Everything You Need to Know About the Divine

Comedy: A Study Guide for Dante’s Classic

 Table of Contents

Everything You Need to Know About the Divine Comedy: A Study

Guide for Dante’s Classic
About Charles River Editors
Introduction
Things to Know about Dante
Themes
Characters
Inferno
Canto I
Canto II
Canto III
Canto IV
Canto V
Canto VI
Canto VII
Canto VIII
Canto IX
Canto X
Canto XI
Canto XII
Canto XIII
Canto XIV
Canto XV
Canto XVI
Canto XVII
Canto XVIII
Canto XIX
Canto XX
Canto XXI
Canto XXII
Canto XXIII
Canto XXIV
Canto XXV
Canto XXVI
Canto XXVII
Canto XXVIII
Canto XXIX
Canto XXX
Canto XXXI
Canto XXXII
Canto XXXIII
Canto XXXIV
Purgatorio
Canto I
Canto II
Canto III
Canto IV
Canto V
Canto VI
Canto VII
Canto VIII
Canto IX
Canto X
Canto XI
Canto XII
Canto XIII
Canto XIV
Canto XV
Canto XVI
Canto XVII
Canto XVIII
Canto XIX
Canto XX
Canto XXI
Canto XXII
Canto XXIII
Canto XXIV
Canto XXV
Canto XXVI
Canto XXVII
Canto XXVIII
Canto XXIX
Canto XXX
Canto XXXI
Canto XXXII
Canto XXXIII
Paradiso
Canto I
Canto II
Canto III
Canto IV
Canto V
Canto VI
Canto VII
Canto VIII
Canto IX
Canto X
Canto XI
Canto XII
Canto XIII
Canto XIV
Canto XV
Canto XVI
Canto XVII
Canto XVIII
Canto XIX
Canto XX
Canto XXI
Canto XXII
Canto XXIII
Canto XXIV
Canto XXV
Canto XXVI
Canto XXVII
Canto XXVIII
Canto XXIX
Canto XXX
Canto XXXI
Canto XXXII
Canto XXXIII
Everything You Need to Know About the

Divine Comedy: A Study Guide for

Dante’s Classic

By Charles River Editors

First printed edition of the Divine Comedy
 About Charles River Editors

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 Introduction

Dante (1265-1321)

The Divine Comedy

“But already my desire and my will

were being turned like a wheel, all at one speed,

by the Love which moves the sun and the other stars.” – Dante, The Divine
Comedy

One of the surest signs of fame among is to be known solely by one’s first
name, with the mention of just that first name making clear who is being
spoken of. So it is with Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), known simply as
Dante thanks to the success of the Divine Comedy, one of the seminal
works in Western literature. With Divine Comedy, Dante is often considered
the master of contemporary Italian, as well as a forerunner of the
Renaissance, which began to flourish in Florence around the same time.
The Divine Comedy tells of Dante’s journey through Hell (the Inferno),
Purgatory, and Paradise, guided by famous poets including Virgil. Dante’s
epic discusses religion, philosophy, and a wide range of subject matter
throughout his travels.

Dante took nearly 13 years to compose the Divine Comedy, all the while
living in exile from his home city of Florence, and the work influenced just
about every important writer any literary scholar can name, among them,
Boccaccio (1313-75); Chaucer (circa 1344-1400); John Milton (1608-74);
William Blake (1757-1827); Victor Hugo (1802-85); Joseph Conrad
(Teodor Josef Konrad Korzeniowski) (1857-1924); James Joyce (1882-
1941); and Ezra Pound (1885-1972). One of the greatest poems in English,
T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land, is in many ways derivative of Dante.
Dante Alighieri, especially when one considers his time and environment,
was bold and fearless, following the calling and mission of the artist in the
purest sense. He not only took his contemporaries to task in an enormous
fashion, he also embraced the timeless challenges that metaphysical
questions present. Dante had the nerve to force his reader to question life’s
toughest mysteries, and offer at least one possible blueprint for redemption.
His mind, his language and his contributions to art, culture and intellect
remain unsurpassed.

Everything You Need to Know About the Divine Comedy is a comprehensive

guide that provides a synopsis, a description of the characters, and a
summary and analysis of every chapter. You can use this as a guide while
you read or as a way to brush up on everything you once knew and since
forgot.
 Things to Know about Dante

Michelino’s fresco depicting Dante holding a copy of Divine Comedy

next to the entrance to Hell, the seven terraces of Mount Purgatory and
the city of Florence, with the spheres of Heaven above

1. Dante is considered one of the greatest, if not the greatest, poet – epic
or otherwise – of all time. The magnitude of his most major work, The
Divine Comedy, is unsurpassed; however, what also sets him apart
from his literary rivals is that the Tuscan dialect in which he wrote
 became Italy’s national language. Further, he paved the way for poets
to write in the vernacular, choosing his dialect over Latin, the language
of the Church, the State and epic poets who preceded him. Even
Shakespeare in all his genius did not have this level of influence on his
language, English, which he, for all intents and purposes, inherited.
2. Dante is credited with advancing, if not truly creating the poetic
technique of terza rima, which is an interlocking three-line rhyme
scheme. Most notably, Chaucer borrowed the technique for The
Canterbury Tales.
3. The Divine Comedy is steeped in theological references, even in
structure: it is made up of three parts, each with 33 cantos. Three is
extremely symbolic in Christianity, due to the belief in the Holy
Trinity – God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit.
Thirty-three is also very significant, as this is the age at which Jesus
was crucified.
4. Inferno has 34 cantos, but the first in considered an introduction.
5. Although exiled from his city of Florence for the last nineteen years of
his life, Dante’s loyalty never waned. He always considered himself
not an Italian, not a Tuscan, but a Florentine until the day he died.
6. Dante’s exile was due to his political leanings, and specifically, the
Florentine Guelph–Ghibelline conflict. He intended the Divine
Comedy to be something of a platform to share his belief in what was
fundamentally the separation of church and state, and point the finger
at corrupt leadership, both political and religious.
7. Dante placed himself at the center of the Divine Comedy as the
Pilgrim. Even though characters certainly reflect a writer’s position
and/or beliefs, and may display many of their creator’s own personal
traits, few writers have been so bold as to employ this literary
technique.
 8. There is a school of critics that believes Dante suffered from an over-
inflated sense of importance well beyond that of an artist. Instead, it
has been argued by scholars that he considered himself worthy of
being included in the elevated category of prophet, as The Divine
Comedy tackles enormous metaphysical and religious themes, and
offers a redemptive path for sinners to follow.
9. Each of the three canticas that make up The Divine Comedy - Inferno
(Hell), Purgatorio (Purgatory) and Paradiso (Paradise, or Heaven) -
ends in the word stelle (“stars”).
10. No original copy of Dante’s masterpiece survives today, but many
priceless copies do exist. The first printed copy dates back to the late
1400s.
 Themes

In many ways, The Divine Comedy serves as a handbook to the Middle

Ages and the trends of thought it advanced. Dante’s work touches upon the
scientific, political, and spiritual tenets of the day, with real life references
to some of his own contemporaries, to historical figures that played a part in
the development of western civilization as a whole.

Look at any diagram or map available that corresponds to the Hell,

Purgatory and Heaven of the poem and you will find incredibly studied
details that reflect the science of the times. Dante incorporates many of the
ideas that were considered fact by his period. His outline of how each place
stands in its relation to each other tries to acknowledge all available
knowledge of the sun, moon, stars and planets. Not satisfied to keep these
tenets contained within their own parameters, he extends his questions to
the more mysterious, blending theology with science by asking such things
as why do people exhibit such drastic differences in mindsets and beliefs, or
what happens to us when we die, or is sin material. These probing questions
would have great appeal to his contemporary audience, and frankly, still do
today.

Politics is also a major theme in the work. Dante’s political affiliation with
the White Guelphs signified his posture on separation of church and state.
This belief was rooted in his distaste for the corruption that existed among
political leaders as well as clerics (including popes). This tug of war for
power ruined his country, and more importantly, his beloved city of
Florence, that it can be argued that politics may have been an even stronger
motivation than religion for him to write this monumental work. The poem
is undeniably a platform for him to voice his discontent with the political
status quo of his times, and no one he views as an enemy is spared his
contempt. The poet shares the mission of the pilgrim – to reveal that which
is unjust, and to rally the troops against its continuum.

Finally, redemption is clearly a key theme in Dante’s masterpiece.

Providing the reader with not only a warning of what could be experienced
(i.e., Hell), but a code of behavior by which to avert such suffering, he takes
on the role of prophet and spiritual advisor. Through his journey, and his
enlightenment via both Virgil and Beatrice, he offers the reader an example
of how redemption is never out of reach from those who are sincere in their
pursuit. While Dante, and therefore The Divine Comedy, navigates in waters
reflecting Judeo-Christian beliefs, the notion of redemption is a lesson for
all, as it presents an opportunity to learn how to lead a virtuous life
regardless of religious affiliations. Like all artists, that may be at the core of
Dante’s genius – his ability to deliver a compelling, universal, and timeless
message that can transform hearts, minds and souls.
 Characters

Dante

Dante acts as both the narrator (Dante the writer) and the main character
(Dante the pilgrim) of The Divine Comedy. Dante meets hundreds of
characters who look upon him as their messenger to earth. He is, in fact,
destined to provide a lesson in morality not just for his time, but for all
time. Dante exhibits all the components one would expect from a human:
fear, arrogance, humiliation, confusion, confidence, defiance, humility – the
list goes on, which is why his persona is so relatable. He is, quite simply,
once of us – the archetypical Everyman.

Virgil

Representing a superior intellect, it was genius for Dante to choose Virgil,

the author of the Aeneid, as his guide. Intellect can protect us from sin,
which is a huge part of the work, and Virgil, for the most part, is
consistently wise, calm and rational. Dante the writer actually did hold
Virgil in high esteem – he was considered the greatest Roman poet of his
time – and his inclusion can be seen as a sign of respect for history and
literary tradition.

Beatrice
Tristan and Isolde. Romeo and Juliet. Lancelot and Guinevere. Even Gatsby
and Daisy. These are some of the most recognized, idealized and romantic
duos in literature. And Dante and Beatrice are quite possibly the team to
beat in spite of, or perhaps because of, the fact that their union is not based
in carnal or marital love but something much greater – something nearly
divine.

It remains to be seen how important the real Beatrice was to the real Dante,
but the characters in The Divine Comedy are nearly unparalleled in their
importance in literature. She is his Muse and his object of romantic
affection beyond any other, and like Virgil, she is his teacher and guide. As
the spirit who leads him to Heaven, and God, Beatrice has no real rival. Part
drill sergeant, part lover, part angel and part genius, she serves as Dante’s
muse and inspiration. Once she takes over for Virgil as Dante’s guide, she
propels the story, acting as Dante’s motivator and coach in this unusual,
unprecedented journey. Prior to that, she is credited for setting the wheels in
motion out of love, as she fears for his soul, and seeks to initiate his
conversion both on earth and in the afterlife. The closer he gets to Heaven,
the more beautiful she appears, signifying the importance of her role in his
ultimate redemption.
 Inferno

Inferno is the most well-known of the three canticas, as it is certainly the

most intense and impressive, with its vivid, frightening images of suffering
and punishment in the depths of Hell. It is believed that any student of
literature who has read it can point to an image or passage that has been
forever burned into memory.
 Canto I

The story opens with Dante the Pilgrim in a mental state of questioning life
and its purpose. (It has been referred to as Dante’s “mid-life crisis,” as the
story opens in the year 1300, on the night before Good Friday, which marks
the approximate halfway point in his actual life span.) He finds himself lost,
and in dark woods. Claiming that “death could hardly be more severe” than
his immediate problem, he foreshadows what is ahead as he becomes more
frightened and confused.

Soon, he finds himself at the bottom of a hill, above which shines the first
stream of light he has seen in the forest. He walks towards it, his heart
lighter as well, but is stopped by a ferocious leopard that blocks his
progress. The leopard is joined by a lion, and then a she-wolf. Fearing for
his life, Dante screams as he runs back down the hill.

At the bottom of the hill, Dante sees what appears to be a ghost or shadowy
presence. Begging for mercy, he learns that the ghost is a poet from Mantua
who lived before the time of Christ. From these clues, Dante correctly
identifies the ghost as that of the great Roman poet Virgil, who is Dante’s
own literary hero. Virgil tells Dante that he will guide him past the greedy,
ravenous and evil beasts on this journey through Hell, and then Purgatory,
and ultimately, Heaven, provided he is worthy of reaching such a paradise.
The two begin their incredible trip through the underworld.
 Canto II

Dante and Virgil talk almost incessantly as they travel all day. As the sun
sets, Dante tries to prepare himself for what’s ahead by calling on the
Muses. To give him courage and virtue and whatnot, Dante invokes the
Muses, but his doubtfulness remains. He can’t understand why he was
chosen for this journey, comparing himself unfavorably to others, such as
Aeneas, who have participated in travel in other-worldly realms. Virgil tells
him that this is why he has been sent to be his guide – to fortify his courage.
While in Limbo himself, Virgil encountered a woman with beautiful eyes
called Beatrice, who implored him to return to earth to help her friend. She
tells Virgil that she has the support of the Blessed Virgin Mary in this
request. The Virgin sent St. Lucia to relay this message. Beatrice flatters
Virgil by noting his strength and power with words, and admits that as a
woman, she cannot help Dante herself even though she loves him. Dante is
overcome with gratitude, and snaps into a newfound strength of character.
As he compares himself to drooping flowers which are now straightened by
the sun, he joins Virgil wholeheartedly in the journey ahead.
 Canto III

Dante sees Hell’s inscription over its gates, which reads: “Through me the
way into the suffering city, through me the way to the eternal pain, through
me the way that runs among the lost. Abandon every hope, who enters
here.” Dante is perplexed and frightened, but Virgil tells him to be strong.
The elder poet leads Dante into a dark, noisy place filled with wails and
cries. Virgil tells Dante that these are the sounds of the “neutrals”: those
who never chose a side during the great battle between God and Lucifer.
They exist in the Vestibule, the region which sits outside the First Circle of
Hell itself. Because of their stance, these souls are destined to be punished
by spending eternity passing back and forth through the Vestibule as flies
and wasps attack their naked bodies and worms crawl at their feet.

Dante and Virgil make their way to the river Acheron (one of the fiver
rivers of the Greek underworld), which rests between the Vestibule and the
First Circle of Hell. There are swarms of people who are approaching the
riverbank in search of Charon, the river’s boatman. They want him to bring
them across. When Dante asks for a ride as well, Charon tells him that he
only transports the dead; however, Virgil intervenes and tells Charon that
Dante’s journey was designed by Heaven and that therefore, he must take
Dante along. As they travel across the river, Virgil tells Dante that the
sinners who are crossing over into Hell are doing so as a result of “celestial
justice.” Suddenly, horrendous winds and fires break out as tremors erupt.
Dante is overcome with fear by the activity and faints.
 Canto IV

Dante is awakened by thunder. He finds himself and Virgil someplace new

– at the edge of a valley, or perhaps an abyss, but he cannot really decipher
anything visually. They reach the First Circle of Hell, Limbo, and are met
with sad, lingering, pitiful cries. Virgil explains that these are the sounds of
non-baptized souls who, although not persecuted, ache from the inability to
ever know God. Virgil, who died before the life and times of Jesus Christ,
has been delegated to Limbo himself, where his punishment is the same as
those souls. Dante is sad and surprised, as some of the souls he encounters
there in Limbo belong to notable men.

Virgil and Dante sees a fire that circles the souls of the most honored of
those in Limbo, among them, poets including Ovid, Homer, and Horace.
The group nods to Dante as one of them, and he is taken with the inclusion
to this elite club of poets. Virgil and Dante continue into the darkness, and
then approach an enclosed castle where the shining stars of ancient
philosophy and mathematics - Plato, Cicero, Socrates, Ptolemy,
Hippocrates, and Aristotle – are enclosed. Dante and Virgil acknowledge
that this is, in its own way, something of a sacred place. They move on to
another area which suggests a heightened sense of gloom and despair.
 Canto V

As Dante and Virgil approach the Second Circle of Hell, they meet the
hideous judge Minos, who is tasked with deciding the appropriate
punishment for sinners. Minos is shaped like a bull, and makes his
decisions by wrapping his tail around his body – the number of wraps
indicates the level of Hell to which the sinner is sent. As he did with
Charon, Virgil commands Minos to let Dante through without punishment
because of the origin of his journey. Minos lets the poets pass.

Once in the Second Circle, Virgil and Dante come upon a pit where lustful
spirits have been delegated. They moan in pain and anguish. A
compassionate Dante asks to speak with one of them, and by doing so
meets a woman named Francesca. She and her lover, Paolo, were killed by
her husband for surrendering to their lustful feelings by embracing in a kiss.
Paolo stands beside Francesca as she relays their story. Dante, emotionally
drained, faints.
Rodin’s statue of Paolo and Francesca
 Canto VI

Dante awakens amidst rainy, snowy surroundings. He is now in the Third

Circle of Hell, where the Gluttons spend their eternity racing away from the
claws of Cerberus, the Circle’s three-headed guardian. Virgil tries to silence
the monster by throwing dirt into its mouth. In the meantime, Dante sees a
shadow that he recognizes as Ciacco, a Florentine whom he knew
personally. Ciacco was notorious for his own gluttony. He makes a
prediction that war will descend upon Florence, and that someone will be
exiled. Dante and Ciacco speak amore about the plight of Florence, and
Ciacco tells Dante about some of the other Florentines who have been
banished to lower parts of Hell for their sins. Virgil and Dante pull away to
continue their journey, and Virgil tells Dante that Ciacco will remain where
he is until the Last Judgment.
 Canto VII

A giant-sized Plutus blocks the path of Virgil and Dante as they approach
the Fourth Circle of Hell. When Virgil explains the origin of Dante’s
journey, Plutus succumbs without a fight, allowing them to pass. The poets
then find two groups of shadows engaged in a bizarre, tormenting exercise -
they are pushing giant weights in a circular motion, but in opposite
directions. As they near the end of their semi-circular paths, they crash into
one another and start the entire awful process over again in the opposite
direction. Upon crashing, however, they scream at each other, with one
groups asking the other, “Why do you hoard?” The other replies, “Why do
you squander?” They are identified as the Avaricious and the Prodigal.
Dante notices that most have shaven heads, and makes a connection to the
image of the clergy. Virgil confirms Dante’s theory, telling Dante that these
two groups are primarily composed of clergymen who have been poor
financial managers in life. Virgil also tells Dante to beware of being greedy
for Fortune’s delights, and not to blame her for avaricious inclinations. He
states, “She is the one so frequently maligned even by those who should
give praise to her-they blame her wrongfully with words of scorn. But she is
blessed and does not hear these things; for with the other primal beings,
happy, she turns her sphere and glories in her bliss.” Virgil then leads
Dante towards the Fifth Circle of Hell. They come upon the underworld
river called Styx, where the souls of the Wrathful and Sullen are stuck in
slimy, muddy, disgusting waters. The Wrathful lash out at one another
violently, almost as if to tear each other to shreds; the Sullen are stuck in
darkness due to their constant lack of appreciation for “sweet air…
gladdened by the sun” when they were on earth. They are forced to sing in
the mud, and as a result, can only emit hideous gurgling sounds. Virgil and
Dante travel around the river until they come upon a tower.
 Canto VIII

Dante and Virgil see what looks like two flames as they approach the tower.
The flames precede the arrival of Phlegyas, the oarsman of the river’s boat.
Like Charon, he doesn’t want to take a live human onboard, but again,
Virgil insists. They board, with Dante’s human weight almost sinking the
boat. As the three cross the river, Dante spies one of the sinners in the mud
and asks him why he is so ugly. The sinner does not give him a clear
answer, so Dante pushes him back into the mud. The sinner then comes
back at the boat, and is recognized as Filippo Argenti, a crooked Florentine
politician (and enemy to Dante and his family). Dante curses him, and
sends Argenti back into the muddy water. He is then torn to bits by the other
Wrathfuls. Virgil is proud of Dante for finally showing strength against the
sinners instead of fear. He tells Dante that they are nearing the city of Dis,
which marks the entrance to the lower, more painfully awful part of Hell.
This fiery red area is inhabited by the most violent and horrible sinners. As
they arrive, Dante and Virgil are blocked by fallen angels, who repeat the
objection to Dante’s entrance due to his being alive. They completely
dismiss him, so Virgil tries to reason with them himself, leaving Dante
alone on the other side. Dante is paralyzed with fear at the thought of
handling this on his own.
 Canto IX

The fallen angels still won’t allow Virgil and Dante entrance into Dis, but
Virgil tells Dante that they will get help from an angel messenger from
Heaven. They must be patient, but Dante cannot, as he is wracked with fear
at the sight of three ugly, bloody female images with snakes all over their
heads whom Virgil identifies as the Furies - Megaera, Allecto, and
Tisiphone. They torment Dante with the news that Medusa is soon coming
to turn him to stone. Virgil covers Dante’s eyes, and at that moment, the
heavenly spirit arrives and sweeps down to open the doors to Dis. Once
inside, Dante and Virgil see a field filled with flames coming out of
multiple graves. The graves hold the crying, agonized spirits of arch-
heretics.
 Canto X

Dante wants to see the burning spirits, curious to know if any of them are
people he knew. One begins to address Dante in his native dialect. Dante is
at first scared to answer, but Virgil persuades him. The spirit is that of
Farinata, a former Ghibelline leader who was an enemy Dante’s Guelph
family. As Farinata and Dante get into an exchange about their families,
another spirit interrupts to ask Dante about his (the spirit’s) son named
Guido. The spirit is that of Cavalcante dei Cavalcanti, one of Dante’s
political allies. When Dante refers to Guido in the past tense, the spirit falls
back into his grave in even greater despair, thinking that his son is dead.
Farinata then picks up the conversation with Dante, informing him that
returning to Florence after being exiled will be next to impossible. He also
asks Dante why their families were at such odds, and what was at the root
of the dissent among their political affiliations. Dante replies with questions
of his own – he asks Farinata why or how the spirits comment on the past
and see into the future, but they have no knowledge of the present. Farinata
explains, “We see, even as men who are farsighted, those things that are
remote from us; the Highest Lord allots us that much light. But when events
draw near or are, our minds are useless; were we not informed by others,
we should know nothing of our human state.” As Dante gets ready to leave,
he asks Farinata to tell Guido’s father that Guido is not dead. After Virgil
identifies some of the other inhabitants of this Circle, among them, King
Frederick II, the Ghibelline Cardinal, the two depart and find themselves in
a horrid valley.
 Canto XI

Still in the Sixth Circle, Dante and Virgil try to adjust to the foul, oppressive
stench in the valley. They stop near the tomb of Pope Anastasius, a pope
who had denied Christ’s divine nature, where Virgil says they will stay and
try to adapt to the malodorous surroundings. He begins to tell Dante about
the upcoming Circles of Hell: the Seventh Circle is that of Violence, where
sinners who have acted in violence against their neighbors, themselves, and
against God and Nature are banished. This circle also has three subcircles –
those guilty of violence against neighbors, such as murderers and
plunderers, live in the first; suicidal souls live in the second subcircle, and
those guilty of blasphemy and usury are in the third. Virgil goes on to say
that the most evil form of sin is fraud, and those guilty of it live in Circle
Eight. Circle Nine is reserved for the worst practitioners of fraud. It is no
surprise that Circle Nine is the closest to Satan.

Dante then asks Virgil why those in previous circle are not punished as
harshly. Basically, he asks, How does God rate sins? Virgil becomes
annoyed, and reminds Dante of Aristotle’s Ethics, where the Greek
philosopher categorizes sin into three sections: incontinence, or lack of self-
control; malice, or fraud; and mad bestiality, or violence. The least serious
is incontinence, as it encompasses things like lust or gluttony. Also
incontinent acts might be done without real malice involved. Dante turns
the discussion back to usury, which is a much more grave sin. Virgil
explains that usury goes against God’s plan of having Man live by his own
nature and his own labor. Noticing that the stars in the sky are changing,
Virgil tells Dante that they must continue the journey. He leads Dante down
a cliff towards the next Circle.
 Canto XII

Dante and Virgil come upon the self-biting Minotaur, who guards the
opening to the Seventh Circle. The two slip past the creature easily after
Virgil taunts him about his demise at the hands of Theseus, the Duke of
Athens. The bull-man charges at them in anger, giving them an opportunity
to enter the Circle. Virgil points to Phlegethon, a river made of boiling
blood that runs beneath them, and says that this is where violent sinners are
banished. The river is guarded by a band of centaurs, who threaten Dante
and Virgil with their bows and arrows while also shooting them at the
spirits in the bloody river. Virgil stands up to them, demanding to meet with
Chiron, the centaurs’ leader. When Chiron arrives, he immediately makes
note that Dante is alive. Chiron sends Nessus, the centaur responsible for
raping Hercules’ wife and facilitating his death, to carry Dante across the
river. Nessus tells Dante that the sinners who have sunk the deepest were
tyrants and murderers on Earth. Once they cross the river, Nessus leaves
Dante and Virgil at the riverbank, explaining that the depth of the river
coincides with the depth of sin and sinner. On the other side, where the river
is very deep, is where sinners such as Attila, Sextus and Rinier Pazzo live.
 Canto XIII

Dante and Virgil enter a dark, scary forest. Dante sees that something is
amiss with the trees, as they have black, not green, leaves, twisted branches
and instead of fruit, they grow poisonous briers. The poets also see that
Harpies – the fallen angels who tormented Aeneas, are living in the
branches. Virgil states that this is the subcircle of the Seventh Circle that
holds suicides. These spirits have been punished by being turned into horrid
trees. For their punishment, these sinners have been turned into trees.
Directed by Virgil to pull a branch from one of them, Dante is shocked
when the tree-spirit cries in pain. Virgil asks it to share its history. The spirit
(who was Pier della Vigna in real life) tells the poets that he had been the
private counselor who loyally served Fredrick II. The others in Frederick’s
court were jealous of their relationship, so they began to spread rumors
about him. He could not bear being out of Frederick’s favor, and therefore
killed himself.

Virgil asks the spirit how the suicides morph into trees. The sad spirit says
that suicide tears a soul from its body, and the soul is arbitrarily sent by
Minos to the Seventh Circle, where it begins to become a tree, sprouting
ugly leaves which are then eaten by the evil Harpies, causing the young
trees further pain. The story is interrupted by noises of commotion.
Suddenly, two naked man-spirits are seen running in the forest, chased by
fierce, fast hounds. As one slows a bit, the other mocks him, but by doing
so loses his own balance. He falls on top of a bush, crushing it. The dogs
easily attack and annihilate the men. When Dante and Virgil approach the
bush, it cries in pain from being in the midst of the attack, losing its
branches. When asked its identity, it says only that it hailed from Florence,
and that the city will never know peace because of the anger of Mars, god
of War, who was replaced by Christianity when John the Baptists arrived
there. It also confesses that it had committed suicide as a human.
 Canto XIV

Dante, upset by the bush’s story, especially about the turmoil in Florence,
takes the broken branches and tries to place them back where they belong.

Dante and Virgil enter the section of the Seventh Circle where blasphemers
are banished. They approach a vast desert-like stretch where the sinners
pepper the landscape. Fires burn the sandy plain, torturing them. Dante
comes upon a giant spirit in the sand who appears to be unaffected by the
fire. It curses Jove (the Roman god), stating that the god will never be able
to conquer him. Virgil tells Dante that this is the soul of Capeneus, who
defied the gods in ancient times and was punished, but he cannot accept this
status of defeat. His pride is his constant companion, and therefore, his
punishment and ruination. The poets move on.

Dante and Virgil arrive at a red river. They understand that this is to be their
path through the desert. As they travel down the river, Virgil conveys a
complex legend about the old man of Crete, nestled in Mount Ida (where
Rhea hid her son Jove from his father, Saturn, so that he would not kill
him). He has turned his back on Damietta and looks towards Rome.
Because Crete is located in the center of the Mediterranean, it was
considered the center of the world. The statue is made of several metals as
well as clay, and represents the move of civilization from east to west, or
Damietta to Rome. It is cracked everywhere (except where it is gold),
representing man’s original sin, and cries tears that find their way to Hell,
forming the rivers Acheron, Styx, Phlegethon and Cocytus. The current
river will lead them to the bottom of Hell where they will encounter Satan.
 Canto XV

In Canto XIV, Virgil told Dante to walk on the outskirts of the river. The
poets are protected by a misty kind of “rain” that keeps them from being
burned. Dante soon arrives upon the section of Hell saved for those guilty
of violence against God (called the Sodomites). The poets walk across the
burning plain, only to be encountered by spirits. Dante sees that one is that
of Ser Brunetto Latini, an acquaintance and mentor. Ser Brunetto does not
understand how Dante could be there, as he is still alive. Dante explains
how Virgil rescued him from being lost in the woods, and brought him to
Hell. The plain splits, with the lower being protected by the rain, while the
higher is hot. Dante and Virgil stay on the lower level, while Brunetto must
endure the fires. Brunetto then predicts Dante’s literary success. Dante is
saddened by the state (and location) of his former mentor, and treats him
with more kindness than he has shown others thus far. He asks Brunetto
what other sinners are destined to this part of Hell. Brunetto mentions a few,
including Priscian, Francesco d’Accorso, and Bishop Andrea dei Mozzi, all
of whom were remarkable scholars who were allegedly guilty of sodomy
(Brunetto never specifically identifies the sin by name). Suddenly, Brunetto
appears anxious and in a rush to leave Dante. It appears that he sees
something in the distance. Soon, another group of spirits arrives, and
Brunetto flees with the speed of a sprinter.
 Canto XVI

As they approach the lower regions of Hell, Dante and Virgil come upon a
cascading waterfall. When near the falls, three spirits come to them,
presumably because they recognize Dante as a Florentine by his clothing.
They rush up to the poets and form a circle around them. They are
identified as Guido Guerra, Tegghiaio Aldobrandi, and Jacopo Rusticucci,
all of whom were members of the Guelph party. The spirits ask Dante if
Florence has changed at all. Dante responds: “Newcomers to the city and
quick gains have brought excess and arrogance to you, o Florence, and you
weep for it already!” Dante tells them that he will speak well of them upon
his return to earth.

Dante and Virgil arrive at the waterfall. Dante says that it is too huge for
any sane man to jump. Virgil then tells Dante to remove the cord from his
waist. Virgil creates a kind of lasso with it, and tosses it into the waterfall to
summon a beast that will take Dante on the next part of his journey.
 Canto XVII

Virgil, in a flourish, claims, “Behold the beast who bears the pointed tail,
who crosses mountains, shatters weapons, walls! Behold the one whose
stench fills all the world!” Its name is Geryon, and it is hideous: its face is
that of an old man, with a body and tail or a serpent, two paws for hands,
hairy armpits and a pointed, poisonous tail. Virgil instructs Dante approach
a group of spirits who sit near the waterfall while he convinces Geryon to
take them to the depths. These spirits are in a different area of the Seventh
Circle – the one reserved for Usurers. They are subjected to the chunks of
falling fire, and unlike other spirits, carry small pouches around their necks,
each with a unique insignia. Their faces, however, are blurred and
indistinguishable from each other, and they are actively negative towards
Dante. Dante exits as soon as possible, mounting Geryon to the landing
below. Once he delivers the pilgrim, the monster flies away quickly.
 Canto XVIII

Dante begins this part of the journey into the lower regions of Hell with the
following: “There is a place in Hell called Malebolge (“evil pouches”),
made all of stone the color of crude iron, as is the wall that makes its way
around it.” He is now in the Eighth Circle, made up of ten pouches, where
fraudulent sinners are punished.

The poets notice a valley where panderers and seducers walk in both
directions. Ugly, horned demons flog them in the process. Dante recognizes
one of the sinners, Venedico Caccianemico, who tells the story of his
sister’s seduction by a Marquis, which he arranged himself.

Continuing onto the second chasm, the poets see sinners guilty of false
flattery sitting in excrement. Dante recognizes Allessio Interminei of Lucca.
He says that he is up to his head in excrement while alive, he could never
stop his false flattery.

Next, the poets see a woman, Thais, who was a prostitute who incessantly
flattered her lover for sex. They recoil as she scratches herself with
excrement-filled nails.
 Canto XIX

Now in the third level of the Eighth Circle of Hell, the poets come upon its
inhabitants, the Simonists. These are sinners who traded church favors for
money. Dante the writer takes this opportunity to take them to task in a
forceful manner (calling them those who “fornicate for gold and silver”),
given the writer’s particular distaste for this category of sin. The Simonists
are punished by being buried in holes in rock, much like a baptismal font,
only upside down. The feet alone stick out, and are continuously burned by
fire. Dante comes upon one spirit who seems to be suffering more than the
rest. He comes to find out that it is that of Pope Nicholas III, who was
famously guilty of simony. Nicholas makes excuses for his behavior,
thinking that Dante is actually a confessor (he cannot see Dante, as his head
is buried). Nicholas also tells Dante that he expects Pope Boniface VIII
(also guilty) to follow him to Hell, along with Pope Clement V. Dante
castigates Nicholas, asking him how much Jesus money Jesus demanded
from St. Peter before giving him the Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven, or
what the apostles charged Matthias to replace Judas. Virgil is proud of
Dante’s remarks and fortitude against the pope (especially given Nicholas’
reaction of violently kicking), and offers to carry him across the bridge to
the next section.
 Canto XX

Diviners, Astrologers, and Magicians inhabit the fourth section of the

Eighth Circle, banished for their sins of attempting to foretell the future,
which is a sin against God Himself. In a hideous fashion, their heads are on
backwards, and they are made to walk backwards as well in a mock
procession, with their tears streaming down their backs. Initially, Dante is
taken aback by the sight of them, and breaks down. Virgil is disgusted by
his reaction, saying that there is no room for pity for them. Dante the
encounters Manto, a witch from Thebes who, as legend has it, founded the
city of Mantua (also Virgil’s birthplace). Manto tells the tale, and then
Virgil points out some of the other spirits: Calchas, from the Aeneid;
Michael Scot, an occult and astrology writer; Guido Bonati, another
astrologer; and Asdente, a shoemaker. As the moon begins to set, Virgil
moves Dante along.
 Canto XXI

Virgil and Dante arrive at the center of the bridge that crosses the fifth
section of the Eighth Circle. It is extremely dark. There live the corrupt
politicians (or Barrators), suffering in a river of a dark, sticky substance,
much like tar or pitch. A demon sweeps by, tormenting a politician from
Lucca. He throws him into the river, and begins poking at him like meat on
a grill. He calls the others, called Malebranche (“Evil Claws”) to join in.
Dante is petrified, and Virgil tells him to hide so that he can take care of the
demons. He approaches them and asks them to stop their game. The
demons find him ridiculous and laugh at the request. Their leader, Malacoda
(“Evil Tail”) asks Virgil why a live man is in Hell, with Virgil offering his
usual explanation. He calls for Dante, who is still quite scared, and demons
taunt him. One named Scarmiglione suggests that they stick him with a
pitchfork. Malacoda orders the demons to stop their nonsense. He then tells
Virgil that the immediate bridge is broken, but then offers ten of his demons
as guides to bring the poets to the next area of Hell (under the condition that
they do not allow any sinners in the pitch to escape). Dante is afraid and
does not want demons for escorts, but Virgil tells him not to worry. The
demons continue their grotesque mannerisms, with one even indulging in
flatulence as a signal to start the journey. The group heads to the next
pouch.
 Canto XXII

The poets, with their hideous party of demon-escorts, travel up the river.
Dante is distracted by the sinners in the pitch, trying to see if he knows any
of them as they move and squirm in the mess. Most try to stay out of the
demons’ sight, but one doesn’t make it below the surface. A demon named
Graffiacane hooks it and drags it to shore so that he can torture it further.
The other demons join in, ripping at him. Dante asks Virgil to try to stop the
violence by asking about the sinner. They find out that he was from Navarre
(in Spain), was born to a ne’er-do-well, served King Thibaut, but swindled
money and sold favors, and is therefore destined to Hell. As the demons
continue attacking the Navarrese sinner, the poets ask if any other Italian
sinners are in the pitch. The tortures spirit answers yes - Friar Gomita of
Gallura and Don Michel Zanche from Sardinia are both submerged in the
pitch. The Navarrese says that he can call them by whistling, and the
demons are amused – so amused, in fact, that they don’t notice that the
spirit has succeeded in escaping. Now furious, they turn on each other and
begin to fight, with two of them falling into the pitch themselves. Dante and
Virgil escape as well.
 Canto XXIII

Dante is scared that eventually, the demons will come after him and Virgil.
All of a sudden, they do see the demons fiercely heading in their direction.
Like a parent, Virgil grabs Dante into his arms, lifts him, and runs for cover.
Amidst much pain and trouble, they make it to the next realm of the Circle,
escaping the furious demons who cannot leave their section.

Here in this sixth realm, Dante and Virgil find slow-walking spirits dressed
in heavy gold robes that are lined in lead. They are the Hypocrites, and are
doomed to spend their remaining lives in beautiful, but horribly torturous
garments. They encounter the Jovial Friars, who ruined the region of
Gardingo. One of them, Fra Catalano, identifies a writhing, tortured spirit
who is being crucified on the ground. It is Caiaphas, Jesus’ most aggressive
antagonist and the high priest thought to have advanced His execution. Now
he is the one being crucified. Virgil asks how he and Dante can get out
without risking seeing the demons. Is there another bridge they can take?
Malacoda told him that the most direct one was destroyed. The Friars tell
him that all the bridges were destroyed at the same time, and ask Virgil how
he could trust the word of a demon. Virgil departs, raging and furious.
 Canto XXIV

Virgil seeks a place where the poets can proceed. They come to a steep
path, which Dante is at first scared to embark upon. Virgil supports Dante
from behind and pushes him as he struggles up the rocky path. Arriving at
the top, Dante falls to the ground in exhaustion. Virgil first calls him lazy,
but then pushes him to keep going so that they can reach the seventh realm
of the Circle where the Thieves reside. They are in darkness, with snakes all
around them, wrapping themselves around the naked spirits and attacking
them. Dante witnesses one spirit being squeezed by a serpent’s body, then
bitten in the neck. The spirit immediately turns to dust, but then is revived
so that the whole awful process is repeated over and over. The spirit is that
of Vanni Fucci, who robbed a church’s sacristy of its relics. Vanni is
horrified that Dante has seen him, so he goes on the attack – he tells Dante
that the Guelphs will lose a battle at Pistoia, Vanni’s town, knowing that the
revelation will upset him.
 Canto XXV

Vanni Fucci makes an obscene hand gesture in God’s direction, a sign of

blasphemy. To quiet him down, a serpent attacks him, wrapping itself
around his throat. More serpents appear, and wrap up his entire body.
Suddenly a centaur appears, prompting Vanni to run away. Virgil says that
the monster in Cacus, who was killed by 100 blows from Hercules for
stealing his cattle. Cacus’s posterior is covered with snakes, while his upper
body is tormented with flicks of flames by a dragon.

Next comes a truly hideous event that is almost too much to witness. Five
Florentine Thieves approach Dante - three of them humans and two of them
are snakes. One calls out, “Who are you?” In response, Ciafna emerges. He
is a serpent with six legs, and he attacks one of the human spirit with full
force, clutching him, gripping him, and literally absorbing him into himself
with all his might. He continues by gnawing at the spirit’s face with his
jaws. Soon the two creatures begin to blend into one another and meld.
Dante writes: “As I kept my eyes fixed on those sinners, a serpent with six
feet springs out against one of the three, and clutches him completely. It
gripped his belly with its middle feet, and with its forefeet grappled his two
arms; and then sank its teeth in both his cheeks. Then just as if their
substance were warm wax, they stuck together and they mixed their colors,
so neither seemed what he had been before; just as, when paper’s kindled,
where it still has not caught flame in full, its color’s dark though not yet
black, while white is dying off.” They literally exchanges their shapes, with
the man slithering off as a serpent with no arms, legs or ears, and the
serpent standing upright with the appearance of a man. (The vivid
description of this metamorphosis is one of the most famous passages in the
work.) Dante’s vision becomes blurred by what he has just seen, but goes
on to write about additional attacks on the Thieves by the serpents.
 Canto XXVI

Dante, still in the seventh realm of the Eighth Circle, delivers a condemning
message to Florence at the start of the canto: “Be joyous, Florence, you are
great indeed, for over sea and land you beat your wings; through every part
of Hell your name extends!” The poets continue, crawling on hands and
knees to reach the eighth realm, where the evil, fraudulent counselors are
banished. Flames are everywhere - like, in Dante’s words, fireflies hovering
over crops. Virgil tells him that the flames contain the spirits of sinners,
who must move according to the flame. Dante sees a double flame, and asks
Virgil to explain. Virgil says that this flame carries Ulysses and Diomede,
who together planned the invasion of the Trojan horse and the destruction
of the Palladium. (Virgil tells this tale in the Aeneid.) Dante approaches
Ulysses, who is ready to share the story of his death.
 Canto XXVII

A flame near that of Ulysses begins to make strange sounds that no one can
decipher. Once it has managed to compose itself, it asks if anyone knows
anything about his land in Italy – is there war? Peace? What is the current
condition? Dante, being Italian, answers, telling the flame that the ancient
cities such as Ravenna, Romagna, Cervia, Forli, Montagna, and Cesena are
mostly still in the throes of political turmoil. Dante then asks the flame to
identify itself. He says he was a soldier and a cheater, but then repented and
became a Franciscan friar. (His name was Guido da Montefeltro.) Pope
Boniface, in his sinister way, asked Friar Guido to approve a plan to make
war against innocent Christians for Boniface’s own advancement. He
promised Guido absolution for his involvement. The plan was successful,
but when Guido died, a demon claimed his soul nonetheless, even though
St. Francis was ready to bring him to heaven. Boniface’s promise was
invalid, and Minos (the judge) sends him to the Eighth Circle. Guido
departs as the poets move on to the next bridge.
 Canto XXVIII

In the ninth realm of the Eighth Circle, the poets find the Sowers of Scandal
and Schism. (It is especially hard to take, and Dante the writer warns the
reader of what is to come.) There is blood and guts everywhere, like a war
zone – figures that have been dismembered and/or disemboweled. Most
have been slashed in two, as if to represent the horrible dissention among
men they orchestrated when on earth.

The first spirit they encounter is that of Mohammed. He has been slit almost
in two, with his insides fully exposed. He points to his successor, Ali,
whose face has been chopped in half, as he was responsible for splitting the
Muslims into factions called Shiites and Sunnis. It is an especially horrible
existence, as when their wounds heal, a demon splits them again, and so the
process repeats itself.

Dante and Mohammed converse, and Mohammed asks him to tell Fra
Dolcino to supply himself with food or else he will perish under siege by
the Novarese. Another spirit, Pier da Medicina, asks Dante to tell two men
from Fano, to beware or else suffer at the hands of Malatestino. They will
die at sea. Dante agrees to do so if Pier points out another sinner. He points
to Curio, the man who urged Caesar to betray Pompey and invade Rome,
starting civil strife. Curio’s tongue is now split in two; he can never speak
again.

A third spirit appears, and he has no hands. This is Mosca, who was
instrumental in creating the Guelph-Ghibelline conflict. Dante is merciless
towards Mosca, given the effect the conflict has had on Florence. Mosca is
saddened and moves away. Last, a headless spirit arrives. This is Bertrand
de Born, a malevolent counselor who caused dissent among Prince Henry
and King Henry II. Carrying his head, he is banished to this section of Hell,
carrying the brain that hatched the horrible plot, and illustrating the Italian
notion of contrapasso, or counter-penalty. It is a concept that is almost
similar to karma, or how one reaps what one sows.
 Canto XXIX

Dante is highly disturbed as he departs, leaving the Sowers of Scandal to

their misery. Virgil tells him to get a hold of himself, as they still have far to
travel. He then reveals that he saw an ancestor of Dante’s Geri del Bello,
while Dante was speaking to the hideous spirits. Virgil explains that Geri
was cursing Dante because his own death caused by a feud between the
Aligheris and the Sachettis has not been avenged. Dante is saddened by
this, but continues onto the ninth realm. As the poets get closer, Dante is
more disturbed by the horrible sounds of pain he hears than the stench of
sin and death. They are in the land of the Falsifiers, who are all afflicted
with disease. They lie in a heap of rotted flesh, except for those who crawl
around in all directions. Dante sees two spirits scratching at each other’s
scabs, and makes the comparison that they look like they are scaling fish
with a chef’s knife. He asks them who they are. The first spirit says he is an
alchemist named Griffolino, from Arezzo. Minos sent him here because he
told the Bishop of Siena that he could make him fly. Alchemy is, therefore,
falsifying. Dante rebukes the spirit, saying that the Sienese are the vainest
of all. The second spirit agrees with Dante, then reveals that he is
Capocchio, another famous alchemist, who was guilty of creating imitation
metals. He, too, ironically, was Sienese.
 Canto XXX

Dante beings this canto by referencing ancient mythological Greeks as a

preface to the following scene: “But neither fury-Theban, Trojan-ever was
seen to be so cruel against another, in rending beasts and even human
limbs, as were two shades I saw, both pale and naked, who, biting, ran
berserk in just the way a hog does when it’s let loose in its sty. The one
came at Capocchio and sank his tusks into his neck so that, by dragging, he
made the hard ground scrape against his belly.” Griffolino explains that
Capocchio’s attackers are the spirits of Gianni Schicchi and Myrrha.
Schicchi and Myrrha are in this section of Hell which is reserved for
Counterfeiters of Other Persons (another type of falsifying), as they both
posed as other people. Schicchi falsely named himself as an heir in his
friend’s will, while Myrrha was a princess who wanted to sleep with her
father and therefore took on another identity.

Dante then spies another tortured spirit, that of Master Adam, whose body
is twisted and whose face is rotted. He is also swollen from dropsy. A
money counterfeiter in Florence, Dante asks Adam about other sinners
nearby. He starts to identify some of them: one is Potiphar’s wife, who
falsely accused Joseph of rape, and the other is Sinon of the Greeks, who
was the one who convinced the Trojans to take the Trojan horse inside
Troy’s boundaries. Sinon is insulted by Adam and hits him, and a fight
escalates. Dante listens until Virgil reprimands him for being a party to
something so banal.
 Canto XXXI

Dante compares Virgil’s tongue to the lance of Achilles – they can both hurt
and heal.

Virgil and Dante approach the final, Ninth Circle, which is very dark and
ominous. They hear the sound of a frighteningly loud horn. Dante compares
the sound to that of Roland’s horn, which marked the defeat of
Charlemagne. He looks towards where the sound originated and sees
shadows of towers ahead. Virgil corrects him, telling him that those are not
towers, but the shadows, or silhouettes, of giants stuck in mud of the final
circle of Hell. Because of their size, their upper bodies are visible while
their lower bodies are stuck. As the poets get closer, Dante sees the
entrance, with the giants surrounding it. Dante tries to describe their
monstrous appearances, and thanks nature for stopping their spawning. One
of the giants begins to scream, but his sounds are intelligible. Virgil sharply
quiets the giant, calling him stupid. He then identifies him as Nimrod, the
hubristic Babylonian king and builder of the Tower of Babel. The Tower
was a failure, and was smited by God, causing man’s variations of tongues
(languages). Nimrod can now only communicate through gibberish.

Dante and Virgil come upon another giant called Ephialtes. He is wrapped
in chains for his sins of constantly trying to promote armed challenges
against the gods. Dante asks about the giant Briareus who did the same.
Virgil says that he is also enchained, and farther down into Hell. They will
see Antaeus sooner, who, because he is free, will take them to the pit. In the
meantime, Ephialtes reacts to Briareus’s name, violently trying to free
himself, and causes an earthquake.
Virgil greets Antaeus by reciting the giant’s history – how he came from the
Bagradas River valley, how he ate lions, and how, had he been a
contemporary of Ephialtes, the giants would have won their rebellion
against the gods. He asks Antaeus for his help in getting them to the
Ninth/Final Circle, and in return, promises him fame through the work of
the poet Dante. Antaeus cooperates, lifting and carrying them to the pit
where Lucifer resides.
 Canto XXXII

Dante and Virgil arrive in the Ninth (and final) Circle of Hell. It is basically
an indescribable, colder than cold sheet of ice, so beyond words that Dante
asks for intervention from the Muses to help him find the words. It is the
frozen river Cocytus. The poets approach the first ring, Caina (named after
Cain, who, in the Bible story, killed his brother Abel). As one would expect
by the name, this is where Traitors to their Kin are submerged and frozen in
ice. A mysterious voice tells Dante to beware of where he walks, as he
might step on the frozen spirits whose heads are above the sheet. Dante
looks down and spies two brothers frozen in the ice together. They are
weeping, and as they do, their tears solidify, freezing their mouths painfully
shut. Another spirit identifies them as the Bisenzio twins, who killed one
another over a political dissent. The spirit then goes on to say that the twins
deserve their punishment, as they are more evil than Mordred (who
betrayed King Arthur, his father); Foccaccia, who murdered a cousin; and
Sassol Mascheroni, another murderer whose head blocks the speaker’s view
of Dante. The spirit finally tells Dante that he of Camiscione dei Pazzi, a
well-known Ghibelline who killed an ally for his own political gain. He
downplays his own crime, but Dante will not accept it.

As he proceeds through to Antenora, the second circle, Dante accidentally

steps on the face a frozen spirit. The spirit screams in pain and anger,
berating Dante for casually kicking the heads of those who are suffering.
This circle is the home to Traitors to their Homeland or their Party, so Dante
asks the spirit to identify itself. Its refusal to answer angers Dante, who
leans down and yanks violently at its hair, saying that he will keep pulling it
out and ruin his reputation when he returns to the land of the living. As the
spirit screams in pain, another spirit addresses him as Bocca, solving the
mystery. Still angry and belligerent, Bocca doesn’t care about Dante’s
threats, but instead, starts to list all the other traitors who are stuck in
Antenora, among them, Buoso da Duera, Beccheria, Gianni dei Soldanieri,
Ganelon, and Tebaldello. As Dante moves on, he comes upon another
hideous sight – two spirit heads are stuck together, with one a bit above the
other. The higher one is actually eating the lower one. Dante tells the eating
spirit that he will tell his tale on earth if he can convince Dante that he is
justified in doing so.
 Canto XXXIII

The spirit reveals his name as Count Ugolino. The head he is eating is that
of Archbishop Ruggieri, who betrayed him and orchestrated his death as
well as the death of Ugolino’s young sons. As a magistrate of Pisa, Ugolino
made a decision to surrender three of the city’s fortresses to aggressive,
hostile cities – a decision thought by some to be an act of treason. Because
of his politics, he was exiled, but then called back to Pisa by the conniving
Ruggieri and was promptly imprisoned.

Ugolino tells of a dream he had, where he was a wolf with his wolf pups
and Ruggieri was a hunter, accompanied by hounds and his Ghibelline
comrades. When he awakens, his sons, who have been imprisoned with
him, are asking or food. When Ugolino requests food for his children,
Ruggieri orders the tower doors nailed shut, securing their death by
starvation. One by one, his children perished, and even offered themselves
up as food to their father. Dante knew that Ruggieri had basically killed
Ugolino, but he did not know the gory details. He is saddened, as even
though Ugolino’s decision to surrender the forts may have been
questionable, his sons were innocent. Still, in a weird twist, he curses Pisa
for the horrors he just heard. Ugolino returns to the head of Ruggieri.

Dante and Virgil proceed to Ptolomaea, the third ring. Dante feels a cold
wind, which seems unusual to him, as people of his time (medieval)
believed that the forceful heat of the sun actually made wind, and this place
was too dark and dank for sunlight. Virgil tells Dante that he will learn the
origin of the wind very soon.
Ptolomaea is where Traitors against Their Guests were banished to look like
icicles, popping out of the ice with their eyes frozen shut from crying. One
of the spirits asks Dante to remove the ice of its lids, even if it is only a
temporary fix. He agrees to do so if the spirit speaks its identity, so he states
that he is Friar Alberigo, a man who had his family murdered. Dante is
confused, as he does not believe that the Friar is dead. He asks him if he is,
and the Friar doesn’t know, since Ptolomaea is a the kind of place where the
souls of the living could still reside because of their capacity for evil. A
demon, therefore, must be living in Alberigo’s earthly body instead. To
support his theory, Dante points to the spirit of Branca d’Oria which rests
adjacently. Dante knows for certain that he, Branca, is still alive. Alberigo
asks Dante again to remove the ice from his eyelids, but this time, Dante
refuses. He then curses the city of Genoa (where both Branca and Alberigo
are from) and the Genoese people for being so corrupt that demons could
occupy their bodies and send their souls to Hell even before they die.
 Canto XXXIV

As this final canto opens, Virgil speaks, “the banners of the King of Hell
draw closer.” He and Dante are now amidst the fourth ring of the Ninth
Circle. It is called Judecca. Dante is paralyzed with fear, feeling neither
dead nor alive but simply numb. It is in this section where Traitors against
their Benefactors are frozen into the ice, prone and covered. Dante gingerly
crosses over the massive sheet of ice (and spirits), and before him,
witnesses unimaginable ugliness, as the enormous Lucifer (Satan) becomes
visible. Beyond gigantic in size, his arms alone are bigger and more
massive than the total size of all the giants the poets have encountered. The
hideous creature has three heads: one red, the color of blood; one yellow;
and one black. Behind each head is a set of huge bat-like wings – so big that
their flapping is what caused the cold, freezing wind Dante referenced
earlier. Each head has a set of eyes, and out of all six runs a constant flow of
tears that fall into the three mouths. Inside each mouth is what seems like a
mass of bloody matter, but each actually holds a sinner, which is being
chewed mercilessly by Lucifer. In the center one is Judas Iscariot,
responsible for betraying Jesus Christ. Flailing, he is in visible pain, and has
no more skin on what was once his back. Lucifer’s black mouth holds
Brutus, Julius Caesar’s betrayer, who quietly squirms and writhes, and the
third mouth holds Cassius, another of Caesar’s antagonists.

Virgil quickly tells Dante that they must now depart. But how? Virgil places
Dante on his back and jumps onto Lucifer in order to escape. Using the
monster’s body hair as ropes, he descends the body until they hit the lower
torso, at which point, their gravitational positioning reverses. Virgil changes
direction, and Dante fears that they are returning to Hell, but in fact, the
opposite is true. The hemispheres have, subsequently, also switched around
for them. (It is important to note that in medieval times, people thought that
Lucifer’s body reached across the entire diameter of the earth.)

After using Lucifer’s body as a means to get away, the poets find
themselves upon a stream called the Lethe. The stream leads back to the
earth, and so the poets embark on this final chapter of the journey to Hell.
When they have returned, they stand beneath the sky, and gaze upon the
stars.
Purgatorio
Bronzino’s painting of Agnolo Dante holding the Divine Comedy in
Paradiso

Purgatorio is said to be the cantica most beloved by true literary scholars,

as it depends less on the Inferno’s terrifying gore and fear to keep the reader
engaged. Further, there is an earthly blend of happiness and pain that exists
in this section of the poem, which is very relatable to those of us among the
living. As humans, we figuratively cross beaches and climb mountains each
and every day, so this cantica rings closest to our own experience. It is, in
fact, our life.
 Canto I

The story continues where the Inferno left off. Dante writes, “To course
across more kindly waters now my talent’s little vessel lifts her sails, leaving
behind herself a sea so cruel; and what I sing will be that second kingdom,
in which the human soul is cleansed of sin becoming worthy of ascent to
Heaven.” Dante invokes the help of the Muses once again, calling on
Calliope, the Muse of poetry.

It is Easter morning. Dante and Virgil, his guide who has remained, arrive at
an island where they come upon the Mountain of Purgatory. Dante sees four
stars that have been hiding since the first original sin, that of Adam and Eve
who, as punishment, were banished from the Garden of Eden. Dante spies
an elderly, dignified man, who turns out to be Cato of Utica, who died in
the name of political freedom. Now guardian of the region, Cato asks how a
living man (Dante) arrived there. Virgil explains Heaven’s request that
Dante take this journey, and how he (Virgil) has been tasked with saving
Dante’s soul. He also tells Cato that he lives in the same section of Hell as
Cato’s Love, Marcia, and that if he allows them entry, Virgil will send
Marcia Cato’s thoughts to her upon his return. Cato denies any more
feelings for Marcia, stating that if Heaven dictated this journey, that is
enough for him. However, Cato adds that before they can pass, they must
clean off at the shore’s waters and pluck new rushes for belts. The poets
obey and indulge in the ritual, with Virgil cleaning Dante’s face. They then
proceed up the Mountain.
 Canto II

The sun comes upon Purgatory. Dante spies a brightly lit boat coming
towards him at great speed. He is almost blinded by the light. Virgil tells
Dante to kneel, as he is now in the presence of an angel of God, who is
propelling the boat with its beautiful wings. The ship comes closer, and a
multitude of voices is heard singing. They are spirits, and they are being
brought to Purgatory to repent. They approach Dante and Virgil, asking for
guidance, but Virgil tells them that they, too, are unfamiliar with the region.
One spirit, Casella, recognizes Dante, who tries to embrace him but cannot,
as the spirit has no material body. Then Dante asks that Casella sings, and
Casella obliges. The other spirits are enjoying the concert, but Cato puts a
stop to it, reminding them that they must get up the Mountain.
 Canto III

The travelers enter Ante-Purgatory. Dante notices that he is the only figure
who casts a shadow, and Virgil reminds him that he is the only living
creature. He goes on to say that many philosophers and writers, such as
Plato and Aristotle, have tried to solve the mystery as to why spirits can be
seen, but do not cast shadows, then deduces that it is a topic beyond human
understanding.

Dante is concerned that the Mountain is too steep to climb without some
help. Other spirits are also in the area, pondering the same thing while they
also hide their apprehension about seeing a living person in Purgatory. They
are the souls of excommunicated parties. One goes up to Dante, and is
identified as Manfred, the illegitimate son of Fredrick II and grandson of
Empress Constance. Manfred asks Dante to reveal his whereabouts to his
daughter – that he is in Purgatory and not Hell – and that he repented his
sins before he died. In spite of being excommunicated by his enemy, Pope
Clement IV, Manfred tells Dante that God forgives any soul who truly and
genuinely repents for his/her sins, regardless of papal authority. Manfred
continues by telling Dante that those repent, but who died while against the
church, are destined to remain in Purgatory thirty times as long as the length
of their rebellion against her. Manfred wishes for prayers from his daughter
so that his time might be shortened.
 Canto IV

Between talking to Manfred and engaging Virgil in an intense discussion,

Dante loses track of time. He is finding the climb difficult. When the poets
reach the first ledge, or spur, they stop to rest. Dante is amazed at the
location of the sun location, which is opposite to what he knows on earth.
Virgil explains that this is because they are in the Southern Hemisphere.
The Virgil tells him that as they continue, the climb should be easier.

Dante hears a voice, mocking their efforts. Behind a big boulder sits a
group of lazy, exhausted souls. One, Belaqua, is a friend of Dante’s. He sits,
depressed, sarcastic and doing nothing, as he was slow to accept God’s
salvation and is therefore delayed in Purgatory. He also makes mention of
the theory that the prayers of the living help those in Purgatory. His attitude
is off-putting to Dante, who says he will not pray for him.
 Canto V

As he leaves behind the lazy souls, Dante spies another group as he

continues his ascent, those of the Late Repentants – spirits of those who
died a violent death, but were able to repent in their final moments. They
did not, however, receive the sacrament of last rites, so they depend on the
prayers of their families. Dante talks to three of them – one, Jacopo del
Cassero, tells how he was ambushed and left to bleed to death in a swamp
in Padua; another, Buonconte da Montefeltro, who tells of a tug of war
between the forces of the devil and Heaven over his body and soul at his
death. He was saved because he died with the Blessed Virgin’s name in his
heart and repented. Last, Dante talks to a Sienese woman, Pia de’ Tolomei,
who died at the machinations of her husband. She asks Dante to remember
her story on earth.
 Canto VI

Dante writes in this canto, reflecting on the souls in Purgatory’s wishes for
prayers: “When dicing’s done and players separate, the loser’s left alone,
disconsolate-rehearsing what he’d thrown, he sadly learns; all of the crowd
surrounds the one who won-one goes in front, and one tugs at his back, and
at his side one asks to be remembered.” They see him as a hero – alive, he
is someone who can help their cause, much like a winning gambler. Virgil
had written in the Aeneid that prayers cannot change the laws of Heaven, so
Dante takes issue with him. Virgil defends his position by saying that he
was referring to pagans. Christians, on the other hand, have an opportunity
to be saved through prayer. Virgil also admits that these are questions best
left for Dante’s beloved Beatrice, whom they will meet at the end of this
journey.

Virgil and Dante grow tired as they climb. They soon see a lone spirit, and
approach him for directions. The spirit asks where they are from, and Virgil
replies Mantua. The spirit, the poet Sordello, is also a poet from Mantua,
and embraces Virgil in kinship. Dante comments on this event, using it as
an illustration of how horrible things have become in Italy in comparison.
The days of kinship are over, and everyone is an enemy to the next person.
 Canto VII

Sordello respects Virgil not just as a countryman but as a poet, who, before
Dante, represented all the glory and beauty of the language and culture of
the Latin peoples. Virgil asks Sordello the quickest and easiest way to get to
the top of the Mountain. Sordello offers to guide them, but as the night
begins to fall, tells them that they must cease traveling, as the law of
Purgatory is that no such travel may occur without sunlight. Sordello then
takes Dante to a lovely and tranquil spot to rejuvenate: it is called the Valley
of the Negligent Princes. It is beautiful, and Dante is impressed by the
flowers and the peacefulness. A liturgical song, Salve Regina, is being sung
by the princes, and Sordello then points to them: Emperor Rudolph(the only
non-singing one); Ottokar II; Philip III; Henry I; Charles of Anjou; Pedro,
Pedro III’s youngest son; Henry III of England; and William the Marquis.
 Canto VIII

The souls sing a liturgical chant as two angels descend from Heaven. They
take their places at the sides of the area’s entry, sent by the Virgin Mary to
protect everyone from the serpent. Sordello, Virgil and Dante enter the
valley and meet some of the princes. Dante recognizes Nino Visconti, who
mentions that his wife has remarried and is therefore unfaithful. Then he
notices three stars in the sky, and Virgil tells him that the stars are beginning
to set. The serpent that everyone expected eventually slithers in, but is
swiftly chased away the angels. The evening passes with Dante talking to
Nino and Currado Malaspina II, son of Currado Malaspina. Currado asks
Dante of his homeland, and foretells his family’s upcoming greatness.
 Canto IX

Dante falls asleep. As dawn approaches, he dreams that an eagle has taken
him away and into a ring of fire. He senses heat, and awakens, scared to
death until he sees Virgil. Virgil tells him that they are nearing the gates of
Purgatory. As Dante slept, a woman called Lucia came and brought him
there to expedite the trip.

The poets approach the gates, which have multicolored steps. The first is
white marble, the second, inky purple, and the third, blazing red. A
guardian angel waits for them on the last step, holding a sword. He carves
“P” seven times on Dante’s forehead, telling him to wash away these each
one as he travels through Purgatory. Then the angel takes one gold and one
silver key, both given to him by St. Peter. He tells Dante not to look back. If
he does, he will be banished. As the two poets enter through the gates, a
liturgical song, Te Deum laudamus (We Praise You, Lord) can be heard.
 Canto X

The gate closes behind the poets as they enter through the gates. They travel
to a path and find themselves on a desolate ledge – the First Terrace. White
marble rests on the walls of the ledge, decorated with glorious, realistic
carvings that represent humility. The images depict many scenes, among
them, the Annunciation; King David dancing before the Lord; and the
emperor Trajan halting his army to hear the pleas of a poor widow whose
son has been murdered. The poets then spy souls coming at them, carrying
heavy weight on their backs. They are the Prideful. They are bent over from
the weight, and as they beat their breasts, make their way around the ledge.
 Canto XI

The canto opens with the prayer of the Prideful, which is an expanded
version of the Our Father. Dante is moved to believe that they deserve the
prayers of the living. Virgil asks the penitents to tell him the best direction
to the top. One, Omberto Aldombrandesco, agrees to help, and tells Dante
that the sin of Pride has ruined not only himself but the entire
Aldombrandeschi house. Dante recognizes Oderisi of Gubbio, the well-
known artist/illuminator, who says that pride robbed him of his real talent.
The canto end by introducing the third soul, Salvani, dictator of Siena, who
was allowed a faster ascent to Purgatory due to his act of humility when on
earth – he went begging in the streets of Siena to raise money for a friend’s
ransom.
 Canto XII

As the poets leave the souls of the Prideful, Virgil shows Dante another set
of images carved in the rocks under them. These depict Pride’s
punishments. There are 13 examples which have been divided in three
groups of four, with one extra to show the conclusion. Dante lifts his head,
and is upon a white, beautiful image with wings. It is the Angel of Humility.
The angel welcomes them with warmth and kindness, and by brushing his
win against Dante’s forehead, removes the first P. The first verse of the
Beatitudes is heard: “Blessed the poor in spirit.“ Dante notices that he feels
lighter, less burdened, and is able to climb the mountain more easily.
 Canto XIII

Dante and Virgil reach the Second Terrace. It is here when the Envious
serve their punishment. Because there is no one to ask for help, Virgil turns
to the sun. As they proceed, they hear a voice crying out examples of
Generosity, the opposite of Envy. Dante learns how the sin of Envy is
punished: the spirits are seated next to one other against the rocky wall,
reciting the Litany. They are dressed like indigents, in coarse haircloth, and
cry because their eyelids have been stitched shut with iron thread. Dante
then meets a Sienese woman named Sapia, who confesses that she enjoyed
the misery and defeat of others. She also comments on the widespread
greed on earth. She asks for his prayers.
 Canto XIV

Two blind souls become aware of Dante being among them. They ask him
where he is from, and as he mentions the river, one, Guido del Duca,
guesses that it is the Arno. He breaks into a violently anti-Tuscan tirade,
comparing the people of the region to dogs, wolves, and hogs.

Guido says that the day will come when his grandson will kill those who
live in the Arno region.

When on earth, Guido confesses, he was extremely envious of everyone. He

also speaks of the descendants of Rinieri da Calboli, his companion, who
have been corrupted. As Dante and Virgil move away from these two
spirits, Dante hears voices. They are singing examples of envy that has been
punished. It scares Dante at first, but Virgil tells him that the words are a
lesson.
 Canto XV

The poets pass to the Third Terrace, where the Wrathful are. Dante is taken
aback by the light coming from the Angel of Humility, but Virgil tells him
that he will get used to it. The Angel wipes away another “P” from Dante’s
forehead, and the second Beatitude, “Blessed are the Merciful,” is heard.

Dante now learns about Wrath versus Meekness through visions: the first
depicts the Virgin Mary questioning her son, Jesus, when he was delayed in
the Temple; the second shows King Pisistratus of Athens, who, despite his
wife’s longing for revenge, forgives the young man who has been accused
of violating his daughter; and the third is of young man who forgave those
who stoned him to death. Soon, a thick black cloud of smoky fog surrounds
the poets.
 Canto XVI

Dante is frightened and blinded by the smoke. He can hear the Wrathful
singing the Agnus Dei, One of the souls, Marco Lombardo, engages in a
discussion with Dante and, at his invitation, accompanies the poets out of
the smoky fog. They exchange ideas about the problems associated with
social and moral corruption. Marco says that Man cannot blame “the stars”
for his evil actions, but must own them himself and take responsibility. He
emphasizes the role of Man’s free will, and the three discuss how this
impacts the corruption in both the Church and the state.
 Canto XVII

As the sun is about to set, Dante finally gets out from the smoke and fog
that surrounds the Wrathful. He witnesses three more visions of examples
of Wrath from classical and biblical sources: Procne, Haman and Livinia.
The Angel of Meekness appears and points the way to the Mountain.
Another “P” disappears from Dante’s forehead, and another Beatitude is
heard: Blessed are the Peacemakers. As they reach the Fourth Terrace,
Dante and Virgil are tired, and decide to rest. This is the terrace of the
Slothful. Virgil lectures Dante on the nature of Love, and how all the sins in
Purgatory are rooted in one of the three perversions, or distortions, of Love:
Pride, Envy and Wrath.
 Canto XVIII

The canto first finishes the points started at the end of the preceding one –
Virgil’s explanation on the nature, and distortions, of Love. Dante asks for
more insights by the master, and Virgil obliges, offering a discourse on free
will. Dante is set to fall asleep, but a group of spirits, the Slothful, comes
upon him. They walk at a clip, as punishment for their earthly laziness, and
quickly spin examples of Solicitude. After the barrage of information,
Dante falls asleep.
 Canto XIX

Just before dawn Dante dreams of a woman who is frightening in

appearance: her face is ugly, her eyes are crossed, her body is twisted and
her skin is coarse. Still, as Dante looks at her, she evolves into a beauty –
she is now the Siren, reminiscent of the temptresses who seduced Ulysses.
As she sings, Dante is enchanted until Virgil appears in the dream, and
exposes her for her ugliness. This wakes Dante up. Virgil tells Dante that
this exposure of ugliness represents sin, but goes on to tell his student that
he must concentrate on the redemption that lies ahead of them in Purgatory.

The poets continue onward, and encounter an angel who fans them with his
wings. The angel, who is the Angel of Zeal, takes away another “P” from
Dante’s head. The next Beatitude is heard: Blessed are they who mourn. As
Dante and Virgil approach the next terrace, the see souls lying prostrate on
the ground, praying. They are the Avaricious and the Prodigal. Dante
engages one, who tells the poet of his greedy life on earth even though he
was the Roman Shepherd (the Pope). He (who is actually Pope Adrian V),
like the others, only valued material things while alive and therefore can no
longer see anything but the ground. He also asks Dante to contact his niece,
the only pure person he knows, when he gets back to earth.
 Canto XX

Dante and Virgil hear someone calling out examples of virtue to counter the
sin of avarice: Mary who gives birth to Christ in a barn; Fabricius, a Roman
counsel who would not be corrupted by power or money; and St. Nicholas,
who donated dowries to young women so that they could marry and be
saved from a life of poverty and possible slavery. The speaker is identified
as Hugh Capet, forefather of the Capetian dynasty. He offers a complex
lesson in sin and in history as he speaks of his family’s corruption. He also
gives examples of avarice, including the actions of Pygmalion, Midas, and
Sapphira and Heliodorus, all of whom were consumed by greed. Suddenly
an earthquake-like rumbling occurs on the Mountain, and Gloria in excelsis
Deo can be heard being sung by the spirits.
 Canto XXI

Dante and Virgil walk along the Terrace of Avaricious. They encounter a
spirit, who explains that the earthquake was not caused by nature, as nature
has no impact on Purgatory. Instead, it was the sound of happiness, as
whenever a soul crosses through Purgatory, the Mountain trembles in
recognition. This last one was for him, the spirit states. They come to find
out that he is Statius, a Latin poet who was greatly influenced by Virgil. He
does not recognize Virgil (they were not contemporaries), but when he
learns of the guide’s identity, he respectfully defers in awe and admiration.
Virgil, however, reminds him that they are now both spirits, and therefore
equals.
 Canto XXII

The now three poets approach the next ledge where the Angel of Justice
removes another “P” from Dante’s head and begins the next Beatitude on
thirst and hunger but does not complete it. Virgil and Statius discuss poets,
and which of their spirits resides where. Virgil then asks how and when
Statius converted to Christianity. Statius notes that, ironically, Virgil’s work
influenced him to do so.

They arrive at the Sixth Terrace where the Gluttonous are. A tree grows
there, and bears sweet-smelling fruits as it produces water that sprays
downwards onto its leaves. Virgil notices that it is strangely inverted in its
design, or shape. A voice is heard that cites examples of temperance, or
moderation, which is the opposite of gluttony.
 Canto XXIII

As the poets get closer to the tree, they hear a liturgical song. They also
encounter a fast-paced group of extremely emaciated spirits. Dante
mentions the myth of Erysichthon, the Thessalian prince who chops down
the sacred tree of a goddess. Furious, her punishment is his constant
starvation.

Because their faces are so thin, the spirits are unrecognizable. Dante does,
however, recognize one from his voice. He is Forese Donati. Dante is
shocked that Forese is already on his way towards Heaven, as he has only
been dead for around five years, and was unrepentant until very close to
that. Forese tells Dante that it is the prayers of his wife, Nella, that has
expedited his journey. She, unlike the indecent women of Florence who
have taken to walking about bare-breasted, is a modest and virtuous
woman, so her prayers are even more powerful. He then asks Dante about
his shadow, and Dante explains, saying that Virgil is his guide until he
meets up with Beatrice.
 Canto XXIV

Forese tells Dante that his sister Piccarda is in heaven, and then identifies
some of the spirits there. Dante is most interested in one, Bonaggiunta
Orbicciani. Bonaggiunta was, like Dante, a poet, but of a different time.
They discuss the meaning and value of poetry, and Bonaggiunta references
Dante’s new style. Dante then references his belief in the dolce stil novo, or
“sweet new style,” which is both inspired and pleasing. Bonaggiunta is
deferential to Dante, stating that his own work is inferior. He leaves, and
Dante continues his chat with Forese. They come upon more trees, and the
sounds of examples of gluttony are emitted. The Angel of Temperance
appears, removes another “P” from Dante’s head, and signals the way to the
next terrace as he states the Beatitude started earlier: “Blessed are those
whom grace illumines so, that, in their breasts, the love of taste does not
awake too much desire-whose hungering is always in just measure.”
 Canto XXV

Dante’s next question opens up a long conversation: he asks how spirits like
those of the gluttonous could be so skinny, as they are not made of matter.
Virgil passes this question to Statius, as he is the religious of the two, who
offers an extremely complicated explanation about the progression of the
soul from the point of conception to life, death and the afterlife. It is rooted
in medieval beliefs in science and religion.

The three emerge into the Seventh Terrace, where they find the souls of the
Lustful. They also see fire, and from the flames emits another religious
song form the sinners’ voices. Soon the poets are subjected to examples of
virtue and chastity to counter the sin of Lust, including examples of pure,
ideal marital love and marriage.
 Canto XXVI

The conversation on poetry that the three travelers have been having
culminates in this canto when Dante meets two more poets: Guido
Guinizelli and Arnaut Daniel.

The Seventh Terrace is also the last terrace, and the lustful spirits are
deployed into the flames in two separate groups: those who are guilty of
lustful, adult heterosexual acts, and the other, guilty of lustful, “unnatural”
acts. The groups run around in opposite directions, and as they cross
common space, embrace, break and quote examples of lustful behavior.

The spirit who offers this explanation is that of Guido Guinizelli, a famous
love poet who is held is the highest esteem by Dante, as he was an early
proponent of the “sweet new style.” Guinizelli modestly deflects the
attention, and introduces another poet, Arnaut Daniel, whom he claims is
even better than himself. Arnaut asks for Dante’s prayers.
 Canto XXVII

Sunset is imminent, so the poets must act quickly. The fires of the Seventh
Terrace scare Dante, and he cannot move forward. His companions try to
allay his fears by telling him that he cannot die, as there is no death in
Purgatory. The Angel of Chastity appears, and removes the “P” on his
forehead, followed by the recitation of the final Beatitude: Blessed the pure
in heart. Dante hesitates, but then the angel reminds him that he must pass
the flames or the journey ends here – he will never reach Beatrice.

Dante musters up the courage. Virgil tells him that Beatrice is waiting. He
enters the flames, and is hit by immense heat. As the poets arrive on the
other side, they are told to keep going, as there is still daylight. They do so,
and as the sun sets, rest from their exhaustion.

Morning is breaking, and Dante has another dream. This time, he dreams
Leah, the Biblical representation of the active life, and Rachel, her sister
and counterpart who represents the contemplative life. He awakens to find
his companions awake already and waiting for him. He is anxious to begin
the next leg of the journey, which is a symbol of his growth. Virgil tells him
that his guidance is no longer needed, as Dante has evolved from being
guided by only “intellect and art” (Virgil) to following a newly developed
love (God). He leaves Dante by saying the famous line, “I crown and miter
you over yourself.”
 Canto XXVIII

Dante enjoys the heavenly surroundings before him – the Earthly Paradise.
There is a gentle wind and a lovely fragrance permeating as songbirds sing.
He comes upon the purest of streams, but it is dark, which puzzles him. On
the other side is a woman, Matilda, who sings as she collects flowers. Dante
calls out to her, so she gladly approaches him, telling him that they are in
the Garden of Eden. She offers Dante a bit of history on God, love and
original sin. She goes on to explain that the Garden holds two streams – the
Lethe and the Eunoè. The Lethe cleanses the memory of sin, and the Eunoè
has the restorative power to bring back the memory of acts of kindness. She
ends her lesson telling Dante that this place is held in esteem by the poets,
as it was the last time Man was truly innocent.
 Canto XXIX

Matilda moves upstream, and Dante accompanies her on the other side.
Soon she stops, and instructs Dante to pay attention: a great light shines
from above them, and a procession approaches as the most beautiful music
Dante has ever heard travels through the space. At the forefront of the
procession is seven golden candlesticks. Their collective beams glow over
the procession behind them, and as they progress, streams of rainbow colors
remain. In the light, twenty-four elders, two by two, can be seen. They wear
magnificent white robes and have white lilies on their heads. Behind them
come four creatures with green leaves on their heads and six wings each,
covered in eyes. They stop and form a square, making way for what comes
next: a griffin (or gryphon), with golden wings and a red body, drawing a
chariot. On the right of the chariot, there are three dancing women, with
each one dressed in one color: red, green and white. On the other side are
four more dancing women, all of whom are in purple. Behind them come
seven elders, in white like the first 24, but instead of lilies, they wear roses
on their heads. Finally a lone man, elderly and quiet, is revealed. Thunder
sounds, and the chariot stops right near Dante.
 Canto XXX

The twenty-four elders run to the stalled chariot. One of them sings:
“Come, o bride, from Lebanon,” as angels dropping flowers appear above
it, chanting, “Blessed art thou that comest.” Suddenly, Beatrice, in all her
glorious beauty, enters. Her face is covered by a veil, but her beauty is not
hidden entirely. An emotional and surprised Dante turns to Virgil, but he
has vanished. Dante begins to cry, and Beatrice reprimands him for crying
in such a perfect and happy place. She then begins to admonish him, as a
mother would a child, telling him that he has squandered his God-given
talents for a meaningless and superficial life. This is why she intervened,
asking Virgil to take him on this incredible journey – all the way to Hell –
and reclaim his soul before it is too late. He must drink from the rivers as
described by Matilda to regain his place on the path of Truth in order to be
saved.
 Canto XXXI

Beatrice finishes her delivery, rendering Dante speechless. Between his

shame and sorrow for his actions, plus being overwhelmed by Beatrice, her
message and her beauty, he faints. Upon awakening, he finds himself by the
Lethe, where he has been taken by Matilda to drink the water. She then
brings him to the other side, where some of the dancing women wait for
him. He is then told that he must look Beatrice directly in the eyes. She,
Beatrice, stands waiting for him, next to the griffin. Dante calls for strength
from the Muses to help him as Beatrice prepares to reveal herself to him.
 Canto XXXII

Dante compares what he has seen to looking at the sun. He and Beatrice
have made an emotional connection by gazing into one another’s eyes.

Dante and Statius, along with Matilda, follow the procession, which stops
in front of a tree which is barren from the sins of Adam and Eve. Beatrice,
who had returned to the chariot, steps down. The griffin ties the chariot to
the tree, which begins to bear fruit as a reminder of the healing power of
God’s redemptive love. Dante then falls asleep, only to awaken to a quieter
surroundings. The procession is over, and he asks Matilda where Beatrice
is. She tells him that she is sitting by the tree with her handmaidens.

He goes to Beatrice, who tells him that she wants him to write about
something in particular. He watches as an incredible series of events begins
to occur: first, an eagle swoops down and attacks Beatrice’s chariot, leaving
feathers everywhere. Then a fox jumps into the chariot and tries to destroy
it, but Beatrice fights it off. Next the ground beneath the chariot splits to
allow the entry of a dragon, who thrusts its tail through the chariot. As it
retreats, it breaks the chariot apart.

Now the chariot is rendered evil. Hideous heads pop out of it. Then the
chariot is replaced by a harlot guarded by an aggressive giant who makes
advances. When the giant sees the harlot look at Dante, he beats her and
then drags her/the chariot into the woods.
 Canto XXXIII

Beatrice and her handmaidens grieve the chariot’s destruction. They depart
the area, and as they walk along, Beatrice tries to explain Dante’s role, but
her words are too cryptic for him. Still, she wants him to write down
everything he has seen and pass the message along to the living. She
continues by saying that this will be avenged by a force sent by God. She
also mentions the inverted tree, saying that it is so because it represents
God, and that God wants to make it hard for people to climb, or go against
his teachings.

Beatrice instructs Matilda to take Dante to the other stream, the Eunoè. She
does, and upon being cleansed (baptized) and recalling his good deeds, he
returns to Beatrice. It is here where the journey in Purgatory ends, and
Dante is now ready to begin his journey towards Heaven by rising to the
stars.
 Paradiso

Paradiso is thought by many scholars to be the most complex, as it has the

least to do with anything to which we, as mortals, can attest, and its
language is often elusive. In this regard, it is imaginative, groundbreaking
literature at its best. It is also a treatise on poetry, and the ability to express
oneself. On the other hand, some have argued that this section has the least
amount of conflict and, as a result, least holds the reader’s attention. It can
be said that it is almost anticlimactic, given that the meeting between Dante
and Beatrice has already happened, so the proverbial “big moment” one
tends to wait for in any given work does not exist.
 Canto I

“Oh Good Apollo, make me worthy of this last labor.” Dante is going to
attempt to do something no one has done before: record things that humans
cannot truly understand. He appeals to the Muses and to Apollo for help, as
he is sure he will not be able to express himself.

It is noon on the Wednesday after Easter. Dante and Beatrice ascend into the
spheres of Heaven. They stare into the brightest light imaginable. (This
follows the darkness of Hell and the dawn of Purgatory.) Beatrice can do so,
but Dante, as a human, cannot, although he tries. He looks, instead, at her,
and her presence makes him feel ethereal. He is not entirely sure if he is
body and soul, or just soul.

Upon approaching the Sphere of Fire, through which they must pass to get
to the Spheres of Heaven, music and light accompany them. Beatrice then
tells Dante that his soul moved toward God quickly because in the natural
balance of things, there is a progression that occurs, being that everything is
drawn to where it originated. Dante is a child of God.
 Canto II

Dante the writer tells the reader to “follow his ship” as he heads towards
Heaven: He and Beatrice quickly arrive in the Sphere of the Moon. Dante is
concerned that he will not be able to pass through the murky mass. He also
asks Beatrice to explain why the moon has dark spots. He believes it to be a
result of denser areas of matter. She refutes this with a long discussion
about how God’s energy and light sweep through the universe in a similar
way, but depending on where they land, manifest differently. She finishes
by saying that everything is contingent upon its relationship with God.
 Canto III

Seven spirits appear, wanting to speak with Dante. One says she is Piccarda
Donati (Forese’s sister) and explains that God has certain spirits to this
realm, among them, “inconstant” nuns like herself who broke their vows of
chastity. Piccarda was forced by her brother Corso (who is in Hell) to leave
her religious order, the St. Clare Sisters, and marry a nobleman. Although
she is in the farthest realm from God Himself, she is happy. Dante asks how
that is possible, and she replies that all the spirits in Heaven are happy, as
they are still with God and are therefore blessed. with the station assigned
to them through divine love. Dante learns that although God’s grace shines
on souls in varying degrees, all souls that enter Heaven feel perfectly
blessed. Another spirit, Empress Constance of Sicily, states that she has a
similar tale, and she is nonetheless very happy to be in Heaven. She
disappears as she sings the Ave Maria. Dante looks back at Beatrice, but
cannot look for long, as he is literally blinded by the light and beauty she
emits.
Philipp Veit’s painting depicts Dante and Beatrice speaking to Empress
Constance of Sicily
 Canto IV

Beatrice and Dante move on. He has so many questions for her, mostly
about the status of souls. She tells him that all the souls in Heaven live in
the Empyrean, which is the highest level; however, in order for Dante – and
his inferior human mind – to understand the differing levels of proximity to
God, they appear to him (Dante) at different levels. That is the only way he
would be able to comprehend things, as humans are fundamentally
empirical creatures – they must see to believe. (She goes on to admonish
Plato for his beliefs on this subject.) Dante then asks about sins which have
been a result of a forced act, such as what happened to Piccarda. Beatrice
explains that giving in to an act is more sinful than the act itself. Dante then
ponders whether or not people can be forgiven for their sins if they do
enough acts of kindness. Beatrice looks directly at the poet, who must turn
away from her brightness and light.
 Canto V

The discussion on vows continues. In tandem, Beatrice tells Dante that she
appears brighter and brighter as they approach Heaven, as her happiness in
his development is boundless. She then answers his question about acts of
kindness, telling him that they cannot completely forgive inconstant actions,
as free will must be considered. Free will is precious, but it can also alienate
a person from God.

As Dante and Beatrice rise to the next sphere, her phenomenal beauty and
brightness lighten the entire sphere. Dante is overcome with love and
admiration for her. As they get closer, souls reveal themselves, and one
particularly bright one speaks to Dante.
 Canto VI

“I was Caesar and am Justinian.”

Dante and Beatrice are in the Sphere of Mercury. The spirit, Justinian,
speaks to Dante as a representative of the Holy Roman Empire. He was
known as the person to codify Roman law.

A lot of history is conveyed, particularly about a world order. Justinian also

comments on the animosity between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines.
Dante asks Justinian about the inhabitants of this sphere, and Justinian says
that they are primarily people who were virtuous but distracted by fame. A
new spirit identifies himself to Dante as Romeo of Villaneuve. Romeo, a
poor pilgrim, became the Minister to Count Raymond Berenger of
Provence. Still, he was wrongfully accused of embezzlement.
 Canto VII

Justinian starts to sing a Latin hymn, then leaves. Dante still questions
Justinian’s story. He continues, asking Beatrice why the Jewish people were
punished for Christ’s crucifixion if it had to happen for the redemption of
Man?

Beatrice cites the sins of Adam, who brought all of Mankind to sinner
status. Since no one could enter Heaven before Jesus’ sacrifice, we must
accept that Christ’s human side as well as his divine side was punished. It is
a paradox.

Dante asks why Christ had to die. Beatrice explains that nobody can
understand God and His complexities. Everything that emanates from God
is immortal. Mankind was immortal, but Adam changed that. Man had to
relinquish his immortality on earth.
 Canto VIII

Upon seeing Beatrice’s beauty break new ground, Dante understands that
they have reached the Sphere of Venus. A spirit approaches. It is that of
Charles Martel, who regrets the deeds of his family. Dante asks Martel to
explain how his brother could be such a wonderful ruler, while the opposite
was true about his father. Martel explains that God has a divine plan, and
He defines the differences among Mankind. Man must follow accordingly.
 Canto IX

Martel can foresee the future, and says that great misfortune is ahead for his
descendants. Soon, another spirit comes to Dante. Her name is Cunizza. She
says that the notoriety of a nearby spirit will go on for centuries, but she
does not say who she is talking about. She then talks about the region from
where she came, Treviso, and about the horrible conflicts that are alive and
well. She predicts bad times ahead for her kinsmen.

As Cunizza sets off, the notorious spirit is identified as Folco. Folco says
that his life was filed with desire, but they are all in the past. He identifies
another spirit as Rahab, the whore of Jericho. Despite her life of
wantonness, Rahab was redeemed by her assistance to Joshua.

Folco turns his attentions to Florence, saying that it is corrupt and founded
by Lucifer, and that its emblem of lilies makes men greedy. He predicts that
Rome will extricate itself from the horrible Florence.
 Canto X

Dante the writer tells his readers to consider the universal plan and all its
perfection: basically, the story of creation. Dante speaks of the sun’s
movements, and how the stars help to inspire the seasons.

Soon, Dante realizes that he and Beatrice are now in the Sphere of the Sun,
which is the source of earth’s light. As the name suggests, it is encompassed
by immense light. For a moment, Dante’s intense love for God goes beyond
that which he holds for Beatrice.

Beatrice and Dante are then surrounded by lights that also sing a lovely
song. A voice states that it will name the spirits who live here. They are
great thinkers, and they have enhanced the world’s intellectual existence:
they are St. Thomas Aquinas; Albertus Magnus, Gratian, Peter of Lombard,
Isadore of Seville, Bede, King Solomon, Dionysius, Orosius, Boethius,
Richard of St.Victor and Sigier of Brabant. The twelve spirits dance in
perfect synchronization around Dante and Beatrice.
 Canto XI

Dante speaks of the trivial nature of those who pursue wealth and power,
especially in comparison to his current pursuit. St. Thomas addresses Dante,
and the dancing stops. He declares that Providence orchestrated a union
between the church and Christ through leaders such as St. Francis of Assisi,
who relinquished his wealth for a life of service and poverty. (He also
founded the Franciscan order.) Second, St. Dominic is cited as one who
inspired humble service to God.
 Canto XII

Still in the Sphere of the Sun, Dante hears more about St. Dominic from a
spirit. He came from Calahorra, and his mother had a sense of his future
greatness through a dream. He became a teacher, preaching the word, and
fought heretics. He never gave up on his faith in spite of all the church
corruption. The spirit then speaks of St. Francis. He is sad that the current
Franciscan order is in turmoil. Finally, the spirit shares that he is St.
Bonaventura, a saint from the 13th century.
 Canto XIII

Dante the writer implores the reader to imagine the astronomical delights
that he is witnessing as Dante the Pilgrim. He describes twenty-four bright
stars, arranged in a double crown and forming a constellation. The crowns
sing about the glories of God and the mystery of the Trinity.

St. Thomas Aquinas addresses the question Dante has about the wisdom of
Solomon. Dante is of the mind that Adam and Christ had perfect wisdom;
therefore, they should rank higher tan Solomon. St. Thomas retorts by
saying that one cannot compare Adam and Christ to Solomon because they
were created directly by God. This is reflected in their wisdom. Solomon,
on the other hand, was a mere human, and must be considered as such, as
must his wisdom. The wise St. Thomas warns Dante to think before
jumping to conclusions about things he cannot, as a human, truly
comprehend. Hasty opinions are very often misguided. St. Thomas cites
examples to make a case: Parmenides, Melissus, Bryson, Sabellius, Arius,
Dame Bertha, and Master Martin.
 Canto XIV

Beatrice asks the spirits to explain something: will they be able to retain
their radiance after they rejoin their bodies upon the Resurrection? The
spirits chant a hymn to the Trinity three times. Next, Solomon speaks,
saying that yes, they will retain their glow because the glow is a
manifestation of their bliss.

Light form a third crown nearly blinds Dante. Beatrice tells him that they
have approached the Sphere of Mars. Two incredible beams of light create a
cross. Bright, radiant spirits dance and sing, but Dante cannot understand
them. Overwhelmed, Dante joyfully says that this experience states that this
experience is the ultimate. He has not, however, seen Beatrice’s beauty in
all its glory since they ascended to this sphere.
 Canto XV

The music in the Sphere of Mars stops. A spirit’s light comes down from
the cross and goes to Dante, claiming he is an ancestor. The spirit speaks
about incomprehensible issues, but still asks Dante to ask whatever
questions he has. Dante is grateful for the spirit’s flexibility, and asks him
his name. He is Cacciaguida (Dante’s great-great grandfather), and he
reminisces about the Florence of his day which was decent and good – not
laden with corruption and controversy. He also shares his history of serving
Emperor Conrad II and fighting as a soldier in the Crusades. Knighted by
the Emperor, he met his fate on the battlefield at the hands of the Muslim
opposition. A place in Heaven is his reward for giving his life in the defense
of Christianity.
 Canto XVI

Dante learns from Cacciaguida that ancestors must do what they can to
maintain the honor of their family’s legacy. He then asks his great-great-
grandfather what year he was born (1091) and who he knew in Florence at
the time. Instead of discussing them, he contemplates a Florence with
narrower borders. He tells Dante that had Florence not absorbed nearby
territories, refugees would not have swarmed the city and ruined it.
According to him, many noble families lost their standing when that
happened, followed by their moral compass.
 Canto XVII

Dante asks Cacciaguida about the future. The news is not god, as he tells
Dante that he will be exiled from Florence. He also says to remember that
God gave Man free will. God does not control Man. Cacciaguida goes on to
add that Dante will outlive his banishment, and he will find good people to
help him, such as those of the della Scala family. Finally, Cacciaguida tells
Dante that he must be faithful to his course and purpose, and write the truth
for others to read regardless of the consequences. That is his mission.
 Canto XVIII

Dante looks to Beatrice for her support upon the news from Cacciaguida.
She is exceptionally radiant and glowing, and Dante is filled with love for
her. She assures him that he has God on his side, so there is no need to be
fearful.

Cacciaguida then reveals the names of the spirits that form the cross from
which he descended: Joshua, Judas Maccabaeus, Charlemagne, Roland,
William of Orange, Renouard, Godfrey of Bouillon, and Robert Guiscard.
When each name is spoken, the spirit’s light glows more strongly. By the
state of Beatrice’s own luminosity, Dante knows that they are entering the
next sphere – the Sphere of Jupiter. The souls in this sphere are white-
bright, and creative, as they form a phrase with their light: “Diligite
iustitiam qui iudicatis terram.” (Love justice, o you who judge the Earth).
They zoom away, leaving only the last “m” of the phrase behind, which
quickly morphs into the shape of an eagle’s head, signifying justice. Dante
then chastises Pope John XXII for his corruption and avarice, and delivers a
scathing speech on the corruption of the church in general.
 Canto XIX

The spirits complete the shape of the eagle and then speak to Dante in one
voice. The eagle says that God’s goodness is so great that even the universe
isn’t large enough to hold it. Dante then ask the eagle if a good and decent
man who has not known Christ through no fault of his own could still be
admitted to Heaven. The eagle states that no, only those who know Christ
can be, but that is left to divine justice. It also states that many evil
Christians will get to Heaven much later than good non-Christians, as their
sins are greater. He cites examples of unjust Christians such as Albert of
Austria, Philip the Fair, Ferdinando IV of Castile, Wenceslaus IV, Charles
of Anjou, Fredrick II of Aragon, and Dionysius of Portugal.
 Canto XX

The spirits (the eagle) in the Sphere of Jupiter sing a beautiful hymn, then
continue their discussion with Dante. The eagle tells him that the most
honorable of the spirits form the eagle’s eye, with King David at the very
core. The others are Emperor Trajan, Hezekiah, Emperor Constantine,
William II of Hauteville, and Ripheus surround the eye. Dante cannot
understand how two pagans, Trajan and Ripheus, were elevated to this
status. The eagle explains that Trajan was allowed by God to repent, and
did so successfully. Ripheus learned Christ’s coming, and wanted to
convert. The virtues themselves (Faith, Hope & Love) came down from
Heaven to baptize him. The eagle admonishes Dante – and all humans - for
coming to conclusions about God without really understanding. The souls
of Trajan and Ripheus twinkle even more strongly.
 Canto XXI

Beatrice’s incredible beauty indicates to Dante that they have ascended to

the Sphere of Saturn, were the contemplatives reside. He sees spirits scaling
up and down a gold ladder, and notices the obvious lack of music. Upon
Beatrice’s permission, he asks one of them why it is so quiet on the sphere,
and the spirit answers by saying that Dante, as a mortal, lacks the capability
to hear it. Dante then asks why this spirit was chosen to meet him. The
spirit begins spinning, and glows even more brightly, stating that it was
God’s desire that he do so. He also adds that Dante should stop agonizing
over these kinds of questions, as it is impossible to know the mind of God.
The spirit finally tells Dante that he is St. Peter Damian and tells his story
of being a repentant sinner, and then entering the religious life as a monk,
and eventually becoming Pope. He goes on to deliver an admonishing
opinion on the corruption within the contemporary religious community.
Many other spirits voice agreement, and the collective sound of their voices
overwhelm Dante.
 Canto XXII

Beatrice tells Dante that the spirits were in concert with St. Peter Damien,
which is why their voices were so strong. She also states that corrupt clergy
will be punished appropriately.

One of the most radiant light-spirits on the ladder stops to speak to Dante.
He tells the poet that he is Benedict, founder of the Benedictine order of
monks. He then acknowledges two other contemplative spirits, St. Macarius
and St. Romualdus. Dante implores Benedict to show him his human face,
but the saint says that can only happen in the highest sphere of Heaven. He
then speaks of the corruption in the contemporary monastic orders, calling
the monasteries dens of thieves. Benedict returns to the spirits and
disappears. Dante and Beatrice ascend the ladder towards the House of
Gemini. She tells Dante that he must stay focused as they continue to the
Eighth Sphere, and to take one last look at what they have seen already. He
does, and tries to take in the incredible aspects, especially when compared
to the mediocrity of earth. He then turns to look at Beatrice.
 Canto XXIII

As Beatrice and Dante ascend to the Eighth Sphere, or Sphere of the Fixed
Stars, Beatrice looks towards Heaven and prepares Dante for the vision of
Christ, the rising sun. A great light appears, like the sun, and it is
surrounded by other lights. He must turn away, as the brightness blinds him.
He looks at Beatrice, who smiles at him now that he has seen God. Her
smile sends him into an almost hypnotic state of love.

Near the light of Christ there is a rose, which is Mary, His mother, and the
Word made Flesh. A spinning garland of light surrounds her as beautiful
music is heard. The spirits give their love and adoration to her and Christ.
In praise of the virtuous who have been allowed into Heaven, Dante
references St. Peter: “Oh, in those richest coffers, what abundance is
garnered up for those who, while below, on earth, were faithful workers
when they sowed! Here do they live, delighting in the treasure they earned
with tears in Babylonian exile, where they had no concern for gold. Here,
under the high Son of God and Mary, together with the ancient and the new
councils, he triumphs in his victory-he who is keeper of the keys of gold.”
 Canto XXIV

Beatrice asks the gathered spirits, who are dancing and singing joyously, to
inspire Dante. One spirit, that belonging to St. Peter, circles Beatrice fondly,
then begins a theological interrogation, asking Dante his stand on faith. St.
Peter asks, “What is faith?” Dante references St. Paul, stating that faith “is
the substance of the things we hope for and is the evidence of the things not
seen.” St. Peter approves, and likes Dante’s eloquent choices of “substance”
and “evidence.” The discussion continues, and St. Peter asks the poet how
he came to understand such concepts. Dante tells him that he learned about
faith from the Scriptures, and concludes by affirming his belief in the Holy
Trinity. St. Peter embraces Dante, and then circles him in song and dance.
 Canto XXV

Dante states that he wants to return to Florence and be honored as a poet

laureate. St. James approaches. Beatrice implores him to quiz Dante on the
subject of Hope. St. James asks, “What is hope?” Beatrice answers for
Dante, telling St. James that Dante holds immense hope, which is why he
has been allowed this journey. Dante adds that “Hope is the certain
expectation of future glory; it is the result of God’s grace and of merit we
have earned. This light has come to me from many stars; but he who first
instilled it in my ear was the chief singer of the Sovereign Guide (the psalms
of David).” A third light joins Sts. Peter and James. It is St. John, who was
designated the caretaker of Mary upon Christ’s crucifixion. His light is
incredible, and Beatrice gazes upon him. Dante does the same, and when he
turns back to Beatrice, realizes that he is blind.
 Canto XXVI

St. John tells Dante that Beatrice is able to heal his blindness. The saint then
asks the poet what his thoughts are on love – why, for example, does he
love God? After a couple of incomplete answers, Dante tells St. John that
God died so that he may live, and that his love for God, and God’s for him,
is what keeps him hopeful in attaining Heaven. Beatrice blesses him,
restoring his sight.

A fourth spirit, that of Adam, appears. After Dante questions him, Adam
explains that he was not banished from the Garden of Eden because he ate
the forbidden fruit, but because he did not obey God or heed the boundaries
God set for him. He also states that he was only in the Garden for a few
hours, and spent a very long time in Limbo before reaching Heaven.
 Canto XXVII

The spirits sing in adoration of the Holy Trinity. Dante is mesmerized by

the beauty around him. St. Peter’s light glows abundantly, and soon changes
from white to red. He begins to speak of the corruption of Pope Boniface
III, who is degrading the papacy: “Of the recent popes, he who on Earth
usurps my place, my place, my place that in the sight of God’s own Son is
vacant now, has made my burial ground a sewer of blood, a sewer of
stench, so that the perverse one who fell from Heaven, here above, can find
contentment there below.” St. Peter says that punishment for these
reprobates is near, and he tells Dante to reveal these sins of corruption
among the clergy when he gets back to earth.

The spirits ascend towards the next sphere, the Primum Mobile, which is
energized by God’s love and therefore impacts all the spheres below it.
Dante can see the earth below him. He looks at Beatrice, who continues to
get more and more beautiful. Beatrice speaks of how the Primum Mobile is
the fastest sphere, is where time began, and is comprised of the mind of
God. She also discusses how Man has strayed from his innate goodness
given to him by God. As children, she explains, men are pure of spirit and
innocent of motive. They only get corrupt as they age, and especially when
exposed to evildoings by those in power. Nonetheless, Beatrice believes
that salvation will reign victorious.
 Canto XXVIII

Dante is amazed at what he sees in Beatrice’s eyes – he can see a complex

series of nine rings which show how those closest to God receive the
greatest portion of His light. Beatrice tries to explain: it is not based on the
planets, but instead, on the angels - Seraphim, Cherubim, the Thrones, the
Dominations, the Virtues, the Powers, the Principalities, the Archangels,
and the Angels. Even though all of the angels share their adoration of God
and gaze upon him in an upward fashion, their powers are assigned to
specific spheres in the universe. Beatrice adds that the renowned scholar,
Dionysis, actually identified this pattern based upon the word of St. Peter.
 Canto XXIX

Beatrice comments on the origin of God’s universe – basically, the story of

the Creation. She anticipates Dante’s questions and answers them before he
can voice them. God created the world as an extension of His love, not for
ego’s sake. She continues to say that God created three forms of substance:
pure form, pure matter, and a combined substance made of the two together.

She starts to explain the origin of the angels: God combined pure form and
pure matter to create angels. Therefore, the teachings of St. Jerome’s, who
claimed that God created angels before spirit and matter existed, was
fallacious.

When rebellious angels were cast from Heaven, that being Lucifer and his
army, the others stayed to circle the spheres and keep the universe intact.
Beatrice admonishes theologians who preach about angels without truly
understanding them. She finishes by saying that the number of angels is
infinite, as God’s love knows no boundaries or numbers.
 Canto XXX

Dante is once again enveloped by Beatrice’s unspeakable beauty: “If that

which has been said of her so far were contained within a single praise, it
would be much too scant to serve me now. The loveliness I saw surpassed
not only our human measure-and I think that, surely, only its Maker can
enjoy it fully.” The two head towards the next sphere, the Empyrean.
Beatrice tells Dante that he will finally see Heaven’s inhabitants – angels,
saints, etc. – in human form, including the Blessed Virgin Mary. Dante is
once again blinded by the brightness and beauty of his surroundings.

When he regains his vision, Dante sees a river of light dashing in front of
him. Sparks appear to emit from the river, settling down on flowers that
border the riverbank. Beatrice instructs Dante to seek the river’s light. He
does, and he witnesses the river’s metamorphosis into a rose. The rose is
enormous, and holds a multitude of layers of petals with a huge light
securing the center. There is a spot on one of petals which has been reserved
for Henry VII, who will try to unite Italy but be dashed by the machinations
of Pope Clement V. Clement will find himself with the same fate as
Boniface VIII.
 Canto XXXI

Angels inhabit the great rose, “like a swarm of bees that, at one moment,
enters the flowers and, at another, turns back to that labor which yields
such sweet savor, descended into that vast flower graced with many petals,
then again rose up to the eternal dwelling of its love.” Dante, ecstatic, looks
upon the blessed. He turns to engage Beatrice, but finds that she is gone. In
her place stands St. Bernard of Clairvaux, the medieval mystic, who tells
Dante to look upon the rose where he will find Beatrice in her designated
seat. Dante tries to convey his thanks to Beatrice, who smiles upon him. St.
Bernard then instructs Dante to look at the highest level, where he will be
able to see the Blessed Virgin Mary. She sits on her throne, surrounded by
light and countless angels who sing her praises. Dante is entranced by the
sight of her pure beauty and light, and finds it hard to look away.
 Canto XXXII

St. Bernard attempts to explain the “seating chart” of the Rose. He

acknowledges the saints who surround Mary: Eve, Rachel, Sarah, Rebecca,
Judith, and Ruth. These Old Testament women serve as a line of
demarcation, dividing the Christians who believed in Christ before he
actually existed on earth from those who believed in him after he God
became Man. Opposite from the woman sit the male saints who are held in
highest esteem: St. Francis, St. John the Baptist, St. Benedict, and St.
Augustine. The upper tiers of the Rose house adults; the lower, children. St.
Bernard again tells Dante to look at Mary, who is the closest to God in
image. He does, and the angels begin to sing the Ave Maria. St. Bernard
also identifies additional saints and angels around the Blessed Virgin -
Adam, St. Peter, St. John the Apostle, Moses, St. Anne, and St. Lucy. He
then tells Dante that he must go through Mary to reach her Son. Only with
her assistance and approval will Dante see God. St. Bernard begins to pray
to Mary on behalf of Dante.
 Canto XXXIII

St. Bernard asks Mary, the symbol of charity and hope, to bestow a vision
of God to Dante so that he can report God’s greatness to everyone upon his
return to earth. Mary indicates the center light (God). St. Bernard tells
Dante to follow her instructions. The poet looks into the light, where he is
bestowed an indescribable, heavenly vision. He cannot recall it in its
entirety, as he lost the actual memory of it due to its immense significance.
But he can still feel the emotional impact. He beseeches God to assist him
in remembering what he saw so that he can bring the message to the earthly
world. Dante the writer writes that he took in the light until he saw
“substances, accidents, and dispositions” of the universe. It was as if the
Universe were a book: “In its depth I saw that it contained, bound by Love
in one volume, that which is scattered in the leaves of the universe.” Dante
sees three circles of light, each one a different color. In one, he can actually
see a human face, but he cannot make sense of it. Finally, Dante
experiences a revelation that explains everything – all mysteries are solved,
and all understanding is accessible. But alas, the reader is not privy to the
revelation, as Dante’s memory is wiped clean. All he can attest to is his
alignment and harmony with God’s plan and His love: a love “that moves
the sun and the other stars.”

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