MODULE 5

● model the processes involved in cell replication, including but not limited to:
– mitosis and meiosis (ACSBL075)
– DNA replication using the Watson and Crick DNA model, including nucleotide
composition, pairing and bonding (ACSBL076, ACSBL077)

● construct appropriate representations to model and compare the forms in which

DNA exists in eukaryotes and prokaryotes (ACSBL076)

● conduct practical investigations to predict variations in the genotype of offspring

by modelling meiosis, including the crossing over of homologous chromosomes,
fertilisation and mutations (ACSBL084)

● model the formation of new combinations of genotypes produced during meiosis,

including but not limited to:
– interpreting examples of autosomal, sex-linkage, co-dominance, incomplete
dominance and multiple alleles (ACSBL085)
– constructing and interpreting information and data from pedigrees and Punnett
squares

● collect, record and present data to represent frequencies of characteristics in a

population, in order to identify trends, patterns, relationships and limitations in
data, for example:
– examining frequency data

● Modelling Mitosis and Meiosis

A model is a representation of an idea, an object or even a process or a system. It is used

to describe and explain phenomena that cannot be experienced directly.

They are simplified representations of an imagined reality. They may be in the form of
physical structures of mathematical equations. Models are constantly changing as new
information comes to light and allows for predictions.

Aim: To model the processes of mitosis and meiosis

Materials:
- Mitosis template sheet
- Meiosis template sheet
- Mitosis and meiosis summary sheet
- Scissors
- Pipe cleaner/string chromosomes (30 large and 30 small)
Mitosis method:
1) Use pipe cleaners to make 2 pairs of chromosomes. They have replicated in interphase.
2) Place them in prophase.
3) In metaphase, line them up at the centre of the cell.
4) In anaphase, split the replicated chromosomes at the centromere. Make these
appropriate chromosomes and place them in the correct position in anaphase.
5) Make the daughter cells that are produced in telophase (with the appropriate
chromosomes) They should look the same as the starting cell (parent cell).
6) Photograph the model.

Meiosis method:
1) Use pipe cleaners to make 2 pairs of chromosomes. They have replicated in interphase.
2) Place them in prophase I. Show the homologous pairs lining up next to each other and
their non-sister chromatids crossing over to exchange genetic information.
3) Line the pairs of chromosomes up on the metaphase plate in metaphase I.
4) In anaphase a reduction division occurs, the chromosomes are still joined at the
centromere.
5) In telophase I the separated chromosomes move into two new daughter cells. (haploid)
6) Make the appropriate chromosomes and place them in metaphase II.
7) During anaphase II and telophase II the duplicated chromosomes split at the centromere
and haploid cells are produced. Make the appropriate chromosomes and place them in
the 4 gametes.
8) Photograph the model.

Results: Replicate your findings by drawing them on the summary template sheet.
Mitosis left, meiosis right.
Discussion:
Limitations
- Since we only used 2 pairs of chromosomes it is a simplified and inaccurate
representation of the actual amount of chromosomes (23 pairs should be used)
- Did not model spindle fibres which separate the chromosomes
- Made no annotations. Annotations about crossing over, independent assortment and
random segregation could increase understanding of what is occurring and the
importance of it

Benefits
- Using 2 pairs of chromosomes was enough to describe/show what is occurring. (23 pairs
would not have fit on the page anyway and is unnecessary to show them all)
- Models crossing over. Important process which recombines genetic info, creating
genetic variation.
- Shows that exact copies are made in mitosis. This is important because mitosis is used
for repair and regeneration thus the same exact cells are needed, if they were different
their function would change and they could be rejected.

● Modelling Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic DNA

A model is a representation of an idea, an object or even a process or a system. It is used

to describe and explain phenomena that cannot be experienced directly.

They are simplified representations of an imagined reality. They may be in the form of
physical structures of mathematical equations. Models are constantly changing as new
information comes to light and allows for predictions.

Prokaryotic DNA
- We used string to wrap into a coiled circular shape - one continuous strand of single
circular DNA - supercoiling because most prokaryotic DNA does not have histones

Eukaryotic DNA
- We used 2 strands of string and coiled them tightly around each other (to show
supercoiling of double helix
- We then demonstrated the double helix in one section, dragging the string out - less
coiled and looped them loosely in a double helix structure
- We used different coloured pipe cleaners and cut them to act as the nitrogenous bases.
We stuck A to T and C to G and stuck them inside the helical loops
- We used styrofoam balls to represent the histone proteins, wrapping the DNA strand
around them intermittently.
- We continued the coiled string until we showed the structure of a chromosome (for this
we used two paddle pop sticks stuck together diagonally and looped the string around)
 ● Modelling Gene Frequency Change (Evolution) in a Population by Natural
Selection

A model is a representation of an idea, an object or even a process or a system. It is used

to describe and explain phenomena that cannot be experienced directly.

They are simplified representations of an imagined reality. They may be in the form of
physical structures of mathematical equations. Models are constantly changing as new
information comes to light and allows for predictions.

How does natural selection affect gene frequency over several generations?

Aim(s):
- To model evolution by natural selection of the gene frequency of two alleles in a
population of organisms
- To calculate the gene frequency of the alleles for each generation
- To generate a graph of the frequency of the two alleles over 10 generations

Materials:
- Brown paper bag - bag represents the English countryside, where the rabbits randomly
mate
- 50 paper clips - colour 1 (dominant) - F
- 50 paper clips - colour 2 (recessive) - f
- 3 petri dishes
The paper clips in this activity represent the rabbits.

Method:
1) Label 1 petri dish FF for the homozygous dominant genotype. Label a 2nd dish Ff for
heterozygous. Label 3rd dish ff for the rabbits that are homozygous recessive.
2) Place the 50 colour 1 and 50 colour 2 paper clips (alleles) in the paper bag and shake up
(mate) the rabbits. (please note that these frequencies have been chosen arbitrarily for
this activity)
3) Without looking, select 2 paper clips at a time from the bag, place them in the
appropriate petri dish. Eg: if you draw one colour 1 and one colour 2, place them in the
heterozygous dish. Continue until you select all paperclips.
4) The ff bunnies are born hairless so the cold weather kills them before they can pass on
their genes in reproduction. Place paper clips from the ff container aside.
5) Count the F and f alleles and record numbers in a chart (don’t count any from ff). Total
the number of F and f alleles for 1st gen and record.
 6) Place surviving rabbits back in the bag and repeat steps 3-5 for the next generation.
Keep repeating for 10 generations.
7) Determine gene frequency for each generation. (divide the number of F or f by total,
express in decimal form.)
8) Graph the frequencies. X axis generation, Y axis frequency in decimals.

What do you predict about the frequency of F and f alleles in the population after 10
generations, where ff bunnies are selected against?
- The frequency of F alleles will be higher than f alleles.

Results/discussion:
How do you explain that both alleles changed in frequency?
- F would increase as this is the favourable allele, however in our prac this is not seen as
we do not increase the population numbers by introducing successful offspring.
- In our results they both decreased, but f at a faster rate.

How might immigration and emigration affect gene frequencies?

- Immigration introduces new alleles into the population. Eg: new heterozygous individuals
can introduce more f alleles.
- Emmigration can significantly reduce gene frequencies as individuals are leaving the
population and taking with them their alleles. Eg: if all Ff individuals left, there would only
be F alleles in the population left.

Why are your results different from your classmates?

- It is based on chance.

How does this simulate evolution?

- There is variation in the population to begin with
- Some individuals are fitter to survive (those with F allele for fur)
- The favourable alleles survive to reproduce, thus increasing their frequency in the
population while non-favourable alleles decrease greatly - natural selection.

In nature, how are lethal alleles still able to pass on through generations?
- Through heterozygous individuals. The dominant allele is shown in the phenotype, but
they still have the recessive allele. If two heterozygous individuals mate, they can
produce an individual who is homozygous recessive.
- Also mutations, immigration and emigration can contribute.

● Observing Fungal Reproductive Structures

Aim: To observe the reproductive structures of bread mould. (zygomycota)

Materials:
- Bread mould
 - Glass slides
- Sticky tape
- Microscope

Method:
1) Prepare a sticky tape mount of the fungus.
2) Observe the fungal structures on this mount with a
microscope.
3) Draw and annotate the fungal structures you see
Your drawing must include a heading and a
magnification scale.

Results: the image - a drawing

Discussion:
What type of reproductive structures were evident in the
bread mould?
- The sporangium which is like the spore case
- A sporangium is an enclosure in which spores are formed. It can be composed of a
single cell or can be multicellular. All plants, fungi, and many other lineages form
sporangia at some point in their life cycle.

Are these structures for sexual or asexual reproduction?

- Asexual, for sexual reproduction a zygospore would be present. The sporangium doesn’t
require a (+ or -).

● Flower Anatomy

Aim: To observe the reproductive anatomy of flowers.

Materials:
- Flowers
- Dissecting tray
- Scalpels
- Scissors
- Probes
- Magnifying glass

Method:
1) Observe the flower and local the sepals. Count them and record results in a table.
2) Count the petals and record the number of petals.
3) Count the number of anthers and record the number.
 4) Is pollen being released? It will stick to your finger when you touch an anther.
5) Locate the stigma and determine if it is sticky.
6) Cut the flower longitudinally and find the ovary and ovules.
7) Draw your dissected flower. Clearly label it.

Results:

Number of Number of Number of Pollen Sticky stigma

sepals petals anthers

6 6 6 Yes Yes

Discussion:
Why would the stigma be sticky/not sticky?
- It is sticky when it is receptive, but if not sticky then not receptive.
- It is sticky to collect pollen, not sticky to prevent self pollination

How can it prevent self pollination?

- When stigma is not sticky
- Orientation of anthers away from stigma
- Shortening of anthers
- Maturation of anther different to maturation time of stigma
- Self incompatibility (pollen and stigma may recognise each other as genetically related
and fertilisation is blocked)

What is the benefit of preventing self pollination?

- Gains genetic diversity, which allows it to survive in various environments with various
selection pressures (enhances chance of survival)
MODULE 7

● investigate and model the innate and adaptive immune systems in the human
body (ACSBL119)

● investigate the response of a named Australian plant to a named pathogen

through practical and/or secondary-sourced investigation, for example:
– fungal pathogens
– viral pathogens

● Investigate Louis Pasteur’s experiments on microbial contamination and Koch’s

Postulates to explain causes/transmission of diseases.

- People thought “bad air” caused disease. Known as Miasma theory. By Greek physician
Hippocrates born in 460 BCE.
- 19th century advancements made to microscope technology, contributing to formation of
Germ theory.
- Scientific proof of the theory by Koch and Pasteur.

Louis Pasteur

- Researched the process of fermentation used in wine.

- Discovered the process was caused by a living organism he called ‘ferment’
- He wanted to know what ferment was made of, where they came from.
- Many scientists believed that these microorganisms appeared out of thin air -
spontaneous generation theory.
- Others believed that maybe they originated from other similar microscopic organisms.
- Pasteur set out to test this.

The test:
- Boiled liquids (killing microorganisms inside them) inside swan necked flasks. Left to
cool. The design allowed the boiled water to be in contact with the air, while preventing
any dust or dirt from entering.
- He found no liquids fermented after being boiled.
- He concluded that the processes of fermentation and decay were caused by
microorganisms present in the air and they could be killed by heating.
- Experiment had 2 parts. First part broth was boiled and cooled, remaining free of
contamination. 2nd part the flask was boiled and the neck was broken off. It became
contaminated.
 - He disproved the theory of
spontaneous generation proposing
“life only comes from life”.

Implications:
- Development of a simple way to
prevent wine from bing contaminated by unwanted organisms. Involved heating of wine
to 50-60 degrees. We know this as pasteurisation.
- Went on to discover several species of bacteria. Developed a way of making bacteria
and viruses less dangerous so they could be used for vaccination - developed rabies
vaccine.

Robert Koch

- 10 years after Pasteur’s fermentation experiment

- First studied anthrax. Anthrax bacterium had already been discovered but no one had
proven that this particular bacterium caused the disease seen in animals.
- He devised a universal method to prove that the bacteria caused anthrax, known as his
postulates.
- He developed new ways to grow pure samples of bacteria and stain them so they were
visible under a microscope.
- Used his postulates to discover bacterium that causes tuberculosis.
- By 1900 the discoveries of Koch and Pasteur and other scientists had led to the
identification of 21 disease-causing microorganisms.

Koch’s postulates: (must memorise)

1) The same pathogen must be present in every case of the disease
2) The pathogen must be isolated from the diseased hist and grown in a pure culture
 3) The pathogen from the pure culture must cause the disease when it is inoculated into a
healthy, susceptible lab animal
4) The pathogen must be isolated from the
inoculated animal and must be shown to be
the original organism.

- Koch’s postulates are used to prove the

cause of an infectious disease.

Implications:
- Now knowing the specific pathogens that
cause disease, specific vaccinations and
treatments can be developed to target them

● Observing Pathogens

Aim: To observe animal and plant pathogens and describe the features and adaptations of each
pathogen.

Materials:
- Microscopes
- Pathogens on prepared slides
- Clean glass slides
- Cover slips
- Magnifying glass
- Probes
- Scalpel
- Diseased plant material
- Disinfectant, paper towel, soap

Method:
1) Observe the prepared slides of animal pathogens
2) Draw labelled diagrams of two pathogens
3) Describe the pathogens and their adaptations
4) Observe the plant material. Draw labelled diagrams to illustrate the disease symptoms
5) Describe the symptoms of the plant diseases
 6) Use the “What’s wrong with my crop” sheets to determine what type of pathogen is
present in the plant material.

Results:

Animal diseases:
Schistosoma mansoni

Description:
- Worm shape
- Thin, coils around
- Blood fluke
- Schistosoma mansoni is a water-borne parasite of humans, and belongs to the group of
blood flukes.
- The adult lives in the blood vessels near the human intestine. It causes intestinal
schistosomiasis. Clinical symptoms are caused by the eggs.

Adaptations:
- Oral sucker to attach to hosts intestinal walls
- Cilia or tails for swimming
- Secretory glands for host penetration,
Taenia solium (pork tapeworm)

Description:
- Coiled structure
- Oral sucker
- Worm like
- The pork tapeworm, Taenia solium, belongs to the cyclophyllid cestode family Taeniidae
- Humans can become infected with these tapeworms by eating raw or undercooked pork

Adaptations:
- Tegument = hard covering of body, enzyme resistant and protects internal organs from
digestive actions of the alkaline fluids of the host. It is able to withstand host-stomach
acid and bile but is still penetrable enough to absorb nutrients.
- Oral suckers to attach to host intestinal walls
- thin and flattened and have a very large surface area for absorption of nutrients.
Plant diseases:

Citrus leprosis virus - causes Leprosis and is vectored by false spider mites.

Symptoms:
- Disease spots
- Spotty surface patterns
- Can occur in fruit and bark too
- Leads to stunted reproductive shoots

Zinc deficiency
- occurs when plant growth is limited because the plant cannot take up sufficient
quantities of this essential micronutrient from its growing medium.

Symptoms:
- Healthy leaves are identified by uniform colour
- Zinc deficient leaves show lighter areas (green leaves typically have lighter/yellow
colouration)
 ● Microbial Testing of Water or Food Samples

Aim: To perform a first hand investigation to identify microorganisms in food and water.

Hypothesis:
Pavement puddle water will have a large amount of bacterial colonies and a higher percentage
coverage than distilled water.
Apple will have a large amount of fungal colonies and higher percentage coverage than butter.

Risk Assessment:

What is the danger? We may be growing bacteria and fungi which

are pathogenic

Why is that dangerous? Pathogens may invade our bodies and cause
disease.

How can we avoid this danger?
- Open petri lid at 45 degree angle,
away from mouth to prevent
pathogens from exhaled air
contaminating the plate
- Do not take samples of bodily fluids,
there is high risk of getting samples of
pathogenic bacteria and fungi that
way
- Nutrient agar is used as it does not
have the nutrients needed by
pathogens
- Sterile inoculating loops used
- Seal plates after samples placed so
no pathogens can be transferred
- Incubate below 37 degrees so
pathogens can not grow (25 degrees)
- Wash hands and disinfect benches
before starting so nothing is
contaminated by pathogens
- Wash hands and disinfect benches
 after finishing so that if there are
pathogens, they aren’t ingested
(gloves may be worn)
- Agar plates autoclaved and then
incinerated to prevent transfer of
pathogens to humans

Method:
1) Watch teacher demonstrations to understand techniques.
2) Wash your hands and sterilise workbench area with disinfectant spray
3) Collect nutrient agar plates and label with date, class group and sample type.
4) Leave one pate unexposed, seal with sticky tape and label as control.
5) Choose 2 samples to inoculate your agar plate (1 food sample and 1 water) and label
plates correctly.
6) For each water sample place 0.5mL onto the agar plate using sterile pipette. Close the
lid and gently rock the water sample so that it spreads evenly over the plate.
7) For each food sample sterilise an inoculating loop by placing it in a bunsen burner flame,
or use a sterile cotton bud then collect a small sample of the food and streak the agar
plate in a zigzag pattern.
8) Seal trh agar plate with sealing tape
9) Incubate the plates upside down in the incubator for 2-3 days at a max of 30 degrees
celsius
10) Wash your hands with antibacterial soaps and desks thoroughly with disinfectant spray.
11) Construct a table to record the number and types of bacterial and fungal colonies
present on each plate,

Conclusion:
Pavement puddle water had a larger amount of bacterial colonies and a higher percentage
coverage than distilled water.
Apple had a larger amount of fungal colonies and higher percentage coverage than butter.

Why would you:

Disinfect the bench?
- To ensure no contamination of microorganisms from bench enter the agar plate as this
would render the experiment invalid.
Lift the lid of the agar plate at 45 degree angle and not talk while inoculating?
- Microorganisms are airborne and can contaminate sample through the air and breath.
The angle helps cover the plate as much as possible and not talking releases less air.

These things keep the experiment valid (controlled variables).

Disposal of infected materials from microbial experiment:
After incineration:
- Place in specialised waste

Autoclaving:
- A medical autoclave is a device that uses steam to sterilize equipment and other objects.
This means that all bacteria, viruses, fungi, and spores are inactivated.

Implications of this experiment:

- Microorganisms have various roles in food - they aren't always bad Eg:
- For fermentation using yeast, bacteria and fungi.
- For dairy, lactic acid bacteria coagulation of milk to make cheese
- Microorganisms are everywhere. They can cause disease but some are beneficial and
have no effect.
- Microorganisms are too small to see unless magnified. However, many cluster together
to form colonies which can be seen by the unaided eye.
- Microorganisms can get into food by contamination via incorrect food storage, through
contaminated water, use of utensils, exposure to oxygen and temperature between 5-60
degrees celsius.
- Treatment of water to destroy pathogens and prevent further multiplication will reduce
transmission of disease and is very important in successful control of disease.
(chlorination, filtering, boiling)
- Water contaminated with faeces of animals can contain unsafe levels of pathogens. Eg:
Cholera is a fatal disease that is transmitted in water that has been contaminated with
untreated sewage.

Notes:
- Bacterial colonies are generally quite small, shiny and coloured
 - Fungal colonies are filamentous and quite large.

● COVID-19
- Investigation and Evaluation of Environmental Management and Quarantine
Methods uses to Control an Epidemic or Pandemic

- Investigation and Analysis of the Wide Range of Interrelated Factors Involved in

Limiting Local, Regional and Global Spread of a Named Infectious Disease

My Investigation here:
- https://docs.google.com/document/d/
1qPDMpZJaLqC1glHghS8rSLty4OXhrVVQxBvziytfK90/edit?usp=sharing

● Modelling the Innate and Adaptive Immune Systems

A model is a representation of an idea, an object or even a process or a system. It is used

to describe and explain phenomena that cannot be experienced directly.

They are simplified representations of an imagined reality. They may be in the form of
physical structures of mathematical equations. Models are constantly changing as new
information comes to light and allows for predictions.

We created a diagram on a large poster to demonstrate the flow of the innate and adaptive
immune system - showing each step/response in order.

- Cut out images of each cell paired with their naming and glued them to a poster in the
correct order
- Drew arrows to demonstrate the direction of their order
- Annotated to describe what happens at each stage.
- We used this sheet to help us:
https://www.stem.org.uk/resources/elibrary/resource/35694/immune-
system#&gid=undefined&pid=8
 ● Secondary Source Investigation of the Response of a Named Australian Plant to a
Named Pathogen

Australian plant: Eucalyptus Grandis

Pathogen: Chrysoporthe austroafricana (fungal pathogen)

Symptoms:
- Tissue damage
- Necrotic lesions on young stems
- (Necrosis is a form of cell injury which
results in the premature death of cells
in living tissue.) (A lesion is any
damage or abnormal change in the
tissue of an organism, usually caused
by disease or trauma.)
- Gum filled canker
- A plant canker is a small area of dead tissue, which
grows slowly, often over years.
- If the tree survives:
- It is stunted and damaged

Resistant Eucalypts:
- Naturally have PR-3 genes
 - Are transcribed and translated when triggered by the fungal PAMPs.
- (Pathogen-associated molecular patterns or PAMPs are molecules shared by
groups of related microbes that are essential for the survival of those organisms
and are not found associated with mammalian cells.)
- These genes code for chitinases, enzymes that are able to break down chitin, a
component of fungal cell walls.

The investigation:
- Looked at scientific literature
- Looked at pathology journals
- They were peer reviewed (experts in field and verified results)
- Since they were peer reviewed, their results are valid and reliable