Campaigns and Elections: What

Everyone Needs to Know(r) Dennis W

Johnson
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/campaigns-and-elections-what-everyone-needs-to-kn
owr-dennis-w-johnson/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Campaigns, Elections, and the Threat to Democracy: What

Everyone Needs to Know® 2nd Edition Dennis W. Johnson

https://ebookmass.com/product/campaigns-elections-and-the-threat-
to-democracy-what-everyone-needs-to-know-2nd-edition-dennis-w-
johnson/

Jihad: What Everyone Needs to Know: What Everyone Needs

to Know ® (What Everyone Needs To KnowRG) Asma
Afsaruddin

https://ebookmass.com/product/jihad-what-everyone-needs-to-know-
what-everyone-needs-to-know-what-everyone-needs-to-knowrg-asma-
afsaruddin/

Gender: What Everyone Needs to Know® Erickson-Schroth

https://ebookmass.com/product/gender-what-everyone-needs-to-know-
erickson-schroth/

Polarization what everyone needs to know Nolan Mccarty

https://ebookmass.com/product/polarization-what-everyone-needs-
to-know-nolan-mccarty/
Authoritarianism: What Everyone Needs To Know Erica
Frantz

https://ebookmass.com/product/authoritarianism-what-everyone-
needs-to-know-erica-frantz/

Depression: What Everyone Needs to Know Jonathan

Rottenberg

https://ebookmass.com/product/depression-what-everyone-needs-to-
know-jonathan-rottenberg/

Generative Artificial Intelligence: What Everyone Needs

to Know ® (What Everyone Needs To KnowRG) 1st Edition
Kaplan

https://ebookmass.com/product/generative-artificial-intelligence-
what-everyone-needs-to-know-what-everyone-needs-to-knowrg-1st-
edition-kaplan/

The Arctic: What Everyone Needs to Know Klaus Dodds

https://ebookmass.com/product/the-arctic-what-everyone-needs-to-
know-klaus-dodds/

Antarctica: What Everyone Needs to Know® David Day

https://ebookmass.com/product/antarctica-what-everyone-needs-to-
know-david-day/
CAMPAIGNS AND ELECTIONS
WHAT EVERYONE NEEDS TO KNOW®
 CAMPAIGNS AND
ELECTIONS
WHAT EVERYONE NEEDS TO KNOW®

DENNIS W. JOHNSON

1
 3
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

“What Everyone Needs to Know” is a registered trademark of

Oxford University Press.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2020

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Johnson, Dennis W., author.
Title: Campaigns and elections : what everyone
needs to know / Dennis W. Johnson.
Description: New York : Oxford University Press, 2020. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019006861 (print) | LCCN 2019009365 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780190935597 (Updf) | ISBN 9780190935603 (Epub) |
ISBN 9780190935580 (hardcover : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9780190935573 (pbk. : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Political campaigns—United States. |
Campaign management—United States. | Politics, Practical—United States. |
Elections—United States. | Democracy—United States.
Classification: LCC JK2281 (ebook) | LCC JK2281 .J622 2020 (print) |
DDC 323.70973—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019006861

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2

Paperback printed by LSC Communication, United States of America

Hardback printed by Bridgeport National Bindery, Inc., United States of America
For Pat, with all my love
 CONTENTS

PREFACE: WHY YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT CAMPAIGNS

AND ELECTIONS xv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxi

1 Voting and Participation 1

How does the United States conduct elections? 1

What’s the historical background on the right to vote in America? 2
Why was the Voting Rights Act of 1965 important? What’s the
importance of the 2013 Shelby decision? 5
Are the Voting Rights Act protections needed today? What about
voter suppression? 6
Who votes more, men or women? Why is there a gap between the
voting participation of women and men? What about Millennials? 7
What are the rates of voting for African Americans, Hispanic
Americans, and Asian Americans? And what was the racial makeup
of those who voted in recent elections? 9
Have there been efforts to diminish voting participation? 10
Do convicted felons ever get back the right to vote? 11
Why do so few voters participate in elections, especially in state and
local contests? 12
Compared to other democracies, how does the United States rank in
terms of voting participation? 14
viii Contents

What would happen if every American adult were required to vote,

as in some other countries? 14
After the 2000 presidential election exposed problems in local voting
systems, Congress passed legislation to make sweeping reforms in
the administration of voting procedures. Has that made any difference? 15
How vulnerable are state and local voting procedures to hacking and
cyber threats? 17
How accurate are voting records? 17
Can a person be kicked off the voting rolls for failing to vote in
previous elections? 18
How have mail-​in ballots, absentee-​ballot voting systems, and early
voting worked out? 19
Is there widespread voting fraud today? 20
Why did President Trump order an investigation into alleged voter
fraud, and what did the Voter Fraud Commission find? 21

2 Carving Out Legislative Districts 23

How do some states gain and some states lose congressional seats
following reapportionment? 23
Why has redistricting been such a problem? 24
What are the requirements for creating legislative districts? 26
Who makes the decision about redistricting legislative districts? 27
What is partisan “gerrymandering”? How far can it go before it is
unconstitutional? 27
Has there been any attempt to take redistricting and gerrymandering
out of the hands of partisan legislators? 30
Why do all states get two senators no matter how big—​or small—​
they are? 30

3 Political Parties and Elections 33

When did the two major political parties play an important role in
elections and campaigns? 33
 Contents ix

The South was once very Democratic but now is largely Republican.
What happened? 34
What’s the difference between Republicans and Democrats? 35
Why are we so polarized today? 37
How much disagreement is there within the political parties? 39
Who has more followers, Democrats, Republicans, or independents? 40
How did we get the labels “red states” and “blue states”? 40
Where do we find the heaviest concentrations of Republicans and
Democrats? 41
Wasn’t the Tea Party a separate political party? 42
Do other political parties get involved in presidential elections? 43
Have the political parties surrendered their role in campaigning to
wealthy donors and super PACs? 44
What’s happened to the Democratic Party and the Republican Party? 45

4 Statewide, Local, and Congressional Elections 47

How many state and local elections are there? 47

What are the rules and regulations controlling campaign financing at
the state and local levels? 48
How do local candidates get out the message and let voters know
about themselves? 49
Are more women running for political office than in previous years? 49
Does it cost a lot for local candidates to run for office? 51
Do states have public financing laws and, if so, what offices do they
apply to? 54
How can an average citizen help a candidate or a cause
at the local level? 55
Electing judges has become more and more like electing regular
political candidates. Is there any danger to this? 56
Congressional incumbents hardly ever lose when they are up for
re-​election. Why is that so? 57
You are kidding about elections for dogcatcher, aren’t you? 59
x Contents

5 Presidential Elections 60

Can anyone run for president, or is that just an old American myth? 60
Why do presidential elections last so long? 61
Why do we have so many primaries and caucuses? 62
What’s the difference between a caucus and a primary? 63
Why does Iowa go first? 64
How do you become a party delegate? What’s a “superdelegate”? 65
What is the electoral college and how does it work? 66
Why did the Founding Fathers decide that we needed the electoral
college to determine presidential elections? 68
Who are the electors, and how do you get to be one? 70
What if “faithless” electors refuse to vote for the winner of
the popular ballot? 71
What if the president-​elect dies before the electoral
college meets? 71
What happens if no candidate receives 270 votes when
the electoral college tallies the votes? 72
What’s the “winner-​take-​all” system? 74
What is a “battleground” state? 74
What was the Democrats’ “Blue Wall”? 75
How close have recent presidential contests been? 75
What about third-​party candidates, with no chance of winning,
acting as spoilers? 76
How much money is spent in presidential elections? Do the
candidates (and their allies) who spend the most money
always win? 77
What kinds of reforms have been suggested for our lengthy primary
and caucus season? 79
Why don’t we just have a nationwide election where whoever
gets the most votes wins, and not worry about the electoral
college vote? 80
What is the idea of a national popular-​vote compact? 82
 Contents xi

6 Money, Mega-​Donors, and Wide-​Open Spending 84

What federal rules and regulations controlled campaign financing

before 1971? 84
What did the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 do? 85
Can individual candidates spend as much as they want on their own
campaigns? 86
What’s the difference between “hard” money and “soft” money? 87
What are political action committees (PACs)? 88
What did the McCain-​Feingold Act do to fix campaign-​finance problems? 90
What do organizations do to get around campaign funding restrictions? 92
How did the Supreme Court undo campaign-​finance reform in
Citizens United and subsequent cases? 93
What are 501(c) groups, and how do they impact campaign spending? 96
How do super PACs differ from ordinary PACs? 98
What is “dark money” and how important has it been in recent elections? 99
Who are the top individual mega-​donors, how much have they
spent, and where do they stand politically? 100
What about regular people? Do they give money to political candidates? 102
How well has the FEC performed its job of enforcing campaign-​
finance rules? 103
Didn’t the IRS get in trouble for trying to oversee these organizations? 104
Where does all that campaign money go? 104
What are the most expensive campaigns at the federal (but not
presidential) level? 105
Do candidates who amass the most money always win? 106
What about self-​funded candidates? 107
Where are we now with federal campaign laws? 108

7 Inner Workings of Modern Campaigns 110

Why can’t candidates just run on their own, without the need for
consultants and handlers? 110
What are the key elements of any successful political campaign? 111
xii Contents

What do you mean by political consultants, and what kinds of

services do they provide? 113
What do media consultants provide? 113
What do pollsters do for a campaign? 114
How much information do political campaigns have on
the average voter? 115
Who have been some of the most important political consultants
over the years, and where are they now? 117
Hillary Clinton had the best team of consultants available; Donald
Trump’s group was best described as “junior varsity.” Did Trump
show that consultants aren’t all that necessary or smart in getting a
candidate elected? 117

8 Direct Democracy—​Ballot Campaigns 121

When and why did ballot campaigns become a part

of American politics? 121
What’s the difference between initiatives, referendums, and recalls? 122
What states have direct democracy through ballot campaigns?
What about at the local level? 125
How do political consultants get involved in ballot issues? 125
What was California’s Proposition 13? 128
How many people are affected by ballot initiatives? 129
How much money is spent on ballot campaigns, and who spends
the money? 130
How successful are ballot issues? What is “choice fatigue”? 130
What are the downsides of ballot initiatives and direct democracy? 131
Is there a federal recall mechanism? Can voters recall a member of
Congress, a cabinet member, or the president? 132
What about a national referendum? Is it allowed in the Constitution?
What might the ramifications of a nationwide ballot initiative be? 133

9 How Campaigns Have Changed 135

Federal candidates now say, “I’m [name] and I approve this

message.” When did that become a part of campaigning, and why? 136
 Contents xiii

How has the digital revolution changed campaigning? 136

Is regular television dead, or is there still room for national and local
television news coverage in our digital age? 138
There is more polling done today than ever before. Is it worthwhile,
and is it more accurate than past polling? 139
Has early voting changed the way campaigns are run? Has early
voting been good for voters and for democracy? 142
How have outside voices expanded their impact on campaigns? 142
In sum, how have campaigns been transformed since the twentieth
century in the first two decades of the twenty-​first century? 143

10 Threats to Democracy 145

Is voter suppression real? 145

Why don’t more citizens participate in voting? Is registration the barrier? 147
What about voter apathy, especially among young voters? 149
Why not hold general elections on the weekend or make Election
Day a holiday? 150
Can our election process be trusted? 150
How confident should we be about our decentralized election system? 152
How can we combat “fake news” and social media lies? 154
Do plutocrats control our elections? 156
Many consider the current campaign-​financing system to be a
mess. Is there any way to reform it? 156
How can citizens find out which groups gave money to political
candidates? For example, who received money from tobacco
companies, pro-​choice organizations, from unions, or from the
National Rifle Association? 158

NOTES 161
FURTHER READING 179
INDEX 181
 PREFACE: WHY YOU NEED TO KNOW
ABOUT CAMPAIGNS AND ELECTIONS

The right of all citizens to vote and participate in elections

is a bedrock principle of American democracy. It has been a
hard-​won right, overcoming prejudice, stubborn resistance,
and blatant discrimination grounded in state law and practice.
In our textbook versions, citizens are given the opportunity
to choose their representatives and to vote on issues without
fear of intimidation, knowing that the elections will be fairly
conducted, and the decision of the voters will be abided by.
Citizens also are assured that elections will be held on a fre-
quent and regular basis, usually every two or four years. Our
concept of democracy also assumes that citizens will be active
in public affairs—​not just voting, but also learning about is-
sues, supporting candidates for office, even donating money
and working on campaigns.
But now, as we are entering the third decade of the twenty-​
first century, our campaign and election systems are not
working the way the textbooks taught us. We have seen pro-
found changes in how campaigns are conducted, how voters
get their information, who gives money to campaigns, how the
highest court has interpreted the relationship between money
and free speech, how campaign consultants have used their
xvi Preface

influence, and how outside forces have tried, and sometimes

succeeded, to impact elections.
Before we move on, let’s define two key words: elections
and campaigns. Through an election, citizens have the chance
to choose from among candidates for public office who will,
if elected, vote on policy issues. Usually, elections are held
on a fixed day, very often in early November for a general
election. Sometimes there are special elections (often to fill a
seat vacated by a death or resignation), primaries (to deter-
mine which of several candidates will represent a political
party), and, occasionally, runoff elections (when the leading
primary candidates have not reached a certain percentage of
voters during the first round). In over half the states, an elec-
tion can also include ballot issues, where there is no candi-
date, only policy issues at stake (for example, whether to have
a lottery or permit marijuana for recreational use). Elections
are conducted and monitored by state and local officials,
candidates are chosen to fill government jobs, and policy is-
sues are decided.
A campaign is the active side of an election: announcing a
candidacy, raising and debating issues, scheduling meet-​and-​
greet dinners and rallies, raising campaign funds, identifying
potential voters, communicating through social media and
television, and getting voters out to the polling stations. Much
of what we’ll discuss in this book deals with the changing dy-
namics and mechanisms of campaigning.
And over recent years, unfortunately we’ve seen some dis-
turbing trends.

• Thanks to federal court decisions, the federal campaign-​

finance laws have been almost entirely blown out of the
water. We used to require transparency; now millions of
campaign dollars can be hidden. We used to have limits
on the amount of money that can be donated or spent;
that’s almost all been taken away.
 Preface xvii

• The result is that a handful of mega-​donors, those willing

to give $25 million or $50 million of their own money
(often hidden from public view) to a campaign can have
a major impact on statewide and other races.
• Campaigns are no longer contests between one candi-
date and another. Organized interests (many of them
hidden behind innocent-​sounding names) have flooded
campaigns with their pitches, ads, and organizational
muscle.
• In the 2016 presidential election, more adults sat at home
than voted for either Donald Trump or Hillary Clinton. In
many big-​city mayoral elections, little more than 15 per-
cent or 20 percent of the voters cast ballots.
• Many voters simply don’t know what media to trust
anymore. Fake news found on social media sites, much
of it coming from other countries, confuses voters and
distorts reality. A president barking “fake news” and dis-
paraging the mainstream press certainly doesn’t help.
• Mistrust of government and its institutions is at an all-​
time high, and partisanship and the ideological divide
are as corrosive as they have ever been.

This book will try to sort out what is real, what is confusing,
and what everyone should know about campaigns and
elections. It poses 126 questions and answers that are based on
federal law and court decisions, the findings of scholars and
campaign practitioners, and analysis of historical events.
The book is divided into ten chapters, with questions and
answers focused on a common theme. Chapter 1 concerns
voting and participation. We’ll look at how our elections
work; how our participation rates compare with other coun-
tries; the long, tortured history of gaining the right to vote for
women and minorities; voting fraud; and how we protect our
electoral process. In ­chapter 2, the focus is on the creation of
legislative districts. We’ll look at how state legislatures create
districts, the ongoing battle over gerrymandering and creating
xviii Preface

districts favorable to one party or the other, and how states

lose or gain congressional districts following every ten-​year
census. Chapter 3 is devoted to the role of political parties and
elections. How have the Democratic and Republican parties
changed over the years? Why don’t we have other parties pop-
ping up to challenge them? How many people consider them-
selves independents, and how do they vote during elections?
We’ll also ask whether political parties have surrendered their
role in campaigning to wealthy donors and super PACs.
In ­chapter 4, we’ll look at statewide, local, and congressional
elections. We start with a simple question: How many local
and state government offices require election by voters? We’ll
also look at how local candidates communicate with voters
when television is too expensive. Historically, women have not
run for office in the same numbers as men; has this changed
in the era of Donald Trump? In ­chapter 5, we look at presi-
dential elections. Several questions surround our cumbersome
and antiquated electoral college system: Why do we have this
system in the first place? How and when did it break down? Is
it a fair system? Who wants to change it and how could it be
changed? We’ll also look at questions about our lengthy pri-
mary system: How did we get to the point of having all these
primaries, and aren’t there ways to shorten the process? Why
don’t we have a straight up and down nationwide vote where
whoever gets the most votes, wins?
In ­chapter 6, we examine the impact of money in campaigns,
with the influence of mega donors and wide-​open spending.
So much has changed in the past few years. What’s the dif-
ference between “hard” money, “soft” money, and “dark”
money? How have Supreme Court decisions profoundly
changed the way we regulate campaign financing? We’ll look
at the agencies responsible for overseeing federal campaign fi-
nancing, especially the Federal Election Commission and the
Internal Revenue Service. We’ll identify some of the wealthiest
donors and see what their impact may have been, but we’ll
also look at what average citizens can contribute.
 Preface xix

In ­chapter 7, we look at campaign consultants. What are the

roles of campaign managers, pollsters and media specialists,
big-​data consultants, get-​out-​the-​vote specialists, and a legion
of other campaign operatives? We’ll ponder the question, If
Hillary Clinton had an all-​star team of consultants, why was
she beaten by Trump’s team, which could at best be described
as the “junior varsity”? Chapter 8 is devoted to direct demo­
cracy and ballot campaigns. How do ballot campaigns work,
and what kinds of issues typically appear on ballots? We’ll
also look at why ballot issues are a gold mine for political
consultants, especially in California. And we’ll explore the
dicey issue of whether there should be a system for holding
nationwide ballot elections.
In ­chapter 9, we’ll look at how campaigns have changed
since the beginning of the digital age. We’ll look at the revo-
lution in micro-​targeting and big data, explore the impact of
social media, and look at the role of that tried and true com-
munications tool, television. Finally, c­ hapter 10 wraps up our
exploration of campaigns and elections by asking whether our
system and our actions pose a threat to democracy. We’ll look
at Russian hacking, “fake news,” the vulnerability of our elec-
tion system to cyber warfare, and other issues. We’ll also an-
swer the question: What can citizens do to better understand
how money is spent and how they can better participate in
these most important components of citizenship.
In all, we’ll gain a much better understanding of how
elections and campaigns work, the strengths and weaknesses
of our democratic institutions, and how we can make our
system better.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 It would have been a long run of fifty miles, and the result would
have been extremely doubtful.
“My mission is to rescue Harvey Montaine,” he decided, finally. “I
don’t care to wage war upon the greasers or anybody else for any
other purpose.”
So Frank remained out on the plain until nightfall.
Then he ran the Steam Man to the shores of a small lake and
here, in a secluded spot, camp was made.
No fires were lit, as it was not deemed best to risk attracting the
attention of the enemy.
The fires in the Steam Man were banked, and Pomp was elected
to watch the first half of the night.
Then Barney and Frank laid down and went to sleep.
At midnight Barney was awakened and found Pomp ready to turn
in.
The Irishman had been on watch an hour when his attention was
attracted by a singular manifestation.
He could see the distant hill-tops against the sky.
Suddenly upon the tiptop of one of these a red light was seen to
be burning.
It was fiery red and seemed to oscillate in an odd manner.
“That is very quare!” muttered the Celt. “I wondher phwat it is?”
The light remained in sight for several minutes describing various
movements.
At times it described a circle, then moved up and down and again
waved back and forth.
 After the light disappeared Barney was pondering over the
mystery when another light appeared upon a hill more to the
eastward.
This described movements exactly like the other.
Then Barney’s quick wit fathomed the secret.
“Bejabers, it’s tilegraphin’ back an’ forth they are,” he declared.
“Och hone, now I wisht I cud rade whativer they be sayin’.”
The Celt watched the lights with varying emotions.
After a time they disappeared altogether. Nothing more worthy of
note occurred that night.
The next morning Barney related to Frank the details of the affair.
“Indeed!” exclaimed the young inventor. “That is an important cue.
No doubt the hills upon which you saw the lights are near the den of
Costello.”
“Well, sor, I kin point thim out to yez,” declared Barney.
This was done, and a note of their position made.
With the coming of another day Frank decided to make a cautious
attempt to enter the hills with the Steam Man.
Accordingly, steam was got up and the Man was sent along at a
rapid gait toward the southern spur of the range.
It required an hour to cross the plain at this point, it being quite a
long ways.
But finally the Steam Man reached this part of the range, and
fortunately it was found that the mountain side here was clear and
the Man could scale it.
Frank started the Man up the incline, picking his way carefully.
Thus far nothing could be seen of the greasers.
 If they were cognizant of the nearness of the Steam Man they did
not show it.
What their game was Frank was not prepared to say, but he kept a
sharp lookout, fearing treachery.
After climbing the mountain side for some time, the Man reached a
spur, beyond which a good view of the interior country could be had.
Here Frank called a halt for a brief time.
With a glass he began to study the country beyond. In a few
moments he gave an exclamation.
“I believe I have discovered the den of the greasers,” he declared.
“Shure, yez don’t mane it?” cried Barney.
“Yes, I do. Take the glass, Barney, and tell me what that object is
against that part of an extinct crater over there. Would you not call it
a building?”
Barney took the glass and studied the object.
None had keener or clearer vision than the Celt, and he said
presently:
“Ye’re roight, Misther Frank. It’s a buildin’, an’ shure it’s made av
stone an’ a roof of fir boughs. Shure there’s a wide clearing about it,
and on three sides at least there is a steep descint, bejabers, which
no man livin’ cud iver cloimb.”
“I thought so,” declared Frank, with gratification; “that will do,
Barney.”
The Irishman handed Frank the glass. The young inventor was
just about to view the distant buildings again when a startled yell
came from Pomp.
“Massy sabe us!” cried the terrified darky. “We’se all goin’ to
kingdom come dis berry minute. Look out fo’ dat big stun, Marse
Frank—look out, everybody!”
 Frank at that moment saw with horror what had caused Pomp’s
cry.
 CHAPTER VI.
SILVER SAM RETURNS.

Engrossed in contemplation of the distant crater Barney and Frank

had not heeded things in the near vicinity.
But Pomp, chancing to glance up the mountain side, saw a thrilling
sight.
High up above their position was a mighty bowlder of many tons
weight.
And back of it he saw the forms of several men.
They were trying hard to start the huge bowlder from its place.
Their purpose was quite plain.
The bowlder started on its career down the mountain, unless
swerved in its course, would strike the Steam Man.
If struck by the tremendous weight little would be left of the
machine.
“Golly sakes, Marse Frank!” cried Pomp, in utter horror. “Jus’ yo’
see dat trick of de greasers.”
Frank did see it and for a moment was overwhelmed with horror.
Then he acted quickly.
“Give them a shot, boys!” he cried to Barney and Pomp, as he
sprung to the dasher of the wagon.
The two servitors quickly obeyed.
The big stone was just tottering as their rifles cracked.
 Several of the greasers were exposed and two of them fell.
Crack—ack!
Again the rifles spoke.
This time two more fell. But the big bowlder was coming.
Frank meanwhile had seized the brake and turned the Steam
Man’s course to the right.
He was not a moment too soon.
Down came the big stone like a whirlwind. The Steam Man
escaped by the merest hair’s breadth.
The stone passed so close to the cage that the wind nearly took
Barney’s breath away, he being on that side.
“Whurroo!” yelled the Irishman. “I niver see the bate av’ that. Jist
about the toime the stone got here shure it looked to be the soize av’
a mountain.”
“Golly, youse right dar, I’ish,” cried Pomp.
But Frank had started the Steam Man right up the mountain side.
It was his purpose to rout the greasers out of their position.
But when he reached the spot they were not in sight.
They had disappeared over the other side of the mountain. As this
was heavily wooded pursuit was out of the question.
The voyagers were much disappointed that they could not have
driven the greasers to decisive battle.
The wily rascals, however, well knew that the result would be
serious for them and acted accordingly.
The Steam Man now was upon the tip of the mountain spur.
A fine view was to be had of the whole mountain range.
 They could now almost look down upon the greasers’ stronghold.
The tall derricks used in excavating the mine shaft were to be
plainly seen, and smoke rising above the trees suggested the
presence of a steam engine of the stationary kind.
“It is evident that there lies the gold claim which rightfully belongs
to Harvey Montaine,” mused Frank. “I can understand now Senor
Ravello’s assertion that the position of the greasers was
unassailable. Indeed, with a handful of men a small army could be
held at bay here.”
This had certainly the appearance of a logical fact.
One thing was sure, the greasers had guarded the approaches to
their mine well and strongly.
Frank gazed reflectively at the distant camp and thought of Harvey
Montaine presumably a prisoner there.
“We must effect his rescue in some manner,” he muttered. “But
how?”
Frank took a careful survey of the valley and the hills but he could
see no way of reaching the greasers’ camp.
Yet he felt sure that there was a way. How to find this was the
problem.
However, nothing was to be gained by remaining in his present
position.
It was plainly impossible to effect an entrance by that side of the
mountain.
“What am we gwine to do, Marse Frank?” asked Pomp, after a
time.
“Indeed, that is a hard question for me to answer,” declared Frank.
“Bejabers, I think the best thing we kin do at all, at all, is to go back
the way we cum,” declared Barney.
 Frank nodded his head.
“I declare, I believe you are right, Barney,” he said. “Well, so be it.”
The Steam Man was turned about and started down the mountain.
They had not proceeded more than one hundred yards, when the
patter of bullets came against the cage.
Looking back, the travelers saw that the top of the mountain was
covered with the greasers.
They had been in secure hiding near by all the while.
Had any of the travelers ventured to leave the cage while on the
mountain, they would have been shot down instantly.
Barney and Pomp returned the fire with telling effect.
The bullets rattled against the impervious steel netting of the cage
in a shower.
The greasers made the air ring with their defiant yells and cries.
But Frank kept on to the foot of the mountain.
A little while later the Steam Man was speeding over the plain.
The greasers did not pursue them.
They remained upon the mountain and were quickly lost to view.
Frank kept the Steam Man on a westerly course.
He had decided to cross to the opposite wall of the mountain
range, with the hope of finding an entrance there.
In order to do this it was necessary to make a wide detour of fully
forty miles.
But this was not much of a run for the Steam Man.
Frank pushed along at the steady rate of twenty miles per hour.
 It was just sunset when the upper spur of the Los Pueblos range
was rounded.
Then a trail was encountered.
It was broad and well beaten, and gave evidence of being much
used.
Where it led to Frank could only guess, but he took it, as it led in
the direction he wished to follow.
But before he had followed it far, a sharp cry escaped Pomp’s lips.
“Look yender, Marse Frank! Whateber am dat?”
Frank looked in the direction indicated and experienced a thrill.
A long fringe of willows and sycamores marked the course of a
stream not two miles distant.
In the verge of the sycamores smoke arose in twirling columns,
evidence of a camp-fire.
Also forms could be seen moving about, and horses were seen to
be grazing upon the plain.
“It is a camp,” declared Frank, “but whether friend or foe I know
not.”
“Golly!” exclaimed Pomp, “does yo’ s’pose it am dose people cum
back agin wid Silver Sam?”
“It is not impossible,” replied Frank, “and yet—look sharp, boys!
Does not that look like Bill Guernsey’s stage?”
Barney and Pomp both indulged in sharp cries.
“Dat’s what it am, Marse Frank.”
“Bejabers, that’s so.”
Frank at once sent the Steam Man forward at full speed.
 Quick time was made across the plain for that two miles.
As they drew nearer the camp it was easy to see that it was the
same party of prospectors under Silver Sam, only this time they were
heavily reinforced.
Fully a hundred men of all types were gathered in the sycamore
grove.
There were half-breeds and Texans, Irishmen, Frenchmen and
Americans, all in a conglomerated mass. But there was not a
greaser among them.
They were all men from various walks of life come West to seek a
fortune in the mines.
As the Steam Man came up the tall form of Silver Sam was seen
advancing.
The sport was evidently overjoyed to meet Frank again.
“Hello, friend!” he cried, cheerily. “Condemned glad to see ye!
We’re back agin, ye see, and we’ve got more men this time. We
mean to paralyze those greasers or lose our scalps.”
“I am glad to see you,” said Frank, coming out of the cage.
“Indeed, it looks as if you meant business.”
“Yes, there’s a hundred of us more or less. They say Costello has
three times as many, but our boys mean business and ain’t goin’ to
be backed down by greasers, you can bet.”
“That’s the talk, pard!” cried big Diamond Jake, as he came
forward and shook hands with Frank.
“But we want to extend our thanks to ye for covering our retreat so
nobly the other day,” declared Silver Sam. “By Jericho! if it hadn’t
been for you we’d have been salted sure by them pizen greasers.”
“If they will only attack the Steam Man in the open,” said Frank,
with a smile, “I think I can handle them easily.”
 “You bet! That’s a wonderful machine you’ve got, friend. Wall, have
you learned any news?”
Frank described his trip to the top of the mountain and what he
had seen therefrom.
The prospectors listened with deep interest. Then Silver Sam said:
“Well, I reckon that’s where poor Harvey Montaine is held a
prisoner.”
“I presume so,” replied Frank.
“We oughter see him out of the scrape someway.”
“That is my mission here,” declared Frank.
“Good! We’ll help ye, friend, all we can. Now let’s go in and talk
over a good move.”
Diamond Jake and Silver Sam led the way into a tent which was
pitched on the banks of the creek.
Frank found a seat upon a stump, and then the conversation
began.
“Ye see,” began Silver Sam, “we know well enough that Harvey
has got a claim up there in the hills.”
“Yes!”
“But we don’t propose to meddle with his property at all. Our claim
is on t’other side of the range. But we can’t work it until we have
done up Costello and his gang.”
“Exactly,” agreed Frank.
“Now the question is how shall we go to work to do that?”
There was a moment’s silence. Then Diamond Jake spoke:
“I’ve a plan, pards!”
 “What is it?”
“We kin split forces an’ enter the hills by two ways. The Steam
Man can stay down here on the level ground. When we have driven
the greasers out of the hills the Steam Man can clinch the victory.”
Diamond Jake’s words were not without a good impression upon
the listeners. But before they could be commented upon an uproar
arose from without. All sprang up and rushed to the door of the tent.
 CHAPTER VII.
THE COWBOYS’ DUEL.

Among those who had joined the band of prospectors were two
cowboys.
They were as genuine specimens of the prairie tough as one could
rest eyes upon.
One was named “Copper Jake” and the other bore the euphonious
title of “Buster Bill.”
A number of miners had engaged in a game of dice.
The cowboys had finally ventured to take a hand.
Ordinarily the best of friends, it was hardly a moment before they
were quarreling.
The “Buster” accused Copper Jake of using a weighted dice.
“You’re a goldurned liar,” exploded the Copper, savagely. “If ye
don’t take yer insinuation back, I’ll salt ye.”
“If ye think ye kin do it ye’d better try now,” retorted the “Buster.”
“By gosh! I will.”
“Humph! Ye wouldn’t hurt nobody.”
“Ye called me a cheat.”
“Wall, what of it?”
“Take it back.”
“Naw, I won’t.”
 “If ye don’t, I swow I’ll drag ye at ther heels of my pony.”
“Ye can’t do it.”
“I’ll bet yer a hundred I kin.”
“Put up.”
“Here’s my dust.”
In a twinkling the two desperate fellows had put up their stakes.
They were held by one of the miners, and then the details of the
affair were arranged.
Several of the miners were appointed to act as referees and
judges, and then the cowboys went out and mounted their ponies.
It was at this juncture that Frank, Silver Sam and Diamond Jake
came out of the tent.
With characteristic interest in anything savoring of sport, Silver
Sam cried:
“What’s up, boys?”
“Ther Buster and ther Copper have made a bet that one will drag
t’other first at the heels of his hoss.”
“I’ll bet two to one on the Buster!” cried Silver Sam.
“I’ll do the same!” cried Diamond Jake.
“Anybody take it?”
“I’ll take ye.”
“So will I.”
The miners crowded forward with their money, and bets were
made as free as water.
 Frank watched the scene with the interest of one viewing a phase
of life wholly peculiar to the region about.
The two cowboys had mounted and rode out upon the plain.
Each had in his hand a long and powerful lariat.
Each knew how to use it, and neither had a peer in the art.
It was an even contest.
How it would terminate only time would tell.
Out upon the plain the two cowboys rode. When well out they
began to make a circle about each other.
Then the contest began.
First one would throw his lasso, and then the other.
High up into the air went the whirling cords. They would seem
likely at any moment to settle about the cowboy’s head and
shoulders.
But the slightest movement, a touch of the knee against the well-
trained ponies’ sides, would cause the lariat to fall wide.
Hissing and curling through the air went the lariats again and
again.
In vain each tried to outwit the other. It was a duel wholly without
precedent, and fascinating to watch.
The “Buster” seemed to have the advantage for a time, but after a
while his pony seemed to tire.
Of course it was only a question of agility and endurance, and the
end must come some time.
Suddenly the Buster’s pony slipped, and quick as a flash Copper
Jake’s lasso went out.
 It fairly sung its course through the air, and with accurate aim went
down about the Buster’s shoulders.
A quick jerk and the lasso tightened about the victim.
The next moment he went off his pony’s back and was dragged a
dozen feet upon the ground.
Then Copper Jake raised his broad-brimmed hat and waved it
aloft.
He had won.
He might have dragged his rival to death at his pony’s heels.
But this he wisely refrained from doing. The crowd cheered, the
Buster disentangled himself and rode into the camp much crestfallen
and subdued.
Frank could not repress a smile at the result of the contest.
It was a contest wholly peculiar to Western life, seen in
counterpart nowhere else upon the face of the earth.
Diamond Jake and Silver Sam were around cashing their bets in
their order but soon returned to Frank’s side.
“Excuse us, strangers,” said Jake, with a grin. “P’r’aps seein’ the
Buster unhossed warn’t quite so important as the bizness we were
talkin’ about, but you’ll admit it was mighty interesting.”
“Yes,” agreed Frank. “It was extremely interesting, I will own.”
Silver Sam came up now.
“Well, now that the scrap is over,” he said, brusquely, “let’s get to
bizness.”
“I am ready,” said Frank.
“Good fer you. Then it’s decided, is it, that we go up and try to rout
out the gang? If we can drive ’em down onto the plain you’ll look
after ’em?”
“I will try to,” said Frank. “When are you going to bring action?”
“To-morrow morning!”
“All right; I will try and do my part.”
Frank went back to the Steam Man and narrated the plan to
Barney and Pomp.
The two faithful servitors listened with the deepest of interest.
“A’right, Marse Frank,” declared Pomp. “We’se jes’ de chickens
what can gib dose greasers a lickin’.”
“Bejabers, we’ll thry it,” said Barney.
Nightfall was at hand, so it was decided to make camp upon the
spot.
The prospectors had decided not to start upon their invasion of the
greasers’ stronghold until the next day.
Darkness settled down thickly over the plain.
It was near midnight before all was quiet in the camp.
As the prospectors had a picket line out, our travelers did not
deem it necessary to set a watch.
So all turned in and sought slumber.
But Frank Reade, Jr., was utterly unable to sleep.
He tried in vain to woo the gentle goddess. A premonition of some
mighty peril was upon him.
At length, as his nerves grew more acute, he decided to get up
and walk in the air in the hope of inducing slumber in that way.
He did not arouse Barney and Pomp, and quietly left the wagon.
He passed through the camp and came to the banks of the creek.
 Just as he reached this point he fancied that he saw shadowy
forms moving a short distance out upon the prairie.
Frank’s vision was unusually keen.
He became convinced, after a brief time, that he was right.
It seemed as if the prairie in that direction literally swarmed with
men.
They were creeping noiselessly along over the soft grass. A chill of
terror seized Frank Reade, Jr.
He thought of the greasers.
Might it not be a band of them intent upon attacking the camp?
The more he pondered upon the matter the more convinced he
became that such was a fact.
But one thing puzzled him.
The prospectors had appointed a very strong picket guard. How
had the greasers managed to pass them?
This was a question not easily determined at that moment.
It was possible that they had silently overpowered the picket, or
that the latter had slept at his post.
In any event the enemy were creeping up to surprise the camp.
The realization came upon Frank Reade, Jr., with a force which for
a moment seemed likely to overwhelm him.
“My soul!” he gasped. “They will be upon us before the alarm can
be given!”
It was easy to foresee the effect of such a surprise upon the
prospectors.
They would, no doubt, be cut down before they could really
prepare themselves for the onslaught.
 In that moment a dozen daring schemes flitted through the brain of
the young inventor.
He thought of starting the Steam Man out amongst them with a
view to breaking up their advance.
But the creek was between, and it would be some trouble to find a
fording place.
Under the circumstances Frank executed the most sensible move
that he could.
He stole quickly back into the camp.
It was but a moment’s work to silently arouse Silver Sam and
Diamond Jake.
He quickly explained the situation to them.
“Thunder an’ blazes!” exploded Jake, “we must sound the alarm-
—-”
“Easy,” said Frank, quietly. “The first outcry raised will bring them
down upon you. They are near at hand.”
“What in thunder can we do, then?”
“There is only one safe thing to do, and there may be time yet to
do it.”
“What is it?”
“We must go and arouse each man one by one. Do it silently and
don’t let the foe hear a sound.”
“Quick, then!” whispered Silver Sam. “Let’s be about it.”
The move was at once begun.
Of course there was a momentary likelihood that the greasers
would attack the camp before it could be aroused.
But the alarm givers worked quickly and well.
 From man to man they went silently and quickly.
The result was gratifying.
Each man upon being awakened, went to the cover of the
sycamores and there waited for events.
In a very short time the whole camp was thus aroused and in
readiness. The greasers would receive a hot welcome in their attack.
All was quiet about the prospectors’ camp. Frank went back to the
Steam Man and aroused Barney and Pomp.
The greasers for some reason seemed to be delaying the attack.
Every one of the miners was in the cover of the sycamores waiting
for their Mexican foe.
Suddenly across the plain there came in a sharp, stern voice, in
Spanish:
“Mexicans, up and at them! Spare not a life!”
Up from the prairie grass sprang a legion of forms.
They came on like a great wave and not a word was said until the
creek was reached.
Then they broke the air with wild yells and dashed into the waters
of the little stream, but they were destined to become the victims of
surprise.