Quantum Computing for Computer Vision: Applications, Challenges, and Research Tracks Naoual B] Djouher Mebtouche"™ and Sarah Sahnoune? 2 Laboratory of Research in Artificial Intelligence (LRIA), Faculty of Computer Science, University of Science and Technology Houari Boumediene (USTHB), Algiers, Algeria amebtouchetuathb.z 2 Faculty of Physics, University of Science and ‘Technology Houari Boumediene (USTHB), Algiers, Algeria Abstract. In the last few years, computer vision has achieved signif ‘cant breakthroughs, largely due to the advances in deep learning models. However, despite these remarkable achievements, deep learning models for computer vision are already showing their limits. Quantum com- puting’s capacity for parallelism and complex data processing presents ‘4 novel approach to tackling the computational demands of computer vision tasks. In this context, quantum computing emerges as a potential solution Lo the challenges in computer vision. Quantum principles have the potential to enhance computational efficiency and accuracy, open ing doors to new horizons in solving complex computer vision problems. In this paper, we investigate the use of quantum compuling for co puter vision. First, we analyze quantum architectures and the evolution fof quantum computing specifically for computer science. This analysis ‘offers a foundational understanding of quantum computing and quanturs techniques. Second, we study applied quantum computing research for ‘computer vision through an extensive literature review. Simultaneously, wwe present an in-depth analysis of the existing limitations and challenges posed by quantum hardware and algorithms in computer vision applica tions as well as outline the potential research tracks for applied quantum ‘computing in computer vision. Keywords: quantum computing * computer vision + artificial intelligence » literature review 1 Introduction Computer vision plays a crucial role in Artificial Intelligence. It gives machines the ability to understand and interpret visual information, much like how human eyes and brains process images. This has wide-ranging applications in areas like healtheare, self-driving cars, and security [39,41~4] © The Aushor(}, under excisive cent to Springer Nature Switzeand AC 2024, TH Dring and F. Yalnout (Fee) QSAC 2023, ISEM 2, pp. 152-108, 2024Quantum Computing for Computer Vision 153 Over the past decade, the advent of deep learning has brought computer vision a series of high achievements. Deep learning models, particularly Convo- Tutional Neural Networks (CNNs), have showeased exceptional results in tasks like image classification, object detection, and facial recognition. ‘These advance- ‘ments have enabled computers to recognize patterns and features within images with remarkable accuracy, almost rivaling hnman performance. However, the remarkable results of deep learning models in computer vision are accompanied by challenging computational demands. Applications such as object detection [38,40] require an immense amount of processing power to ana- lyze vast datasets and make real-time decisions. This immense demand for com- putational resources poses challenges for scalability and the model's convergence of high semantic computer vision tasks. Quantum computing has emerged as a promising alternative for addressing the challenges of classical computers, especially problems with high complex- ity [45]. Quantum computing has demonstrated remarkable successes in diverse domains of computer science, such as cryptographic security and optimization problems. These achievements highlight the transformative potential of quantum ‘computation in revolutionizing algorithms and programs. In the context of computer vision, the advent of quantum computing presents ‘a promising prospect 46). Its inherent capability for parallelism and data manip- ulation matches the computational demands of image analysis, object. recogni- tion, and visual pattern detection. ‘The integration of quantum computing. in ‘computer vision raises a set of questions: 1, What type of problems can be solved by quantum computers? 2. How to effectively use quantum computing for computer vision tasks? 3. What are the inherent challenges of quantum computing in computer vision and how to potentially face them? In this paper, we address these questions. First, we present the fundamental concepts of quantum computing as well as its evolution highlighting its transition from theoretical concepts to practical implementation. Furthermore, we present ‘contemporary state-of-the-art quantum computing systems. Second, we present a review of several academic works that integrate quan- ‘tum computing into computer vision tasks. This extensive survey encapsulates ‘a breadth of research papers that intersect these domains. Last, we provide a structured presentation of challenges intrinsie to the application of quantum computing into computer vision. This taxonomy delin- cates obstacles surrounding quantum algorithm design, noise mitigation, and the orchestration of quantum-classical bybrid processing, Simultaneously, we outline prospective research directions of quantum computer vision. ‘The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Sect, 2 provides the basis for comprehensive principles of quantum computing, hardware implementation, and its evolution. Section 3 presents a review of quantumn-based computer vision work and applications as well as the challenges and the research potential of quantum, computing for computer vision tasks. Finally, Sect.4 provides an exhaustive conclusion,154 —N. B, D, Mebtouche and $, Sahnoune 2 Quantum Computing: Principles and Evolution 21 History Quantum computing was born in 1982 when the physicist and Nobel Laure- ate Richard Feynman proposed that classical computers struggled to sinmalate ‘quantum systems efficiently. The idea he proposed was to design a machine that would run on quantum mechanies principles [1). The idea took a significant leap forward in 1985 when David Deutsch formulated the quantum Turing machine. He envisioned a computer that could solve problems considered uncomputable for classical computers (2) Far from theory, the very first application of quantum computing vas proposed by Peter Shor in 1994 to factorize large numbers into their prime number. Later, in the early 2000s, experimental milestones followed with the hardware realization of basic quantum gates and qubits, the fundamen- tal units of quantum information. 2.2 Qubit A qubit is a quantum equivalent of a classical bit (qubit is short for “quantum bit”). Qubit is the fundamental unit of quantum information in quantum com- puting. Unlike classical bits, which can only represent values of 0 or 1, qubits use the quantum mechanics principle called superposition. Superposition means that the qubit can be either 0 or 1 or in the composition of both states (0 ‘and 1) simultaneously. This unique property enables qubits to perform complex calculations and operations more efficiently than classical bits. 2.3. Superposition ‘A qubit |) (this is called the Dirac’s notation) can be in the state (0), |1) for any arbitrary superposition of both states. The qubit is then written as: Jd} = 00) + 9[2) where @ and @ are the probability amplitudes. The state of a ‘ubit is unknown during computation and is only instantiated when measured this phenomenon is known as collapse in quantum mechanics. Specifically, if ‘we measure a qubit |g) = e|0) + 8/1) it will collapse to either of the states |0) or |1). The probability that the obtained state is 0) is given by the amplitude Jal? and the probability for the qubit to be |1) is given by the amplitude |)”. Superposition allows to run several compntations at the same time whereas traditional computers perform tasks sequentially 2.4 Entanglement When generalizing to n qubits (71) 92) ,.., gn}, we need to define the qubits in the Hilbert space C? C? @ ... @ C2 which is a superposition of 2" basis states [000...0),000...1),..,|1L1..1). It is this exponential expansion of state spaces in the number qubits, Entanglement is a fundamental principle in quantum ‘mechanics where the states of two or more qubits become intricately connected inQuantum Computing for Computer Vision 1 ‘a-way that the properties of one qubit cannot be described independently of the properties of the other qubits. Thus, measuring a single qubit can collapse the whole system of entangled qubits, and therefore, instantiate the measurement outcome (3). Entanglement enables qubits to perform complex computations more efficiently by exploiting the interconnection of their states, It’s a crucial resource for various quantum algorithms, 2.5 Quantum Gates Quantum computation consists of transforming states to other states using gates. Tnother words, a quantum gate is a mapping from one state to another. Quantum, gates are fundamental building blocks in quantum computing that perform oper- ations on qubits, the quantwm analogs of classical bits. These gates manipulate the quantum state of qubits to perform specific quantum operations, analogous to how classical logic gates manipulate classical bits to perform computations. Quantum gates enable the execution of quantum algorithms and tasks. Con- cretely, they are represented by matrices. The combination of different quantum. gates in a quantum circuit enables the execution of complex algorithms. 2.6 Universal Quantum Computer Universal quantum computer is a theoretical type of quantum computer eapable of simulating any other quantum system. Similar to how a classical universal computer can execute any classical algorithm, a quantum universal computer has the potential to execute any quantum algorithm and perform tasks that classical computers cannot efficiently achieve The concept of a universal quantum computer is the idea that quantum sys- tems can exhibit complex behaviors that are challenging for elassical computers to simulate, A universal quantum computer would have the ability to manipu- late and control qubits using quantum gates, enabling it to execute a wide range of quantum algorithms, such as factorization, optimization, cryptography, and simulations of quantum systems. ‘The concept of a universal quantum computer was formalized by the math- ematician and physicist David Deutsch [2] where he introduced the concept of a quantum Turing machine and demonstrated that a quantum computer could simulate any physical system, including other quantum systems. Universal quantum computers can solve high-complexity problems beyond ‘the capabilities of classical computers. However, building a practical quantum universal computer is a significant scientific and engineering challenge due to the delicate nature of qubits, their physical implementation, and the need for error correction. In the following, we will review the evolution of quantum computers and provide a clear understanding of their advantages and limitations.156 N. B, D. Mebtouche and S, Sahnoune 2.7 Evolution of Quantum Computers Quantum computers are often classified into two types (48,49): gate-model com- puters and adiabatic quantum computers. Quantum Gate-Based Computers ‘These are the most well-known types of quantum computers. They use quantum gates to manipulate qubits, which are the quantum analogs of classical bits. Qubits can exist in a superposition of states, allowing quantum gate operations to be performed in parallel. Examples include IBM's System [36] and Google's Bristlecone [37] A Quantum gate-based computer is the equivalent of a classieal computer in which the solutions (algorithms) are represented as a sequence of primitive ‘quantum operations using qnantum gates and qubits. This paradigm allows to sign algorithms at, low levels the way it is designed in boolean circuits Adiabatic Quantum Computers Also known as @ Quantum Annealer is a type of quantum computing model that operates based on the adiabatic theorem from quantum mechanics [47]. This model is designed to solve a certain category of problems: optimization problems by using the principles of quantum annealing. Adiabatic quantum computing consists of finding the lowest energy state of a physical system that corresponds to the solution of a given optimization problem. ‘The basic idea behind adiabatic quantum computing is to start with a quan- ‘tum system in a simple initial state, which can be represented easily, and then slowly transform it into a final state that encodes the solution to the optimiza- tion problem. contrary to the quantum gate-based computers the transformation is carried out using a time-dependent Hamiltonian, which represents the energy of the system, In other words, we evaluate the solutions ased on the evolution of the energy of a quantum system, not in a set of operations. D-Wave Systems is a well-known company that has developed commercial adiabatic quantum computers based on superconducting qubits. ‘These types of systems are designed to solve optimization problems and are particularly snitable for certain types of combinatory optimization and machine learning tasks. While adiabatic quantum computers are not as universal as gate-based ‘quantum computers in terms of the range of algorithms they can execute, they offer a specialized approach for solving certain optimization problems that can bbe mapped onto their quantum annealing computers. ‘These are some of the two main paradigms of quantum computing. Bach type has its advantages, challenges, and potential applications. There are phys: ical implementations that are based on other paradigms such as Rigetti hybrid ‘quantum-classical system (34). Rigetti offers a cloud-based quantum computing platform that includes both gate-based quantum and Quantum Virtual Machines for classical computation, Other paradigms also exist such as Quantum Cellular Automata [35], which is a compntational model where a grid of cells interactsQuantum Computing for Computer Vision 157 based on certain rules, Quantum cellular automata have potential applications in quantum simulations. However, they are still in the theoretical research stages. ‘The field of quantum computing is rapidly evolving, and new approaches and technologies are being developed over time. 3 Quantum Computer Vision: Research and Applications 3.1 Quantum Computer Vision (QCV) In this section, we will delve into the exploration of quantum algorithms for computer vision, ‘The integration of quantum computing into computer vision these last few years gives some perspective on how to use quantum computers for solving computer vision problems. However, before we delve into the existing literature, we first establish a simplified overview of computer vision pipelines ‘and how this is important to understand the utilization of quantum algorithms, Fundamental concepts of computer vision help appreciate the specific challenges that quantum algorithms may help address and the innovative paths they may provide toward advancing computer vision tasks, Computer Vision Computer vision is a multidisciplinary field within artificial intelligence (AI) that focuses on enabling computers to interpret, analyze, and understand visual information from the world. Its primary goal is to replicate the human viswal system’s ability to perceive and comprehend visual data, enabling machines to recognize objects, scenes, and patterns, and even perform complex tasks based on visual input. Computer vision can be visualized through a structured pipeline, as illus trated in Fig. 1. This pipeline serves as a generalized representation of the pro- ‘cess of extracting information from visual data to serve various computer vision tasks. This pipetine illustrates the general steps of computer vision tasks. Starting from an input source (step 1: data acquisition), which can be an image or a video, the pipeline guides the input data to an output task (step 3), this task ranges sgmentation, classification, or tracking. This transformation is applied by employing computer vision algorithms (step 2) tailored to the specific task we aim for. Throughout this pipeline, computer vision algorithms can encompass a wide range of techniques, from traditional methods involving image processing, or ‘more advanced approaches using machine learning, and deep learning. It is therefore natural to consider the integration of quantum computing into computer vision algorithms (step 2) which consists of image processing algorithms or machine learning. The integration of quantum computing can be applied in two ways: either by substituting these algorithms (image processing algorithms and machine learning algorithms) or as a complement to existing158 N. B, D, Mebtouche and $, Sahnoune | Computer vision utputast: Data acquisition: Imageiviseo source >? step step2 steps 1, Generic computer vision pipeline algorithms by complementing their functionality with quantum-driven enhance- ‘ments. In the following, our focus will be directed towards a detailed examination Of this integration process in image processing algoritiuns and machine learning. algorithms, We aim to explore the synergy between quantum computing and ‘the realm of computer vision, studying the potential benefits it can grant upon image processing and machine learning tasks. Image Processing Quantum image processing explores the utilization of quantum computing prin- ciples and techniques to enhance various aspects of image processing. There aro several notable works and research directions that showcase the potential of ‘quantum image processing: Many quantium methods have been proposed for image processing over the last few years [1-7]. For problems such as shape matching [8-10], (S) applied quantum computing on point alignment, they have proved that low computor vision problems can be solved with adiabatic quantum computers. fundamen- tal matrix estimation, point triangulation [11], and motion segmentation [12] all these works use adiabatic quantum computers (AQC). These works handle different types of image transformations (13,114), graph matching [15,16] mesh alignment [17], in tasks like image segmentation such as the work in [50] who used a specific set of gates to find dual thresholds for image segmentation. Geo- metric transformation (such as rotation) [18-20], Erosion and dilation operations [21], translation [22] and noise reduction (23). (18) proposed an image encryp- tion/decryption based on the quantum Fourier transform algorithm. All these ‘works apply pure principles of quantum computers such as superposition, entan- slement, quantum gates, or/and quanti annealing. ‘The integration of quantum computing in image processing is mainly used to replace traditionally complex computer vision algorithms, either by specific quantum circuits that mimic the behavior of certain algorithms or with the adiabatic approach for optimization.Quantum Computing for Computer Vision 159 ‘The design of quantum algorithms introduces a unique set of characteris tics based on the principles of superposition and entanglement, as well as the construction of intricate quantum circuits. Quantum algorithms are structured around these foundational concepts, enabling intermediate operations that can process information in multiple states simultaneously. This inherent parallelism and the potential for algorithm acceleration are among the defining features of quantum computing. Deep Learning Quantum deep learning is an emerging interdisciptinary field that aims to com- bine the principles of quantum computing with deep learning techniques. The number of publications on quantum deep learning has increased significantly over the last years. Quantum computing in deep learning aims to explore Quan- ‘tum Convolutional Neural Networks (QCNNs) to address the limits of classical CNNs. The immense growth of data size as well as the models has been a sig- icant obstacle in employing classical computers for complex computer vision tasks. QCNNs address this by employing qubits to represent data and using CNN in quantum computers. QONNs are based on the basie notions and structures of classical CNNs, but adjust them to quantuin computers. In QCNNs, feature extraction is performed using quantum circuits (built of qubits and quantum gates). These circuits emu- late the convolutions and pooling layers of CNN. The feature map is a set of ‘qubits (generally one qubit). This qubit is then measured to give a prediction value (e.g. classification task). Many QCNN-based methods have been proposed for different computer vision tasks. Image recognition (24-26), Parthasarathy et al. [27] proposed to use ‘quantum computing for efficient image recognition by creating a novel model, the ‘quantum optical convolutional neural network (QOCNN). Their results showed ‘the substantial potential of quantum computing for the development of recogni- tion tasks. Subsequently, Hur et al. (28) proposed a QCNN for the classification of the MNIST and Fashion MNIST datasets. Their results have shown that QCNN displayed high classifieation accuracy outperforming traditional CNN. Other researchers have also integrated quantum computing into deep learning, such ‘as in [29] with a fully quantum perceptron, Yen-chi et al. [30] proposed a hybrid quantum-classical model using a QNN coupled with a pre-trained CNN model. [30] Obtained an accuracy of 98.7% with the cats and dogs dataset and achieved a fast convergence. However, com- bining classical and quantum computing components in hybrid algorithms adds ‘complexity and requires synchronization between the two computing paradigms. Other computer-vision tasks based! on quanti computing solutions have been lately proposed for object tracking [31,32], to Multi-Object Tracking [33] Multiple object tracking is a particular task since it is an NP-hard problem in ‘computer vision. Zaech et al. {33} proposed the first formulation of a quantum160 N. B,D, Mebtouche and S, Sahnoune adiabatic quantum computer to solve this type of task, the method achieved comparable results ta the classical state of the art classical methods. For image classification tasks, especially those involving deep Iearning and large datasets, gate-based quantum computers are currently more suitable due to their general-purpose nature and the availability of quantum machine learning. algorithms. Quantum annealers might be considered for highly complex problems such as object detection or tracking, The choice between the two depends on various factors such as the prob- lem complexity, the specific quantum algorithms available, and the hardware's current capabilities It’s important to note that quantum computing is still in its early stages, and both gate-based quantum computers and quantum annealers continue to advance. The suitability of each approach for specific tasks can change as quan- tum hardware and algorithms evolve AAs parallelism is at the core of both machine/deep learning and quantum, computing, there is a natural alignment between the two. Machine learning fundamentally involves operations on matrices and veetors in multidimensional spaces, which closely mirrors the paradigm of quantum computing. ‘This paral- lelism between the mathematical foundations of machine learning and quantum, computing suggests that using quantum capabilities for machine learning and deep learning tasks could be highly beneficial ‘The synergy arises from the shared mathematical underpinnings that enable ficient parallel processing in both domains. Quantum computers, with their inherent capacity’ to process information in superposition and entanglement, align well with the data-intensive computations prevalent. in machine learning and deep learning, tasks. This compatibility suggests that quantum computing hhas the potential to accelerate these computations by processing multiple paths of data simultancously, effectively exploiting the parallelism that is integral to both quantum computing anid machine learning. 3.2 Challenges ‘There is relatively less literature in quantum computing in computer vision com- pared to the application of quantum computing in other fields. While quantum computing has gained attention for its potential to revolutionize cryptography, optimization, and simulation, its integration into computer vision is starting to increase these last few years, ‘There are many challenges regarding the use of ‘quantum computing for computer vision. Quantum Hardware Quantum computers are still in the early stages of development, often facing limitations in terms of qubit coherence, error rates, and qubit connectivity. These constraints impact the feasibility of implementing complex algorithms efficiently. Limited Quantum Resources: Quantutn hardware resources are currently lim ited in terms of qubit count and coherence time. Mapping complex computer vision tasks onto these constrained resources requires innovative strategies,Quantum Computing for Computer Vision 161 Errors and Noise Qubits are sensitive to noise, leading to errors in quantum computations this is due to various factors, including external interference and imperfections in the ‘qubit hardware, Another issue regards the entanglement, Quantum algorithms often leverage entanglement, which can be difficult to contzol and maintain in noisy quantum systems. Preparing qubits in desired states is also a challenge. Algorithm Verification and Validation Quantum algorithms can behave differently from classical algorithms, and ver- ifying the correctness of quantum solutions is challenging. Validation methods need to be adapted for quantum contexts, Quantum Scalability Quantum algorithins can require a substantial number of quantum gates and circuits to achieve meaningful results. implementing deep circuits and balancing. the complexity of quantum algorithms with available resources is therefore a challenge. Also, designing efficient quantum gates and circuits adapted to com- puter vision tasks requires domain-specific prior in addition to new quantum optimization techniques, Classical vs Quantum Computer Vision Another issue when it comes to the use of quantum computing for computer vision is that we need to build novel algorithms and convert. and recreate classical algorithms with the quantum paradigm. There are no bridges between existing classical algorithms and quantum algorithms, that can reduce the tedious task of building quantum algorithms from scratch, In addition to that it is non-trivial to map classical computer vision algorithms and their quantum counterparts due to differences in computation methods. This reduces the portability of the algorithms, Quantum Computing for Image Processing It is important to note that while quantum algorithms offer remarkable capa- bilities, their design and implementation can be intrieate and demanding. In the context of image processing tasks, there are instances where the quantum, approach might encounter challenges when compared to classical counterparts, ‘The translation of a classical problem into a quantum algorithm often involves, complex mathematical transformations. This process ean be tedious and unnee essary an example would be the designing of a complex quantum algorithm for a simple task of image segmentation that can be held more efficiently in a classical ‘computer Moreover, the parallelisin inherent to quantum algorithms doesn’t always lead to immediate advantages for all image processing tasks. The suitabil quantum algorithms for parallelism depends on the problem’s nature,162 _N. B,D, Mebtouche and S, Sahnoune Quantum Computing for Machine/Deep Learning Despite the promising prospects of quantum deep learning, there are significant challenges that must be addvessed. One notable challenge lies in the extraction of features from quantum machines. The process by which these features are derived in quantum settings remains largely unexplored within the current literature This lack of discussion adds an additional layer of interpretability concems to the existing challenge of the “black box” nature of deep learning algorithm Feature extraction is @ crucial step in many machine learning tasks, includ ing deep learning. It involves transforming raw data into a format that captures the relevant information for the task at hand. However, in the context of quan- ‘tum deep learning, the methods and techniques for feature extraction are not ‘well-established or widely understood. This opacity can impede our ability to comprehend how quantum features are identified and utilized in the learning process. Deep learning’s success is largely attributed to its capacity to model intri- cate relationships within data through non-linear transformations enabled by activation functions like ReLU or sigmoid. Quantum computing, on the other hand, operates primarily through linear unitary transformations. This dichotomy between non-linearity in deep learning and the linear operations in quantum com- puting presents a challenge when adapting existing models to quantum-driven models it also reduces the model's expression to only linear function 3.3 Research Tracks ‘The exploration of quantum computing’s application in computer vision opens: ‘up several intriguing research tracks, each aimed at addressing the challenges ‘and harnessing the potential of this emerging field. Some of the key research directions include: Quantum Feature Extraction Develop innovative techniques to extract features from quantum data repre- sentations, leveraging the unique properties of quantum states. This involves devising quantum versions of classical feature extraction methods, which cold tnlock new insights and enhance performance in tasks like image classification and object detection. Quantum Activation Functions Investigate the creation of quantum analogs to traditional non-linear activation functions used in deep learning. This involves exploring how quantum gates and operations can mimic non-linear transformations, potentially resulting in the development of novel activation functions tailored to quantum architectures. Hybrid Quantum-Classical Models Explore hybrid quantum-classical models that combine the strengths of quan- ‘tum computing with classical deep learning approaches. This approach secks toQuantum Computing for Computer Vision 163 leverage quantum computing’s capabilities for certain sub-tasks while utilizing ‘classical deep learning for others, ultimately enhancing the averall efficiency and accuraey of computer vision tasks. Quantum Feature Selection and Dimensionality Reduction Design quantum algorithms for feature selection and dimensionality reduction, aiming to mitigate the curse of dimensionality and improve the efficiency of training quantum models on high-dimensional image data, Quantum Model Interpretability Investigate methods for interpreting and visualizing the inner workings of quan- ‘tum deep leaming models. Developing techniques to elucidate the decision- making process of these models ean enhance trust and understanding, addressing concerns related to interpretability Quantum Computing Hardware Optimization Collaborate with quantum hardware developers to optimize quantum computing architectures for specific computer vision tasks. This includes exploring, how ‘quantum circuits can be tailored for the efficient execution of computer vision algorithms. Tn conclusion, the integeation of quantum computing into computer vision presents rich research opportunities. By addressing the challenges and taking advantage of the unique characteristics of quantum computing, innovative solu- tions can emerge that push the boundaries of computer vision applications. 4 Conclusion In this paper, we have discussed the utilization of quantumn computing for eom= puter vision applications. First, we started by providing some background on quantum computing principles and quantum computing machines. Then, we reviewed the existing works and applications of quantum computing for com- puter vision. We have classified the work into two main categories: quantum, image processing and quantum Machine/Deep learning applications. Most works reported in the literature use quantum annealers as they are more suitable for optimization purposes. Finally, we have discussed the challenges of quan- tum compnting for computer vision from general quantum computing issues to specific ones related to image processing and Machine/Deep learning computer vision applications. Based on this analysis we also proposed some research tracks that have the potential to on one hand remedy the discussed challenges and on the other hand help advance quantum computer vision.161 —_N. B, D, Mebtouche and $, Sahnoune References 1, Feynman, LP. Simulating physies with computers. Int J. Theor. Phys. 21, 467 488 (1982) 2, Dentsch, D.: Quantum theory, the Church-Turing principle and the universal quan- ‘tum computer. Proc. Roy. Soc. London A Math. Phys. Sci. 400(1818), 97-117 (1985) 3. Griffiths, D.J., Schroeter, D.F.: Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, 3rd. edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2018) 4, Caraiman, §., Manta, Vir Image processing using quantum computing. In 2012 16th International Conference on System Theory, Control and Computing (ICSTCO), pp. 1-6. IEEE (2012) 5. Dendukur, A, Lou, K.: Image processing in quantum computers, arXiv preprint arXiv:1812.11042 (2018) 6. Venegas-Andraca, $.B., Bose, S. Storing, processing, and retrieving an image using quantum mechanies. In; Quantum information and computation, vol. 5105, pp. 137-147, SPIE (2008) 7. Yan, F., Hiyasu, A.M, Venegas-Andraca, S.E.: A survey of quantum image repre- sentations. Quanturn Inf, Process. 15, 1-35 (2016) 8. Golyanik, V., Theobalt, C. A quantum computational approach to correspondence problems on point sets. In: Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pp. 9182-9191 (2020) 9. Meli, N.K., Mannel, F., Lellmann,J.: An iterative quantum approach for transfor- mation estimation from point sets. In: Proceedings of the IEEB/CVF Conference fon Computer Vision and Patter Recognition, pp. 529-537 (2022) 10, Benknes, M.S., Lihner, Z., Golyanik, V., Wunderlich, C,, Theobalt, C., Moeller, Mu Qumateh: iterative shape matching via quantum annealing. In: Proceedings of the IEBE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision, pp. 7586-7596 (2021) 11, Doan, A.D., Sasdeli, M., Suter, D., Chin, TJ: A by rithm for robust Sitting. In: Proceedings of the IEEE/C Vision and Pattern Recognition, pp. 417-427 (2022) 12, Amvigoni, F., Menapace, W., Benkner, M.S., Ricci, F., Golyantk, Vz Quantum ‘motion segmentation. In: Avidan, §., Brostow, G., Cissé, M., Farinella, G.M., Has- sner, T. (eds.) FOCV 2022. LNCS, vol. 13689, pp. 506-523. Springer, Cham (2022). eps: //eloiorg/10.1007/978-3-031-19818-2.20 13, Jiang, N., Wang, Le: Quantum image scaling using nearest neighbor interpolation, Quantum Inf. Process. 14, 1569-1571 (2015) 14, Song, XL, Wang, 8, Abd EbLatif, A.A, Niu, XM: Quantum image encryption based o restricted geometric and color transformations. Quantum Lnf, Process. 18, 1765-1787 (2014) 15, Démm, S: Quantum algorithms for matching problems. Theory Comput. Syst 45(3), 613-628 (2009) 16. Benkner, M.S., Golyanik, V., ‘Theobait, C., Moeller, M.: Adiabatie quantum graph matching with permutation matrix constraints. In: 2020 International Conference on 3D Vision (8DV), pp. 583-592. IEEE (2020) 17, Amenta, N., Bern, M., Eppstein, D.: Optimal point placement for mesh smoothing J. Algorithms 80(2), 302-322 (1999) 18, Yang, Y.G., Xia, J, Jia, X., Zhang, H.: Novel image encryption/deeryption based fon quantum Fourier transform and double phase encoding. Quantum Inf. Process. 12, M77 3493 (2013) rid quantum-classical algo VP Conference on Computer19, 20, 21 2 2 24, 26 27, 28, 30, 3 92, 34 36, 37, 38 Quantum Computing for Computer Vision 165 Le, P.Q, Hiyasu, A.M, Dong, F., Hirota, Ki Fast geometric transformations on quantum images. IAENG Int. J. Appl. Math, 40(3) (2010) Le, P.Q., Liyasu, AM., Dong, F., Hirota, K. Strategies for designing geometric transformations on quantum images. Theoret. Comput. Sei, 412(15), 1406-1418 (011) Yuan, 8., Mao, X., Chen, L., Xue, Y.: Quantum digital image provessing algorithms based on quantum measurement, Optik 124(23), 6386-6390 (2013) ‘Wang, J, Jiang, N., Wang, L.: Quantum image translation, Quantum Inf, Process 14(5), 1589-1604 (2015) ‘Treps, N., Delaubert, V., Maitre, A. Courty, J.M., Fabre, C.: Quantum noise in rmultipixel image processing, Phys, Rev. A 71(1), 018820 (2005) Neven, H., Denchev, V-S., Rose, G., Macready, W.G.: QBoost: large seal classifier training with adiabatic quantum optimization, In: Asian Conference on Machine Learning, pp. 383-348, PMLR. (2012) NNeven, H., Rose, G., Macready, W.G.: Image recognition with an adiabatic quan- tum computer 1. Mapping to quadratic unconstrained binary optimization, arXiv preprint arXiv:0804.457 (2008) O'Malley, D., Vesselinov, V.V., Alexandrov, BS., Alexandrov, L.B: Nonnega- tive/binary matrix factorization with a D-wave quantum annealer. PLoS ONE, 418(12), e0206658 (2018) Parthasarathy, R., Bhowmik, RT.: Quantum optical convolutional neural network 1 novel image recognition framework for quantum computing, IEEE Access 8, 108837-108846 (2021) Hur, T., Kim, L., Park, D.K.: Quantum convolutional neural network for classical data classification. Quantum Mach. Intell. 4(1), 3 (2022) Potok, TE, et al: A. study of complex deep le performance, neuromorphic, and quantum computers, ACM J. Emerg, Technol. Comput. Syst. (JBC) 14(2), 1-21 (2018) Chen, S¥.C., Yoo, $.: Federated quantum machine learning. Entropy 28(4), 460 (2021) Misra, R., Ray, K.S.: Object tracking based on quantum particle swarm optimiza- tion, In: 2017 Ninth International Conference on Advances in Pattern Recognition {ICAPR), pp. 1-6. IEEE (2017) Yu, CH, Gao, F, Liu, C., Huynh, D., Reynolds, M., Wang, J: Quantum algorithes for visual tracking, Phys. Rev. '99(2), 022301 (2019) “Zaeeh, J.N., Liniger, Ax, Daneljan, M., Dai, D., Van Gool, L.: Adiabatic quantum computing for multi object tracking. In: Proceedings of the IBEE/CVF Contes fon Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pp. 8811-8822 (2022) Karalekas, P.J., Tesak, N.A., Peterson, E.C., Ryan, C.A., Da Silva, MP, $ RS: A quantum-classical cloud platform optimized for variational hybrid algo. rithms. Quantum Sei, Technol. 6(2), 024003 (2020) Lent, CS, Tougaw, P.D., Porod, W., Bernstein, G.H: Quantum cellular automata, Nanotechnology 4(2), 49 (1993) Cross, A: The IBM Q experience and QISKit open-source quantum computing software. In: APS March Meeting Abstracts, vol. 2018, p. L58-008 (2018) Kelly, J, Chen, Z, Chiaro, B., Poxen, B., Martins, J., Team, Q.H.T.: Operating and characterizing of a 72 superconducting qubit processor “Bristlecone”: part 1. In: APS March Meeting Abstracts (2019) Mebtouche, NE-D., Baha, N.: Robust object detection based on deep neural net- work and saliency features from visible and thermal images, In: AI2SD 2020. AISC, 1B networks on high166 —N. B, D, Mebtouche and $, Sahnoune vol. 1418, pp, 529-540, Springer, Cham (2022). https: //doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030- 90639-9.48, 39, Stephen, O., Sain, M., Maduh, J, Jeong, D.Us An efficient deep learning app- roach to pneumonia classification in healtheare. J. Healthe. Eng. (2019) 40, Mebtouche, NE.D., Baha, N., Kaddouri, N., Zaghdar, A., Redjil, A.B.E.: Improv- ing thermal object detection for optimized deep neural networks on embedded devices, In: Drias, H., Yalaoul, F., Hadjali, A, (eds) AID 2022, CCIS, vol. 1852, pp. 83-94, Springer, Singapore (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4484. 27 41, Kumra, $., Kanan, C.: Robotic grasp detection using deep convolutional neural networks, In: 2017 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), pp. 769-776, IEBE (2017) 42, Zhou, W., Dou, P., Su, T., Hu, H, Zheng, Z: Feature learning network with trans former for multi-label image classification. Pattern Reeogn. 186, 109203 (2028) 43, Mebtouche, N.B.D., Baba, N.: Robust UAV detection based on salieney cues ancl ‘magnified features on thermal images. Multimed. Tools Appl. (2023) 4, Abed, M., Ibrikei, T.: Sleep apnea events detection using deep learning techniques, J. Sleep Disord. ‘reat. Care (2028) Harrow, A.W., Montanaro, Az Quantum computational supremacy. Nature 49(7671), 203-209 (2017) 46, Ruan, Y., Chen, H., Tan, J. Li, Xi Quantum computation for large-scale image classification. Quantum Inf. Process. 18, 4049-4069 (2016) 47, Kato, T: On the adiabatic theorem of quantum mechanics, J. Phys. Soe, Jpn 5(6), 435-439 (1950) 48, MeGeoeh, C.C.: Adiabatic Quantum Computation and Quantum Annealing: The- ory and Practice, Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10,1007/978-3-031- 025181 49, Yolianti, L. P., Surendro, K, Implementation of quantum annealing: a systematic review. IEEE Access (2022) 50. Léper, L.0., Orts, F., Ortega, G., eb al: Fault-tolerant quantum algorithm for ddual-treshold image segmentation. J. Supercomput, 79, 12549-12562 (2023) &