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 SERIES IN ASIAN LABOR
AND WELFARE POLICIES

GENDER,
CARE AND
MIGRATION
IN EAST ASIA
EDITED BY REIKO OGAWA, RAYMOND K.H. CHAN,
AKIKO S. OISHI & LIH-RONG WANG
Series in Asian Labor and Welfare Policies

Series Editors
Chris Chan
City University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong

Dae-oup Chang
Sogang University
Korea (Republic of)

Khalid Nadvi
University of Manchester
UK
Asia has been the new focus of global social sciences. One of the key features
for the rise of Asia is the creation of the largest industrial workforce in the
human history. China, India and many other newly industrialized countries in
Asia have been transformed as ‘world factories’ for the global capitalism in the
past four decades. This development involves both extensive and intensive
migration of labour across Asia. Massive populations in the Asian countries,
who formerly involved in traditional self- subsistence activities, have become
wage labourers. In China itself, more than 260 million of rural-urban migrant
labours have been created in the past three decades.
The production and the reproduction of labour in Asia have therefore
become the major research themes in a wide range of disciplines such as
gender studies, development studies, policies studies, employment relations,
human resource management, legal studies as well as sociology, politics and
anthropology.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14486
 Reiko Ogawa • Raymond K.H. Chan •
Akiko S. Oishi • Lih-Rong Wang
Editors

Gender, Care and

Migration in East Asia
Editors
Reiko Ogawa Raymond K.H. Chan
Chiba University City University of Hong Kong
Chiba, Japan Hong Kong

Akiko S. Oishi Lih-Rong Wang

Chiba University National Taiwan University
Chiba, Japan Taipei, Taiwan

Series in Asian Labor and Welfare Policies

ISBN 978-981-10-7024-2 ISBN 978-981-10-7025-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7025-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017960947

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher,
whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation,
reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any
other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation,
computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher
nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher
remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional
affiliations.

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Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore
189721, Singapore
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This book was born out of an interdisciplinary collaboration and friendship

among researchers in East Asia who share a common concern revolving
around care work and its changing forms. In the eventful process of com-
piling this volume, the editors and the contributors encountered numerous
occasions when they had to prioritize their care needs over work, when
emails were unanswered, participation in a conference was canceled or work
was delayed, which reminds us of the embeddedness and interdependency
of our world. The joy and loss of our loved ones and the act of caring for and
caring about are part and parcel of our lives.
The book grew out of two international conferences, namely “Gender,
Care and the State in East Asia” at National Taiwan University (December
2014) and “Migration, Gender and Labour in East Asia” at Chiba Univer-
sity (February 2016) which has been supported by the two universities and
JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers 26380358 (Akiko S. Oishi) and
24530633 (Reiko Ogawa). We are grateful for all the support given to
make this book possible.

v
 CONTENTS

1 Introduction: Situating Gender, Care, and Migration

in East Asia 1
Reiko Ogawa, Akiko S. Oishi, Raymond K.H. Chan,
and Lih-Rong Wang

Part I Gendered Care in East Asian Societies 23

2 The Double Burden of Care in Hong Kong: Implications

for Care Policies and Arrangements 25
Raymond K.H. Chan and Priscilla Y.K. Wong

3 Family Caregiving by Elderly Korean Women and Their

Quality of Life 47
Ju Hyun Kim

4 Married Daughters’ Support to Their Parents

and Parents-in-Law in Japan 69
Yoshimi Chitose

vii
viii CONTENTS

Part II The Well-Being of Migrant Care Workers:

Micro-Perspectives 95

5 Familization of Indonesian Domestic Workers in Singapore 97

Marcus Yu Lung Chiu

6 Investigating the Well-Being of Migrant Care Workers

in Taiwan from the Perspective of Social Inclusion 117
Lih-Rong Wang and Michael P.H. Liu

Part III Migration and Care Regimes in East Asia:

Macro-Perspectives 137

7 Creating a Gendered-Racialized Care Labor Market:

Migrant Labor Policy and the Transformation of Care
Work in Taiwan 139
Li-Fang Liang

8 Who Pays the Cost and Who Receives the Benefit?

Comparing Migration Policies for Care Workers in Japan
and Taiwan 157
Kunio Tsubota

9 Care and Migration Regimes in Japan, Taiwan, and Korea 181

Reiko Ogawa

10 Conclusion: Agenda and Action Beyond Gendered Care

and Migration 205
Akiko S. Oishi, Reiko Ogawa, Raymond K.H. Chan,
and Lih-Rong Wang

Index 215
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Raymond K.H. Chan is Associate Professor at the Department of Applied

Social Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, and Research Fellow at the
Risk Society and Policy Research Centre, National Taiwan University. His
major research interests are risk and social policy, comparative social policy,
and family and labor policies. He is the co-editor of New Life- Courses, Social
Risks and Social Policy in East Asia (with J.O. Zinn and L.R. Wang, 2016),
Social Issues and Policies in Asia: Families, Ageing and Work (with
L.R. Wang and J.O. Zinn, 2014), and Risk and Public Policy in East Asia
(with L.L.R. Wang and M. Takahashi, 2010). His articles have also
appeared in Critical Social Policy, International Journal of Social Welfare,
International Social Work, Journal of International & Comparative Social
Welfare, Journal of Social Work, Social Indicators Research, Social Policy &
Administration, and Social Policy & Society.

Yoshimi Chitose is Senior Researcher at the Department of International

Research and Cooperation, National Institute of Population and Social
Security Research, Japan. Her major research interests are found in social
demography with special attention to migration, immigrant integration,
and intergenerational relationship. She is currently engaged in the National
Survey on Migration and the National Survey on Family in Japan.

Marcus Y.L. Chiu is an Associate Professor at the Department of Applied

Social Sciences, City University of Hong Kong. His major research interests
are program evaluation, help-seeking behavior, and mental health. He was

ix
x NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

the former Editor-in-Chief of Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and

Development and he has been serving as a consulting editor in several
peer-review journals published by Routledge, Taylor & Francis, and
Springer.

Ju Hyun Kim is a Professor in Chungnam National University, Korea. Her

research interests include family and social policy, gerontology, and social
welfare. She is currently interested in the social rights and discrimination of
elderly in Korea and Japan. Some of her recent publications include: “Pro-
ductive Activity and Life Satisfaction in Korean Elderly Women,” in Journal
of Women Aging (2013); “Do Part-time Jobs Mitigate Workers’ Work-
Family Conflict and Enhance Well-being? New Evidence from Four East-
Asian Societies,” in Social Indicator Research (2015); “Intergenerational
Transfers Between Young Adult Children and Their Parents in Korea,” in
Journal of Comparative Family Studies (2017).

Li-Fang Liang is an Assistant Professor at the Institute of Health and

Welfare Policy in National Yang-Ming University in Taiwan. As a feminist
sociologist, she is interested in the “invisible work,” mostly done by women.
Her current research examines how the Taiwan government considers
migrant care workers as the solution for the deficits of local care labor
through the enactment of its migrant labor and long-term care policy.

Michael P.H. Liu is a graduate student in Graduate Institute of Public

Affairs at National Taiwan University. His major research interests are
public policy, gender policy, and non-governmental organization manage-
ment. He has participated in research projects concerning gender equality,
migrant workers, and charitable behavior.

Reiko Ogawa is an Associate Professor at Graduate School of Social

Sciences, Chiba University, Japan. Her research interest is migration, gen-
der, civil society, and globalization of care work. Among her recent works
includes “Japan: From Social Reproduction to Gender Equality” in Eds.
Baird, M. et al., Women, Work and Care in the Asia-Pacific (2017),
“Configuration of Migration and Long-Term Care in East Asia” in Eds.
Chan, R.K. et al. Social Issues and Policies in Asia: Families, Ageing and
Work (2014), and journal articles in Southeast Asian Studies and Journal of
Asian Women’s Studies.
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xi

Akiko Sato Oishi is a Professor at Graduate School of Social Sciences,

Chiba University, Japan. As a labor economist, she has studied issues
involving female employment and child well-being as well as the effect of
social security policy on labor supply of the elderly. Her works have been
published in various academic journals and books, including Japanese Eco-
nomic Review, Journal of Income Distribution, Social Indicators Research,
Social Security Programs and Retirement around the World: Fiscal Implica-
tions of the Reform (2007), and Family, Work and Wellbeing in Asia (2017).

Kunio Tsubota is Professor at the School of Agriculture, Meiji University

in Japan. His major work fields have been rural development policies and
international trade in Asia. His recent interests focus on the increasing role
of transnational migration of the labor force in regional socioeconomic
development in the era of rapid aging. He has served in several international
agencies as development economist including UN Food and Agriculture
Organization, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develop-
ment, and the Asian Productivity Organization. He compiled and/or con-
tributed to publications by these agencies, including The State of Food and
Agriculture (FAO, 2000) and Agricultural Policies in Selected Asian Coun-
tries: An Overview through Transfer Analysis (2013).

Lih-Rong Wang is Professor of Social Work at the Department of Social

Work, National Taiwan University. She has conducted studies in gender,
social risk, and social policy, such as gender-based violence surveys in Taiwan,
disaster and community resilience research, and investigations into the late
marriage trend and birth behavior in Taiwan. She is an advocate and consul-
tant to the government on women’s rights and human rights issues in
Taiwan. She is the co-editor of Risk and Public Policy in East Asia (with
R.K.H. Chan and M. Takahashi, 2010), Social Issues and Policies in Asia:
Families, Ageing and Work (with R.K.H. Chan and J.O. Zinn, 2014), and
New Life- Courses, Social Risks and Social Policy in East Asia (with J.O. Zinn
and L.R. Wang, 2016). Her articles have been published in Asia Women,
Children and Youth Services, Development and Society, Global Social Work
Practice, Journal of Asian Public Policy, and Social Indicators Research.

Priscilla Y.K. Wong is a social worker. She was previously Research Asso-
ciate at the Department of Social Sciences, City University of Hong Kong.
Her major research interests are family policy and counseling. She has
published in Asian Journal of Gerontology & Geriatrics.
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 4.1 Percentages of parents and parents-in-law who need care

classified by married women’s age 71
Fig. 4.2 Percentages of married women by the number of parents who
need care classified by married women’s age 71
Fig. 4.3 Living arrangements of parents and parents-in-law by need for care 72
Fig. 4.4 Percentages of daughters providing support by types of support
and parent 79
Fig. 6.1 Number of migrant care workers in Taiwan (2001–2016)
(Source: Ministry of Labor 2016a) 119
Fig. 9.1 Migration–care nexus 1—citizenship and qualification
(Notes: The triangle for Korean Chinese represents the mobility
among them as they change their occupations within the care
sector) 194
Fig. 9.2 Migration–care nexus 2—working conditions and care site 195
Fig. 9.3 Migration–care nexus 3—configuration of global welfare regimes 196

xiii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Profile of sample 30

Table 2.2 Number of children requiring care 31
Table 2.3 Care profile for parents who required regular assistance
(frequency) 31
Table 2.4 Childcare support services preferred (can choose more than one) 32
Table 2.5 Senior care services used in the past and at present 32
Table 2.6 Forms of care to parents (can choose more than one)
(% of surviving parents) 33
Table 2.7 Caregivers’ arrangements for parents and parents-in-law 33
Table 2.8 Major concerns associated with caring for children and parents 34
Table 2.9 ZBI scores 35
Table 2.10 Sources of support 36
Table 2.11 Factors accounting for burden and stress 37
Table 3.1 Basic statistics on subjects 56
Table 3.2 Difference in life satisfaction (100-point scale) 59
Table 3.3 Regression analysis of life satisfaction 61
Table 4.1 Characteristics of the sample (%) 80
Table 4.2 Estimated odds ratios from logistic models of daughters’
overall support 82
Table 4.3 Estimated odds ratios from logistic models of daughters’
support by type of support 85
Table 5.1 Basic information on respondents (N ¼ 352) 104
Table 5.2 Emotions on being told that you have become part of the
family 105
Table 5.3 Considerations that may enhance your feeling part of the
family 106

xv
xvi LIST OF TABLES

Table 5.4 Determinants of familization (n ¼ 352) 107

Table 5.5 Logistic regression of familization groups by employer
and employee composite scores 108
Table 6.1 Distribution of respondents’ well-being (%) 125
Table 6.2 Factor load scale of the social inclusion of migrant care
workers 129
Table 6.3 Multiple linear regression model for the well-being of migrant
care workers (I) 130
Table 6.4 Multiple linear regression model for the well-being of migrant
care workers (II) 131
Table 8.1 Comparison of migrant care worker regimes in Taiwan and
Japan (2015) 159
Table 8.2 Estimated annual cost and benefit for migrant care workers
(US$) 168
Table 8.3 Estimated annual cost/benefit per migrant care worker
for employers (US$) 169
Table 8.4 Estimated annual cost per migrant care worker for
governments (US$) 171
Table 8.5 Estimated net financial benefits for stakeholders per year 172
Table 8.6 Minimum wages of sending countries as percentages of
Taiwan’s minimum wage 174
Table 9.1 Different qualifications for elderly care workers in East Asia 186
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Situating Gender, Care,

and Migration in East Asia

Reiko Ogawa, Akiko S. Oishi, Raymond K.H. Chan, and

Lih-Rong Wang

CARE AND FAMILIAL DUTIES, SERVICES, AND WORK

Care work, paid as well as unpaid, is an aspect of reproductive labor that
sustains human lives and conditions. This work, which may or may not
include domestic work depending on the context of its provision, entails
physical and emotional care of children as well as of the elderly, sick, and
disabled. However, the tasks of child rearing, care of the elderly, and
housekeeping are not viewed as “productive” work that generates “surplus”
for capital accumulation and economic growth and are therefore stigma-
tized as menial work. An ideological separation of the public and private
sphere has also contributed to the marginalization of care work, given that it
is primarily carried out by women within the private sphere, thus being

R. Ogawa (*) • A.S. Oishi

Graduate School of Social Sciences, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
R.K.H. Chan
Department of Applied Social Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon
Tong, Hong Kong
L.-R. Wang
Department of Social Work, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan

© The Author(s) 2018 1

R. Ogawa et al. (eds.), Gender, Care and Migration in East Asia, Series
in Asian Labor and Welfare Policies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7025-9_1
2 R. OGAWA ET AL.

rendered invisible. Exclusion from the jurisdiction of labor laws and like
protection has undermined a perception of this work as “genuine labor” to
be assessed in terms of labor relations or unionization. For these reasons,
and with the exception of the work of feminist scholars and social policy
experts, discussions on care work have remained outside mainstream narra-
tives on labor history, political theory, and economic inquiry (Meerkerk
et al. 2015; Mies 1986; Tronto 2013).
In earlier decades, as a result of demographic pressure in economically
advanced countries, the issue of care was foregrounded not only within
various fields of academic inquiry but also within political debates in mul-
tifarious ways. The “crisis of care” (Zimmerman et al. 2006) or, more
broadly, the “crisis of social reproduction” (Anderson and Shutes 2014;
Fraser 2016) emerged as a major challenge relating to the foundation and
sustainability of a society. According to Fraser, the “crisis of reproduction”
is a consequence of a deeply embedded contradiction between production
and reproduction that has its roots in capitalist society.

On the one hand, social reproduction is a condition of possibility for sustained

capital accumulation; on the other, capitalism’s orientation to unlimited
accumulation tends to destabilize the very processes of social reproduction
on which it relies. (Fraser 2016, 100)

Fraser (2016) further argued that capitalism “free rides” on the provision
of care mainly outside of the market and without proper compensation in
monetary terms. With the development of an industrial society, a gendered
division of the family occurred as a result of the separation of economic
production, associated with men, and social reproduction, associated with
women. Under Fordism, social protection was provided through the family
wage as compensation for the unpaid work of women that resulted in the
separation of the male breadwinner and the “housewife.” However, with
global capitalism mobilizing women into the labor market in developed as
well as developing countries in the post-Fordist era, this model was aban-
doned or, at any rate, subjected to change. By undermining the reproductive
process, this process of capital accumulation has thus proven self-destructive.
The tension between production and reproduction has been evident in
East Asia—the current growth center of global capitalism—which has expe-
rienced a rapid decline in total fertility rate and a rise in its aging population.
In particular, this tension has become apparent in relation to women’s work
and care responsibilities (Baird et al. 2017). Many studies have shown that
 INTRODUCTION: SITUATING GENDER, CARE, AND MIGRATION IN. . . 3

East Asian welfare regimes retain characteristics of familialism. Accordingly,

the family and women are considered the main care providers by the state and
by society, although this phenomenon is not limited to East Asia and has
evidenced a shift in recent years (Peng 2012; Kamimura 2015; Uzuhashi
2005). Welfare modeled on familialism that previously supplemented the low
coverage of social security systems in East Asia has been changing rapidly,
without necessarily resulting in increased coverage (Kamimura 2015).
Other scholars have argued that East Asian welfare regimes represent a
“productivist” or “developmental” character that results in the subordina-
tion of social policy to economic growth (Holliday 2000; Kwon 2005,
2009). The developmentalist state not only facilitates women’s entry into
paid work, but it also upholds monetary calculations as a core value, citing
mantras such as “efficiency,” “effectiveness,” “progress,” and “productiv-
ity.” This position goes against the very nature of care work, as an increase in
“productivity” could mean a decrease in the quality of care. Attending to
personal needs would be considered “inefficient” and caring for the elderly
who are frail may not bring about any “breakthrough” or “innovation,”
phrases often used in the development discourse. During the post-Fordist
era, tension between a familialist social provision and a developmentalist
welfare regime has become apparent especially in relation to the women’s
work that has been prompted by capitalism and the shrinking labor market.
Consequently, women have been placed in a double bind situation, as they
are expected to contribute to the economy as well as care for their families.
Responding to the declining capacities of families to provide care, social
services have expanded to some extent, but states are cautious about
increasing their expenditure and maintaining the role of the families
(Chan et al. 2014).

CONTEXTUALIZING CARE IN EAST ASIA

We will begin by outlining the changing socioeconomic context within
which care has become a central discussion topic in East Asia. The first
dimension that is of critical concern for East Asian societies is the rapid and
unprecedented degree of demographic change relating to low fertility rates
and population aging. The newly industrialized economies (NIEs) in Asia,
and Japan, all suffer from extremely low total fertility rates that are well
below the social reproduction of these nations: Singapore (1.3), Hong
Kong (1.2), Taiwan (1.2), Korea (1.2), and Japan (1.4). This trend has
been accompanied by the rapid increase in the percentage of elderly
4 R. OGAWA ET AL.

populations of these societies: Singapore (12%), Hong Kong (15%), Taiwan

(13%), Korea (13%), and Japan (26%) (National Statistics Republic of
China (Taiwan) 2016a, b; World Bank 2016). This demographic pattern
is more imbalanced than the average of the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, whose average total
fertility rate and ageing population ratio are 1.7% and 16%, respectively.
This demographic imbalance results in significant pressure on the labor
market due to labor shortage and impacts on the sustainability of social
security systems. Japan already evidences a population decline and might
soon be followed by other countries. This will have a profound impact
not just on the economy but more importantly on societal organization
overall.
The second dimension entails the mobilization of increasing numbers of
women entering the labor market to supplement the declining labor force.
The transition from industrial to post-industrial societies has opened up new
employment opportunities within the service economy, and the participa-
tion of women in the labor force has drastically increased in the past several
decades. Rising education levels among women have contributed to pro-
moting double-income families, and international norms such as the Con-
vention on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) have
provided moral and legal frameworks for institutionalizing gender equality
within the state apparatus. The shift toward a post-Fordist mode of produc-
tion and women’s entry into the labor market has meant that whereas the
Fordist model of the male breadwinner is no longer tenable, this social
change is not necessarily accommodated within social policies.
A third dimension of the East Asian context is that care has been predom-
inantly embedded within the family system and associated with women who
are either wives, daughters-in-law, and daughters within this system. Women
have been struggling to care for their family members, often sacrificing their
own needs to perform their expected gendered roles as “good wives and wise
mothers” or “wise wives and good mothers.”1 Concepts and ideals of the
“family” are facilitated through legislation stipulating care obligations and
cultural norms such as “filial piety” that are promoted to maintain the social
fabric without necessarily increasing social expenditure.2 However, such basic
assumptions and conditions have been challenged as a result of the structural
transformation of families that has occurred in recent decades. There is
evidence of a reduction in the average size of households as well as of the
former prevalent pattern of three cohabiting generations, implying that
the capacity of families to provide care has decreased. Divorce rates, late
 INTRODUCTION: SITUATING GENDER, CARE, AND MIGRATION IN. . . 5

marriages, and non-marriage constitute rising trends that have major impacts
on family care arrangements and strategies. Nevertheless, a significant pro-
portion of the responsibility for care still remains in the hands of families,
especially female members, regardless of whether these members are wives,
daughters-in-law, or daughters.
A fourth dimension is that to cope with the “care deficit” while
maintaining the family ideology, East Asian societies have introduced dif-
ferent strategies and institutional arrangements aimed at increasing paid
care through market expansion and/or through social insurance systems
(ILO 2016, 34). Japan and Korea (and more recently, Taiwan) have devel-
oped public provisions to support care through the expansion of social
solidarity mechanisms that are aimed at transferring the burden of care
from the family to “society” (quasi market). These societies have introduced
long-term care insurance (LTCI) to support the elderly who are dependent
on care through the provision of funding and a workforce for implementing
“socialized care.” Despite the shortcomings of LTCI in these countries,
relating to funding and limited coverage as a result of demographic pressure
and huge financial deficits, it is unlikely that these governments will
completely withdraw from the defamilialization of care as a matter of social
policy. On the other hand, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Taiwan proactively
facilitated the entry of women into the labor market and opted to introduce
migrants through a lenient migration policy and the mechanism of the
privatized market. Consequently, the number of migrants increased quickly,
reflecting the high dependence of families on migrants who could provide
round-the-clock care.
From the perspective of the care labor market, national care workforces
in Japan and Korea are substantial in size, with more than 200,000 workers
in Korea and 1.7 million in Japan (Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare
2015; National Health Insurance Service 2015, 608–609). However, this is
not the case in Singapore, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. Put differently, Japan
and Korea established their provisions on social care before opening the
labor market to migrants, whereas Singapore, Hong Kong, and Taiwan
opened their care markets to migrants before establishing long-term care
provisions; or rather, care work undertaken by migrants became a conve-
nient solution, leading to the creation of the immigrant niche. It remains to
be seen how Taiwan is going to recalibrate its market mechanism to con-
solidate the newly introduced insurance system.
Hochschild (2000, 131) coined the term “global care chain” (GCC),
describing an informal system comprising “a series of personal links between
6 R. OGAWA ET AL.

people across the globe based on the paid or unpaid work of caring.”
However, East Asian care chains are regional in nature, although they
operate within larger global capitalism and international politics. Migrant
care workers do not come from other regions such as Africa or Latin
America but predominantly engage in what could be termed regional care
chains (RCCs) that entail intraregional mobility within Asia.3 These RCCs,
which are characterized by major flows of migrants from Southeast Asia
to East Asia, include both source countries such as the Philippines,
Indonesia, and Vietnam and receiving societies such as Hong Kong,
Taiwan, Singapore, Japan, and Korea. These divergent care commodifica-
tion strategies within the RCCs have resulted in different constructions of
care work in East Asia that have distinct implications for the existing
gendered order (see Orloff 1993; Sainsbury 1999). For example,
Singapore’s achievement in establishing gender equality is significant,
reflected in its ranking of 55 in the Global Gender Gap Index. However,
Japan ranks 111 and Korea ranks 114 out of a total of 144 countries (World
Economic Forum 2016). Still, the RCCs are gendered and racialized, as
migrant workers from disadvantaged countries cross borders to serve those
who are at the high end of the racial/ethnic/class hierarchy, creating new
boundaries and ruptures within Asia.
A final dimension relates to the growing literature and the development
of international norms and advocacy by civil society on the issue of human
rights and citizenship of migrants, an area which has also gained increasing
public attention. Numerous incidents of human rights violations have
occurred within the unregulated private sphere, leaving migrants in condi-
tions amounting to “neo-slavery.” Various factors contribute to the vulner-
ability of migrants who migrate under conditions of huge debt, lack of
regulations, and stringent immigration policies that do not allow them to
change their employers, as well as the nature of work that tends to be not
purely contractual. These conditions significantly restrict the bargaining
power of migrants as workers, compelling them to choose between endur-
ing hardship or running away and becoming undocumented. Studies have
also pointed to the embedding of care within an unequal social structure
differentiated by gender, race, and class (Anderson 2000; Parrenas 2003;
Razavi 2007). The issue of citizenship has been prominent, impacting on
migrants in a number of ways, and civil societies in both the sending and
receiving countries have been strongly advocating the provision of protec-
tion and secure human rights for migrants.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
sweetened drinks containing lactic acid in doses of 45 to 75 grains
per day may be given between the meals, or at intervals if the calf is
sucking.
Laudanum in doses of 6 to 10 drops per day administered in rice
water, extract of opium, weak solutions of tannin, etc., are also of
value. Filliàtre has successfully used tar water in the first stages. The
solution consists of vegetable tar 6 drachms, boiling water 1 quart.
This solution is used tepid in the proportion of 1 part to 3 parts of
warm milk.
Decoctions of spiked purple loosestrife, willow bark, etc., are also
of great value in certain districts.
The drug which appears least dangerous, however, is that so often
successfully used in young children—viz., subnitrate of bismuth. It
can be given in doses of 30 to 45 grains per day, with lactic acid in
doses of 75 to 150 grains, according to the size of the patients. If the
animals are greatly exhausted and have been ill for some time there
is less chance of recovery, and under these circumstances Dr.
Lesage’s anti-colic serum might be used.
It gives excellent results in infants, and it has proved successful in
simple diarrhœa of calves.
 CHAPTER VII.
POISONING.

Accidental poisoning is frequent in domesticated animals. It may

present no visible lesions, and it is therefore very important to
recognise the symptoms which indicate the secret lesion.

POISONING DUE TO FOOD.

Under this title are included all forms of poisoning resulting from
the ingestion of bad fodder. Such expressions as “intestinal typhus”
and “typhic gastro-enteritis” only indicate a special stage in the
condition, which is never twice the same.
Causation. The most important changes in the food ingested do
not consist in a mere modification in its chemical composition, but in
the presence of various parasites which develop in grain and forage,
after moistening, or after abnormal fermentation in the interior of
the grains. These parasites are chiefly represented by fungi belonging
to the genus Mucor: Aspergillus or Penicillium; blight—Puccinia
graminis, Uredo linearis; smut—Tilletia caries, Ustilago segetum,
Ustilago maydis; yeasts of different kinds resulting from the
fermentation of brewers’ grains; and, finally, unrecognised microbes
which act by means of the poisons they secrete.
The symptoms are always very vague. At first the only marked
symptom is loss of appetite, accompanied by dryness of the mouth
and muzzle, depression and constipation. The animals never clearly
show signs of gastro-enteritis; nevertheless, the changes in general
health point very clearly to a digestive origin.
In cases of acute poisoning the symptoms develop rapidly. Torpor
becomes more marked, the movements of the heart tumultuous, and
the temperature rises to 105° Fahr. (40·5° C.), diminishing later until
death occurs.
In chronic forms of poisoning constipation is present at first, but is
soon followed by profuse, fœtid, blackish diarrhœa, sometimes
containing streaks of blood and accompanied by abdominal pain.
 In exceptional cases these digestive symptoms are amplified by the
presence of broncho-pneumonia, pleuro-pneumonia, nephritis, and
cystitis, as in poisoning by tannin and essential oils. These
complications are of infectious origin.
In young animals, like lambs and young pigs, still with their
mothers alimentary intoxication may also occur though the mothers
show no signs of illness. The passage of poisonous principles into the
milk cannot be disputed. Moussu has seen numerous cases of
alimentary intoxication in lambs whose dams were fed with
decomposed beet pulp, and in sucking pigs whose mothers had
received bad maize, turnips, etc.
Diagnosis. Careful examination of the substances with which the
animals are fed, and consideration of the history, prevent confusion
with ordinary poisoning. Anthrax as a cause can easily be eliminated.
The prognosis is grave, unless the practitioner is summoned
early.
The lesions are those of acute gastro-enteritis—congestion of the
mucous membrane, abomasum, and intestine, submucous
infiltration, shedding of the epithelium, which sometimes attains the
stage of ulceration, suffusion and intestinal or superficial
hæmorrhage, dilatation of the capillaries, etc.
The symptoms of poisoning are produced by the absorption of
toxic products, which pass from the intestine into the blood current.
Poisoning is frequently complicated by infection produced in a
similar manner.
Treatment. The first point is to change the food. This alone is
often sufficient to dispose of the digestive disturbance in a week or
two. In addition, mustard plasters may be applied, and purgatives,
stimulants and mucilaginous drinks may be given. Finally, diuretics
are useful in eliminating the toxic products accumulated in the
blood. They comprise general stimulants like wine, alcohol, tea,
coffee, etc. Subcutaneous or intravenous injection of physiological
salt solution is indicated.

POISONING BY CAUSTIC ALKALIES.

 The cause consists in the administration of insufficiently diluted
solutions of ammonia in cases of tympanites, or the ingestion of
quick-lime, used for disinfecting stables, by animals suffering from
depraved appetite.
The symptoms indicate injury to the anterior part of the
digestive tract. They consist in salivation, loss of appetite, colic,
indigestion, diarrhœa, and progressive loss of strength.
Diagnosis is only possible when the history is clear.
The prognosis is grave if the doses swallowed have been so large
as to cause severe burning of the mouth, œsophagus, rumen, etc. The
local lesions are grey and soft.
Treatment consists in immediately giving acidulated draughts
containing vinegar or 1, 2 or 3 per cent. of hydrochloric acid, and
emollient, mucilaginous drinks containing opium for the purpose of
calming the irritation.

POISONING BY CAUSTIC ACIDS.

Cases of this kind are rare. Gerlach described a case of poisoning

by straw which had been removed from sulphuric acid carboys.
Abadie saw a number of cases which were traced to the unskilful
treatment of two empirics.
The symptoms point to the existence of stomatitis, œsophagitis,
and gastro-enteritis. Death occurs rapidly, with a running-down
pulse. On post-mortem examination one discovers more or less deep
burning of the mucous membrane of the digestive tract.
The diagnosis is difficult in the absence of information.
The prognosis is grave.
Treatment comprises administration of alkaline draughts,
solutions of bicarbonate of soda, calcined magnesia, etc., and of
mucilaginous drinks containing opium, chalk, etc. This may produce
temporary relief.
Water mixed with whipped whites of eggs is also extremely
valuable, but it is often better to slaughter the animal as soon as the
condition is diagnosed.
 POISONING BY COMMON SALT.

This form of poisoning is rare in oxen on account of the large

quantity of salt which can be ingested without producing bad effects.
It is commonest in animals to which old brine has been given or
which have received rough salt containing toxic substances (sheep
and pigs). Beef, pork, or fish brine, four or five months old, is
especially dangerous because of the toxins it contains. Half a pint is a
fatal dose for a pig (Reynal). The symptoms include marked thirst,
vomiting and diarrhœa; at a later stage motor and nervous
disturbance appears, resulting from poisoning of the cerebro-spinal
system. Paralysis, epileptiform convulsions, trismus, coma and death
characterise extremely acute cases.
To the naked eye, the lesions are those of acute gastro-enteritis;
and, in many cases, of marked congestion of the brain and medulla
and of the mucous membrane of the bladder.
The treatment is prophylactic and hygienic. Old brine and salt of
doubtful purity should be avoided. The symptoms should be treated
by administering diuretics, preferably soda bicarbonate, which does
not irritate the kidney, and by giving mucilaginous drinks with
anodynes.

POISONING BY THE NITRATES OF POTASH AND SODA.

This form of poisoning has frequently been described as following

the ingestion of water used for washing sacks which have contained
chemical manures. Occasionally it results from the administration of
medicines containing excessive doses of nitrate of potash. The
symptoms vary in severity with the purity of the salt, with its nature,
and with the degree of concentration of the solution: nitrate of
potash is more dangerous than nitrate of soda.
The chief symptoms may be grouped as follows:—
Salivation, indigestion and tympanites, nausea, vomiting,
diarrhœa, and (especially) intense polyuria: the kidney may be
irritated to such a degree as to produce albuminuria and hæmaturia.
Intense dulness and general weakness precede death, which
sometimes occurs in four to twelve hours after the poison has been
taken.
The lesions are to be found in the digestive and urinary
apparatus. The kidneys are congested and hypertrophied, or present
changes indicating epithelial nephritis. The ureters and the bladder
may show similar lesions.
Treatment comprises removal of the cause, and the
administration of emollients, narcotics, and diffusible stimulants.

POISONING BY TARTAR EMETIC.

Tartar emetic is sometimes given for the purpose of favouring

secretion and restoring rumination; occasionally the proper dose is
exceeded and poisoning occurs. Given repeatedly, tartar emetic is apt
to accumulate in the deeper portions of the gastric compartments
and to produce general symptoms of super-purgation, and such local
symptoms as ulceration and even perforation of the walls of the
stomach, which in turn is followed by abscess formation in the
abdominal wall.
Diagnosis is easy. The prognosis is grave.
Treatment is confined to the administration of mucilaginous and
diuretic fluids. Tannin has been recommended.

POISONING BY ARSENIC.

Overdoses of Fowler’s solution produce rapidly fatal results, in

twenty-four to forty-eight hours. Lesions are little marked.
Arsenious acid acts like tartar emetic by accumulating and
producing local gastritis; it may also cause acute poisoning, being in
that case characterised by severe colic with tympanites, salivation,
and fœtid, sometimes blood-stained, diarrhœa. The urine becomes
albuminous, and remains scanty. Incomplete paralysis is sometimes
produced, and various forms of hæmorrhage result from changes in
the constituents of the blood.
 If the gastric compartments are perforated, an abscess may
develop in the abdominal wall. The lesions are those of acute
gastro-enteritis. The contents of the stomach exhales an odour
resembling garlic. The parenchymatous organs—the liver, kidney,
and heart—show fatty degeneration in chronic cases.
In prescribing arsenic, one should begin with small doses, which
can gradually be increased as the animal becomes accustomed to the
drug. Curative treatment consists in administering antidotes, such
as hydrated oxide of iron, sulphate of iron, and calcined magnesia.
Haubner described a form of chronic arsenical poisoning produced
in the neighbourhood of blast furnaces near Freiberg. Similar forms
of poisoning may perhaps occur in the neighbourhood of chemical
and smelting works in England.

PHOSPHORUS POISONING.

Though the chronic form is common in men, phosphorus

poisoning only occurs accidentally in animals through eating
phosphorus paste, used as a poison for rats, or as a consequence of
excessive doses given medicinally. Some cases have been described
by Maury.
The symptoms comprise salivation, loss of appetite, alliaceous
odour of the buccal cavity, arrest of intestinal peristalsis, indigestion,
colic, diarrhœa, exhaustion and death in a state of coma.
Albuminuria and icterus also occur.
The lesions are the same as those of arsenical poisoning—viz.,
stomatitis, pharyngitis, and gastro-enteritis. The specific changes
consist in fatty degeneration of the liver and kidneys, and the
peculiar odour resembling garlic exhaled by the flesh.
Death is a consequence of deoxygenation of the blood, which
appears black, and when spectroscopically examined reveals only the
lines of reduced hæmoglobin.
Treatment. Oil and milk dissolve phosphorus and render it more
easily assimilable; they should never be administered. Large doses
(up to six fluid ounces) of essence of turpentine have been
recommended. This prevents the phosphorus absorbing oxygen at
the expense of the blood. Saline purgatives assist in eliminating the
poison.

MERCURIAL POISONING.

Mercurial poisoning may result either from the administration of

medicines or from accident. Cases of the former kind follow the
internal use of sublimate or calomel. Doses of 2 to 2½ drams of
calomel, if repeated for a certain time, may prove toxic in the ox.
Accidental poisoning results from the use of mercurial ointment as a
parasiticide over large surfaces. Poisoning, however, rarely occurs
unless the animal is able to lick the parts. Some authors have tested
this point by freely applying mercurial ointment over parts likely to
absorb it readily, without having seen any bad effect.
Symptoms. Free salivation, the saliva gradually becoming fœtid
and blood-stained. The slight irritation of the buccal membrane first
seen is soon replaced by congestion of the gums, then by gingivitis
and periostitis, with local ulceration and hæmorrhage. The portion of
the gums surrounding the teeth becomes violet, and suppurative
alveolitis may follow.
As a consequence of disturbance in the digestive secretions
digestion ceases, defæcation becomes irregular, the fæces are often
hard and coated, and can only be passed with difficulty, though
sometimes there is profuse fœtid diarrhœa.
Respiration is difficult, jerky, or even dyspnœic, and is
accompanied by discharge from the nose and by expectoration. The
gait is irregular, and paralysis may follow. Finally the skin shows an
eruption resembling that of impetiginous eczema; vesico-pustules,
covered with yellowish crusts, appear over the entire surface of the
body.
Lesions. The lesions of hæmorrhagic gastro-enteritis are
sometimes accompanied by catarrhal tracheo-bronchitis, and even
intra-pulmonary hæmorrhage. The muscles are discoloured, appear
as though boiled, and are covered with ecchymoses. Blood effusions
occur beneath the eczematous crusts, but the rest of the skin is
anæmic.
 Treatment includes administration of raw eggs, or, better still, of
white of egg beaten up in water; the albumen in coagulating
imprisons the mercury. Failing these, other bodies, like flowers of
sulphur and iodide of potassium, which with mercurial salts form
soluble and harmless compounds, may be given. Chlorate of potash
has also been recommended.
Complications like stomatitis and gastro-enteritis are treated by
the usual methods.

LEAD POISONING: SATURNISM.

Lead poisoning is very rare, and seldom occurs except near camps
or factories. It then results from swallowing lead “spray” mixed with
the grass or from inhalation of lead vapour.
The symptoms comprise salivation, nausea, colic, obstinate
constipation, tympanites, and arrest of milk secretion. A peculiar
form of trembling affects the head; epileptiform convulsions,
amaurosis, and paralysis may also occur. General sensibility
diminishes, and death follows.
The disease may assume a chronic form, characterised by a blue
line around the gums, changes in the joints, albuminuria, and bodily
wasting.
The lesions are those of ulcerative stomatitis, anæmia of the
mucous membranes, and fatty degeneration of the epithelium. In the
chronic form the kidneys are atrophied.
Treatment consists in giving substances which form insoluble
compounds with lead. It comprises the administration of dilute
sulphuric acid, solutions of sodium sulphate or magnesia, milk, eggs,
and iodide of potassium.

COPPER POISONING.

This is a rare form of poisoning. It may follow ingestion of food

stored in copper vessels, licking of ointments containing copper salts,
or ingestion of vine leaves, or leaves of other plants which have been
sprayed with sulphate or acetate of copper to prevent “mildew.”
 The symptoms comprise vomiting of green-coloured material,
colic, diarrhœa, muscular weakness, and convulsions. The urine
contains dissolved albumen and hæmoglobin.
The lesions are those of acute enteritis and dilatation of the
stomach. The essential lesion consists in decomposition of the blood
with the formation of methæmoglobin. Nephritis and granular
degeneration of the muscles form secondary symptoms.
Treatment consists in administering raw eggs, albumen, milk,
mucilage, flowers of sulphur, or calcined magnesia.

CARBOLIC ACID POISONING.

Carbolic acid poisoning sometimes follows the use of carbolic acid

solutions in the form of injections, enemas, or baths.
Symptoms. Administered in over-doses or for too long a time,
carbolic acid produces stomatitis, œsophagitis and vomiting.
True poisoning is characterised by changes in the kidneys and
bladder; the urine becomes brown and turbid, and possesses a well-
marked carbolic odour, the animals suffer from severe trembling and
appear stupid, and coma and paralysis precede death.
The specific lesions consist in parenchymatous nephritis,
sometimes accompanied by renal hæmorrhage, cystitis and
hyperæmia of the lung and brain. The flesh has an odour of carbolic
acid, which renders it unfit for human consumption.
Treatment consists in giving stimulants and slight diuretics, such
as ether, alcohol, wine, coffee, saline sulphates, or Glauber’s salt. The
last named forms phenyl-sulphuric acid, which is not toxic. Olive,
rape, or linseed oil has been recommended. All these drugs are
useless if the kidney lesions have become too pronounced.

POISONING BY ALOES.

This form of poisoning is caused by administering over-doses of

aloes.
 Apart from the accidents possible in pregnant female animals,
large doses of aloes produce symptoms of super-purgation—profuse
diarrhœa, running down pulse, and nervous prostration.
The lesions are those of gastro-enteritis, the intestine being
empty, and its mucous membrane of red colour.
Treatment is confined to administering drugs like camphor, rice,
bismuth, opium, chloral, and emollients, which diminish peristalsis
and lessen secretion.

IODOFORM POISONING.

The causes are limited to the licking of wounds which have been
dressed with iodoform.
The symptoms include gastric disturbance, somnolence, coma,
and the signs of iodism.
The only lesions are those of fatty degeneration of the kidneys
and liver.
Treatment comprises the exhibition of vomitants, stimulants,
and diuretics.

IODINE POISONING: IODISM.

Death by iodine poisoning is absolutely exceptional: the

complications described under the name of iodism are rather to be
referred to saturation of the organism than to true poisoning.
The cause of iodism is unduly prolonged administration of iodide
of potassium, or of iodine in solution.
The symptoms include discharge from the eyes, coryza,
hypersecretion from all the mucous membranes, and gastric
disturbance. The cutaneous eruption exhibits special peculiarities,
including desquamation of the epidermis in the form of branlike
scales, and pruritus.
The first indications in treatment are to discontinue the drug and
to administer stimulants and nutrients like milk, cod liver oil, etc.
 STRYCHNINE POISONING.

Strychnine poisoning is most commonly due to over-doses of the

drug accidentally given during treatment.
The symptoms comprise tetanic convulsions, hyperæsthesia and
dyspnœa. As a result of muscular rigidity, the ribs cannot be moved,
and death by asphyxia follows.
Treatment comprises the use of anæsthetics, and the
administration of chloral hydrate, as long as the contractions
continue. Bromide of potassium, tobacco, tannin, etc., are also
useful.

The chief part of the botanical descriptions in the following list

have been extracted, by permission, from the Annual Report for 1898
of the United States Bureau of Animal Industry, p. 392. To Dr. D. E.
Salmon, who gave this permission, and who also kindly supplied the
blocks, the writer (Mr. Dollar) desires to express his very sincere
thanks. Considerable modifications have been made, and in the case
of the more important poisonous plants, details of symptoms and
treatment have been added.

LIST OF PLANTS POISONOUS TO STOCK.[2]

2. The names of plants proved beyond doubt to be poisonous to stock are

marked with an asterisk. The evidence in regard to the toxic properties of others is
not in every case entirely convincing, though there is good ground for strong
suspicion.

PERISPORACEÆ (ROT-MOULD FAMILY).

Aspergillus glaucus.—This is the common flocculent woolly

mould which sometimes develops to a dangerous extent on corn,
oats, and other food grains which have either been harvested before
full maturity or been stored in a damp place. The mouldy growth is
pure white at first, but changes with the ripening of the spores to
gray and then green. The spores are apparently the cause of the so-
called enzootic cerebritis, or “staggers,” of horses, which, during the
winter of 1898–99, was reported as having caused very heavy losses
in the southern portion of the United States. European investigators
have shown that the spores of this mould will grow within the living
body if they are introduced into the blood. Death is probably caused
by some poison which is simultaneously produced with the mould in
the body of the animal.

HYPOCREACEÆ (ERGOT FAMILY).

* Claviceps purpurea.—This, the most common species of

ergot, infests various species of native and cultivated grasses. It
sometimes causes great losses of stock.

POISONING BY ERGOT OF RYE: ERGOTISM.

Causation. This form of poisoning is due to the presence of ergot

in grain or forage.
Symptoms. The symptoms are seldom very marked. In mild
cases pregnant females may abort; grave cases are indicated by local
gangrene of the mucous membrane and gangrene of the extremities,
particularly in poultry, in consequence of the constrictive action of
the drug on the peripheral blood-vessels, on the vaso-motor centres,
and on unstriated muscular fibres.
Treatment. The use of chloral and morphine has been suggested
in this condition; but as the lesions when discovered are established
and permanent, this treatment seems illusory. More is to be expected
from preventive measures and the avoidance of ergotised food.

USTILAGINACEÆ (SMUT FAMILY).

Ustilago maydis.—The black powdery fungus known as corn

smut is common throughout the corn-producing districts of the
central United States, and is occasionally reported as being fatal to
stock. Experiments made in Wisconsin and elsewhere show that it is
not a very active poison when eaten in moderate quantity. When
given in gradually increasing amounts up to 2 lbs., no effect was
noted, but 4 lbs. on each of two successive days caused the sudden
death of one cow. Since corn smut has been shown to be less fatal
when wet, it seems probable that its physical and not its chemical
character may be responsible for the death of cattle which have eaten
it in considerable quantity.

Fig. 74.—Fly amanita (Amanita muscaria). a, Mature

plant; b, top view of cap showing corky, patches—both
one-half natural size.

POISONING BY SMUT OF BARLEY.

Causes. The presence of smut in straw, in millers’ grains, or in

damaged kiln-dried grains which have fraudulently been added to
grain sold for feeding, represents the principal source of this form of
poisoning.
The symptoms are very vague. There is indigestion, with a
tendency to nausea, and vomiting. Diarrhœa may be present: At a
later stage the heart and nervous system are affected. The gait
becomes hesitating, the animals show general dulness and spasm of
the pharynx; death, when occurring, is by cardiac or respiratory
syncope.
Treatment consists in giving an entire change of food, and
administering stimulants and purgatives.

AGARICACEÆ (MUSHROOM FAMILY).

Amanita muscaria.—The well-known fly amanita (fly fungus;

deadly amanita) may be found from spring to early winter in pine
forests throughout the United States. Cows are supposed to be killed
by eating it, and almost every year the daily papers chronicle the
death of several human beings who were led to eat the fungus
through mistake for some edible species. The fresh cap is frequently
rubbed up with milk and used to poison flies.

PHALLACEÆ (STINK-HORN FAMILY).

* Clathrus columnatus.—In an article published in the

Botanical Gazette (Vol. XV. p. 45), Dr. Farlow, of Harvard
University, gives an account of an investigation of a case of poisoning
in hogs which was caused by eating this peculiar fungus. It grows in
patches in oak woods and openings, and is quite common
throughout the Southern States.

POLYPODIACEÆ (FERN FAMILY).

Pteris aquilina.—In July, 1895, nineteen cattle died in

Maryland, which were supposed to have been poisoned by eating the
common bracken fern. Very few similar cases are on record, but one
European authority cites one in which five horses were killed by
eating hay contaminated with this fern, and another states that cases
are quite frequent among cattle in England.

EQUISETACEÆ (HORSETAIL FAMILY).

Equisetum arvense.—The field horsetail was reported from

Connecticut in 1871 as being poisonous to horses. Cases are very
rare, and it is probable that this plant is deleterious only when eaten
in considerable quantity, and then perhaps only on account of its
physical character. Experiments made in Europe show that a similar
species (E. palustre) is fatal to horses when fed in considerable
quantity with hay.

TAXACEÆ (YEW FAMILY).

Taxus minor.—The common yew, or ground hemlock, is called

poison hemlock in some places. The leaves of this shrub are probably
poisonous to stock, as are those of the European yew. This species is
more accessible to stock than the western yew (Taxus brevifolia),
which grows only in deep cañons.

YEW POISONING (TAXUS BACCATA).

The leaves of yew, when eaten in any considerable quantity, are

very poisonous. Two ounces to eight ounces, according to the size of
the animal, slow the heart’s action, produce weakness, staggering,
and apoplectic congestion, which may have a fatal result in less than
an hour. The bark is less injurious, and the fruit is scarcely poisonous
at all.
The early symptoms, which are only seen in chronic cases,
consist in excitement, followed by somnolence and muscular
weakness, with slowing of the respiration and circulation.

POACEÆ (GRASS FAMILY).

 Lolium temulentum.—The seed of the darnel, or poison rye
grass, an introduced annual especially abundant on the Pacific Slope,
is considered poisonous to both man and animals.
Stipa robusta.—This is a perennial plant which is known in
Arizona and New Mexico as sleepy grass. It produces a narcotic effect
on horses and cattle that feed upon it, but stock bred in that region
rarely touch it.
Zea mays.—The numerous deaths that are frequently attributed
to Indian corn are mostly due, not to any poison inherent in the
plant, but rather to parasitic or saprophytic fungus growths, as noted
under Aspergillus and Ustilago. The green fodder is very apt to cause
severe and even fatal tympanites if the animal’s diet is not properly
regulated. Death has also been attributed to the presence of nitre
(potassium nitrate) in the growing stalks. It is supposed that in very
rich soil this substance will sometimes accumulate in the stalks in
considerable quantity during prolonged drought.

POISONING BY THE MALE TUFTS OF MAIZE.

The green tufts alone are toxic; the toxicity disappears after drying.
Prolonged administration produces nephritic colic and renal
lithiasis.

POISONING BY SWEET SORGHUM GRASS.

This form of poisoning is characterised by attacks of trembling,

tympanites, and frequent attempts to urinate. The heart beats feebly,
and the pulse grows progressively weaker, until at last it becomes
imperceptible.

MELANTHACEÆ (BUNCH-FLOWER FAMILY).

* Chrosperma muscætoxicum.—The bulbous portion of the fly

poison, or crow poison, an eastern plant, is sometimes eaten by cattle
with fatal results. The bulbs, when crushed with molasses, are used
to stupefy flies.
*
Veratru
m viride.
—The
leaves of
the
common
swamp
hellebore
(American
white
hellebore;
false
hellebore;
Indian
poke) of
the
eastern
and
northern
portions
of the
Fig. 75.—False hellebore United Fig. 76.—Lily of the
(Veratrum viride), one-third States valley (Convallaria
natural size. have majalis), one-third
proved natural size.
fatal to
man and to horses. Sheep eat the young
leaves and shoots with apparent relish. The seed is poisonous to
chickens.
Zygadenus venenosus.—The name death camas has been
applied to this plant in the North-West of America to distinguish it
from the true camas (Quamasia quamash), which is highly esteemed
for food by the Indians. In Oregon it is erroneously called “lobelia” by
most stockmen and farmers. Horses, cattle, and sheep, as well as
man, are poisoned by eating the bulb.
 Zygadenus elegans.—The bulbs, and perhaps the leaves, of the
Glaucous zygadenus, or alkali grass, are poisonous to cattle.

CONVALLARIACEÆ (LILY OF THE VALLEY FAMILY).

Convallaria majalis.—All parts of the lily of the valley are

powerfully poisonous, and are liable to injure cattle and horses.

HÆMODORACEÆ (BLOODWORT FAMILY).

Gyrotheca capitata.—This is the red root, or paint root, of the

Atlantic coast and Cuba, so called on account of the red colour of its
sap. White hogs are supposed, throughout the Southern United
States, to be particularly subject to the poison contained in the plant.

FAGACEÆ (BEECH FAMILY).

Quercus sp.—In Europe the acorns of various species of oak

cause sickness and death in hogs and cattle. This effect may possibly
be due to tympanites, but may also be due in some way to the tannin
or the bitter principle which they contain.

POISONING BY ACORNS.

The acorn, or fruit of the oak (Quercus robur and Quercus

sessiliflora), is much valued as a food for swine. “A peck of acorns a
day with a little bran will make a hog, ’tis said, increase a pound
weight per diem for two months together.” Though largely consumed
by swine with no apparent ill effects, acorns constitute a dangerous
food for young cattle, especially when eaten before they are ripe and
when herbage or other feeding is scanty or restricted.
The symptoms comprise dulness, loss of appetite, constipation,
followed by diarrhœa, with straining and colicky pains, head carried
low, eyes retracted, with mucus about the eyelids and blood-stained
discharge from the nose. Frequently the abdomen is distended.
Temperature normal.
The lesions are, abrasions of the buccal membrane on the palate,
cheeks, etc.; impaction and intense congestion of the omasum.
Treatment. Change of pasture. Alkalies—potash or soda
bicarbonate, magnesia; tonics and stimulants.

URTICACEÆ (NETTLE FAMILY).

* Urtica gracilis.—The slender nettle covers thousands of acres

of reclaimed swamp land in Michigan and Wisconsin, which is made
nearly worthless by its dense growth, horses refusing to pass through
it to cultivate the soil.

CHENOPODIACEÆ (GOOSEFOOT FAMILY).

Sarcobatus vermiculatus.—Black greasewood, or chico, is a

scraggy shrub which grows in strongly alkaline soil in the south-
western and western portions of the United States. A correspondent
in New Mexico states that on one occasion he counted as many as
1,000 sheep that had been killed by eating the leaves of this plant. It
is claimed that cows are not affected by eating it at any time, and that
sheep can eat it quite freely in winter. Death is perhaps due more to
tympanites rather than to any poisonous substance which the plant
contains.

PHYTOLACCACEÆ (POKEWEED FAMILY).

* Phytolacca decandra.—The leaves of the common pokeweed

(poke; garget; American nightshade) of the eastern half of the United
States is occasionally eaten by cattle with fatal results.

ALSINACEÆ (PINK FAMILY).