL, and CBL. Sustainability, 14(21), 13955.
Tan, O.-S. (2021). Problem-based learning innovation: Using problems to power learning in the 21st
century. Gale Cengage Learning.
Tang, S., Long, M., Tong, F., Wang, Z., Zhang, H., & Sutton-Jones, K. L. (2020). A Comparative Study of
Problem-Based Learning and Traditional Approaches in College English Classrooms: Analyzing
Pedagogical Behaviors Via Classroom Observation. Behavioral Sciences, 10(6), 105.
Thakur, P., Dutt, S., & Chauhan, A. (2018). Problem Based Learning Strategy for Development of Skills--
A Review. Journal of Educational Technology, 15(1), 53-62.
Thomas, P., Theocharous, G., & Ghavamzadeh, M. (2015). High confidence policy improvement.
International Conference on Machine Learning,
Thornhill-Miller, B., Camarda, A., Mercier, M., Burkhardt, J.-M., Morisseau, T., Bourgeois-Bougrine, S.,
Vinchon, F., El Hayek, S., Augereau-Landais, M., & Mourey, F. (2023). Creativity, Critical Thinking,
Communication, and Collaboration: Assessment, Certification, and Promotion of 21st Century Skills for
the Future of Work and Education. Journal of Intelligence, 11(3), 54.
Tsai, J., & Morissette, S. B. (2022). Introduction to the special issue: Resilience and perseverance for human
flourishing. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 14(S1), S1.
Wang, Q., Li, H., & Pang, W. (2016). From PBL tutoring to PBL coaching in undergraduate medical
education: an interpretative phenomenological analysis study. Medical education online, 21(1), 31973.
Wheatley, M. J. (2010). Perseverance. Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Widiawati, L., Joyoatmojo, S., & Sudiyanto, S. (2018). Higher order thinking skills as effect of problem
based learning in the 21st century learning. International Journal of Multicultural and Multireligious
Understanding, 5(3), 96-105.
Yang, Y., Pan, M., & Pan, W. (2019). ‘Co-evolution through interaction’of innovative building
technologies: The case of modular integrated construction and robotics. Automation in construction, 107,
102932.
Yew, E. H., & Goh, K. (2016). Problem-based learning: An overview of its process and impact on learning.
Health Professions Education, 2(2), 75-79.
State, Nigeria

VOL 7 NO 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

VOL 7 NO 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

VOL 7 NO 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bichi Journal of Technology Education (BIJOTE)

ISSN: (PRINT): 2006-9715; (ONLINE: 2735-9514) Volume 7, Issue 1 (July, 2024), PP 1 – 7

REVIEW OF TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND

Mohammed Yau Barde 1

II. CONCEPTS OF TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

III. TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING (TVET) POLICY IN

IV. POLICY OBJECTIVES

V. THE IMAGE OF TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

VI. CHALLENGES OF TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

VII. SOLUTIONS OF TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

EFFECTS OF FEEDING SWEET POTATOES BASED DIETS

II. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Experimental Feeds Preparation

Proximate Analysis of the Experimental Diets

Experimental birds and their management

Experimental Design and Statistical analysis

Table 1: Composition of Broiler Finishers diets Containing Sweet Potatoes Meal

Sweet Potatoes Meal 0 13.75 27.5 41.25

Yellow Maize 55 41.25 27.5 13.75

Salt 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25

Vitamin Premix 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25

Methionine 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25

Lysine 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25

Total 100 100 100 100

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 2: Proximate analysis of broiler finisher containing sweet potatoes meal

Feeding of Sweet Potatoes Based Diets on Economics of Production of Broiler Finishers

IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

USE OF IMPROVED GROUNDNUT VARIETIES FOR

Comparing Average Weight of Pod and Haulm/Plot

Table 3. Farm revenue/commodity sales for variety B

CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION IN GENERAL

Zainab Rabe Abdullahi1

Keywords: curriculum, implementation, general education, special needs education

II. CONCEPT OF GENERAL EDUCATION AND CURRICULUM

III. CONCEPT OF SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION

IV. CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION IN GENERAL EDUCATION

6. Investing power and resources into educational activities.

V. CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION IN SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION

VI. CHALLENGES IN CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION IN GENERAL AND

VII. EFFECTIVE CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION IN GENERAL AND SPECIAL

6. Learning curriculum, methodology and environment should be revamped, update and

VIII. PRINCIPLES FOR CURRICULUM DESIGN IN GENERAL AND SPECIAL

Ibrahim, K. (2014). Challenges Hindering Effective Implementation of Inclusive Education in

PRODUCTION OF BIOETHANOL FROM SORGHUM STALK

AHMED ALI ABBAS1;

Keywords: Bioethanol, Grown, Kaura Namoda Production, Sorghum Stalk

Aim of the Study

Figure1: Flow chart for the production process

XII. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Table 1: Concentration of glucose after acid and alkaline treatment

Treatment Glucose Concentration (mg/dl)

Table 2: Percentage of ethanol concentration obtained

Sorghum stalk Ethanol Concentration (%)

GENDER DISABILITY AND INCLUSION BIAS: A BARRIER

Zainab Rabe Abdullahi1

Keywords: Gender disability, Inclusion bias, Barriers, Inclusive Education, Nigeria

II. CONCEPT OF GENDER DEFINITIONS

Gender and Disability