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COMPUTATIONAL GEOPHYSICS SERIES
Volume 2
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden
our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using
any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or
methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they
have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither AACCI nor the Publisher, nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
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contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-12-819646-5
ISSN: 2468-547X
Introduction
Chapter Outline
References 3
Processing and analysis of thermal data in boreholes are considered in detail in Eppelbaum
et al. (2014) and Kutasov and Eppelbaum (2015).
Gravity field is usually considered separately or together with magnetic field, very rarely,
with electric field, but never five geophysical fields were considered from the same
positions (of course, where it is possible). In the magnetic field, for qualitative and
quantitative analysis were obtained new solutions (e.g., Khesin et al., 1996) which were
successfully transferred (with necessary modifications) to other potential fields.
Chapter 2 describes the common aspects of the analyzing potential geophysical fields and
some peculiarities of potential field observation have on an inclined profile.
Chapter 3 is intended to analyze different kinds of noise and the ways of their removal
(elimination).
Various filtering, transformation, and information procedures are considered in detail in
Chapter 4.
Chapter 5 displays the methodologies of magnetic field quantitative interpretation under
conditions of oblique polarization, rugged terrain relief and unknown level of the normal
field, and transformation of these methodologies to other potential fields.
Algorithms for combined 3D modeling of gravity and magnetic fields are given in Chapter
6.
Methodology of 3D combined modeling as geologicalegeophysical integration is
considered in Chapter 7.
Chapter 8 is intended for deep structure study, where examples of 3D combined gravity-
magnetic modeling from the South Caucasus and Eastern Mediterranean are considered.
Especial attention is given to extensively developing methodology of satellite gravity data
examination on examples of the South Caucasus, Eastern Mediterranean, and vast
AfricaneArabian region.
Application of potential geophysical fields for searching and localization of hydrocarbon
and ore deposits is presented in Chapter 9.
Localization of water reserves is analyzed in Chapter 10; main attention is given to the
Sea of Galilee, locating in a complex tectonic pattern.
In Chapter 11 presented mainly are different approaches to localization of karst
phenomena.
Influence of gravity-magnetic MooneSuneEarth interaction to Earth environments are
described in Chapter 12.
Introduction 3
References
Dentith, M., Mudge, S., 2014. Geophysics for the Mineral Exploration. Geoscientist. Cambridge Univ. Press,
Cambridge, UK.
Eppelbaum, L., Kutasov, I., Pilchin, A., 2014. Applied Geothermics. Springer.
Eppelbaum, L.V., Khesin, B.E., 2012. Geophysical Studies in the Caucasus. Springer.
Everett, M., 2013. Near-Surface Applied Geophysics. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK.
Gupta, H.K. (Ed.), 2011. Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics. Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
Khesin, B.E., Alexeyev, V.V., Eppelbaum, L.V., 1996. Interpretation of Geophysical Fields in Complicated
Environments. In: Modern Approaches in Geophysics. Kluwer Academic Publishers (Springer), Boston e
Dordrecht e London.
Kono, M. (Ed.), 2007. Geomagnetism. Treatise on Geophysics. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Kutasov, I.M., Eppelbaum, L.V., 2015. Pressure and Temperature Well Testing. CRC Press (Taylor and Francis
Inc).
Lowrie, W., 2007. Fundamentals of Geophysics. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK.
Parasnis, D.S., 1986. Principles of Applied Geophysics, fourth ed. Chapman & Hall, London. revised and
supplemented.
Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.P., Sheriff, R.E., 2004. Applied Geophysics, second ed. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Yacoby, W., Smilde, P.L., 2009. Gravity Interpretation. Fundamentals and Application of Gravity Inversion and
Geological Interpretation. Springer, Berlin-Heidelberg.
Zhdanov, M.S., Keller, G.V., 1994. Geoelectrical Methods in Geophysical Exploration. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
CHAPTER 2
F ¼ grad W; (2.2)
where F is the gravity field intensity and W is the gravity potential.
The proportionality between the gravity field intensity and the substance density s is
determined by the expression:
div F ¼ 4pGs; (2.3)
where G is the gravity constant.
As follows from Eqs. (2.3) and (2.2), the gravity potential must satisfy Poisson’s equation
(Kaufman, 1992):
V2 W ¼ 4pGs; (2.4)
Here Zv is the vertical magnetic field component at vertical magnetization; J is the
magnetization; b is the horizontal semithickness of TB (thin bed); m is the magnetic mass;
Geophysical Potential Fields. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811685-2.00002-3
Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
5
6 Chapter 2
Temperature e Sphere
q m1 R3
Dt ¼
l2 m þ 2 ðx2 þ z2 Þ3=2
G is the gravity constant; s is the density; M is the mass of the sphere; r1 is the host
medium resistivity; r2 is the anomalous object (HCC [horizontal circular cylinder] or
sphere) resistivity; U0 is the potential jump at the source body/host medium interface; r0 is
the polarized cylinder radius; R is the sphere radius; t is temperature; q is the heat flow
density; l2 is the thermal conductivity of the anomalous object; m is the object-to-medium
thermal conductivity ratio; x is the current coordinate; z is the depth of the upper DTB
edge (HCC or sphere center) occurrence.
whereas points where the mass is zero (s ¼ 0) should satisfy Laplace’s equation:
v2 W v2 W v2 W
DW ¼ þ 2 þ 2 : (2.5)
vx2 vy vz
It allows to apply in the gravity method advanced interpretation methods developed in
magnetic prospecting (Khesin et al., 1996).
Let us consider some analytical expressions for typical interpretation models for natural
potential fields (Table 2.1). The proportionality of analytical expressions for different fields
presented separately in columns 2 and 3 of the table is obvious.
There is a similarity between the analytical expressions applied in magnetic prospecting and
those used in the resistivity method (Eppelbaum, 1999a, 2007). Thus, it is possible to apply
the advanced methodology developed in magnetic prospecting (e.g., Khesin et al., 1996) to
interpret resistivity anomalies.
8 Chapter 2
The transformations are carried out in the following sequence. The inclined coordinate
system x0 Oz0 is introduced in such a way that
x ¼ x0 cos u0 z0 sin u0 ;
(2.13)
z ¼ x0 sin u0 z0 cos u0 :
The formulas for xs and zs are similar. The Ox0 -axis in this system coincides with the
inclined profile, which gives z0 ¼ 0 and results in Eq. (2.12) (Khesin et al., 1996).
In the x0 Oz0 system, Eqs. (2.10) and (2.11) are transformed to the following forms:
Z 0
zs cos gp þ u0 þ x0s x0 sin gp þ u0
U1 ðx; zÞ ¼ P dx0s dz0s ; (2.14)
S r 02
Z 02 0 _ _
zs xs x0 cosg p þ 2 x0s x0 z0s sing p 0 0
U2 ðx; zÞ ¼ P dxs dzs ; (2.15)
S r 04
1 =
2 _
where r0 ¼ ½ðx0s xÞ2 þ ðz0s z0 Þ2 and g p ¼ gp þ 2u0 :
Potential Geophysical Fields: Similarity and Difference 9
Δ g ,mGal
Δ g',mGal
2.0
Δ gf (x,0)
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0 Δ g(x',0)
Δ g(x,z)
0.5
0.5
100
200 400
σ
500
c(xo, h)
z',m s
300 600
700
z,m
800
x' ,m
Figure 2.1
Interpretation of gravity measurements for an inclined profile (Alexeyev et al., 1996).
It is obvious that the right-hand sides of Eqs. (2.14) and (2.15) correspond to the functions
U0 1(x0 , 0), U0 2(x0 , 0) in the inclined system, but for a different inclination angle of the
polarization vector. If a body in the initial system was vertically polarized, it turns out to
be obliquely polarized (angles u0 or 2u0 respectively) in the inclined system, since the
polarization vector does not intersect the Ox0 -axis at a right angle.
Eqs. (2.14) and (2.15) can be essentially interpreted in the inclined coordinate system
making use of the techniques developed for the horizontal profile, since the changing
10 Chapter 2
heights of observation points are not included there. To interpret in the initial system, we
have to continue our manipulations in the following sequence.
The entire space with the anomalous object and the polarization vector is turned by the
angle u0 and compressed at the compressibility coefficient of (cos u0). In addition, when
manipulating with Eq. (2.14), P is multiplied by (sec u0). This done, the inclined profile
Ox0 coincides with the horizontal straight line, and the observation points on the profile
pass along the vertical into the corresponding points on the horizontal straight line. An
anomaly plot, constructed by these points (in horizontal projection) is a standard plot used
routinely, although observations are made on an inclined relief. However, after the space
rotation and compression the anomalous object occupies a different position with respect
to the initial one. Its cross-section is smaller than the initial one, but the outline is similar.
After this transformation, Eqs. (2.14) and (2.15) acquire the following forms:
Z
zsf cos gp þ u0 þ ðxsf xÞ sin gp þ u0
U1 ðx; zÞ ¼ U1f ðx; 0Þ ¼ Pf dxsf dzsf ; (2.16)
Sf rf2
h i
Z z2 ðxsf xÞ2 cosg _ _
sf p þ 2ðxsf xÞzsf sing p
U2 ðx; zÞ ¼ U2f ðx; 0Þ ¼ P dxsf dzsf ; (2.17)
Sf rf4
Here, the subscript “f ” stands for the parameters of a fictitious body. When used with
symbols U1 and U2, it denotes that they refer to a fictitious body.
The interpretation of the curves U1f and U2f results in obtaining parameters of a fictitious
body, which are used to reconstruct those of a real body (denoted by “s” subscript) with
the help of the following formulas of transition:
8 9
>
> zs ¼ zsf þ xsf tan u0 ; >
>
>
> >
>
>
> xs ¼ xsf tan u0 þ zsf ; >
>
>
> >
>
< S ¼ Ssf sec2 u0 ; =
P ¼ Pf cos u0 ðby U1 interpretationÞ : (2.18)
>
> >
>
>
> P ¼ Pf ðby U2 interpretationÞ >
>
>
> >
>
>
> g ¼ g u ðby >
: g ¼ g 2u ðby U interpretationÞ >
U interpretationÞ
;
p pf 0 1
p pf 0 2
Let us consider the analytical expression of the gravity anomaly caused by a certain
anomalous body:
Z
ðzs zÞ cos gg þ ðxs xÞ sin gg
Dg ¼ 2Gs ds; (2.19)
S r2
where the value gg is an analogue of the value gp in Eq. (2.10).
Potential Geophysical Fields: Similarity and Difference 11
This formula does not differ from Eq. (2.10) by its structure. After the above
manipulations, it receives the following form:
Z
rgf cos ggf þ ðxsf xÞsin ggf
Dgf ¼ 2Gsf dsf ; (2.20)
S rf2
such that
ggf ¼ gg þ u0 : (2.21)
Taking into account that gg ¼ 0, we obtain ggf ¼ u0. Hence, the anomaly of Dg observed
on the inclined relief corresponds to that caused by a fictitious obliquely polarized body
observed on the horizontal relief. The latter is affected both by vertical and horizontal
gravity components. This is equivalent to the manifestation of “vector properties” of
density on the inclined relief.
Overall, the effect of the profile inclination is equivalent to an increased effect of oblique
polarization, if the vector P and the relief have the same sense of slope, and to a weakened
effect, if the relief and the vector P are inclined in opposite senses, up to their mutual
neutralization. This fact determines the unified techniques for interpreting obliquely
polarized bodies observed on the inclined relief. It facilitates the analysis of the distortions
due to the effect of sloping relief, which can be completely attributed to the oblique
polarization effect.
Thus, Eqs. (2.11) and (2.12) reduce the problem of interpretation of the potential fields
observed on the inclined profile to the same problem for the horizontal profile. Eq. (2.13)
describes the transition from the parameters obtained while interpreting a fictitious body to
those of a real body.
The above data substantiate the conversion in the inclined semispace, since a field observed
on the complex relief can be expressed using a certain inclined system of coordinates, the
reduction being accomplished as in the normal system. The field in the observation points
of the relief is converted to an inclined straight line along the normal to the latter.
The advantage of such reduction consists in that the inclined plane of the reduction may
be selected as close as possible not only to the highest points but also to many points of
the relief. As a result, the amplitude decreases appreciably less than when converting to
the horizontal level of the highest relief points.
References
Alexeyev, V.V., Khesin, B.E., Eppelbaum, L.V., 1996. Geophysical fields observed at different heights: a
common interpretation technique. In: Proceed. of the Meeting of Soc. of Explor. Geophys., Jakarta,
pp. 104e108.
12 Chapter 2
Eppelbaum, L.V., 1999a. Quantitative interpretation of resistivity anomalies using advanced methods developed
in magnetic prospecting. In: Trans. of the XXIV General Assembly of the Europ. Geoph. Soc., Strasbourg,
vol. 1, No. 1, p. 166.
Eppelbaum, L.V., 2007. Revealing of subterranean karst using modern analysis of potential and quasi-potential
fields. In: Proceed. Of the 2007 SAGEEP Conference, 20, Denver, USA, pp. 797e810.
Eppelbaum, L., Kutasov, I., Pilchin, A., 2014. Applied Geothermics. Springer.
Hughes, D.S., Pondrom, W.S., 1947. Computation of vertical magnetic anomalies from total magnetic field
measurements. Transactions e American Geophysical Union 28 (2), 193.
Kaufman, A.A., 1992. Geophysical Field Theory and Method. In: Gravitational, Electric and Magnetic Fields,
vol. 1. Academic Press, San Diego.
Khesin, B.E., Alexeyev, V.V., Eppelbaum, L.V., 1996. Interpretation of Geophysical Fields in Complicated
Environments. Kluwer Academic Publishers (Springer. Ser.: Modern Approaches in Geophysics, Boston e
Dordrecht e London.
Semenov, A.S., 1980. Electric Prospecting by Self-Potential Method. revised and supplemented, 4st ed. Nedra,
Leningrad. in Russian.
Tafeyev, Y.P., Sokolov, K.P., 1981. Geological Interpretation of Magnetic Anomalies. Nedra, Leningrad in
Russian.
Tikhonov, A.N., Samarsky, A.A., 1963. Equations of Mathematical Physics. Pergamon Press.
Zhdanov, M.S., Keller, G.V., 1994. The Geoelectrical Methods in Geophysical Exploration. Elsevier.
Further Reading
Dobrin, M.B., Savit, C.H., 1988. Introduction to Geophysical Prospecting, fourth ed. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Eppelbaum, L.V., 2011. Review of environmental and geological microgravity applications and feasibility of
their implementation at archaeological sites in Israel. International Journal of Geophysics 1e9. ID
927080.
Gupta, H.K. (Ed.), 2011. Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics. Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
Lowrie, W., 2007. Fundamentals of Geophysics. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK.
Parasnis, D.S., 1986. Principles of Applied Geophysics, fourth ed. Chapman & Hall, London. revised and
supplemented.
Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.R., Sheriff, R.E., 2004. Applied Geophysics, second ed. Cambridge Univ. Press,
Cambridge.
CHAPTER 3
It is well known that geophysical observations are often complicated by a lot of factors
(Eppelbaum and Khesin, 2012). Detailed investigation of these noises enabled to develop a
generalized scheme of their classification (Fig. 3.1). Let us briefly consider these
disturbances.
Artificial noise. The first component of this noise is industrial component. This component
comprises power lines, cables, buildings, different underground and transport
communications and strongly affects practically all potential fields applied in geophysics
(a list of all this noise is reflecting in self-potential (SP) methods). Instrumental
component is associated with the properties of geophysical instruments, such as a “shift
zero” of gravimeters and magnetometers. Difficulties of electrodes grounding are of some
Geophysical Potential Fields. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811685-2.00003-5
Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
13
14 Chapter 3
significance for geophysical potential fields with electrode scheme of measurements, such
as resistivity and SP methods. It is one of typical technical problems arising in arid and
semiarid regions. Finally, the last component of artificial noise is absence of information
about the earlier performed geophysical observations at the site under study that did not
allow to utilize these data by planning geophysical investigations and their analysis
(Eppelbaum and Khesin, 2012).
Natural disturbances. The first component of nonstationary noise comprises temporary
variations of geophysical fields, such as tidal variations in gravity field, ionosphere
disturbances influencing magnetic field, and climatic changes affecting temperature
and SP fields. The second component of nonstationary noise reflects meteorological
conditions (rains, lighting, snow, hurricanes, etc.) obviously disturbing observations of all
potential fields. The first and the most important component of the geological-geophysical
Figure 3.1
A generalized scheme of different kinds of noise appearing in potential field investigations. After
Eppelbaum, L.V., 2011. Study of magnetic anomalies over archaeological targets in urban conditions. Physics
and Chemistry of the Earth 36 (16), 1318 1330, with modifications.
Different Kinds of Noise and Ways for Their Removing 15
and environmental factors is the physical limitation indicating is the suggested potential
field applicable in the concrete situation (ratio signal/noise, observation grid, proposed
depth of occurring of anomalous target, etc.)
Soil-vegetable factors are associated with some soil types (e.g., waterlogged ground and
loose ground in deserts) and dense vegetation complicating movement with geophysical
equipment. Uneven terrain relief effect causes the physical limitations by equipment
transportation and geophysical data measurements. Interpreting this disturbing effect is
generally twofold for potential and quasi-potential fields: first, there is the effect of the
form and physical properties of the topographic bodies forming the relief and, second,
there is the effect of variations in the distance from the measurement point to the hidden
target (Khesin et al., 1996).
Complex structure of geological section is most important. Variety of anomalous sources is
composed from two factors: variable surrounding medium and variety of anomalous targets.
Both these factors are very crucial and strongly complicate interpretation of all potential fields.
Oblique polarization (magnetization) complicates magnetic, SP, thermal and resistivity
fields. Oblique polarization disturbs these geophysical fields in the following manner: the
major extremum is shifted from the projection of the upper edge of object on the plan, and
an additional extremum may appear (Khesin et al., 1996). Oblique magnetization is a
characteristic peculiarity for the majority regions of the world.
3.1.2 Magnetometer
The first temperature devices applied for borehole measurements had a low quality (about
0.2e0.5 C.). Present accuracy of temperature devices consists of 0.01e0.001 C
(Eppelbaum et al., 2014; Huynh, 2015) and even higher. At the same time, accuracy of
heat flow q (q ¼ lgrad T ¼ l dt/dz) is comparatively lowdabout 10%e12%. It is
caused by insufficient accuracy of the thermal conductivity l determination in field
conditions, whereas parameter graduate T is measured with a high accuracy.
Let us say we have for first electrode: U1 þ e1 (U1 is the first “geological” signal, and e1 is
the noise of accumulated in the first electrode). For the second electrode, we have
correspondingly U2 þ e2 (U2 is the second “geological” signal, and e2 is the noise of
accumulated in the second electrode). We measure the value (Semenov, 1980)
DU1 ¼ ðU1 þ e1 Þ ðU2 þ e2 Þ: (3.1)
If we will change electrodes by their places, we will receive
DU2 ¼ ðU1 þ e2 Þ ðU2 þ e1 Þ: (3.2)
If we will calculate difference between DU1 and DU2, we will receive
vU ¼ DU1 DU2 ¼ ½U1 þ e1 U2 e2 ½U1 þ e2 U2 e1 ¼ 2ðe1 e2 Þ (3.3)
or
vU
ðe1 e2 Þ ¼ : (3.4)
2
If the value (e1 e2) is significant, the electrodes must be replaced.
3.1.5 Resistivity
Instrumental noise in the resistivity method is usually associated with the quality of
electrodes and may be removed calculated by different methods (e.g., Perrone et al., 2014).
Gravity field temporal variations are caused mainly by tidal effects (we assume that
instrumental “shift zero” has been removed). Methodology of removing tidal effects is
well known (e.g., Elkins, 1943; Yacoby and Smilde, 2009).
X
l X
k
DTðx; y; tÞ ¼ ai þ nj ; (3.5)
i 1 j 1
where t is the time, x and y are the spatial coordinates, DT(x, y, t) is the magnetic field
P P
registered along a profile, li 1 ai is the sum of “useful” anomalies and kj 1 nj is the sum
of the noise component caused by temporary variations. This formula provides only a
simple subtraction of the noise component from the observed magnetic field and cannot be
used to calculate the effect of secondary variations.
Given that the secondary variation effect also depends on the intensity of the primary
variations, the typical model of magnetic observations may be described in the following
way (Eppelbaum and Mishne, 1995; Eppelbaum et al., 2001):
8 2 39
Xk Xl < Xk =
DTðx; y; tÞ ¼ nð j; tÞ þ S x; y; ai 4 nð j; tÞ5 ; (3.6)
j 1 i 1
: j 1
;
P P P
where kj 1 nð j; tÞ is the field variations in time, and li 1 Sfx; y; ai ½ kj 1 nð j; tÞg is the
sum of the effects from anomalous objects and geological inhomogeneities of the medium
with regard to their dependence on the field variations.
Measurements at points along the profile are made at different times t (2) to obtain a
solvable set of algebraic equations to extract the desired signal DT with sufficient
accuracy.
Various methods of geothermal surveying and data processing have been developed for
eliminating the temporal variations of temperature in near-surface temperature survey. The
procedure suggested by Parasnis (1971) speeds up the field works but does not allow to
remove seasonal variations. The other method consists of conducting a long-term
geothermal investigation of the area under study and selecting a period when seasonal
variations are minimal for the field survey (Dobrynina et al., 1985). However, this method
suffers from such drawbacks as long duration, and hence nonapplicability of the results,
since the time of fieldwork is frequently set by organizational factors, etc.
Two other methods are worth mentioning: (1) synchronous measurements of the temperature
variations within the field survey (Khutorskoi et al., 1983) similar to the well-known method
of eliminating magnetic field variations in magnetic prospecting and (2) measurement of the
temperature simultaneously at all points of the profile (Chekalyuk et al., 1974). However, in
the first method it is not always possible to avoid the influence of temperature waves
delayed in diffusing from the surface. The second method (it should be noted that there is
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neanche, per ora, fare serie novità nello Stato. Si limitò a presiedere
i comizi per le nuove elezioni, nelle quali fu eletto console per il 48; a
proporre al popolo una quasi universale amnistia per i condannati
politici dopo il 52; a far una legge che concedeva la cittadinanza alla
Gallia Cisalpina, e una legge sui debiti, che cercava di alleviare i
disagi e le rovine della guerra, ma con molta prudenza e saggezza.
La legge statuiva che gl’interessi già sborsati fossero diffalcati dalla
somma totale del debito; e autorizzava i debitori a pagare le somme
da essi dovute coi loro beni immobili, non però secondo il loro valore
presente troppo basso, ma secondo la stima anteriore alla guerra.
Le contestazioni sarebbero giudicate da una commissione di arbitri.
Nè basta: per promuovere il riflusso del danaro, che la guerra aveva
fatto scomparire, rimise in vigore una vecchia disposizione caduta in
oblio, la quale vietava ai cittadini di tenere presso di sè più di 60.000
sesterzi in oro o in argento. Tutte queste cose furono fatte in soli
undici giorni di dittatura; dopo di che Cesare deponeva la carica e
s’accingeva all’impresa finale contro Pompeo.
15. I motivi o i pretesti, a cui gli avversari di Cesare, avrebbero potuto dar
mano per intentargli un processo, erano parecchi: la sua guerra
«incostituzionale» contro Ariovisto «alleato ed amico» della Repubblica;
l’inganno della sua intempestiva annessione delle Gallie; la sua guerra
contro gli Usipeti e i Tencteri, che i suoi nemici accusavano di slealtà, e
per cui i Catoniani in senato avevano chiesto che il proconsole venisse
consegnato vivo al nemico (Suet., Caes., 24); il bottino enorme che era
servito a corrompere in Roma senatori, tribuni, magistrati. Per questo
vigile stato di animosità contro Cesare, in Roma, per tutto il 51 e il 50, le
notizie degli insuccessi si diffondevano più rapidamente che non quelle
delle vittorie cesariane; cfr. Cic., ad Fam., 8, 1, 4; Plut., Pomp., 57;
Caes., 29.
17. Cic., ad Att., 7, 6, 2: de republica valde timeo, nec adhuc fere inveni qui
non concedendum putaret Caesari quod postularet potius quam
depugnandum. Cfr. anche Cic., ad Fam., 15, 15, 1 sgg; Plut., Caes.,
37, 1.
28. Cesare e l’opera sua. — Il dittatore era spento. Non la sua vita
soltanto, ma anche l’opera sua era stata spezzata. Che cosa
rimaneva di questa? Che cosa può ricostruirsi e argomentarsi dai
frammenti del suo pensiero, ch’egli lasciava sparsi dovunque? Gli
storici antichi non videro in lui che il demolitore delle libertà
repubblicane, pur condannate alla morte. Gli storici moderni hanno
invece voluto ritrovare nei frammenti dell’opera sua un piano
organico per restaurare il crollante Stato romano. Che questo piano
sia una congettura dei moderni, ci pare sia dimostrato dalla
narrazione delle pagine che precedono. Ma negare la profetica
antiveggenza di Cesare non significa rimpicciolirlo. Cesare fu
veramente un grande Uomo: un dotto, un artista, e, al tempo stesso,
un uomo d’arme e d’azione. La immaginazione, la lucidezza della
intelligenza, la versatilità, la operosità infaticabile, l’agilità spirituale
avrebbero fatto di lui, in qualunque momento della storia, un grande
personaggio. Ma nessun politico può recare fin dalla culla un piano
preordinato da attuare; tutti debbono servire i loro tempi e gli eventi.
Cesare capitò in un’epoca, ingombra dagli avanzi di una storia ormai
esausta, che era necessario distruggere, per aprire le vie del futuro;
onde egli fu non un grande creatore, ma un grande distruttore, chè il
tempo di rifare il mondo non era giunto ancora. Due grandi
distruzioni sono infatti le sue massime imprese: la guerra gallica e la
guerra civile. Con la guerra gallica, egli distrusse la vecchia Gallia
celtica, ed aprì alla civiltà greco-latina le vie del continente europeo.
Solo perchè la Gallia fu romanizzata, la Gran Bretagna e la
Germania furono a poco a poco incivilite e cristianizzate; e
incominciò quella grande storia dell’Europa, di cui noi stiamo forse
per vedere, o già abbiamo visto, l’apogeo. Con la guerra civile,
invece, Cesare affrettò la lenta agonia della secolare repubblica; non
la uccise e non costituì un nuovo ordine politico. Quanto egli tentò
per costituirlo fu provvisorio e caduco, perchè la crisi non era ancora
matura. Lo prova la tremenda convulsione che seguì la sua morte.
Note al Capitolo Quinto.
19. La terza dittatura Cesare dovette assumerla solo sullo scorcio del 46.
Cfr. G. Ferrero, Grandezza e Decadenza di Roma, vol. II, p. 460.
20. Cic., Brutus, 96, 330; 97, 332 e passim: «in hanc reipublicae noctem....
haec importuna clades civitatis».
CAPITOLO SESTO
LA TERZA GUERRA CIVILE
(44-42 a. C.).