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Martial arts participation: Consumer motivation

Article in International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship · January 2010

DOI: 10.1108/IJSMS-11-02-2010-B002

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Yong Jae Ko Yukyoum Kim

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11.2 Paper 1 (3) Martial p105-123KT2 22/1/10 16:37 Page 105

Martial arts participation: consumer motivation

Keywords Abstract
martial arts

RESEARCH PAPER
motivation Although the martial arts industry is rapidly evolving
empirical study into a mature and highly competitive marketplace, only
a few studies have been conducted to understand why
people participate in martial arts. The purpose of this
study is to examine motivation factors that influence an
individual’s participation in martial arts to provide
leaders of the industry with meaningful managerial
Yong Jae Ko implications. The researchers collected data from the
University of Florida 2004 Battle of Columbus Martial Arts World Games IV,
one of the most popular martial arts events in the US.
Yu Kyoum Kim (corresponding author)
Assistant Professor, Department of Sport and Recreation Management The results of a series of MANOVA tests revealed that
The Florida State University, Tully Gym 1034 these martial arts participants (N = 307) are highly
Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA motivated by growth-related motivation (e.g. value
Tel: +1 850 644 7174
Fax: +1 850 644 0975 development and actualisation). In addition, the
Email: ykim6@fsu.edu findings indicate that motivation of martial arts
Joseph Valacich practitioners varies across types of martial arts
Washington State University disciplines, competition orientation and past
experiences. Given these results, implications for future
Peer reviewed research and practice are discussed.

Executive summary

Today, martial arts have become an integral part of
sports and physical activity culture that convey
lifestyles and values of education and entertainment.
The increased number of martial arts practitioners,
products, organisations and events reflects that martial
arts have become global cultural products (Ko & Yang,
2008). As the martial arts industry has evolved into a
mature and highly competitive business segment,
more research is needed to improve our understanding
of martial arts consumers (Ko, 2003).
Although an increased interest in motivational
factors has drawn scholars to conduct research on
dominant sports participants, there is very little
information in the literature regarding the motivation of

l JANUARY 2010 l International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship 105

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Motives of martial arts participants
martial arts participants and their consumption
behaviour (Ko, 2003). It is important for practitioners
to identify the fundamental needs of consumers
because motivation is a significant determinant of
sports participation (McDonald et al, 2002).
Accordingly, the purpose of this study is to analyse
motivation of martial arts participants.
The researchers collected the data at the 2004
Battle of Columbus Martial Arts World Games IV held
in Columbus, Ohio. In order to measure motivation of
action sports participants, the researchers modified
RESEARCH PAPER
and used McDonald et al’s (2002) sports
consumption motivation scale. Descriptive statistics
were calculated by using SPSS 15.0 for the variables
related to demographics, martial arts participation and
motivation. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was
performed through AMOS 7.0 to confirm the existence
of the specified factor structure. We ran three separate
one-way between subjects multivariate analyses of
variance (MANOVA) on martial arts motives using the
general linear model procedure in SPSS 15.0.
Independent variables were past experience, discipline
(i.e. types of martial arts) and competition orientation.
The results of data analysis revealed that in general
martial arts participants (N = 307) are highly
motivated by fun, aesthetics and growth-related factors
(i.e. achievement, self-esteem and value
development). Results of CFA suggest that the
measurement scale showed good psychometric
properties, and we used them in the following
MANOVA procedures. Martial arts participants’
motivation varies across experience levels, types of
martial arts and competition orientation. More
specifically, results showed that more experienced
martial arts participants were more motivated by value
development; and beginners were more motivated by
self-defence than others. Competitors are more highly
motivated by achievement and competition than semi-
competitors and non-competitors, but less motivated
by cultural awareness; and competitors and non-
competitors are more motivated by cultural awareness
than semi-competitors. Judo/Jujitsu participants are
106 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
more motivated by aggression than other disciplines;
Taekwondo, Judo/Jujitsu and Karate participants were
more motivated by self-defence; and Akido/Hapkido
and Kungfu/Wushu participants were more motivated
by social facilitation and affiliation than other
disciplines.
This study will benefit the martial arts industry and
the field of sports marketing by contributing to the
development of a knowledge base regarding the
motivation of martial arts consumers. The findings of
this study can be used as valuable information for
market segmentation within the martial arts industry
and for developing targeted market strategies.
Introduction
In many eastern Asian countries, martial arts have
long been major forms of physical activities and
pedagogical contents. Martial arts include such
disciplines as Aikido, Hapkido, Judo, Jujitsu, Karate,
Kendo, Kungfu, Sanshou, Tai Chi, Taekwondo, Tang
Su Do and Wushu, among many. Today, as a result of
tremendous growth of this industry, martial arts have
become an integral part of sports and physical activity
culture that convey lifestyles and values of education
and entertainment in many western countries (Ko,
2007; Yang, 2000).
The martial arts industry has evolved into a mature
and highly competitive business segment (Ko, 2002,
2003). In the US, for example, the number of
commercial martial arts schools has increased from
13,600 in 1999 to 14,500 in 2003 (ReferenceUSA,
2003). In addition, the number of martial arts
participants has increased by 60% during the past
decade, from 3.6 million people in 1993 to 6 million
people in 2001 (NSGA, 2002). Meanwhile, an
emergence and popularity of mixed martial arts events
(e.g. K-1 and Ultimate Fighting Championship)
created a market demand for new forms of
entertainment value in martial arts (Kim et al, in
review). The increased number of martial arts
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practitioners, products, organisations and events
reflects that martial arts have become global cultural
products (Ko, 2007).
The growth of martial arts as global cultural
products can be best illustrated in the cases of Judo
and Taekwondo, both Olympic sports. Today, the
International Judo Federation (IJF) lists about 180
member nations, and the number of Judo practitioners
in the world is over 8 million (IJF, 2007). The World
Taekwondo Federation (WTF) is made up of 185
national governing bodies, and the number of
Taekwondo practitioners in the world is estimated to
be 70 million (WTF, 2007). The increased popularity
of Judo and Taekwondo and their addition to the
Olympics clearly indicates that martial arts have
become popular cultural products (Ko, 2007).
Ko (2003, 2007) identified several common factors
that influence the globalisation of martial arts. They
include: transformation of values of martial arts
training (Donohue, 1994; Ko, 2002); modernisation
of instructional curriculum (Yang, 1997); promotional
efforts made by governments of country-of-origin of
each martial arts and increased marketing efforts in
martial arts business (Ko, 2003); global expansion of
martial arts through sportification and formalisation
(Ko, 2002; Yang, 1997); and the diversification of
martial arts products (e.g. martial arts movies and
adaptation of martial arts in fitness programmes) and
emergence of a new genre of martial arts events (e.g.
mixed martial arts competitions).
While these positive trends provide martial arts
practitioners with new business opportunities, martial
arts organisations also face many challenges. The
future growth of martial arts is dependent upon how
well the organisations adapt to a continuously
changing and highly competitive market environment
(Ko, 2007). One approach for thriving in this business
environment is to develop a better understanding of
consumer needs and their participation decision
process, and to develop effective strategies to satisfy
their fundamental needs; this topic has historically
been of little interest to this industry and so its
l JANUARY 2010 l International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
Page 107
Motives of martial arts participants
application is relatively new (Ko, 2003).
Psychographics, as well as behavioural and
demographic information, allow practitioners to arrive
at a comprehensive picture of their targeted market
segment (Sport Sector Analysis Report, 2004). In
particular, assessing psychographic variables is
essential for understanding why people participate in
various types of martial arts programmes. These
variables include lifestyle preferences, values
orientation and psychological traits, among other
things. However, without additional knowledge about
RESEARCH PAPER
participant motivation, information on how to satisfy
consumers remains incomplete (Shank, 1999).
To date, there is very little known about martial arts
practitioners in general and their participative
motivation in particular. Thus, academic efforts aimed
at the understanding of martial arts practitioners are
needed to keep the momentum of growth within this
industry. Consequently, the purpose of this study is to
extend our understanding of martial arts consumers by
identifying their salient participative motivation. The
specific research questions addressed in this study
are: Which factors contribute to the motivation of
martial arts participation? And are there any
differences in participative motivation based on past
experience, competition orientation and martial arts
types/disciplines? As of yet, there has not been any
substantial research of this issue. Thus, understanding
the motivation of martial arts consumers will make
both scientific and practical contributions.
Prior motivation research
Motivation is defined as “a conscious experience or
subconscious condition, which serves as a factor in
determining an individual’s behaviour or social
conduct in a given situation” (Alderson, 1955, p.6). It
is very important to understand the reasons why
consumers participate in certain sports and the
benefits they expect to receive from sports
participation (Shank, 1999). Alderson (1955) stated
that the purpose of studying consumer motivation is to
discover how past behaviour influences current
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Motives of martial arts participants
decision-making. For this reason, the current study
examined subjects’ years of experience as one of the
independent variables.
Maslow’s (1943) Need Hierarchy Theory is one of
the most popular motivational theories. This theory
includes five basic needs (i.e. physiological, safety,
social, esteem and self-actualisation) in order of
importance to the individual. This theory states that as
each lower-level need is substantially met, the next
higher-level need becomes the motivating focus for an
individual. Although Maslow’s need hierarchy is easy
RESEARCH PAPER
to understand and is widely recognised by many
scholars in various academic fields and practitioners,
research has not found it to be a valid theory for
consistently explaining a person’s motivation.
Researchers have found that unsatisfied needs do not
necessarily motivate, that satisfied needs do not
always activate movement to higher levels in the
hierarchy, and that more than one need from different
levels may be desired simultaneously (Schermerhorn
et al, 1997). As a result, researchers continued to
look for a more sophisticated understanding of a
person’s motivation.
ERG theory refined the hierarchy of needs theory. In
particular, ERG theory argues that there are three core
needs – existence, relatedness and growth – in which
more than one need may be operating at the same
time and that if the fulfilment of a higher-level need is
unrealised, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need
increases (Alderfer, 1969).
Within EGR theory, existence focuses on satisfying
our basic material needs and mostly closely relates to
Maslow’s physiological and safety needs. Relatedness
focuses on maintaining interpersonal relationships
and most closely relates to Maslow’s social needs.
Growth focuses on personal development and most
closely relates to Maslow’s esteem and self-
actualisation categories. Researchers have found ERG
theory to be more valid than Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs because it more closely reflects our knowledge
of how the importance of various factors can
simultaneously act to motivate an individual
(Schneider & Alderfer, 1973).
108 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
To date, numerous studies have examined
motivational factors regarding why people participate
in sports activities (e.g. Burton, 2003; Gill et al,
1983; Gould et al, 1985; Koivula, 1999; McDonald
et al, 2002; Park et al, in press; Slanger & Rudestam,
1997; Wankel, 1993). However, only a few studies
have been conducted on martial arts participation
motivation (e.g. Boudreau et al, 1995; Jones et al,
2006; Stefanek, 2004; Twemlow et al, 1996).
Previous studies suggested different factor structures of
sports participation motivation. Additionally, the
number of factors and items identified through factor
analysis have varied dependent upon the sample
under investigation (Gill et al, 1983; Koivula, 1999;
McDonald et al, 2002).
Although there are different salient motivation factors
that influence sports participation in different contexts,
in general, previous studies of motivation supported
that fun, skill development, challenge and fitness were
the most important motivational factors in sports
participation. For example, Roberts (1992) identified
three motives of sports participation: achievement,
social interaction and mastery. The achievement
motive arises when a sport provides people with some
competition opportunities to experience a sense of
accomplishment, such as by winning a competition.
People also participate in sports activities for social
interaction (e.g. golf country clubs). The third motive,
mastery, is generated by skill development, learning
and personal challenge found in adventure sports (e.g.
mountain biking and rock climbing). Several studies
focused on young athletes who participate in risky
sports (e.g. Koivula, 1999; Park et al, in press;
Wankel, 1993) found that sports participants rated
fun/enjoyment as the most important motive and
believed it had considerable effects on adherence.
Risk-taking appears to be another major motivating
factor for people who choose to participate in active or
adventure-oriented sports (Celsi et al, 1993; Park et
al, in press; Shoham et al, 1998). Shoham et al
(1998), for example, examined the role of perceived
benefits of participation in risky sports (e.g. skydiving,
parachuting and hang gliding), finding that thrill
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seeking and adventure were the primary motivational
factors of the participants (Shoham et al, 1998).
Celsi et al (1993) concluded that people choose to be
involved in high-risk-taking sports because it allows
them to escape from the routine of daily life. In
addition, these risky sports are often more attractive
to youths than traditional sports forms. This emphasis
on aesthetics could reflect another fundamental
difference in participant motivation between traditional
team sports and action sports (Park et al, in press;
Rinehart, 2000).
Twemlow et al (1996) investigated martial arts
motives using 170 male and female participants in
the US. They found that self-defence and physical
fitness are the two most important motivation factors.
On the other hand, Stefanek (2004), using 250
collegiate Taekwondo participants, found that the
motives of these young Taekwondo participants (e.g.
fun, physical exercise, skill development and
friendship) were similar to those found for more
traditional sports. Martial arts specific motives
(i.e. philosophy of the martial arts mind-body-spirit
approach) were also important, along with benefits for
mental and physical health and stress reduction.
Similarly, Jones et al (2006) found that martial arts
participants have strong motives of affiliation and
friendship, followed by fitness, reward, competition,
situational and skill development. Boudreau et al
(1995) found that psychological improvement was the
most important reason parents encourage school-age
children to participate in Karate. For example, self-
confidence and self-discipline were rated as the most
important benefits they were seeking among many
(e.g. physical improvement and human relationship).
Meanwhile, McDonald et al (2002) developed a
sports participation motivation scale based on
Maslow’s (1943) Need Hierarchy Theory. By
conducting an exploratory factor analysis they
categorised 13 sports participation motivation factors
into four constructs (i.e. mental well-being needs,
sport-based needs, social needs and deficiency
needs). Mental well-being needs consist of self-
actualisation, self-esteem, value development,
l JANUARY 2010 l International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
Page 109
Motives of martial arts participants
aesthetics and stress release. Sport-based needs
include competition, aggression, risk-taking and
achievement. Social needs comprise social facilitation
and affiliation. Deficiency needs include physical
fitness. The extracted 13 motivation constructs were
used to examine participative motivation in nine sports
in the US (baseball, basketball, bowling, fishing,
football, golf, softball, tennis and volleyball). The study
suggested that there are different salient motivation
factors that influence participation in different sports.
They found that except for two factors (achievement
RESEARCH PAPER
and self-esteem), sports participants differed
significantly on 11 of the 13 motivational factors
across all profiled sports. In addition, the researchers
found differences in motivation between participants in
individual sports and those in team-based contact
sports. While participants in team sports such as
football, basketball and baseball were motivated by
high levels of physical risk, this factor was the lowest
motivator for individual sports participants (e.g. tennis,
fishing, bowling and golf). They did, however, note
that risk-taking was emphasised by participants in
extreme sports (which are mostly individual sports);
these participants were motivated by high levels of
excitement; adrenaline rush; thrill; challenge; feelings
of uniqueness; a sense of psychological, physical and
spiritual well-being; and accomplishment (McDonald
et al, 2002; see also May & Langer, 2000).
In summary, although an increased interest in
motivation has drawn scholars to conduct research on
dominant sports participants, there is very little
information in the literature regarding the motivation of
martial arts participants and their consumption
behaviour. In consideration of significant differences
between martial arts and other sports genres in terms
of goal orientation and cultural backgrounds (Ko,
2003), more research is needed to improve our
understanding of the motivation of martial arts
participants. The motivational factors affecting martial
arts participation have implications for planning
effective market strategies, as it is one of the most
significant determinants of sports participation
(McDonald et al, 2002).
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Motives of martial arts participants
Method
Instrumentation
In this study, the researchers used Alderfer’s (1969)
ERG theory as a conceptual background. To measure
motivation of martial arts participants, McDonald et al’s
(2002) motivation scale was adapted and modified to
the context of martial arts. Specifically, we categorised
McDonald et al’s (2002) 13 motivational factors into
three broad motivation constructs of ERG theory and
one additional construct (i.e. sport-specific motive). In
RESEARCH PAPER
addition, we included three additional factors (i.e.
cultural awareness, fun and self-defence) that explain
consumer needs in this industry through a personal
interview. Therefore, an initial factor structure includes
16 factors: growth (self-actualisation, self-esteem, value
development, achievement and cultural awareness);
relatedness (social facilitation and affiliation); existence
(skill mastery, fitness, stress release, fun and self-
defence); and sport-specific needs (aesthetics,
aggression, competition and risk-taking). The validation
of the scale was carried out in the following steps.
First, the researchers considered whether the items
in the original scale appeared to represent martial arts
context and could be used directly. For example, an
original item of achievement is ‘My goal is to be
outstanding in my favourite sport’. After substituting
the words ‘martial arts’ for ‘favourite sport’, the item
was considered appropriate for inclusion. In addition,
we added one contextually meaningful item that
represents each of value development and aesthetics.
They are ‘Martial arts has helped me to be more
respectful to others’ and ‘I appreciate the beauty
inherent in martial arts’ respectively.
Second, we developed 13 new items for three newly
added factors (i.e. self-defence, cultural awareness
and fun). These factors were identified through
personal interviews with 183 students who participate
in university martial arts classes (i.e. Karate and
Taekwondo). The respondents were asked to respond
to three open-ended questions that reflect their
participative motivation. The questions are: ‘What are
the important aspects in the training of martial arts?’
110 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
‘How did martial arts training help you in your life?’
and ‘What did you improve most since taking this
class?’ We categorised their responses into existing
motivational factors and identified three new factors as
important aspects of martial arts training. Overall
results of data analysis suggested that respondents
perceive that value development (N = 85; 46%) is the
most important aspect of martial arts training followed
by self-esteem (44%), physical fitness (42%),
self-defence (38%), self-actualisation (36%),
skill mastery (10%), stress release (8%) and
cultural awareness (7%).
Based on the results, four items were developed for
the cultural awareness dimension. For example,
‘I participate in martial arts because it helps me to
learn about other cultures/philosophy’ was added.
Four items were developed for the self-defence
dimension. An example is ‘Self-defence is a primary
reason that I participate in martial arts’. Another set of
three items was developed for the fun dimension. An
example is ‘I participate in martial arts to have fun’.
Three to six questions were included to measure each
of the 16 factors for a total of 58 items. The format for
the questionnaire was a seven-point Likert scale, with
1 indicating strong disagreement and 7 indicating
strong agreement.
In order to establish the content validity, the
questionnaire was sent to a panel of six experts (three
sports management faculty members and three martial
arts instructors). The panel members were given the
conceptual definitions of each motivation factor and
instructed to retain items based on their relevance and
representation of the factors and clarity of wording.
Based on the feedback received, items that were
unclear, irrelevant or redundant (four items) were
eliminated. Additional modifications were made on a
number of items, mainly to clarify wording. The
questionnaire was then field-tested on a group of
college students (N = 10) who are currently involved
in some form of martial arts. They were asked to
further analyse the clarity, wording and relevance of
the items. Minor wording changes were made after
being field-tested.
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Motives of martial arts participants

TABLE 1 Descriptive statistics for the subject characteristics (N= 307)

VARIABLES CATEGORY FREQUENCY % CUMULATIVE %

GENDER MALE 225 73.5 26.5
FEMALE 81 26.5 100
AGE 24 AND YOUNGER 169 55.2 55.2
25-34 63 20.6 75.8
35-44 38 12.4 88.2
45 AND OLDER 36 11.8 100
ETHNICITY ASIAN 40 13.0 13.1
HISPANIC 13 4.3 17.4

RESEARCH PAPER
AFRICAN AMERICAN 22 7.2 24.6
CAUCASIAN 211 69.2 93.8
AMERICAN INDIAN 2 0.7 94.4
OTHERS 17 5.6 100
STATUS INSTRUCTOR 68 23.3 23.3
STUDENT 224 76.7 100
COMPETITION COMPETITOR 75 25.5 25.5
ORIENTATION
SEMI-COMPETITOR 123 41.8 67.3
NON-COMPETITOR 96 32.7 100
PAST EXPERIENCE LESS THAN 1 YEAR 103 35.4 35.4
2-5 YEARS 65 22.3 57.7
5-10 YEARS 62 21.3 79.0
MORE THAN 6 YEARS 61 21.0 100
DISCIPLINE AIKIDO/HAPKIDO 27 9.1 9.1
JUDO/JUJITSU 41 13.8 22.8
KARATE 30 10.1 32.9
KUNGFU/WUSHU/TAI CHI 36 12.1 45.0
TAEKWONDO 164 55.0 100

Participants such as Taekwondo and Judo to traditional arts forms

The researchers employed a convenience sampling
method and directly administered the instrument to
martial arts practitioners who participated in the 2004
Battle of Columbus Martial Arts World Games IV held
in Columbus, Ohio in March 2004. Since its inception
in 1976, this event has grown to be one of the largest
and most diverse martial arts events in the US.
Competitors come from various types of martial arts
disciplines, from competition-oriented martial arts
of martial arts such as Tai Chi. The primary goal of the
event is to unify and bring harmony to the family of
martial arts disciplines.
The cover letter and questionnaire were approved by
the University Human Subjects Review Committee.
The survey administration was limited to those who
compete in the tournament and spectators who are
currently participating in martial arts programmes.
Participation in this study was voluntary, and a letter

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Motives of martial arts participants
indicating the participants’ rights was included. In
most cases respondents completed the questionnaire
at the meeting when an investigator was in
attendance. The remaining respondents completed the
questionnaire at another time and returned it directly
to the investigators.
Table 1 provides demographics of the study
samples. Among the total 325 returned cases, 307
successfully completed cases were included in the
data analysis. Of the 307 respondents, 27% (N = 81)
of the sample were female and 73% (N = 225) were
RESEARCH PAPER
male. More than 50% of respondents were aged
under 24 years; 26% of respondents were
competitors, and more than 40% of respondents had
over five years of experience. About 50% of the total
sample were Taekwondo practitioners, which is
comparable to the total population of martial arts
participants in the US.
Data analysis procedures
Descriptive statistics were calculated by using SPSS
15.0 for the variables related to demographics, martial
arts participation and motivation. A CFA was
performed through AMOS 7.0 (2006) to confirm the
existence of the specified factor structure on the
pooled sample. A series of four CFAs were performed
on the 17 subtests of growth, 7 subtests of
relatedness, 16 subtests of existence and 14 subtests
of sport characteristics. The results of the CFA test
determine how well the indicators capture their
specified constructs and to demonstrate that the
constructs are distinct from each other (Bollen, 1989;
Hair et al, 1998).
Following Hu and Bentler (1999), we used standard
root mean squared residual (SRMR) and comparative
fit index (CFI). We also used the root mean square
error of estimation (RMSEA; Browne & Cudeck, 1993)
because RMSEA takes account of sample size in its
equation (Marsh et al, 1996). In addition, we
included the chi-square values divided by the degrees
of freedom as a frame of reference because most of
112 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
the fit indices in the SEM literature are in some form
functions of the chi-square value. According to Hu and
Bentler (1999), SRMR values less than or equal to
.08, CFI values equal to or greater than. 95 and
RMSEA less than or equal to .06 are indicative of a
good-fitting model. Recommended χ2/df values range
from 1.0 to 2.0 for small samples and from 1.0 to
3.0 for larger samples (Kline, 1998). In addition, for
each subscale, internal consistency measures
(Cronbach’s alphas and average variance extracted,
AVEs) and convergent validity measures (factor
loadings) were computed. Cronbach’s alpha values
greater than .70 are considered to be adequate
(Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994) and AVE values above
.50 are assumed to be acceptable (Fornell & Larcker,
1981). The factor loading greater than a conservative
threshold of 0.70 is considered as acceptable (Hair et
al, 1998; Litwin, 1995). As a result of an initial CFA
test, one factor (i.e., self-actualisation with three
items) was eliminated due to lack of discriminant
validity with other growth-related factors (ψ>.90). In
addition, seven items in various factors were dropped
due to their low factor loadings (>.70).
For the research questions, we ran three separate
one-way MANOVA on martial arts motives using the
general linear model procedure in SPSS 15.0. A series
of three one-way between subjects MANOVA was
performed on dependent variables: four subscales of
growth (i.e. achievement, cultural awareness, self-
esteem and value development), two subscales of
relatedness (i.e. affiliation and social facilitation), five
subscales of existence (i.e. fun, skill mastery, physical
fitness, self-defence and stress) four subscales of sport
characteristics (i.e. aggression, competition, risk and
aesthetics). Independent variables were past
experience, discipline (i.e. types of martial arts)
competition orientation. To examine motivation, we
grouped various martial arts disciplines into five
categories (i.e. Aikido/Hapkido, Judo/Jujitsu, Karate,
Kungfu/Tai Chi and Taekwondo) based on the
similarity and style of martial arts disciplines.
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Motives of martial arts participants

TABLE 2 Descriptive statistics for martial arts motivation (N = 307)

ERG DIMENSION FACTOR SUMMATED MEAN SD

GROWTH SELF-ACTUALISATION 5.66 1.14
ACHIEVEMENT 5.67 1.32
CULTURAL LEARNING 4.49 1.33
SELF-ESTEEM 5.58 1.20
VALUE DEVELOPMENT 5.62 1.24
RELATEDNESS AFFILIATION 5.34 1.31
SOCIAL FACILITATION 4.80 1.34
EXISTENCE FUN 5.83 1.07

RESEARCH PAPER
PHYSICAL FITNESS 5.78 1.23
SELF-DEFENCE 5.43 1.18
SKILL MASTERY 5.66 1.18
STRESS RELEASE 5.67 1.24
SPORT AESTHETICS 5.77 1.09
CHARACTERISTICS AGGRESSION 5.02 1.10
COMPETITION 4.77 1.40
RISK-TAKING 4.23 1.55

Results Results of the measurement model test

Descriptive statistics
Table 2 contains summated means and standard
deviations for each of the 16 factors of motivation.
The means for each factor ranged from 4.23 for
risk-taking to 5.83 for fun. Standard deviations ranged
from 1.07 to 1.55. It is interesting to note that in
general, fun was rated as the most important
motivation factor for the respondents. This result
supports the addition of this factor to the motivation
scale. In general, martial arts participants have a high
level of motivation in growth-related factors (i.e.
achievement, self-esteem and value development) and
existence-related factors (i.e. fun, physical fitness, self-
defence, skill mastery and stress release). Interestingly,
participants also have high motivation in one sport
characteristic (i.e. aesthetics).
Separate CFAs for the measurement model of growth,
relatedness, existence and sport characteristics yielded
a satisfactory model fit (see Table 3). In addition to the
overall measures of model fit, there was no
standardised residual above +3 or below –3,
indicating that no individual element of the analysed
matrix was considerably misrepresented in the models
(Raykov & Marcoulides, 2000); Table 4 presents
factor loadings (β), Cronbach’s alpha values and AVE
values of each factor. The constructs in the models
showed good convergent validity and reliability. The
Cronbach’s alpha values for all the subscales are
above the traditional cut-off of .70 ranging from .73
(risk-taking) to .89 (physical fitness) and AVE values
for all the subscales are greater than .50 except the
risk-taking subscale (AVE = .47). Furthermore, the
factor loading values (β) ranged from .62 to .91.

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Motives of martial arts participants

TABLE 3 Fit indices for the measurement models

MODEL χ 2/df SRMR CFI RMSEA

GROWTH 113.60/48 = 2.37 .03 .97 .07
RELATEDNESS 18.80/8 = 2.35 .02 .99 .06
EXISTENCE 228.20/80 = 2.85 .04 .95 .07
SPORT CHARACTERISTICS 146.61/38 = 3.86 .06 .93 .09
RESEARCH PAPER

TABLE 4 Factor loadings (β), alpha coefficient (α) and AVE values for motivation scale for martial arts

ERG DIMENSION FACTOR AND ITEM β α AVE

GROWTH ACHIEVEMENT .87 .71
I HAVE A STRONG DESIRE TO BE A SUCCESS IN MARTIAL ARTS .91
I WOULD BE WILLING TO WORK ALL YEAR TO BE SUCCESSFUL IN MARTIAL ARTS .82
MY GOAL IS TO BE OUTSTANDING IN MARTIAL ARTS .79
CULTURAL AWARENESS .76 .52
I PARTICIPATE IN MARTIAL ARTS BECAUSE IT HELPS ME TO LEARN ABOUT OTHER CULTURES .75
MARTIAL ARTS HAS HELPED ME TO BETTER UNDERSTAND WORLD EVENTS .71
MARTIAL ARTS HAS LED ME TO EXPERIENCE DIFFERENT CULTURES .71
SELF-ESTEEM .86 .68
MARTIAL ARTS MAKES ME FEEL THAT I AM A SPECIAL AND SUCCESSFUL PERSON .75
MARTIAL ARTS MAKES ME FEEL CONFIDENT ABOUT MY ABILITIES .87
MARTIAL ARTS GIVES ME A FEELING OF SELF-ASSURANCE .84
VALUE DEVELOPMENT .83 .61
MARTIAL ARTS HAS HELPED ME UNDERSTAND THE VALUE OF HARD WORK .84
MARTIAL ARTS TEACHES ME LESSONS THAT I MAY NOT LEARN ELSEWHERE .71
MARTIAL ARTS HAS HELPED ME TO BE MORE RESPECTFUL TO OTHERS .78
RELATEDNESS SOCIAL FACILITATION .84 .64
I ENJOY PRACTISING MARTIAL ARTS BECAUSE IT GIVES ME CHANCE TO IMPROVE SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS .79
PARTICIPATION IN MARTIAL ARTS WITH A GROUP LEADS TO IMPROVED SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS .87
PARTICIPATION IN MARTIAL ARTS GIVES ME CHANCE TO SPEND TIME WITH MY FRIENDS .74
AFFILIATION .82 .62
MARTIAL ARTS MAKES ME FEEL LIKE I BELONG TO A SPECIAL GROUP .79
THERE IS CERTAIN CAMARADERIE AMONG THE PEOPLE WHO PARTICIPATE IN MARTIAL ARTS .75
I FEEL A BOND WITH PEOPLE WHO PARTICIPATE IN MARTIAL ARTS .82

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Motives of martial arts participants

TABLE 4 continued

ERG DIMENSION FACTOR AND ITEM β α AVE

EXISTENCE FUN .85 .66
MARTIAL ARTS TRAINING EXCITES ME .78
I PARTICIPATE IN MARTIAL ARTS TO HAVE FUN .86
MARTIAL ARTS TRAINING IS PLEASANT AND ENJOYABLE .79
PHYSICAL FITNESS .89 .75
I PARTICIPATE IN MARTIAL ARTS TO STAY PHYSICALLY FIT .91
I PARTICIPATE IN MARTIAL ARTS BECAUSE I FEEL IT KEEPS ME HEALTHY .84
I PARTICIPATE IN MARTIAL ARTS BECAUSE IT DEVELOPS PHYSICAL FITNESS .84
SELF-DEFENCE .87 .71

RESEARCH PAPER
MARTIAL ARTS HELPS ME DEVELOP SELF-DEFENCE ABILITY .87
MARTIAL ARTS HELPS ME TO BE AWARE OF MY ABILITY IN SELF-DEFENCE SITUATIONS .86
MARTIAL ARTS MAKES ME FEEL CONFIDENT THAT I CAN PROTECT OTHERS AND MYSELF IN .79
DANGEROUS SITUATIONS
SKILL MASTERY .81 .61
I ENJOY PARTICIPATING IN MARTIAL ARTS BECAUSE IT IS DIFFICULT TO MASTER .74
MARTIAL ARTS IS CONSTANTLY CHALLENGING BECAUSE IT IS A DIFFICULT ACTIVITY TO MASTER .81
MARTIAL ARTS TAKES A HIGH DEGREE OF SKILL ON MY PART TO ATTAIN THE RESULTS I .79
EXPECT IN MARTIAL ARTS
STRESS RELEASE .84 .66
MARTIAL ARTS IS AN EXCELLENT REMEDY FOR ME IF I AM TENSE, IRRITABLE AND ANXIOUS .78
MARTIAL ARTS HELPS ME TO GET AWAY FROM DAILY PRESSURES .86
MARTIAL ARTS MAKES ME FEEL LESS STRESSED THAN I DID BEFORE I STARTED .79
SPORT AESTHETIC .84 .64
CHARACTERISTICS MARTIAL ARTS CAN BE BEAUTIFUL .79
I ENJOY THE ARTISTRY OF PRACTISING MARTIAL ARTS .78
I APPRECIATE THE BEAUTY INHERENT IN MARTIAL ARTS .83
AGGRESSION .77 .71
MARTIAL ARTS CAN BRING OUT MY AGGRESSIVE NATURE .79
MUCH OF MY ENJOYMENT COMES FROM THE AGGRESSIVE ASPECTS OF MARTIAL ARTS .89
COMPETITION .78 .54
MARTIAL ARTS HELPS ME DEVELOP A COMPETITIVE WORK ETHIC .72
COMPETITION IS THE BEST PART OF PARTICIPATING IN MARTIAL ARTS .76
THE BETTER THE OPPOSITION, THE MORE I ENJOY MARTIAL ARTS COMPETITIONS .72
SPORT RISK TAKING
CHARACTERISTICS PART OF THE FUN OF PARTICIPATING IN MARTIAL ARTS IS THE DANGER INVOLVED TO ME .77 .73 .47
IF I HAVE TO SACRIFICE MY BODY WHEN PRACTICING MARTIAL ARTS, SO BE IT .66
I PUT MY ENTIRE SELF ON THE LINE WHEN I PARTICIPATE IN MARTIAL ARTS .62

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TABLE 5 Stepdown analyses of martial arts motives for effects of competition orientation

99 % CL AROUND PARTIAL η2
IV DV STEPDOWN F df PARTIAL η2 LOWER UPPER
COMPETITION- ACHIEVEMENT 18.50 2/291 .11 .04 .20
ORIENTATION COMPETITION 5.24 .00 .08
2/290 .03
CULTURAL AWARENESS 4.84 2/284 .03 .00 .08
STRESS RELEASE 5.54 2/277 .04 .00 .09
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TABLE 6 Adjusted means and standard deviations of martial arts motives by competition orientation

MOTIVES COMPETITOR SEMI-COMPETITOR NON-COMPETITOR

ACHIEVEMENT 6.27 (0.13) 5.80 (0.11) 5.15 (0.13)
COMPETITION 5.12 (0.14) 4.82 (0.11) 4.49 (0.13)
CULTURAL AWARENESS 4.79 (0.13) 4.44 (0.10) 4.86 (0.11)
STRESS RELEASE 5.44 (0.10) 5.61 (0.08) 5.92 (0.09)

With the exception of two items of the risk-taking
subscale, these values all exceed the .707 cut-off,
indicating that less than half of the variance
associated with the items was error. Because these
scales showed good psychometric properties, we used
them in the following MANOVA procedures.
Results of MANOVA tests
Competition orientation
There were no univariate or multivariate within-cell
outliers at p< .001. Results of evaluation of normality
assumption, homogeneity of variance-covariance
matrices, linearity and multicollinearity were
satisfactory. With the use of Wilk’s criterion,
combined dependent variables (DVs) were significantly
influenced by competition orientation,
F (30, 554) = 3.26, p< .05. The results indicated a
modest association between competition orientation
and the combined DVs, partial η2 = .15 with 95%
confidence limits from .06 to .24. Confidence limits
for effect size were computed by entering Exact F,
hypothesis df, error df, and the desired confidence
coefficient into Smithson’s (2003) NoncF.sav and
running it through NoncF3.sps.
To examine the influence of competition orientation
on the individual DVs, a Roy-Bargmann stepdown
analysis was performed on prioritised DVs. In
stepdown analysis, each DV was analysed with
higher-priority DVs treated as covariates and with the
highest-priority DV tested in a univariate ANOVA.
Achievement, competition, cultural awareness and
stress release differed by competition orientation
(see Table 5). The variance explained the range from
3% to 11%. Marginal mean and marginal adjusted
mean for significant DVs indicated that competitors are
more motivated by achievement and competition than
semi-competitors and non-competitors, but less
motivated by cultural awareness; and competitors and
non-competitors are more motivated by cultural
awareness than semi-competitors (see Table 6).

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Motives of martial arts participants

TABLE 7 Stepdown analyses of martial arts motives for effects of experience

99 % CL AROUND PARTIAL η2
IV DV STEPDOWN F df PARTIAL η2 LOWER UPPER
EXPERIENCE SELF-DEFENCE 3.91 3/273 .04 .00 .11
VALUE DEVELOPMENT 7.70 3/287 .08 .012 .15

TABLE 8 Adjusted means and standard deviations of martial arts motives by experience

RESEARCH PAPER
MOTIVES LESS THAN 1 YEAR 2-5 YEAR 5-10 YEAR MORE THAN 10 YEAR
DEVELOPMENT 5.40 (0.11) 5.80 (0.14) 6.11 (0.14) 6.14 (0.14)
SELF-DEFENCE 6.00 (0.08) 5.79 (0.09) 5.55 (0.10) 5.73 (0.11)

Experience Martial arts discipline

There were no univariate or multivariate within-cell
outliers at p< .001. Results of evaluation of normality
assumption, homogeneity of variance-covariance
matrices, linearity and multicollinearity were
satisfactory. Multivariate test using Wilk’s criterion
indicated that combined martial arts motives were
significantly affected by experience, F (45, 812) =
1.86, p< .05. The strength of the association
between experience and the martial arts motives was
moderate, partial η2 =.09 with 95% confidence limits
from .02 to .15. The results of the Roy-Bargmann
stepdown analysis showed that value development
and self-defence differed by experience (Table 7). The
variance of each dependent variable explained by
experience was small to moderate (4% and 8%,
respectively). Marginal mean and marginal adjusted
mean for significant DVs showed that more
experienced martial arts participants were more
motivated by value development; and beginners were
more motivated by self-defence than others (Table 8).
There were no univariate or multivariate within-cell
outliers at p< .001. Results of evaluation of
assumption of normality, homogeneity of variance-
covariance matrices, linearity and multicollinearity
were satisfactory. With the use of Wilk’s criterion,
combined DVs significantly differed by discipline, F
(60, 1091) = 2.42, p< .05. The results showed a
modest association between discipline and the
combined DVs, partial η2 =.12 with 95% confidence
limits from .04 to .20. Roy-Bargmann stepdown
analysis revealed that five DVs (i.e. aesthetics,
affiliation, aggression, self-defence and social
facilitation) made unique contributions to the
composite DV that best distinguished each discipline
from others (see Table 9). The variance of each
dependent variable explained by discipline ranged
from 4% to 7%. Judo/Jujitsu participants were more
motivated by aggression than other disciplines;
Akido/Hapkido and Kungfu/Wushu participants were
more motivated by social facilitation and affiliation
than other disciplines; and Taekwondo, Judo/Jujitsu
and Karate participants were more motivated by

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Motives of martial arts participants

TABLE 9 Stepdown analyses of martial arts motives for effects of discipline

99 % CL AROUND PARTIAL η2
IV DV STEPDOWN F df PARTIAL η2 LOWER UPPER
DISCIPLINE AESTHETIC 3.01 4/285 .04 .00 .10
AFFILIATION 4.17 4/286 .06 .01 .12
AGGRESSION 3.26 4/292 .04 .00 .11
SELF-DEFENCE 5.64 4/293 .07 .01 .15
SOCIAL FACILITATION 3.74 4/289 .05 .00 .12
RESEARCH PAPER

TABLE 10 Adjusted means and standard deviations of martial arts motives by discipline

MOTIVES AIKIDO/HAPKIDO JUDO/JUJITSU KARATE KUNG FU/WUSHU TAEKWONDO

AESTHETIC 6.30 (0.18) 5.88 (0.14) 6.01 (0.17) 6.34 (0.16) 5.84 (0.07)
AFFILIATION 5.52 (0.13) 5.23 (0.10) 5.20 (0.12) 5.74 (0.12) 5.25 (0.54)
AGGRESSION 4.02 (0.31) 5.04 (0.25) 4.09 (0.29) 3.85 (0.27) 4.42 (0.12)
SELF-DEFENCE 5.32 (0.22) 5.90 (0.17) 5.90 (0.20) 5.08 (0.19) 5.96 (0.09)
SOCIAL FACILITATION 4.90 (0.21) 4.83 (0.17) 4.42 (0.42) 5.42 (0.19) 5.05 (0.09)

self-defence. In addition, martial arts participants were
highly motivated by aesthetics regardless of their
discipline (see Table 10).
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to develop a better
understanding of motivation factors associated with
martial arts participation. Overall, the results suggest
that regardless of types of martial arts and competition
orientation, two existence factors (i.e. fun and physical
fitness) and one sport-specific characteristic (i.e.
aesthetics) were found to be the three most important
reasons why people participate in martial arts. The
results are consistent with prior research that found
fun and enjoyment to be the most important motives
for people participating in risky sports (Koivula, 1999;
Park et al, in press; Wankel, 1993). The results are
also consistent with the findings of previous research
on sports participation motivations (Gill et al, 1983;
Gould et al, 1985), suggesting that young athletes
are highly motivated by fun, skill development,
challenge and fitness.
In general, the results suggest that martial arts
participants are also attracted by personal growth
opportunities offered in martial arts training. Other
than cultural learning, all growth-related factor means
were high (i.e. achievement, self-esteem and value
development). In other words, martial arts
practitioners perceive that personal improvement is the
most important benefit of martial arts training. It is
therefore not surprising that many industry leaders
highlight these positive outcomes in their promotional

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Motives of martial arts participants
materials and websites. This result is also consistent
with Boudreau et al’s (1995) findings that identified
the psychological benefits of martial arts training as an
important motivator. Interestingly, the importance of
the traditional value of martial arts training, i.e. as a
method of combat, has decreased as society has
become more civilised. As such, factors such as
enlightenment and self-improvement have become the
primary motives for martial arts participants. Recently,
the practice of martial arts is perceived to be a way to
a more fulfilling life (Kim, 1997). The results of this
study support that growth-related motivations are very
important motivations for today’s martial arts
practitioners. In addition, we added cultural awareness
as a growth-related factor of martial arts motivation. In
martial arts literature, previous studies indicated that
martial arts training is a cultural learning process.
Through this process, martial arts participants learn
about different cultures and philosophies embodied in
the traditional values of martial arts while they satisfy
other needs (e.g. physical, mental and social benefits;
Boudreau et al, 1995; Kennedy, 1997; Ko & Valacich,
2004; Yang, 2000). However, in our study, cultural
learning has the second-lowest mean out of 15
factors, suggesting that although martial arts training
is a cultural learning process, practitioners actively
reinterpret and reconceptualise the meaning of martial
arts in their cultural context (Yang, 1996). In reality,
as cultural products become global consumer
products, the original meaning can be altered or
adjusted to a local cultural context (Ko, 2007).
Other than aesthetics, sport-specific characteristics
(i.e. risk-taking, competition and aggression) were the
least important motivation factors for martial arts
participants. The results are inconsistent with previous
research (e.g. Celsi et al, 1993; Park et al, in press;
Shoham et al, 1998; Wankel, 1993). In general, from
a sports participation context, the achievement motive
is aroused when a sport provides people with some
competitive opportunities to experience achievement
by winning (Roberts, 1992). In this study, the survey
sample was martial arts practitioners who competed
in a quality martial arts tournament. Thus, it is
l JANUARY 2010 l International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
assumed that martial arts participants may perceive
that their personal achievement can be maximised not
only by competing with others and winning, but also
by enhanced self-esteem and value development
gained through martial arts training. Respondents
rated aesthetics as the third most important motivation
factor. This result may suggest that martial arts
practitioners are attracted by art forms embodied in
martial arts (Donohue, 1994; Ko, 2002). Donohue
(1994) stated that martial arts are essentially arts.
Supporting Donohue’s argument, Ko (2002) defined
RESEARCH PAPER
martial arts as “an art system of individual and social
training of mind and body for which the primary focus
is self-defence, athletics, fitness and personal
improvement” (pp.18-19). With the few exceptions of
the traditional aesthetic sports (e.g. figure skating and
gymnastics), this emphasis on aesthetics reflects
another fundamental difference in participant
motivation between dominant sports and martial arts.
The profile of the participants in the present study
revealed that martial arts participation motivation
differs depending on the level of experiences,
competition orientation and disciplines. To understand
the various consumers’ participative motivation is very
important in order to develop effective marketing
strategies. In general, martial arts training consists of
three broad aspects including form, sparring and self-
defence. Sparring is a competition structured within
specific rules as in other sports cases. Form
continuously stabilises the inspiration of sparring and
it is an educational means of reaching that creative
inspiration. This is the process of pursuing aesthetic
perfection (Kim, 1990). Last, self-defence is an
application of the defensive skills developed through
sparring and form drills to life-threatening situations.
According to Maslow (1943), safety need (needs for
protection, stability and order) is one of the
fundamental human needs to be satisfied. Self-
defence is a unique martial arts-specific motivation.
With respect to competition orientation, there are
significant differences among three different groups of
participants (i.e. competitor, semi-competitor and non-
competitor). Competitors are highly motivated by
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Motives of martial arts participants
achievement and competition when compared with
semi-competitors and non-competitors. Interestingly,
non-competitors are highly motivated by cultural
awareness and stress release when compared to
competitors and semi-competitors. This reflects that
martial arts practitioners who perceive themselves as
competitors are highly motivated by personal
achievement through winning in competitions, while
non-competitors are more interested in learning about
different cultures. Non-competitors seek to get away
from a daily routine and release stress by participating
RESEARCH PAPER
in different forms of physical activities. The results
indicate that managers should understand their
customers’ novelty-seeking behaviour and focus on
cultural learning (e.g. philosophical concept embedded
in form and self-defence drill). In addition, managers
should provide their customers with fun activities to
maximise their customers’ stress release. On the other
hand, for competitors, managers should highlight their
pedagogical contents on effective sparring techniques
and physical conditioning in a more competitive
training environment to generate a good athlete. In
this case, managers should provide competitors with
ample opportunities to participate in regional, national
and international competitions.
With respect to participants’ past experience, the
results showed significant differences among groups
on value development and self-defence. Experienced
martial arts participants are highly motivated by value
development. Means differences among four different
experience groups clearly indicated that experienced
practitioners perceive that martial arts is an important
tool for value development. They may expect to learn
fundamental human values (e.g. work ethic and
respect) through martial arts training. On the other
hand, beginners and less experienced participants are
highly motivated by self-defence. Our results from
initial interviews suggest that nearly 40% of college
students who took martial arts classes mentioned that
learning how to defend themselves and significant
others are the main goals of taking martial arts
classes. It is very interesting to find that as
practitioners are involved in martial arts for a longer
120 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
time period, they become less motivated by technical
self-defence skills but more interested in developing
values of martial arts. This result suggests that
consumers with different levels of experience have
different types of participative motivation. Therefore,
managers should offer customised programmes and
services based on their different experience levels. Past
experience in martial arts is reflected by the belt rank,
which is a unique aspect of martial arts services.
Thus, it is assumed that motivation and goal
orientations of colour belt students or beginners are
different from those of black belt senior groups. This
provides managers with important managerial
implications (e.g. promotion and pedagogical
contents). For example, managers should provide
black belt consumers with a more sophisticated
personal development package rather than just
focusing on the technical aspects of martial arts
(e.g. self-defence and sparring skills).
With regard to martial arts discipline, the
practitioners in five different types of martial arts
showed difference in five motivation factors (i.e.
aesthetic, affiliation, aggression, self-defence and
social facilitation). For example, Aikido/Hapkido and
Kung Fu/Wushu practitioners are highly motivated by
aesthetics, social facilitation and affiliation when
compared with practitioners in Taekwondo, Karate and
Judo. On the other hand, practitioners in the two
Olympic sports (i.e. Judo and Taekwondo) and Karate
showed a high level of motivation in self-defence and
aggression. Practitioners of Chinese martial arts (i.e.
Kung Fu/Wushu) had the lowest means in these
categories. In particular, this market segment showed
the highest motivation in aesthetics.
Conclusions and recommendations
As martial arts crosses national borders and grows to
be a popular culture in the global community, martial
arts literatures have called for a broader research on
martial arts consumers. The academic effort aimed at
the understanding of consumers is essential not only
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Motives of martial arts participants
for maintaining the current success but also to foster
growth of the industry in the future. Overall, the
results of this study contribute to a better
understanding of martial arts practitioners that can be
used to develop consumer profiles. In particular, the
results suggested that martial arts consumers have a
diverse need to be met depending on their level of
competition orientation, past experience and martial
arts discipline. Ultimately, managers may utilise the
results of this and future similar studies to predict the
consumption behaviour of martial arts participants
and to develop effective marketing strategies (i.e.
market segmentation and differentiated
programmes/service offerings) to satisfy the needs and
wants of martial arts consumers. However, a limitation
of the present study is that the subjects were confined
to competitors at one martial arts event. Further
investigation of martial arts consumption motivation
with broader samples will enable a better
understanding of consumers within this particular
industry segment. Future research would also do well
to include analyses across different cultural contexts
(e.g. Asian and European contexts). Beyond
motivation study, more research on martial arts
practitioners and their attitudes and perceptions
towards specific martial arts and different programmes
could further enhance our understanding of their
consumption behaviour.
The results of four separate CFAs revealed that the
factor structure of motivation suggested in this study is
conceptually sound. Selected fit indices suggest that
the framework fit the data fairly well. Thus, three ERG
constructs (i.e. growth, relatedness and existence) and
sport-specific characteristics provide us with a
comprehensive conceptual framework to examine the
motivation of martial arts consumers. In addition, the
items for the newly added motivation factors are
reliable (i.e. α = .76 for cultural awareness, .85 for
fun and .87 for self-defence; AVE = .52 for cultural
awareness, .66 for fun and .71 for self-defence).
Therefore, it is suggested that fun, self-defence and
l JANUARY 2010 l International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
cultural awareness should be added to the original
motivation scale developed by McDonald et al (2002)
for use in conducting research on the motivation of
martial arts consumers. Clearly, future research is
needed in order to re-examine the reliability and
validity for these measures using potentially revised
items and different samples. For example, in future
studies, however, we suggest that specific items of
cultural awareness need to be modified to better
capture a broader spectrum of cultural learning
processes in martial arts training. Once the scale is
RESEARCH PAPER
further refined, it can be used to more decisively
predict martial arts consumption decisions.
© 2010 International Marketing Reports
Biographies
Yong Jae Ko is an assistant professor on the sport
management programme at the University of Florida.
He has expertise in sports marketing and his research
aims to develop understanding of sports consumers
and improve sport and recreation opportunities and
quality of life for individuals and families.
Yu Kyoum Kim is an assistant professor of sport and
recreation management at the Florida State University.
His research focuses on sports consumption
behaviours. His current research interests include
motives, constraints, relationship quality and gratitude.
Joseph Valacich is the George and Carolyn Hubman
Distinguished Professor of MIS at Washington State
University. His primary research interests include
technology-mediated collaboration, human-computer
interaction, mobile and emerging technologies, and
e-business distance education.
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