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微球辅助显微术中非常规 Optics and Laser Technology 114 (2019) 40–43

的放大行为
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Optics and Laser Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/optlastec

Research Note

Unconventional magnification behaviour in microsphere-assisted T

microscopy
⁎
Stephane Perrin , Hongyu Li, Sylvain Lecler, Paul Montgomery
ICube Laboratory, University of Strasbourg – CNRS, 67412 Illkirch, France

H I GH L IG H T S

• Magnification in microsphere-based microscopy behaves differently than in optical microscopy.

• Lateral magnification increases along the microsphere imaging depth.
• Magnification factor depends on the microsphere size and illumination conditions.
• Reducing the spectral bandwidth of the light source narrows the magnification range.

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Microsphere-assisted microscopy is an original sub-diffraction-limit imaging technique allowing to reach a few
Microscopy hundred nanometres of lateral resolution in air only by placing a microbead in a classical optical microscope.
Super-resolution This work aims to highlight the magnification process in microsphere-assisted microscopy which behaves dif-
Microsphere ferently from the case in optical microscopy. As a matter of fact, the lateral magnification of an optical mi-
Magnification
croscope does not change according to focus plane positions. Experiments on the super-resolution imaging
Image formation
technique, performed in air through soda-lime-glass microspheres and attested by simulations, demonstrate a
significant increase in the magnification factor along the microsphere imaging depth, i.e. at different object-
focal-plane position of the objective. Moreover, it is shown that the magnification range, as well as its slope,
depend on the size of the microsphere. Additionally, the influence of the spectral width of the illumination light
source on the magnification range is highlighted.

1. Introduction Nevertheless, these super-resolution imaging techniques require high

Resolving power in classical optical microscopy is limited by dif-
fraction of light, resulting in a minimal distance between two distinct
object details of half of the wavelength in air using a low-coherent il-
lumination [1]. The idea of sub-diffraction-limit imaging techniques
appeared with the need to visualize increasingly smaller elements [2],
and with the notion of ultra-microscopy [3]. Several super-resolution
imaging techniques have then been developed in the last century such
as confocal microscopy [4,5] (enhanced further using a double-pass
configuration [6] and the photonic jet phenomenon [7]), scanning
near-field optical microscopy [8,9], structured illumination microscopy
[10,11] and metamaterials-based superlenses [12,13]. They con-
tributed to bringing optical nanoscopy to the forefront, reinforced by
the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 2014 with super-resolved fluorescence
microscopy [14] and single molecule localization microscopy [15].
stability systems, complex alignment or long acquisition time.
In 2011, Wang et al. experimentally demonstrated full-field label-
free super-resolution microscopy using low-refractive-index micro-
spheres (silica microspheres with n ∼ 1.46) [16]. Relatively easy-to-
implement, this approach consists in introducing a transparent micro-
sphere in a classical white-light microscope, i.e. between the sample
and the microscope objective. A magnified image, providing sub-dif-
fraction-limit information, is then generated and collected by the mi-
croscope. In the past years, several papers have focused on the per-
formance of the super-resolution imaging technique. In 2012,
Darafsheh et al. suggested placing high-refractive-index microspheres
(barium-titanate-glass with n ∼ 2.0) in an immersion liquid [17] and,
more recently, embedding in an elastomer layer [18]. Studies of the
immersion medium influence on the image contrast [19,20] and on the
image nature [21,22], as well as of the role of the coherence of light on

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: stephane.perrin@unistra.fr (S. Perrin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2019.01.030
Received 7 August 2018; Received in revised form 7 December 2018; Accepted 15 January 2019
Available online 25 January 2019
0030-3992/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Perrin et al. Optics and Laser Technology 114 (2019) 40–43

the lateral resolution [23,24], lead to a better understanding of the

imaging technique. In addition, the manipulation of the microspheres
has been studied, making it possible to perform contact-less super-re-
solution measurements [25–28]; methods which could, for example,
avoid damaging biological samples during the acquisitions [29–31].
These contributions are promising as regards the fabrication of novel
optical devices (e.g., microsphere-embedded microscope accessories),
enabling to improve optical microscopy.
Experimentally, microsphere-assisted microscopy is able to reach a
lateral resolution higher than confocal microscopy and solid immersion
lens [32], and similar to structured illumination microscopy and ne-
gative-index superlenses [33]. However, being a recent imaging tech-
nique, some phenomena are still not fully explained such as the origin Fig. 1. (a) Layout of optical head of the microsphere-based nanoscope. A mi-
of the super-resolution resolving power. Due to the micron-scale size of croscope objective (MO) collects the virtual image (VI) of the object (OB) which
the spheres, their imaging properties do not exactly follow geometrical was magnified before by a 25-μ m-diameter glass microsphere (MS). A piezo-
optics [34,35] and theoretical analyses thus remain complex. A possible electric device (PZT) allows the MO to focus on different axial VI planes along
collection of the evanescent waves by the microsphere followed by their the imaging depth (ID) by displacing OB and MS. Comparison of performance
conversion in the far field yet appears relevant to explain the super- between (b) the MO alone and (c) the MS-based nanoscope, by imaging a 200-
resolving power [36,37]. In microsphere-based nanoscopy, it is not only nm-line-width grating.
the super-resolution phenomenon is still not fully explained, but also
the image process investigated in this work. Unlike optical microscopy, (a)
microsphere-assisted microscopy provides long axial focusing ranges, Experiment
7

Magnification
therefore the imaging factor within the imaging depth behaves in an Simulation
unconventional way. As a matter of fact, the lateral magnification dif- 6
fers according to the axial position of the microscope objective. As an
5
example, Supplementary Movie illustrates the change in the magnifi-
cation along the optical axis using a soda-lime-glass microsphere with a 4
diameter of 29 μm. This effect could lead to divergent interpretations of
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
results (e.g., the magnification from a 4.7 μm-diameter microsphere Axial position ( m)
equals ×4.1 and even ×8 in Ref. [16], and ×2.8, in Ref. [28]). Therefore,
a range of magnification factor is sometimes preferred in order to avoid (b.i) (b.ii) (b.iii)
any position-dependent-magnification confusions [29,38].
This work exposes a fundamental property in microsphere-assisted
microscopy by highlighting the non-classical evolution of the lateral
magnification along the imaging depth. Through experimental mea-
surements and numerical analyses, the influence of the microsphere
diameter, as well as the bandwidth of the light source, on the magni- (c)
fication behaviour is shown in air. -10
X ( m)

2. Methods
A classical optical microscope in reflecting mode has thus been
enhanced by introducing glass microspheres (Cospheric LLC,
California) having different diameters. The soda-lime-glass micro-
spheres have a refractive index of 1.52. The illumination part consists of
a white-light source (λ 0 = 650 nm, Δλ = 400 nm) where the emitting
beam passes through a Köhler arrangement to provide a more homo-
geneous intensity distribution. The field diaphragm was closed to im-
prove the imaging contrast [39]. In addition, wavelength filters (a cyan
filter with λ 0 = 567 nm and Δλ = 90 nm, and a blue-line filter with
λ 0 = 445 nm and Δλ = 11 nm) can be introduced in order to limit the
spectral width of the light source. The object beam is then directed
towards the imaging part and passes through the transparent micro-
sphere and the microscope objective (Zeiss, ×50, NA = 0.55), as shown
in Fig. 1(a). Here, the object is a contrast grating target having a period
of 400 nm (fabricated at the MIMENTO Technology Centre, FEMTO-ST
Institute, France). It can be noted that the optical microscope alone is
not able to visualize the 200-nm-groove-width features (Fig. 1(b)). In-
deed, considering the transfer function of the whole white-light mi-
croscope, the resolving power equals only 840 nm. The microsphere is
thus placed in air on the surface of the object, allowing the super-re-
solution phenomenon to occur. A camera finally records the super-re-
solution image (Fig. 1(c)) from the objective lens and a relay lens. In
order to capture the virtual images at different positions along the
optical axis, a piezoelectric device is vertically displaced. The depth of
field of the microscope objective (∼1 μ m) defines the axial sampling of
0
10
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Z ( m)
Fig. 2. (a) Experimental (red solid line) and numerical (blue dotted line) evo-
lutions of the lateral magnification from a 25-μ m-diameter microsphere placed
in air using a white-light source, along the microbead imaging depth (Z axial
position). (b.i), (b.ii) and (b.iii) are the virtual images of the 400 nm periodic
object at Z positions of 30 μ m, 55 μ m and 90 μ m, respectively. Scale bars re-
present 1 μ m. (c) Simulation of the virtual image formation. The object is two
point sources placed against the microsphere. The white dotted line illustrates
the initial microsphere location. (For interpretation of the references to colour
in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
the measurements. During the experiments, the measurements were
repeated using ten similar microspheres. For example, experimental
curve represented in Fig. 2(a) results thus of an averaging of the mag-
nification factors through ten 25-μ m-diameter microspheres. Moreover,
at each axial position, the magnification measurements were performed
ten times.
3. Results and discussion
The lateral magnification generated by the microsphere, defined as
the ratio between the grating periods in the image plane and the object
plane, was first measured according to the axial position where the
objective focuses on (Fig. 2(a)). A soda-lime-glass microsphere having a

41
S. Perrin et al.
diameter of 25 μ m was used to demonstrate the influence of the axial
image position on the magnification factor. A linear evolution along the
microsphere imaging depth (∼60 μ m) is shown, changing from ×4 to
×8 while maintaining the super-resolution phenomenon. This effect is
significantly different to conventional full-field optical system. Indeed,
the magnification of a conventional optical microscope remains con-
stant over the clearest imaging depth. Obviously, the virtual images at
positions deeper than 60 μ m have a contrast decreased (Fig. 2(b.iii)). In
order to confirm the experimental results, a rigorous 2D electro-
magnetic model was also implemented by using a finite element
method (Comsol Multiphysics). The simulation of super-resolution
virtual imaging consists in two steps [23,40,41]: firstly, the electric
fields from the object, i.e. two point sources, interacts with a micro-
sphere. Then, the transmitted electric field is time-reverse propagated
in free-space, i.e. propagated in the opposite axial direction without the
microsphere, in order to retrieve the two images. The broadband illu-
mination of the light source is considered by repeating the two steps
over the visible spectral range (Δλ = 400 nm, step = 50 nm) and then
the wavelength-dependant irradiance distributions are summed
(Fig. 2(c)). The simulated magnification factor, i.e. the transverse dis-
tance ratio between the two resulting images and the two point sources,
is represented by the blue dotted line in Fig. 2(a) according to the
longitudinal position of the image plane, showing magnification values
in good agreement with the experiments.
Afterwards, the influence of the microsphere diameter on the posi-
tion-dependent magnification were studied. Eight glass microspheres
having different diameters were hence placed on the 400-nm-period
grating. In order to be readable, Fig. 3(a) represents the linear evolution
of the magnification factor for only three microsphere diameters, i.e.
7 μ m, 46 μ m and 125 μ m. The curves allow to affirm that, at a given
axial image position, the large microspheres provide a magnification
factor lower than when using small microspheres. Moreover, the mi-
crosphere-diameter dependence on the magnification curve slope α has
(a)
D =7 m
D = 46 m
6 line-filter (blue line). The magnification factor remains linearly pro-
D = 125 m
Magnification
5 portional according to the axial position and the magnification values
4
3 fact, the smaller the spectral bandwidth is, the narrower the micro-
2 sphere imaging depth is. This spectral width dependence shows that the
1 contribution of the chromatic aberrations. Wavelength-dependent
0 40 80 120 160 200
Axial position ( m)
(b)
70
Initial position ( m)
0.30 60
Slope ( m-1)
50
0.20 40
30
0.10 20
10
0.00 0 fractive index and in a different immersion configuration [35,42].
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Diameter D ( m)
Fig. 3. (a) Evolution of the lateral magnification in air from microspheres
having diameters of 7 μ m (in red), 46 μ m (in orange) and 125 μ m (in blue), as a
function of axial position Z. The microspheres are illuminated by a white-light
source. (b) Evolution of the magnification inclination α (in red) and the initial
image position (in blue) for different diameters D. A curve fitting 1/D function
is superimposed to the calculated values α . (For interpretation of the references
to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this
article.)
42
Optics and Laser Technology 114 (2019) 40–43
8 White light
Cyan-filtered white light
Magnification
7 Blue-filtered white light
6
5
4
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Axial position ( m)
Fig. 4. Evolution of the lateral magnification from a 25-μ m-diameter micro-
sphere placed in air as a function of axial position under three types of light
source having 400 nm (in red line), 90 nm (in cyan line) and 11 nm (in blue
line) of bandwidth. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
been estimated and is represented in Fig. 3(b) (red-color curve). A fit-
ting curve is juxtaposed, highlighting the inverse proportionality of the
slope α according to the diameter D of the soda-lime-glass micro-
spheres. In air and using soda-lime-glass microspheres, this relation is
expressed as:
1.83
α [in μm−1] =
D [in μm] (1)
In addition, Fig. 3(a) shows that the smaller the diameter, the narrower
the imaging depth. Indeed, not only the magnification factor but also
the imaging depth are highly affected by the size of the microsphere.
Large microspheres are able to form virtual images at deeper positions,
requiring focus with the microscope objective at further positions. The
linear proportionality of the initial position of the imaging depth as a
function of the diameter of soda-lime-glass microspheres is shown in
Fig. 3(b) (blue-color curve).
Finally, the role of the spectral bandwidth of the light source on the
magnification was investigated. For this purpose, the performance of
the 25-μ m-diameter microsphere using the white light source (re-
presented by the red line in Fig. 4) is compared with two spectrally-
gated illuminations, i.e. using the cyan filter (cyan line) and the blue-
do not differ, regardless of the spectral bandwidth of the light source.
However, only the magnification range appears limited. As a matter of
unconventional magnification behaviour is mainly due to a significant
beams are focused in different image planes, each having a different
magnification. This leads to difficulties to define a unique magnifica-
tion. Nevertheless, this yields a degree of freedom during the mea-
surement, i.e. the possibility to adjust the required magnification. This
assumption can be retrieved through glass microspheres having another
diameter.
In this work, the unconventional behaviour of the lateral magnifi-
cation in microsphere-assisted microscopy has been achieved in air
using soda-lime-glass microspheres. It should however be mentioned
that this effect occurs also using microspheres having a higher re-
4. Conclusions
This work exposes a fundamental property in microsphere-assisted
microscopy: the non-classical behaviour of the lateral image magnifi-
cation. Contrarily to classical optical microscopy, the magnification
factor is subject to a linear evolution along the microsphere imaging
depth, and both geometrical and optical parameters have an influence
on the position-dependent magnification slope and range. Indeed,
through experiments and numerical simulations, it was shown that the
S. Perrin et al.
microsphere size is inversely proportional to the magnification growth
and is linearly proportional to the initial position of the axial field of
view. Furthermore, the reduction of the spectral bandwidth of the il-
lumination light source indeed limits the magnification range.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank A. Leong-Hoi for her fruitful contribution. This
work received funding from SATT Conectus Alsace and was partly
supported by the French RENATECH network (FEMTO-ST Institute,
Besançon) and the University of Strasbourg.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in the
online version, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2019.01.030.
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[38] S. Yang, F. Wang, Y.-H. Ye, Y. Xia, Y. Deng, J. Wang, Y. Cao, Influence of the
photonic nanojet of microspheres on microsphere imaging, Opt. Exp. 25 (2017)
27551–27558, https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.25.027551.
[39] S. Perrin, H. Li, A. Leong-Hoi, S. Lecler, P. Montgomery, Illumination conditions in
microsphere-assisted microscopy, J. Microsc. (2018) submitted for publication.
[40] S. Perrin, A. Leong-Hoï, S. Lecler, P. Pfeiffer, I. Kassamakov, A. Nolvi,
E. Haeggström, P. Montgomery, Microsphere-assisted phase-shifting profilometry,
Appl. Opt. 56 (2017) 7249–7255, https://doi.org/10.1364/AO.56.007249.
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3D super-resolution optical profiling using microsphere enhanced mirau inter-
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[42] H.C. Van de Hulst, Light Scattering by Small Particles, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1957.
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 L.

Land, division of, between Goths and Romans, 337.

Landlord, dispute with, concerning lease, 339.
Landmarks, how preserved, 348;
penalty for destruction of, 348.
Law, what it is, 5;
its action, 5;
why made, 6;
when amended, at what time in force, 11;
all persons subject to, 12;
no one can allege ignorance of, 13;
penalty for criticizing, 16;
of foreign nations forbidden, 20.
Lawmaker, his method, 1;
duties, 2–3–4.
Leases, lands held under, must be restored, 338;
where a greater area of land cultivated than granted under,
338.
Lèse majesté, 19.
Lex Talionis, its provisions, 215.
Limitation, Statute of, 91–344;
claim for property cannot be asserted after fifty years, 343;
fugitive slave free after fifty years, 343;
suit cannot be brought after thirty years, 343;
runs in all cases except where slaves of the Crown are
concerned, 344;
does not run while party is absent, 346.
Litigant, may be chosen to act for others, 39;
must declare for whom he acts, 48.

M.

Marriage, must be accompanied by a dowry, 75;

father has right to dispose of children in, and mother, if he is
dead, 81;
when unlawful, 83;
 penalty for, 83;
with holy virgins or widows, incestuous, 107.
Master, where one marries a slave to a freewoman, 86;
may claim property of slave who is sold, 165;
responsible for illegal acts, 264.
Mayhem, what constitutes, penalty for, 225.
Merchant, foreign, where a, sells stolen property, 357;
shall be judged by his own magistrates, 357;
where a, carries away a hired person, 358;
where a, takes away a slave for trade, 358.
Mills and ponds, damage to, 296.
Minors, at what age can testify, 62;
cannot make contracts, 66;
definition of, 131;
suit against, 131.
Money, stolen from the king, 241.
Mother, entitled to share estate with children, 125.
Murder, of freeman, 222.

N.

Nuptial contract, cannot be rescinded when a gift is made, 77.

O.

Officer, where corrupted, permits soldiers to depart, 320;

where an, deserts, 321;
where an, returns home, 322;
where an, receives a bribe, 323.
Officials must not subject persons to unnecessary expense,
360.
Oppression in litigation, by parties in power, 52.
Orchards, enclosure of, 278.
Ordeal of hot water, how applied, 37.
Ox, where used without consent of owner, 287.

P.
Pardon, persons who have received, exempt from punishment,
18.
Parents, where rescue daughter from ravisher, 89;
where consent to rape, 90;
how inherit from children, 128;
what property, may bestow upon children at marriage, 140;
cannot sell or give away children, 163;
right to dispose of property where no children, 130.
Parricides, punishment of, 228;
distribution of property of, 228.
Parties, where they cause unnecessary delay, 33;
both may be compelled to be present in court, 41.
Partition, when made, remains in force forever, 334;
if made between brothers, may be revoked, 334;
wishes of majority rule in, 334;
among relatives of slaves, 340.
Patrons, gifts of, 158;
property acquired through, 158.
Perjury, effects of, 58;
penalty for, 58–59–60;
crime of and penalty, 230.
Personal property must all be classed under one title, 341.
Physician, cannot bleed a woman except her relatives are
present, 353;
shall not visit prisoners, 354;
where treats disease under contracts, 354;
compensation from student due to, 355;
cannot be imprisoned without a hearing, 355.
Pledges, when stolen, 177;
given as security for debt, 177;
where not restored, 178.
Poison, penalty for administering, 204.
Princes, cannot conduct their own cases in court, 47.
Property, illegally taken for a debt, 43;
of persons convicted of incest, 109;
given to husband or wife by king, 152;
given to wife in addition to dowry, 153;
 given verbally, or in writing, 154;
cannot be seized, except under legal process, 266;
which may not be alienated, 167;
where transferred while in litigation, 169;
loaned and destroyed by fire, 172;
where lost at sea, 173;
entrusted to a slave, 174;
reparation for, when injured or destroyed, 243.

Q.

Question, how may be inflicted, 194.

R.

Rape, 91;
of a freewoman, 88;
where brothers consent to, 90;
of betrothed woman, 90;
must be prosecuted within thirty years, 91;
by a slave, 92.
Ravisher, where killed, not criminal homicide, 91.
Relatives, cannot testify against a stranger, 62.
Rent, where tenant does not pay, 341.
Rescue of criminals, 244;
of cattle seized in crops, 280.
Retaliation, law of, 211;
amount due in lieu thereof, 212–213.
River, right to enclose, where bank cultivated, 295.
Robbers, where concealed by freeman or slaves, 316.
Robbery, accessories before the fact, 267;
committed while on an expedition, 267.
Royal order, penalty for contempt of, 36.

S.

Sale, void if made under compulsion, 160;

where price not paid after earnest money given, 160;
 where part of price paid, 161.
Sanctuary, where a homicide takes, 227;
one claiming, cannot be rescued by force, 331;
may be killed if resists with arms, 331.
Scandal, public, what course to be pursued in, 324.
Seduction, penalty for, 93.
Self defence, where assault committed, 215.
Sentence of court must be public, 252.
Shipwreck, property rescued from, 243.
Slave, not worthy of credit, 61;
when allowed to testify, 61;
when given in marriage to another, 85;
may be tortured to reveal adultery, 98;
may not be liberated to conceal adultery, 98;
of Church, if emancipated cannot marry a freeborn person,
150;
penalty for, 151;
free after thirty years, 347;
sales by, void, 164;
where accuses former master of crime, 165;
may not be redeemed with his own property, 166;
where transferred for crime, 167;
where captured and sold by an enemy, 169;
how liberated, 181;
where has several masters, consent of all must be had, 182;
how may be returned to slavery, 183;
liberation of royal, 188;
if a criminal, may be demanded, 193;
where a, insults a freeborn person, 216.
Sodomy, penalty for, 111.
Soil, fruits of, what may be demanded, 175.
Solidus, no one may refuse to accept a, of legal weight, 262.
Soothsayers, penalty for consulting, 203.
Stolen property, when bought ignorantly, 240;
knowingly, 241;
he in possession of, must name thief, 269.
Strays, when found, must be taken up and appraised, 281;
 where leave before driven out, 282;
if mutilated, penalty for, 282;
notice must be given, how, 301;
care of, 301;
must not be sheared or branded, 301.
Streams, right to enclose, 295.
Subornation of perjury, penalty for, 62.
Summons, penalty for refusal to obey, 25;
time within which must be obeyed, 26.
Sunday, no litigation lawful on, 21.

T.

Tenant, must pay rent for land sublet, 339.

Testator, cannot dispose of same property in two different ways,
72.
Testimony, must be furnished by both parties, 41.
Theft, when committed by a slave, 238;
by a freeman and slave, 239;
by a master with his slave, 239;
of mill machinery, 242.
Thief, how punished, 242;
where killed, not homicide, 243;
where killed at night, 243;
heirs of, 244;
when to be brought before the judge, 245.
Tombs, penalty for injury of, 356.
Tonsure, punishment of those who illegally assume, 108.
Torture, shall not be inflicted upon persons of noble birth, 49;
for what, and how inflicted, 194;
penalty for, if accused innocent, 194;
how slaves tortured, 196.
Traps for wild beasts, neighbors must be informed of, 292.
Traveler, where deprived of liberty, penalty for, 214.
Treason, penalty for, 17.
Trees, compensation for cutting down, 274;
where injury results from cutting, 275.
Trespass, vi et armis, penalty for, 264.
Trespasser, where one falls into a trap set for wild animals, 292.

V.

Vendor, if not of good character, must give security, 160.

Vineyards, where injured, penalty for, 276;
where planted on land of co-heirs, 336;
on land where no title, 336.

W.

Wards, when of legal age, 134.

Water, theft of, 296.
Widows, guilty of fraud, 109.
Wife, no right to earnings of slave under husband, 126.
Wills, how drawn up and executed, 67;
must be published within six months, 68;
how proved when made on a journey, 68;
must be published in the presence of a priest or a witness, 69;
how genuineness established, 71;
invalid if executed under duress, 72;
who are entitled to custody of, 176;
alteration of, 256;
forging of, 256;
nuncupative, 67;
holographic, 70.
Witchcraft, how punished, 204;
where employed against property, 205.
Witness, who may not be, 54;
must be sworn, 54;
where contradicted by documentary evidence, 54;
impeachment of, 59;
must sign or seal will, 67;
penalty for neglect, 68;
cannot testify to what is not in a will, 72.
Women, may conduct their own cases in court, 50;
cannot appoint an attorney, 50;
advanced in years cannot marry young men, 77–78;
where they marry slaves, 83–84–85;
must not marry within year of husband’s death, 83;
where, marry again in absence of husband, 86;
of bad character, 102;
entitled to share of entire estate, 123.

The End.
 FOOTNOTES:
[1] It must be remembered that under the Gothic polity, the
legislator, invariably a member of the ecclesiastical order, was
frequently called upon to exercise the exalted functions of the
judge. In some instances, the two officials had concurrent
jurisdiction; in others, the bishop was authorized to decide
questions of law and fact in the absence of the magistrate.
Especially was this the case where the interests of the Church
were, in any way, concerned. Hence arises the apparent
confusion of the duties of legislator and judge, in this and other
chapters of the Visigothic Code.—[Ed.]
[2] Preambles, such as the above, which are of frequent
occurrence in this body of laws, show unmistakably its
ecclesiastical origin, and the theocratic principles, which, at all
times, dominated those who framed it. The Mosaic Code alone,
among those of great antiquity, is constantly pervaded by similar
religious sentiments; which, emanating from the high authorities
of the Church, undoubtedly exerted great and beneficial influence
over an ignorant and superstitious people. Such additions to legal
enactments would seem strangely out of place at the present day.
—[Ed.]
[3] The first sentence of this chapter is directly at variance with
the maxim subsequently inculcated with such diligence by the
Church of Rome; through the rigid enforcement of which it long
maintained its despotic empire, and which it still regards as one of
the most important sources of its power: “Ignorance is the mother
of Devotion.”
It may be conjectured from the above, that the familiar legal
axiom, “Ignorantia legis neminem excusat,” already ancient, and
well established in the seventh century, is probably as old as the
law itself.—[Ed.]
[4] The Visigothic Councils, whose authority was presumed to
emanate from Heaven, and whose alleged sacred character
invested also, to a certain extent, the monarchs elected by them,
presumed to legislate for all coming time. Instances often occur
where future kings are declared to be bound irrevocably by the
acts of their predecessors, and by the decrees of the collected
wisdom and piety of the nation, represented by the ecclesiastical
assemblies of Toledo. Despite the solemn adjurations of prince
and prelate, however, few kings hesitated to repeal or abolish the
laws of their ancestors, when those laws either offended their
prejudices, or interfered with their ambition.
The manifest injustice and iniquity now recognized by nearly
all civilized nations as attaching to ex post facto laws, were not
appreciated by the Visigothic legislator, or sovereign. Laws were
frequently made retroactive, and were enforced with great
severity in cases affecting questions of religious belief, as well as
in those relating to the rights and privileges of the Crown.—[Ed.]
[5] Considering that the crown was elective; that the monarch
was only “Primus inter pares,” and that the subject had apparently
the right to sometimes admonish his sovereign of his errors, a
relic of the sturdy independence which characterized all northern
barbarians; the doctrine of lesé-majesté seems to have early
acquired great importance among the Visigoths, judging from the
severe penalties visited upon those guilty of the offence.—[Ed.]
[6] The coins principally in use among the Visigoths were
those of the Byzantine Empire at that epoch, as follows:—Gold,
The Libra, or pound, twelve ounces in weight, and divided into
seventy-two Tremisæ, or twenty-four Siliqæ; and Silver, The Libra,
containing twenty Solidi, and the Solidus, containing twenty
Denarii of copper. The smaller coins, of which there were many,
were those of ancient Rome, and of the Eastern Empire.
The Libra of gold was worth $368, and the one of silver worth
$88, or, at the present value of money, $4,048, and $968,
respectively. The Solidus ($56 gold, and $44 silver,) was the
standard coin in circulation.
The gold Tremisa was the only coin struck by the royal mints
during the Visigothic domination. Heavily alloyed, rude in design,
and coarse in execution, these clumsy medals disclose the
primitive conditions of the numismatic art of the period, being
notably inferior to the contemporary examples of Byzantine
coinage, themselves far below the artistic models of ancient
Rome.
The severe fines imposed under the Visigothic Code, and
whose non-payment generally involved the alternative of
perpetual servitude, often caused the financial ruin of the
offender.
 [7] Nothing in the whole system of the Visigoths is more
remarkable than the care with which they attempt to preserve the
integrity of the judiciary. It is not impossible that the notorious
corruption attending the dispensation of justice by the Roman
tribunals, in the days of the decadent Empire, may have prompted
the drastic legislation against judicial misconduct which is so
prominent a feature of the Code. The penalties in extreme cases
are but little inferior in severity to that said to have been imposed
by Cambyses; who flayed a corrupt judge, and placed his skin in
the judgment seat, as a suggestive warning to his successors. It
may well be presumed that, in the face of such punishment, the
acceptance of bribes was not a common vice among the
Visigothic magistrates. The latter did not receive regular salaries,
but were paid according to the work they performed; a regulation
which would appear, in some instances, rather calculated to
encourage, than to suppress litigation.—[Ed.]
[8] This chapter does not appear in the Castilian translation. It
is the only instance in the Visigothic Code where any ordeal is
permitted as a means of obtaining evidence of crime. The other
ordeals, subsequently so popular during the Middle Ages, and
employed not only in proceedings before judicial tribunals, but
also by the clergy to establish the existence of demoniacal
possession, do not seem to have been practised by, or even
known to, the Visigoths. Nor did they ever appeal to the wager of
battle, so congenial to the spirit of the pugnacious barbarian, and
which afterwards became one of the institutions of the age of
chivalry and feudalism.—[Ed.]
[9] “Decalvatio” was one of the most dreaded punishments
sanctioned by the Visigothic laws. The tonsure was itself
considered degrading, among a people who attached the highest
importance to a luxuriant growth of hair, even when, as a
distinctive mark of their calling, it was undergone by ecclesiastics;
and shaving the head, in the execution of a judicial sentence, was
often regarded as an indelible mark of infamy. There were several
degrees of this punishment, all of which did not entail the same
suffering and disgrace. In some cases, the hair was cut in the
form of a cross; in others, the head was entirely shaved. He who
was “turpiter decalvatus,” was scalped, and had the skin entirely
stripped from his head above the ears; a practice surpassing in
barbarity that peculiar to the American Indian. It was not unusual,
in the infliction of this cruel penalty, to include a portion, or even
all, of the skin of the forehead; thereby horribly disfiguring the
victim for life.—[Ed.]
[10] The mutual relations and liabilities of principal and agent,
and constituent and attorney, seem to have been well defined
among the Visigoths. The attorneys, “assertori,” referred to in the
Code, were, in reality, attorneys-in-fact. Strictly speaking, lawyers
(although the assertor appeared in court, and, to some extent,
exercised the functions of an attorney-at-law) did not exist among
the barbarians who had migrated from the Euxine and the
Danube, and by whom members of the legal profession were
looked upon with both suspicion and hatred. It is said that Alaric,
by way of mockery, cut out the tongue of a distinguished Roman
advocate who fell into his hands. In the Visigothic tribunals each
party stated and argued his own case; and, where an attorney
was appointed, every precaution was taken to prevent the
exertion of that insensible, but none the less weighty, influence
which everywhere attaches to the possession of superior wealth,
rank and power. The effect of written instruments delegating
authority to agents of various kinds, was also well understood,
and their validity was insured by the attestation of reputable
witnesses.—[Ed.]
[11] Branding was a penalty rarely imposed under the
Visigothic system, and was deemed especially infamous on
account of it being reserved for crimes involving unusual
turpitude. He who was “notatus infamia” was deeply burned upon
the forehead with a red-hot iron, which left an ineffaceable scar.
Few offences were more detested by the Visigoths than perjury.—
[Ed.]
[12] There were various degrees of slavery recognized by the
Visigoths. Slaves in the service of the Crown were often highly
educated and accomplished for that age; exercised important and
responsible employments at court; enjoyed many privileges, and
were exempt from many restrictions ordinarily attaching to the
servile condition. They were rather serfs than bondsmen; and
could themselves own, and, under certain conditions, dispose of,
slaves: a singular anomaly which could hardly exist, for any
length of time, in a thoroughly civilized state. While the Roman
master, under the law, was invested with absolute control over his
slave, even to the extent of putting him to death, the Visigoth
could exert no such irresponsible power. The worst features of the
Roman System, rendered necessary where slaves existed in
immense numbers, were rejected by the Visigoths, who
displayed, in this instance, far more humanity than their polished
and corrupt predecessors. Among them the Roman legal axiom,
“Partus sequitur ventrem,” did not exclusively prevail; as the
children followed the condition of the father as well as that of the
mother. In both the Roman and the Visigothic codes the slave
was considered as devoid of all personality; and was merely a
chattel, with which debts and other obligations could be
discharged, as with any other article of portable property. The
servus idoneus, or slave of superior rank, was distinguished for
his ability and integrity, or for the confidence reposed in him by his
master; the servus vilis was ignorant, debased, and frequently
criminal. In the infliction of penalties, a distinction was made
between the individuals belonging to these two classes, and
always in favor of the former. Freeborn persons who, by the
sentence of the law, were reduced to slavery, a common
occurrence under the Visigothic system, and a penalty from which
tyrannical and corrupt judges were not exempt, were designated
mancipia. Slaves belonging to the Church were generally of a
high order of ability and trustworthiness, like those who were the
property of the Crown. The owner was made liable in damages
for any injury committed by his slave; as the latter not being a
person, and still less a free agent, was legally presumed to be
under the control of his master, who, consequently, was
responsible for his acts. The Visigothic Code in comparison with
others, protects the rights of slaves with great impartiality, and
often treats their minor offences with marked indulgence.—[Ed.]
[13] This is probably the first instance on record, of a law
authorizing the taking of depositions. It will be observed that no
provision is made for the service of notice on the other party to
the suit. The art of cross-examination does not seem to have
been either recognized, or practised, by the Visigothic tribunals.
The rigid investigation by the judge, who examined all witnesses,
was presumed to be amply sufficient to elicit the truth—[Ed.]
[14] In the words of the text, “pari simul sententia falsarii
teneantur.” Subornation of perjury was, as will be seen from the
above, placed in the same category with perjury. The penalty for
the latter crime varied with the social status of the culprit, from the
loss of the fourth of his property, to scourging, and perpetual
servitude. See Book VII, Title V, Chapter II.—[Ed.]
 [15] A large part of the preceding Book has been borrowed
from the Roman jurisprudence, and some of it is older than the
Twelve Tables. It is hardly necessary to remark that the
intelligence and experience of semi-barbarians are unequal to the
task of the framing, construction, and execution of enactments
relating to the enforcement of civil obligations, and the
testamentary disposition of property, as set forth in these
chapters. The power to distrain, referred to in Chapter VIII as
effecting the property of a surety for a debt, is a remedy whose
origin antedates all history. It was the pignoris captio of the
Romans, among whom it was a summary proceeding, undertaken
without previous application to a judicial tribunal. It was
supplemented by the manus injectio, or seizure of the person of a
debtor or wrongdoer; followed by his subjection to hard labor, and
often to cruel treatment, until the unpaid claim was satisfied, or
the tort he had committed, had, in the opinion of the injured party,
been sufficiently punished. This form of execution was much used
by the Visigoths, and its severity was somewhat modified by their
laws; but while its most oppressive features were eliminated,
enough remained to render the proceeding liable to great abuse.
The rules relating to the execution, attestation and proof of
wills and other legal documents, contained in the Forum Judicum
were, for the most part, derived from the Codes of Theodosius
and Justinian. The provisions governing nuncupative and
holographic testaments are very similar in all these collections.
The will made by a traveller or a soldier, while on a journey or
absent in the service of the government, is merely the peculium
castrense, or military will of the Roman legionary. Codicils,
introduced by the laws of Justinian, were unknown to the
Visigoths.—[Ed.]
[16] The crime of rape was considered by the Visigothic
legislator in the original and broader acceptation of the term, and
not according to the more limited significance attaching to it at the
present day. It included, therefore, the offences of abduction and
kidnapping; all survivals of practices observed by mankind in their
natural condition; one of whose customs, marriage by capture,
still prevails among certain barbarous nations. By the Visigoths,
as by the Romans, rape, theft, and some other crimes, were
classed as private wrongs, to be expiated by the infliction of
personal vengeance. For this reason, the ravisher was delivered
up to the tender mercies of the relatives of the victim; or, reduced
to servitude, he was compelled to serve the latter for life.—[Ed.]
 [17] The Statute of Limitations could be pleaded in few crimes,
under the Visigothic Code, and especially was this true where the
defendant had been guilty of what we would call a felony. The
reason for its adoption in this instance is obscure, and this law
may have been enacted for some special purpose, or to fit some
particular case; retroactive legislation being common under the
Visigothic Monarchy. In all other laws published under this Title,
marriage between the parties is not only absolutely prohibited, but
every precaution is taken to make it impossible. As the former
decrees and enactments are not stated to have been abrogated
by the promulgation of the above-mentioned law, its application
and enforcement would seem to have been difficult, to say the
least. Such conflicting legislation was, however, not unusual
under the polity of the Visigoths.—[Ed.]
[18] No one can doubt that, under such conditions, it was “fully
satisfied.” This is another instance where the punishment of a
personal injury was regarded, not as an offence against the
community, and a breach of good morals, but as a case
demanding private retribution, as is specifically stated in the law
itself.
The distinctions between the crimes of rape, adultery and
fornication, as now established, are not clearly set forth in the
Visigothic Code. Intercourse with a widow is designated adultery.
The rape of a woman of any condition, is frequently called
adultery with violence. The excessively harsh penalties
prescribed for such offences, and which, as a rule, were only
limited by the caprice or compassion of the party injured, are a
relic of the customs of the Northern barbarians, with whom female
chastity was as much the rule as, on the other hand, it was the
exception among the warmer-blooded nations of Southern
Europe. Most of the laws relating to crimes against women are
termed “ancient,” showing their derivation from a remote antiquity,
or Roman origin.—[Ed.]
[19] The extraordinary leniency shown by this law to
ecclesiastical culprits, as compared with laymen guilty of the
same offence, openly displays the bias of the legislative power.
There was one rule for the priest, and another, and a very
different one, for his parishioners. It will be noted, also, that no
provision is made for the punishment of the higher clergy; while it
was notorious that the bishops and metropolitans were the
greatest of all offenders, where women were concerned. As they
framed the laws which governed the people, and were presumed
to receive their inspiration from heaven, they naturally came to
regard themselves as above their own decrees, and not liable to
their penalties and restrictions. The dissolute character of the
priesthood in those times, and long subsequently, is well known to
every student of history. The indulgence with which the bishop
was accustomed to regard the failings of his subordinates is
disclosed by the fine imposed upon him for neglect to discipline
the former. No mercy is shown to the women involved, and, what
is unusual, no distinction is made where the latter belong to
different castes, or stations in society. It is probable that this law,
so far as the punishment of the clergy was concerned, “was more
honor’d in the breach than the observance.”—[Ed.]
[20] The right of dower, established by the Visigothic Code, is
Roman in origin. It was derived from the bestowal of the dowry,
“res uxorica,” which was an almost indispensable part of every
marriage contract, and with which it is sometimes now
confounded. While, under the Roman law, the dowry was given
by the intended wife or her relations to the intended bridegroom,
or to some member of his family, with the Visigoths it came from
the bridegroom, and represented, in fact, the purchase money
paid for the bride; a survival of the ancient barbarian custom of
marriage by purchase, just as the wedding-ring is symbolical of
the presumed subordination of the wife to her husband, a
ceremony whose purpose, as well as significance, have both long
since been forgotten.
Both the rights of dower and curtesy, as defined by the legal
polity of the Visigoths, it will be seen, are practically the same as
they now exist under the laws of England, and of those of many of
the States of the Union. Considering the lapse of time, the
differences of race and religion, the wide divergence of political
systems, and the antagonistic character of many of the social
usages observed during epochs separated by thirteen centuries,
this fact is very remarkable. While the wife had a right to the use
of half of the deceased husband’s property during her lifetime, he
had a right to the use of only one third of hers, as he has to-day.
The favor generally shown to the wife in the stipulations of the
marriage contract, are largely the result of the independence
enjoyed by the sex under Teutonic and Scandinavian customs.—
[Ed.]
 [21] There is some ambiguity in this and in the preceding
chapter, growing out of the use of the term pupillus in the text; it
denoting indiscriminately, minor, ward, and orphan. The
provisions would apply with equal propriety to any or all of these,
but it is most probable that minors alone were intended to be
designated.—[Ed.]
[22] As the law of primogeniture, so popular with mediæval
and modern nations, was not recognized by the Roman
jurisprudence, so it was also rejected by the Visigothic legislator.
The testamentary distribution of estates under the Code was
governed by far more equitable principles than obtain, even in our
time, among many peoples who have enjoyed, for centuries, the
experience and advantages of a highly developed civilization.
While the testator was, for the most part, unhampered in the final
disposition of his property, he could not disinherit any of his
children without just cause, and that cause was required to be
specifically stated in his will. Where children or grandchildren
shared equally in the estate of their parents or grandparents, all
cause for family dissensions on account of favoritism or undue
influence, was absolutely removed. As it was provided by law that
the estate of the decedent must descend in the direct line, to the
exclusion of stepchildren, another source of dissatisfaction and
temptation to fraudulent interference with the rights of the next of
kin was permanently disposed of.
The interests of all heirs were jealously guarded. Even the
dowry of the wife, peculiarly her own property, as it represented
the purchase price paid for her by her husband, could not be
alienated, to the prejudice of her children. The dutiful conduct of
the latter was insured by the law which declared all their rights in
the estates of their parents to be forfeited, in case they were guilty
of gross insult or violence toward the former. In the case of wards
and minors, there is probably no body of laws which protects with
more solicitude the interests and property of such helpless
beings, than do the provisions of the Visigothic Code.—[Ed.]
[23] This decree, promulgated about 660, is one of the first of
the statutory declarations recognizing the principle of mortmain.
The Codes of both Theodosius and Justinian contained similar,
but far less sweeping provisions relating to the acquisition of
property by the Church; but these were concerned, for the most
part, with bequests. From the nature of the case, however, in the
organization and perpetuation of ecclesiastical societies, custom
and necessity must early have rendered real property inalienable
by bodies which never die; and which are encouraged to add to
their wealth by every expedient, honorable and dishonorable, but
are prohibited by tradition, policy, and legal enactment from
conveying their possessions to the laity.—[Ed.]
[24] Priests and deacons, under the Visigothic ecclesiastical
system, which, it must not be forgotten, was at all times practically
independent of papal authority, were permitted to marry; as were
their Arian predecessors. Such a union, however, was subject to
certain restrictions. It could only be entered into once; the bride
had to be a virgin; and where the husband was raised to a higher
dignity in the Church he was compelled to, at once, repudiate his
wife. The marriage itself was an impediment to promotion, as
priests without families were much more sure to rise in their
profession than those who had contracted marital obligations.—
[Ed.]
[25] The holding of a plurality of livings by a single
ecclesiastic, an abuse which, in after times, assumed such
gigantic proportions under papal rule, especially in England,
where, by reason of the hardships it produced, it promoted in no
small degree the progress of the Reformation, was scarcely
known to the Arian, or Catholic clergy of Spain. The enjoyment of
the revenues of one, or a greater number of benefices by a
layman, no matter how wealthy or powerful the latter might be—a
custom elsewhere so prevalent—was not provided for by the
sacerdotal legislature of the Visigoths in their Code of laws; for
the reason, no doubt, that such a thing was deemed too
improbable for serious consideration.—[Ed.]
[26] The institution of patron and libertus, or client, adopted by
the Visigoths almost without alteration, dates back to the primitive
ages of Rome. The regulation was recognized by the Law of the
Twelve Tables, and was modified by various enactments during
the eras of the Republic and the Empire. Its survival, during all the
vicissitudes attending the Roman domination, attests its peculiar
adaptability to the national character, and to the political and
social organization of the people who established it. It presents a
greater analogy to the Highland clan than to any other modern
institution, although marked and radical differences exist between
the two; the strongest resemblance being in the devoted
allegiance due to both the patronus and the chieftain. By the
ordinary act of manumission the slave became a libertus or
freedman; a term of much more limited significance than it has at
present. The former master then became the protector and
guardian of his freedman; and, in return for this protection, the
latter was bound to perform certain duties, which he could not
evade without the reproach of ingratitude, and the certainty of
punishment. One of these obligations was that of military service,
which differed from those subsequently required by the law of the
Feudal System, only in that it was not especially rendered as a
condition for the tenure of a fee. The relation of patron and client,
which, under the Romans, could only be dissolved between
individuals by death, or by the loss of his freedom by the client for
misconduct or insolence, was not so strictly observed among the
Visigoths. Under their system, the freedman had a right to transfer
his allegiance to another patron; an act which caused the
forfeiture to his former master, of at least half his property. Not
only individuals, but churches, and municipal bodies, could
exercise patronal rights. While the term client was generally
applied by both nations to a manumitted slave, it had in fact, a
much broader meaning; and denoted any person who voluntarily
placed himself under the care or supervision of another of
superior rank or power. This institution had more influence in
preserving and perpetuating the distinctions of caste—that most
pernicious and fatal of evils which cause the disintegration of
nations and overthrow of governments—than any other arbitrary
and oppressive regulation of ancient times.
[27] Among the clients owing services to a patron, were the
buccelarii, who derived their appellation from the buccela, or
ration, furnished them. They may be designated “bailiffs,” as their
duties resembled, in many respects, those of the Spanish
alguazil. They formed part of the armed retinue of the patron,
accompanied him to war, and guarded his property in times of
revolution and disorder.—[Ed.]
[28] The irresponsible, and more than despotic authority
vested by the Roman laws in the father over the son, was
thoroughly repugnant to the Visigothic conception of justice and
freedom, which had been transmitted through many generations
of barbarian ancestors. The Roman father not only possessed the
power of life and death over his children, but had the undisputed
right to sell them into slavery. The parental and filial relation was
hedged about with such restrictions that it was almost impossible
to sever it during life. By the law of the Twelve Tables a son could
not be free, unless he had been sold as a slave and manumitted,
three times. His reduction to a condition of servitude carried with it
many civil disabilities which could never be removed. The
independence of a son of his father’s control rendered his
inheritance of the parental estate impossible. These oppressive
regulations were either greatly modified, or entirely abrogated, by
the more equitable policy of Visigothic legislation. In the case of
female children also, under the latter system, principles more
consonant with ideas of justice prevailed. The emancipation of the
sex from arbitrary restraint also made great progress, when it is
remembered that a woman, no matter what her age or position,
was always considered by the Romans to be in a condition of
tutelage.—[Ed.]
[29] This affords curious and instructive information as to the
cost of books in the seventh century. The silver solidus is meant,
as, where any coin referred to is of gold, the fact is always stated
in the Forum Judicum. As the solidus was nominally worth $4.00
of our money, but in reality $44.00, taking into consideration the
difference of values at that and the present time, it will be seen
that the price fixed by law, of a copy of the Visigothic Code, was
$17,600.00. This appears incredible, but it must be borne in mind
that all books were in manuscript; that few persons were qualified
to write them; and, as ignorance was almost universal, the
demand for literature was extremely limited. The preparation of a
literary work was then a formidable and expensive undertaking.
Most of the books of that age, and, indeed, for centuries
subsequently, were of a religious character, such as missals,
fabulous chronicles of the Church, and spurious and imaginary
biographies of saints. Making the sale of a collection of laws at a
price above a certain sum a penal offence, punishable with the
scourge, is an example of crime unique among the mala
prohibita.—[Ed.]
[30] Twelve and a half per cent was the ordinary rate; but, in
some instances, it was much higher. The law against usury was
habitually violated by the Jews, who extorted enormous rates of
interest both from individuals and from the Crown.—[Ed.]
[31] All the laws relating to bailments, included under this and
the preceding Title, are of ancient origin; that is, borrowed, almost
without change, from the Roman jurisprudence. The responsibility
of the bailee for property entrusted to him, is determined by the
same principles which experience and a sense of equity, in all
ages, have demonstrated to be just and expedient, and which