THE WAR OF INDEPENDECE 1857

The revolt of 1857 was an important land-mark in the history of the subcontinent. It marked the beginning of
the country’s struggle for independence after a century of foreign domination. The revolt of the sepoys accompanied by
the civil population was so strong that the very foundation of the British rule in Indo-Pakistan was shaken. It appeared
for some time that the Company’s Raj had disappeared from the land.

Centres of rebellion

Delhi, Lucknow, Kanpur and Jhansi were the main centres of the rebellions. At Kanpur, the leadership of the
revolt was taken up by Nana Sahib. He established his government there. Rani Lakshmi Bai began to rule at Jhansi. In
Oudh, Begum Hazrat Mahal led the revolt. All these chiefs professed allegiance to the Mughal Emperor who was the
symbolic head of the struggle.

Causes of the revolt

1. Political Causes:
● The territorial expansion

Since after the battle of Plassey, the territorial expansion of the Company was continuously growing which
created unrest among the Indian states. By 1818, when the last Peshwa was dethroned practically all the Indian states
had either been annexed or had entered into treaty with the Company on humiliating conditions.

● ‘The ‘Doctrine of Lapse’

In 1852, Lord Dalhousie adopted a new policy of annexation. Under the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ the princess were
denied the long cherished- right of adoption and in this way, Dalhousie annexed the Maratha states of Satra, Nagpur,
and Jhansi. On the death of Baji Rao II, pension granted to him was abolished and his adopted son, Nana Sahib was
deprived of this right.

● The Seizure of Oudh’ in 1856

The seizure of ‘Oudh’ in 1856, convinced the local people that the British are usurpers and grabbers. They
wanted to expand the territory by hook or by crook.

● The mistreatment of the Mughal Emperor

It was another cause of unrest. Dalhousie’s decision to move the royal family from the Red Fort of Delhi to Qutub Sahib
was taken as a sign of disrespect.

● Exclusion of the Indians from the high posts

As time went on the Company became very cruel in dealing with the Indians. The administrative reforms of the
Cornwallis meant the virtual exclusion of the Indians, especially the Muslims. To make matter worse, the English
administrators gradually became arrogant and there was a wide gulf of differences between the rulers and the ruled.

2. Military Causes:
● The greased Cartridges
 In 1856 a new Lee Enfield rifle was introduced into the army which worked with the cartridges which were greased.
In those days there were no synthetic greases. The soldiers began to suspect that the grease must be animal fat
either of cow or pig. Both Hindus and Muslims recoiled against using these cartridges. Thus, it became the
immediate cause of the revolt.

● Military reforms

The loyalty of the sepoys was further undermined by certain military reforms which outraged their religious feelings. The
Hindus had an aversion to overseas service, as travel across the seas meant loss of caste for them. Their feelings had
previously been respected in this matter. According to the new orders, issued by Lord Canning in 1858, all the recruits
should be obliged to serve wherever required.

● Grievances of the Local sepoys

The sepoys of the Bengal army were m mostly from Oudh and the North West Frontier Province. Their salaries were
very low in comparison with those of the British soldiers and chances of their promotion negligible. Their bitterness
against the Company was intensified by the arrogant attitude of the European officers.

● Capture of Delhi

On 29th March, 1857 the revolt started first at Barrackpore in Bengal. At Meerut the rebellion took serious turn. The
rebels killed some of the British officers. They marched off to Delhi and placed Bahadur Shah II on the throne. The city of
Delhi passed into the hands of rebels in a few hours. Bakht Khan assumed the command of Delhi.

3. ECONOMIC and SOCIAL CAUSES

● Agrarian policy of the Company

The land holding class became much aggrieved at the agrarian policy of the Company. Many land owners were deprived
of their lands as they failed to establish their proprietary rights by documentary proofs. Thus, Zamindars and Talukdars
had lost their ancestral lands as well as social status. The peasants also did not get any benefit under the new system
and were equally aggrieved.

● High taxation
- The British merchants made high profits from textiles by imposing high taxes of the local made goods. Thus
exploited India’s wealth to the full.
- Some tax collectors were very corrupt and kept some of the money for themselves
- The British kept the salaries of the sepoys low which caused more resentment
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4. Religious causes
- The British desired to impose Christianity on every Indian national. The policy of converting the locals to
Christianity was systematically pursued with the help of Christian missionaries. In 1850 a bill was passed by which
the right of inheritance of those Indians was acknowledged who became Christians. The Hindu law of property
was changed to facilitate the conversion of Hindus to Christianity.
- The British considered it their duty to spread their ‘superior culture’
- The British treated the Indians as inferior race, so never mixed as social equals
- Introduction of new way of life with its railways, roads and telegraph was unacceptable to many Indians

CAUSES OF THE FALIUR OF THE MOVEMENT

Q. Why did the mutiny war fail? [7]

1. Lack of leadership

The freedom-fighters failed on account of the lack of leadership among them. General Bakht, Rani of Jhansi and
Nana Sahib were capable people and fought well in their areas but unfortunately none of them was the in-charge of the
show. On the other hand, the British cause was served by a galaxy of outstanding generals, like Lawrence, Havelock, and
Edwards who fought with devotion and loyalty to the Queen.

2. Lack of Unity of Action

The absence of unity of action among the rebels was the main cause of failure of the struggle. The rebels had no
common object. Most of the leaders took part in the struggle for the personal interest. Even after the revolt Nana
Sahib declared that if Dalhousie’s decisions

3. Well trained British army

- The British cause was served by a galaxy of outstanding generals, like Lawrence, Havelock, and Edwards who
fought with devotion and loyalty to the Queen.
- Highly disciplined army under the war veterans
 - Fighting techniques
- Sophisticated war weapons
- Diplomatic skills of the British
4. Lack of planning and common goal
No organized effort, no proper planning, no coordinated efforts, no cause of common concern i.e. Hindutva, Sikh
rule, Mughals. So, were easily over powered by the British
5. Lack of Support
- The revolt was not supported by Punjab and Sindh
- Conquered by the troops from Bengal and Central India

Effects of the war of 1857

- It marked the end of the Mughal rule and harsh punishment for the royal family
- It also marked the end of the EIC rule. India was taken under the direct control of the British Queen
- Harsh punishments for the rebels especially for the Muslims
- Gradual political awakening i.e., Congress
- After the war of independence, the British gov’t decided to abolish the EIC and under the act of 1858, India was to
be directly governed by the Crown.
- The Secretary of the State and an Indian Council was created in place of board of control.
- The Secretary of the State and an Indian Council was created in place of board of control