UNIT-3 AVIONICS

The Autopilot: The Brains Behind the Drone's Flight (For Engineering
Students)

The autopilot, also known as the Flight Controller (FC), is the heart of a drone's
avionics system. It acts as the central processing unit, receiving sensor data, making
flight control decisions based on algorithms, and sending control signals to actuators
(motors, servos) to achieve stable flight and execute maneuvers.
Here's a deeper dive into the engineering aspects of autopilots:
 Hardware Architecture:
o Most autopilots utilize ARM Cortex-M processors, known for their low
power consumption and real-time processing capabilities, as discussed
in "Introduction to Airborne Robotics" by Stacy D. Griffiths.
o These processors typically have multiple cores for handling sensor
data processing, control algorithm execution, and communication tasks
simultaneously.
 Control Algorithms:
o Autopilots rely on various control algorithms to translate sensor data
into control signals for the actuators.
o A fundamental algorithm is PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative)
control, explained in "Flight Control Systems" by John E. Akin.
This adjusts motor and servo outputs based on the difference between
the desired flight parameters (e.g., altitude, heading) and the actual
values measured by the sensors.
o More advanced autopilots might employ additional algorithms like
Kalman filters for sensor data fusion (combining data from multiple
sensors for improved accuracy) or Model Predictive Control (MPC) for
optimized flight trajectories.
 Communication Interfaces:
o Modern autopilots come equipped with various communication
interfaces for:
 Sensor data acquisition: They receive data from sensors like
accelerometers, gyroscopes, magnetometers, GPS, and others
 through interfaces like SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) or I2C
(Inter-Integrated Circuit).
 Remote control communication: They communicate with the
pilot's remote control transmitter/receiver using protocols like
SBUS or PPM (Pulse Position Modulation) to receive control
inputs (e.g., throttle, stick movements).
 Telemetry: They transmit real-time flight data (battery voltage,
altitude, etc.) to the ground control station through telemetry
protocols like MAVLink or FrSky for monitoring and logging
purposes.
 Software and Customization:
o Autopilots can be programmed with different flight modes (e.g.,
stabilized, acro, autonomous) and control parameters.
o Open-source platforms like ArduPilot offer a high degree of
customization, allowing users to modify control algorithms, add custom
features, and experiment with different functionalities. This is a great
option for students and researchers interested in exploring the inner
workings of autopilots.
o Commercial autopilots from companies like DJI prioritize user-
friendliness and stability, often with pre-programmed flight modes and
limited customization options.
Additional Considerations:
 Safety Features: Autopilots may incorporate safety features like geofencing
(restricting flight zone), failsafe routines (actions taken in case of signal loss),
and return-to-home functionality to enhance flight safety.
 Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS): Many autopilots utilize RTOS like
FreeRTOS or ChibiOS/RT to manage tasks, prioritize critical processes, and
ensure real-time responsiveness for flight control.
Understanding the hardware architecture, control algorithms, communication
interfaces, and software aspects of autopilots provides a strong foundation for
engineering students interested in drone technology. By delving deeper into these
areas, you can unlock the potential for customizing and developing advanced flight
control systems for various drone applications.
AGL Pressure Sensors: Keeping Drones Safely Aloft (For Engineering
Students)

In the world of drone avionics, the AGL (Above Ground Level) pressure sensor plays
a crucial role in ensuring safe and controlled flight, particularly for autonomous
drones. Unlike traditional altimeters that measure altitude above sea level, AGL
sensors provide a more critical measurement: the drone's real-time height relative to
the ground.
Here's a breakdown of AGL pressure sensors for engineering students:
 Function:
o AGL pressure sensors measure the difference in atmospheric pressure
between the current altitude of the drone and a reference pressure
point (typically sea level pressure stored in the sensor's memory).
o By analyzing this pressure difference, the sensor can determine the
drone's height above the ground. This information is crucial for:
 Maintaining a set height: During automated takeoff, landing,
and waypoint navigation, the autopilot relies on the AGL sensor
to precisely control altitude and avoid unwanted descents.
 Obstacle avoidance: Especially for autonomous drones flying
at low altitudes, the AGL sensor data is vital for preventing
collisions with ground obstacles that might not be visible in the
camera feed.
 Sensor Technology:
o There are two main types of pressure sensors commonly used in AGL
applications:
 Piezoresistive pressure sensors: These sensors utilize a
pressure-sensitive diaphragm that deforms slightly under
varying pressure. This deformation creates a change in
electrical resistance, which is then converted into a voltage
signal that the autopilot can interpret. (Richard A. Linke,
"Sensors and Actuators for Mechatronics") provides a
detailed explanation of this principle.
  Capacitive pressure sensors: These sensors employ a
micromachined capacitor where one plate acts as a pressure
diaphragm. Changes in pressure cause a variation in the
capacitance, which is measured electronically and converted
into a voltage signal for the autopilot.
 Selection Considerations:
o When choosing an AGL pressure sensor for a drone, several factors
need to be considered:
 Accuracy: The sensor's ability to provide precise altitude
readings is paramount. Higher accuracy sensors are generally
more expensive.
 Sensitivity: The sensor's ability to detect even minor changes in
pressure, especially important for low-altitude flight.
 Response time: The speed at which the sensor reacts to
pressure changes. Faster response times are crucial for real-
time flight control.
 Operating temperature range: The sensor should function
reliably within the expected temperature range during drone
operation.
 Power consumption: For battery-powered drones, low power
consumption is essential.
 Integration with Autopilot:
o Modern autopilots seamlessly integrate with AGL pressure sensors.
The sensor transmits the voltage signal representing the measured
pressure difference. The autopilot then converts this signal into a real-
time altitude reading displayed on the ground control station and used
for flight control algorithms.
 Calibration:
o AGL pressure sensors may require periodic calibration to maintain their
accuracy. This usually involves exposing the sensor to a known
pressure (often sea level pressure simulated in a pressure chamber)
and adjusting its internal settings for optimal performance.
By understanding the function, technology, selection considerations, integration, and
calibration aspects of AGL pressure sensors, engineering students gain valuable
knowledge for designing and operating safe and reliable autonomous drones.

Delving into the Drone's Bodily Functions: Sensors and

Actuators (For Engineering Students)

Drones rely on a complex interplay between sensors and actuators to achieve stable
flight, maneuverability, and precise control. Let's explore these crucial components
from an engineering student's perspective:
1. Sensors: The Drone's Eyes and Ears
Sensors act as the drone's sensory organs, gathering vital information about its
surroundings and flight state. This data is then fed to the autopilot (the brain of the
drone) for decision-making and control adjustments. Here are some key players:
 Accelerometer:
o Function: Measures acceleration forces in all three axes (X, Y, and Z).
o Engineering Details: As explained in "Introduction to Robotics
Mechanics and Control" by John J. Craig, these sensors typically
use micromachined structures that detect g-forces acting on the drone.
The resulting electrical signal is proportional to the acceleration
experienced.
o Importance: Accelerometer data helps the autopilot maintain balance
and proper orientation during maneuvers and wind disturbances.
 Gyroscope:
o Function: Detects rotation and angular velocity around the X, Y, and Z
axes.
o Engineering Details: Gyroscopes often utilize microelectromechanical
systems (MEMS) technology with vibrating structures that sense
rotation. The resulting electrical signal is proportional to the angular
velocity. Reference "Introduction to Autonomous Mobile Robots"
by Hugh F. Durrant-Whyte for further details.
 o Importance: Gyroscope data is essential for maintaining level flight and
preventing unwanted tilting, especially during turns and changes in
direction.
 Magnetometer:
o Function: Acts like a compass, detecting the Earth's magnetic field.
o Engineering Details: Magnetometers typically employ magnetoresistive
sensors that measure the strength and direction of the magnetic field.
"Flight Dynamics and Control of Drones" by Christopher D.
MacAllister and Ry McFarland provides a more in-depth explanation.
o Importance: The magnetometer data helps determine the drone's
compass heading and overall orientation, crucial for navigation and
waypoint following.
2. Actuators: Translating Signals into Movement
Actuators are the muscular workhorses of the drone, translating electrical control
signals from the autopilot into physical movements. Here are two important types:
 Servos:
o Function: These are small, motorized units often used for precise
control of control surfaces (similar to ailerons on airplanes) that adjust
the drone's tilt and direction.
o Engineering Details: Servos typically utilize DC motors with gear trains
and feedback mechanisms (e.g., potentiometers). The autopilot sends
a Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) signal to the servo, determining the
position of the output shaft and hence the control surface angle. Refer
to "The Quadcopter: Design and Assembly" by Joshua Barnett
and Vijay Kumar for a detailed breakdown of servo principles.
o Importance: Servos provide precise control over the drone's
aerodynamics, enabling maneuvers and stable flight. They can also be
used for camera stabilization gimbals, ensuring smooth footage
capture.
 Brushless DC Motors:
o Function: These are the workhorses that drive the propellers,
generating thrust for flight.
 o Engineering Details: Brushless DC motors offer advantages like higher
efficiency, lower maintenance, and better speed control compared to
brushed DC motors. They utilize permanent magnets on the rotor and
electronically controlled stator windings to generate rotation.
"Introduction to Airborne Robotics" by Stacy D. Griffiths offers a
good explanation of their principles.
o Importance: Brushless DC motors provide the necessary thrust for the
drone to lift off, hover, and maneuver. Their controllability allows for
precise adjustments in speed and direction.
Integration and Control:
The autopilot plays a central role in coordinating sensors and actuators. It receives
sensor data, interprets it based on control algorithms, and sends control signals
(PWM for servos, electronic control signals for brushless DC motors) to the actuators
to achieve the desired flight characteristics.
Additional Considerations:
 Sensor Fusion: Modern autopilots often employ sensor fusion techniques,
combining data from multiple sensors (e.g., accelerometer and gyroscope) to
improve the accuracy and robustness of flight control information.
 Calibration: Both sensors and actuators might require periodic calibration to
ensure their accuracy and optimal performance.
Understanding the interplay between sensors and actuators equips engineering
students with the knowledge to design and build drones with precise control, stable
flight characteristics, and the ability to perform complex maneuvers.

Powering the Drone's Flight: Dissecting Power Supply and Processors (For
Engineering Students)

The successful operation of a drone hinges on two critical components: the power
supply and the processor. Let's delve deeper into their functions and engineering
considerations:
1. Power Supply: The Heartbeat of the Drone
The power supply unit (PSU) acts as the drone's lifeblood, providing the electrical
energy needed for all onboard systems to function. In the context of drones, the
primary power source is typically:
 Lithium Polymer (LiPo) Battery: (Stacy D. Griffiths, "Introduction to
Airborne Robotics") highlights LiPo batteries as the preferred choice due to
their high energy density (amount of energy stored per unit weight) and
lightweight design, crucial for maximizing flight time.
Engineering Considerations:
 Battery Chemistry: Understanding LiPo battery chemistry is essential. LiPo
batteries consist of multiple cells connected in series or parallel to achieve the
desired voltage and capacity. It's vital to handle them with care to avoid
overcharging, discharging, or overheating, which can lead to safety hazards.
 Discharge Rates (C-Rating): LiPo batteries have a specified C-rating that
indicates the maximum rate at which they can be safely discharged. Choosing
a battery with a C-rating that exceeds the drone's maximum power
requirements ensures sufficient power delivery during maneuvers and high-
performance flight.
 Charging and Discharging Procedures: Following proper charging and
discharging procedures is crucial for maintaining battery health and lifespan.
Using dedicated LiPo chargers and adhering to recommended voltage and
current limits is essential for safe operation.
2. Processors: The Brains Behind the Operation
The processor, often housed within the autopilot unit, acts as the brain of the drone.
It receives data from various sensors (accelerometer, gyroscope, etc.), interprets this
information using control algorithms, and sends control signals (PWMs) to actuators
(motors, servos) to achieve stable flight and execute maneuvers.
Engineering Considerations:
 Processor Architecture: (John E. Akin, "Flight Control Systems")
explains that drone autopilots often utilize ARM Cortex-M processors. These
processors are known for their low power consumption, which is critical for
maximizing flight time on battery power. Additionally, their real-time
processing capabilities are essential for handling sensor data and control
algorithms promptly for precise flight control.
  Control Algorithms: The processor executes control algorithms, such as PID
(Proportional-Integral-Derivative) control, to maintain stability. These
algorithms adjust motor and servo outputs based on the difference between
desired and actual flight parameters.
Integration and Communication:
The power supply unit provides the electrical energy needed for the processor to
function. The processor, in turn, communicates with various sensors and actuators
through dedicated communication interfaces like SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) or
I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit) to gather sensor data and send control signals.
Additional Considerations:
 Voltage Regulation: The power supply might include voltage regulators to
ensure a stable voltage supply for the processor and other electronic
components, even as the battery voltage fluctuates during discharge.
 Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS): Many processors utilize RTOS like
FreeRTOS or ChibiOS/RT to manage tasks, prioritize critical processes (e.g.,
flight control), and ensure real-time responsiveness for stable flight.
By understanding the power supply and processor functionalities, engineering
students gain valuable insight into the core systems that keep a drone operational
and ensure its successful flight. Delving deeper into battery chemistries, control
algorithms, and communication protocols allows students to appreciate the intricate
design considerations behind these crucial elements.

Bringing the Drone to Life: Integration, Installation, and Configuration

Now that you understand the individual components of a drone's avionics hardware,
let's explore the exciting process of putting it all together! Here's a breakdown of the
crucial steps involved:
1. Integration: The Art of Combining Components
Integration involves carefully combining the various avionics hardware elements into
a cohesive system. This includes:
 Physical Integration: Mounting the flight controller (autopilot) on the drone
frame in a secure and vibration-dampened location. Positioning other
 components like GPS modules, pressure sensors, and power distribution
boards strategically for optimal performance and weight distribution.
 Electrical Integration: Connecting all electronic components using
appropriate cables and connectors. Matching voltage and current ratings of
components to ensure safe operation. Utilizing designated power rails and
signal lines for organized wiring.
2. Installation: Mounting Hardware for Optimal Performance
Installation focuses on securely mounting all the hardware components onto the
drone frame:
 Flight Controller: Using double-sided tape or dedicated mounting brackets to
secure the flight controller to the frame, ensuring a level and vibration-free
placement.
 Motors and Propellers: Carefully attaching brushless DC motors to the
designated motor mounts on the frame. Balancing propellers for smooth and
vibration-free operation. Following recommended motor and propeller
combinations for optimal efficiency and thrust.
 Sensors: Mounting sensors like GPS modules, pressure sensors, and
accelerometers in locations specified by the manufacturer or determined
through flight testing for optimal signal reception and data accuracy.
3. Configuration: Setting Up the Brains of the Drone
Configuration involves using software to set up the flight controller and customize its
behavior for optimal performance. This can be done through a dedicated software
application provided by the autopilot manufacturer or a user interface accessible via
a computer or mobile device. Here are some key aspects of configuration:
 Sensor Calibration: Following the manufacturer's instructions for calibrating
sensors like accelerometers, gyroscopes, and magnetometers. This ensures
accurate data readings for flight control algorithms.
 ESC (Electronic Speed Controller) Programming: Configuring the
Electronic Speed Controllers (ESCs) that control the brushless DC motors.
This typically involves setting motor timing, calibration procedures, and safety
features like low-voltage cutoff.
 Flight Modes and Parameters: Selecting and configuring desired flight
modes (e.g., stabilized, acro, autonomous) and adjusting flight parameters
 like motor mixing, control throws (sensitivity), and failsafe actions in case of
signal loss.
Additional Considerations:
 Safety Precautions: Double-checking all connections for proper polarity and
tightness. Ensuring proper motor rotation direction and propeller balancing
before flight testing. Following safe battery handling practices and adhering to
recommended charging procedures.
 Software Updates: Keeping the flight controller software updated with the
latest firmware versions for bug fixes, improved functionalities, and
compatibility with new hardware.
 Testing and Tuning: Performing initial flight tests in a controlled environment
and gradually adjusting flight parameters through trial and error to achieve
optimal flight stability and performance.
By understanding these integration, installation, and configuration steps, engineering
students gain valuable practical knowledge for building and operating functional
drones. Remember, safety is paramount, so always prioritize proper connection
checks, follow manufacturer guidelines, and conduct flight tests in a safe and
controlled environment.