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M A K I N G E DE N
For Juliette and Joshua
and
My parents and their insistence on the holiday diaries
1
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6dp,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© David Beerling 2019
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2019
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018965379
ISBN 978–0–19–879830–9
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
Clays Ltd, Elcograf S.p.A.
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
botany /’bot(ə)ni/ n. 1. the study of the physiology, structure, genetics, ecology,
distribution, classification, and economic importance of plants. 2. The plant life
of a particular area or time. botanic /bə’tanɪk/ adj. botanical /bə’tanɪk(ə)l/ adj.
botanically /bə’tanɪk(ə)li/ adv. botanist n. [botanic via French botanique or Late
Latin botanicus from Greek botanikos, from botaneˉ ‘plant’: botany is from botanic]
OED
P REFACE
sheep keepers maintained the pastoral economy in this way for over 500 years
and surviving huts can still be found dotted across the region, relicts of times past.
My grandfather’s tools hang up in the shed I can see from my office window
and connect the past with the present. The handles worn smooth by over five
decades of hard labour on the marshes remind me of his understanding between
plants, stock, and the land. He understood that the grazing pastures of Kent fuel
the rural economy of the county and have done so for centuries, and this regional
situation is really a parable for how the whole planet operates. Plants are the food
stock of the biosphere and everything else follows from there. Without plants,
there would be no us.
Over 7 billion people (and rising) depend on plants for healthy, productive,
secure lives, but few of us stop to consider the origin of the plant kingdom that
turned the world green and made our lives possible. The origin of humans is fre-
quently considered in books and TV documentaries, but not the origin of land
plants. And as the human population continues to escalate, our survival depends
on how we treat the plant kingdom and the soils that sustain it. The evolutionary
history of our land floras, the story of how plant life conquered the continents to
dominate the planet, is fundamental to our own existence.
This, then, is the subject of Making Eden. Building on the foundations estab-
lished by generations of scientists, it reveals the hidden history of Earth’s sun-shot
greenery and considers its future prospects as we farm the planet to feed the
world. Our evolutionary journey stretches back over half a billion years with
twists and turns decoded from clues encrypted in fossils, DNA molecules, and the
ecology of the plant kingdom. It is a story of how plant life on land originated
from freshwater algal ancestors, how it inhaled, diversified, and spread out to con-
quer the continents, slowly air-conditioning the planet. Finally we are glimpsing
answers to the question of origins that have haunted botanists ever since Darwin.
In some respects, Making Eden can be regarded as the prequel to my previous
book, The Emerald Planet (2007), which actually had rather little to say about how
plant life on land got going and sustains the diversity of life there. Instead, it
offered a closely argued case for recognizing plants as a ‘geological force of
nature’, drivers of changes, sculpting continents, and changing the chemistry of
the atmosphere and oceans, to set the agenda for life on Earth. It was a long over-
looked story that went on to sow the seeds for the three-part BBC2 television
series How to Grow a Planet (2012).
Pr e face a ix
But now the stage is set for Making Eden. My hope in writing this book is that it
might at least give readers pause for thought before dismissing botany as boring
and irrelevant. I also hope that it might persuade readers to think of plants, and
the scientists who study them, in an entertaining new light. Steve Jones, a leading
geneticist at University College London, and one time regular science columnist
for the Daily Telegraph, wrote an article a few years ago entitled ‘Where have all the
botanists gone, just when we need them?’ He rightly pointed out the central role
of plants in the challenges facing humanity, and the challenges facing the subject
of botany, writing ‘why do students find the vegetable world so boring when with-
out it we would perish?’ Plants and botanists are in need of greater advocacy.
Ultimately, I hope readers may come to appreciate that botany is an astonishing
and deeply engaging field of scientific enquiry, with immediacy to all life on Earth.
d.b .
Sheffield, 2018
ACKN OW LEDG EMEN T S
We all need great mentors, no matter which walk of life we choose. In having
the late William (Bill) Chaloner FRS (22 November 1928–13 October 2016) as a
mentor for nearly two decades, I was fortunate to have had one of the best. Bill
died before I completed this book, but had already offered me his encouraging,
critical comments on several chapters. This book is dedicated to Bill’s memory; a
man who really did ‘leave an afterglow of smiles when life is done’. In 1970, Bill
published an influential academic paper entitled ‘The rise of the first land plants’
(Biological Reviews, 45, 353–77) in which he dealt with ‘the facts from which a
hypothesis of evolutionary progression may be constructed’. Nearly 50 years on,
I realize that I have unconsciously written my own update on that same thesis.
Financial support for my research group over the past decade has been pro-
vided by the Royal Society, the Leverhulme Trust, and the Natural Environment
Research Council, UK, for which I am most grateful.
Sincere thanks must go to my patient and enthusiastic editor, Latha Menon,
whose editorial comments and wise suggestions improved the text. My gratitude
too, to Jenny Nugée, and the rest of the Oxford University Press team, who effi-
ciently took the book through the publication process.
Writing this book has taken quite some time, which in one way has been help-
ful because the suspicion is that a long manuscript improves with a long gestation
time. But the down side is the steeply rising forbearance required of my wife,
Juliette, who additionally provided title inspiration. So there comes a point, after
so many years, when you have to get on with it. Joshua’s imminent arrival helped
daddy get a move on, so that we can all spend more time together growing apples,
walking, bird watching, and learning how to fish. I thank Juliette and Joshua for
their patience, love, and support, and look forward to our fun times together now
that this is done.
CON TEN T S
3. Genomes decoded 42
5. Gas valves 94
Drought
Fresh water
Algal mat
Salt water
Zygnematophyceae
Land
Chlorophytes
Mesostigmatophyceae
Chlorokybophyceae
Klebsormidiophyceae
Charophyceae
Coleochaetophyceae
plant
s
KCM KCM ZCC
Streptophytes
Chloroplastida
Interaction with
substrate microbiota?
Plate 1. Colonization of terrestrial habitats by streptophyte green algae, the group that
includes all land plants. ZCC abbreviates the higher branching grades (Zygnematophyceae,
Coleochaetophyceae, and Charophyceae) and KCM abbreviates the lower branching or
basal grades (Klebsormidiophyceae, Chlorokybophyceae, and Mesostigmatophyceae).
Plate 2. Present-day species of charophyte algae, the group which includes the freshwater
ancestors of land plants. (A) Klebsormidium nitens (Klebsormidiales), (B) the stonewort Nitella
hyalina (Charales), (C) Coleochaete pulvinata (Coleochaetales), and (D) Spirogyra (spiral chloroplast)
and Mougeotia (flat chloroplast) (Zygnematales). Note basal branch in Mougeotia (white
arrow) and holdfasts (black arrows).
Plate 3. The diversity of plants. (A) An assemblage of Phaeoceros (a hornwort; white arrow),
Fossombronia (a leafy liverwort; red arrow), and interspersed mosses. The arrows point to
the sporophytes. (B) Lycopodium digitatum, a lycopod, showing spore-bearing cones. (C) A
tree fern (Cyathea horrida), (D) the cycad Cycas revoluta, a widely cultivated cycad sometimes
called ‘Sago Palm’, (E) Nymphaea hybrid, a water lily, a representative of one of the basal
branches of flowering plants, and (F) Ampelopsis sp., grape family (Vitaceae) being pollinated
by a wasp. Ampelopsis represents the eudicots.
Plate 4. Coastal redwoods, the tallest trees on Earth. This titan lives in Prairie Creek
Redwoods State Park, California, USA and is probably over 1500 years old. Photo composed
of a mosaic of 84 images.
Wild type “normal” Moss line without Moss line without Moss line without
moss the SMF1 gene the SMF2 gene the SCRM gene
(no stomata develop) (stomata develop) (no stomata develop)
Stomata
Plate 5. Normal moss develops stomata on its sporophytes, whereas lines lacking SMF1 and
SCRM genes develop sporophytes lacking stomata. In contrast, those with the SMF2 gene
develop normal stomata. The top line of images were taken with an epifluorescence micro-
scope which causes the stomata to glow. The lower set are photos taken using a scanning
electron microscope. Scale bar in all images = 50 µm.
Plate 6. Reconstruction of the early vascular land plant Aglaophyton with images of a cross
section of a rhizome and fossilized fungal structures resembling arbuscules. Top right
photo (cross section): ×15 magnification; bottom photo: × 600 magnification.
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de hauteur, permettent de se rendre sur le versant nord de l’île. C’est
la promenade obligée des nouveaux arrivants.
De telles excursions, faites en groupe, gaiement, par un jour clair
et un temps sûr, avec quelque bonne cantine, pourvue des éléments
d’un pique-nique sagement ordonné, sont charmantes, mais
indescriptibles. On admire, on s’exclame à chaque tournant de route,
à chaque point de vue nouveau ; on plaisante les cavaliers novices ;
dans les haltes, chacun suit son penchant ou sa fantaisie ; les
chasseurs s’enfoncent dans les fourrés, les botanistes butinent çà et
là ; l’un prend un croquis ; l’autre, armé du petit marteau, se charge
d’échantillons géologiques. Si on se fatigue, on ne s’en aperçoit
qu’après, et d’ailleurs un bon souvenir ne passe pas si vite qu’une
courbature.
A la tombée de la nuit, quelques-uns d’entre nous sont allés
rendre visite à l’hospitalier compatriote qui nous avait, l’avant-veille,
transmis une si aimable invitation. Ils furent, bon gré mal gré,
retenus à dîner et, après quelques heures de cordiale causerie, s’en
revinrent à bord. Nous partions le soir même à dix heures, malgré
tous les efforts du gouverneur pour nous garder un jour ou deux de
plus.
En mer, 17 août.
22 août.
2 septembre.
« Illustre nautonier,
» Signé : Neptune. »
Et plus bas :