BACHELOR OF PHARMACY HONOURS DEGREE

PHARMACEUTICAL FORMULATIONS TECHNOLOGY 1

JENYURA LAZARUS A.

H220209G
SPT 1201
ASSIGNMENT 1

SCHOOL OF ALLIED HEALTH SCIENCES

1) With the aid of the particulate model of matter, describe how Pressure and Temperature
cause changes of the phases of matter [10]

As the temperature of a solid, liquid or gas increases, the particles move more rapidly. As the
temperature falls, the particles slow down. If a liquid is cooled sufficiently, it forms a solid.
This is due to the loss of kinetic energy of the particles hence the particles would turn to just
vibrate at fixed points. If a liquid is heated sufficiently, it forms a gas. The particles gain
kinetic energy and move much further apart as intermolecular bonds are broken to form a gas.

Changes in pressure have little effect on the volume of a liquid. Liquids are relatively
incompressible because any increase in pressure can only slightly reduce the distance
between the closely packed molecules. When the pressure is increased the molecules come
closer to each other which as a result increase the strength of the intermolecular forces
thereby drawing the particles very close to each other. If the pressure above a liquid is
increased sufficiently, the liquid forms a solid. If the pressure above a liquid is decreased
sufficiently, the liquid forms a gas. Reduction in pressure reduces the chances of particles
colliding to each other hence weakening the attractive forces between the particles and thus
particles are spread and a gas is formed.

2) Using the phase diagram briefly explain how pressure and temperature influence the
states of matter. Key terms ;triple point ,vapour pressure, and super critical fluid [5]

The solid phase is favoured at low temperature and high pressure; the gas phase is favoured at
high temperature and low pressure. The line that connects points A and D separates the solid
and liquid phases and shows how the melting point of a solid varies with pressure. The solid
and liquid phases are in equilibrium all along this line; crossing the line horizontally
corresponds to melting or freezing. The line that connects points A and B is the vapour
pressure curve of the liquid. It ends at the critical point, beyond which the substance exists as
a supercritical fluid. The line that connects points A and C is the vapour pressure curve of the
solid phase. Along this line, the solid is in equilibrium with the vapour phase through
sublimation and deposition. Finally, point A, where the solid/liquid, liquid/gas, and solid/gas
lines intersect, is the triple point; it is the only combination of temperature and pressure at
which all three phases are in equilibrium and can therefore exist simultaneously.

3) Discuss the advantages of the critical point [7]

The critical point represents the temperature and pressure combination in which the liquid
and vapour form of the substance in question both become indistinguishable from each other.
The condensation of a gas will never occur above the critical point. A massive amount of
pressure can be applied to a gas in a closed container, and it may become highly dense, but
will not exhibit a meniscus. Molecules at critical temperatures possess high kinetic energy,
and as a result the intermolecular forces in the molecules are weakened. At the critical point
of a substance, scientists would decide if they want to go on and create a supercritical fluid.
The supercritical fluid retains the properties of both liquid and gases. These fluids can be
used in pharmaceuticals to create super fine powders. They can also be used in liquefaction of
biomass, dying textiles, decaffeinating coffee and so.

4) Describe Eutectic mixtures and outline [2]

a) Factors governing their formations [5]
b) Their uses [5]

A eutectic mixture is a mixture of two or more components that, while not normally
interacting to create a new chemical substance, inhibit the crystallization phase of one another
at certain ratios, resulting in a system with a lower melting point than any of the components.

a) 1. The components must be miscible in the liquid state and often immiscible in the
solid state
2. Close contact between eutectic forming materials is needed for contact-induced
melting point depression
 3. Chemical groups that can interact to form physical bonds, such as intermolecular
hydrogen bonding
4. Molecules that follow modified VantHoff’s law
b) 1. During pre-formulation stage, compatibility studies between APIs and excipient
play a crucial role in excipient selection
2. Anticipation of probable physical incompatibility between drug and excipient
molecules
3. In drug designing and delivery processes for various routes of administration
4. During manufacturing of pharmaceutical dosage form, to anticipate the formation
of eutectics and avoid manufacturing problems
5. During pharmaceutical analysis, understanding of eutectic mixtures can help in the
identification of compounds having similar melting points
5) With reference to pharmaceutics (formulation technology), briefly describe the following;
a) Liquid complexes [5]
b) Liquid crystals[5]
c) Glassy state [5]
d) Solvates [5]
a) Materials that behave like liquids and solids, in the same way, complex fluid and soft
matter show both liquid and solid properties. Gels, foams, glasses and solutions made
of polymer materials are examples. The systems often exhibit clear inherencies of
disorder and heterogeneity, with considerable fluctuations across a wide range of time
and space scales. They do not relax into equilibrium hence a theoretical analysis of
the complex is difficult. Their behaviour is governed by issues of self-organisation
and self-disorganisation, which combine to form a hierarchical adaptive structure.
b) Example are isooctane, ammonium thiocynate and sodium decanoate. These are
substances that exist in two quite different states of matter simultaneously. Isotropic
liquids and crystallized solids are the most common states of matter. They are a phase
formed at the intersection of two solids. When molecules are distributed randomly in
an isotropic liquid, neither their position nor orientation is ordered. The arrangement
of molecules varies over long-range in a crystal, both in terms of orientation and
three-dimensional position.
c) The state of glass is neither equilibrium nor crystalline, and although it appears solid
for short period, it continuously relaxes towards the liquid state. It can neither be
classified as a solid nor a liquid. In solids, the atoms and molecules are usually
 arranged systematically, while they are highly disordered in glassy materials. A glassy
substance does not have a specific melting point, although it slowly liquefies when
heated. Substrates that can be converted to a glassy state are highly viscous at their
melting point, which makes it impossible for a finely ordered structure to form. Metal
oxides are the most common materials that can be converted to a glassy state.
d) These tend to form during the process of crystallization with the help of a solvent. The
crystalline solids that contain the molecules of solvent inside their crystal assembly
are known as solvates. When water is the solvent molecule then, the so formed
solvates are termed as ‘hydrates’. Based on the number of water molecules fused in
the crystal lattice, the structures can be classified as monohydrate, dihydrate,
trihydrate and so. If an API is forming hydrates, the formation of its hydrates will
reduce its aqueous solubility thereby leading to reduction in its bioavailability.
6) Structural classification of solids
a) Distinguish between crystalline and amorphous solids paying attention to advantages
and disadvantages [10]
b) Outline the properties unique to each [6]
c) List uses of each [5]

a)

CRYSTALLINE AMORPHOUS
Atoms are arranged in regular 3 dimension Do not have regular arrangement
Relatively more stable Unstable (it has higher energy than
crystalline)
Anisotropic Isotropic
True solid Pseudo solid
Less soluble and lower bioavailability Higher solubility and bioavailability
Relatively cheaper production Production costs are far much higher

b) Crystalline

Sharp melting point

Diffract x-rays

Well defined edges and faces

Symmetrical

More rigid

Long range order

Amorphous

No particular melting point

Unsymmetrical

Less rigid

Short range order

c)

Crystalline
1) making beautiful jewellery items
2) manufacturing of watches and clocks
Amorphous
1) are omnipresent during standard
pharmaceutical manufacturing processes
2) amorphous silicon is a fine
photovoltaic material to transform
sunlight into electricity
3) glass is mostly used in packaging
cosmetics boxes, food jars and soft drink
bottles
4) it produces tableware and it is used in
building constructs like windows, doors
and shelves

REFERENCES

1. Kotz, John C., and Paul Jr. Treichel. Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity. N.p.:
Saunders College Publishing, 1999.

2. Oxtoby, David W., H. P. Gillis, and Alan Campion. Principles of Modern Chemistry.
Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/?Cole, 2008.
3. Petrucci, Ralph, and William Harwood. F. Geoffrey Herring. Jeffry Madura. General
Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications. 9th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson, 2007.

4. Vollmer, John J. "Out of "Thin Air": Exploring Phase Changes.' J. Chem. Educ. 2000:
77, 488A.