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Molecular Mechanisms
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NEUROBLASTOMA
MOLECULAR MECHANISMS AND
THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS
Edited by
SWAPAN K. RAY
Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of
Medicine, Columbia, SC, United States
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden
our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or
methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they
have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any
liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or
otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the
material herein.
Sepideh Aminzadeh-Gohari Research Program for Naohiko Ikegaki Department of Anatomy and Cell
Receptor Biochemistry and Tumor Metabolism, Biology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois
Department of Pediatrics, University Hospital of at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
the Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria Mariia Inomistova National Cancer Institute of
Sanja Aveic Neuroblastoma Laboratory, Pediatric MPH of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine; Educational and
Research Institute-Citta della Speranza, Padua, Scientific Center “Institute of Biology and Medi-
Italy cine”, Taras Shevchenko National University of
J. Aye University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL, Kyiv, Kyiv, Ukraine
United States Meredith S. Irwin Division of Haematology/
Duncan Ayers Centre for Molecular Medicine and Oncology, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto and
Biobanking, University of Malta, Msida, Malta; Department of Pediatrics, University of Toronto,
Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Univer- Canada
sity of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom Natalia Khranovska National Cancer Institute of
E.A. Beierle University of Alabama, Birmingham, MPH of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine
AL, United States Barbara Kofler Research Program for Receptor
Nicole J. Croteau Pediatric Service, Department of Biochemistry and Tumor Metabolism, Department
Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, of Pediatrics, University Hospital of the Paracelsus
New York, NY, United States Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
Michael A. Dyer Department of Developmental Anupa Kudva Department of Pediatrics, Memorial
Neurobiology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospi- Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY,
tal, Memphis, TN, United States United States
René G€ unther Feichtinger Research Program for Prerna Kumar University of Illinois College of
Receptor Biochemistry and Tumor Metabolism, Medicine at Peoria, Peoria, IL, United States
Department of Pediatrics, University Hospital of Rakesh Kumar Department of Nuclear Medicine,
the Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi,
Paolo Grumati Institute of Biochemistry II, Goethe- India
Universit€at Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt am Michael P. La Quaglia Pediatric Service, Depart-
Main, Germany ment of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer
Ravi Kant Gupta Department of Nuclear Medicine, Center, New York, NY, United States; Department
All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, of Surgery, Weill Cornell Medical College, New
India York, NY, United States
William Clay Gustafson University of California Katherine K. Matthay University of California San
San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
Jung-Tung Hung Institute of Stem Cell and Transla- Shakeel Modak Department of Pediatrics, Memo-
tional Cancer Research, Chang Gung Memorial rial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York,
Hospital at Linkou & Chang Gung University, NY, United States
Taoyuan, Taiwan
ix
x LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
1
Neuroblastoma Pathology and
Classification for Precision Prognosis and
Therapy Stratification
Hiroyuki Shimada1, Naohiko Ikegaki2
1
Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, University of
Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA, United States; 2Department of Anatomy
and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
Neuroblastoma
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812005-7.00001-1 1 Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 1. NEUROBLASTOMA PATHOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION
FIGURE 1.1 Categories and Subtypes of Peripheral Neuroblastic Tumors: (A) Neuroblastoma, Undifferentiated subtype
(NB-UD); (B) Neuroblastoma, Poorly differentiated subtype (NB-PD); (C) MYCN amplified tumor showing the appearance
of NB-PD with a high MKI (Mitosis-Karyorrhexis Index), (inset: neuroblastic cells having prominent nucleolar formation);
(D) Neuroblastoma, Differentiating subtype (NB-D) (inset: typical differentiating neuroblasts with both cytoplasmic and
nuclear enlargement); (E) Ganglioneuroblastoma, Intermixed (GNB-I); (F) Ganglioneuroma (GN) [inset: completely mature
ganglion cell covered with satellite cell (arrow)]; (G) Ganglioneuroblastoma, Nodular (GNB-N) composed of two distinct
histologies (clones)dGanglioneurmatous tissue (left) and neuroblastomatous nodule (right).
INTERNATIONAL NEUROBLASTOMA PATHOLOGY CLASSIFICATION (INPC) 5
these microscopic nests is considered as a sign of Favorable Histology Group are within a frame-
the lagging behind of tumor maturation toward work of age-appropriate tumor differentiation/
ganglioneuroma and the tumors are biologically maturation and age-appropriate mitotic and
favorable, leading to an excellent prognosis of karyorrhectic activities. As for the morphologic
the patients. indicators of tumor differentiating/maturation,
Ganglioneuroma (Schwannian stroma-dominant) - the categories and subtypes described above
GN: Tumors in this category are characterized by are utilized. In other words, tumors in the
the presence of individually distributed ganglion Favorable Histology Group can demonstrate
cells in the Schwannian stroma (Fig. 1.1F). age-dependent differentiation/maturation from
Neuritic processes produce by the ganglion cells NB-PD to NB-D, then to GNB-I and finally to
are immediately enveloped by the cytoplasm of GN, based on the cross talk between tumor cells
Schwann cells. Accordingly, there are no recog- and Schwannian stromal cells. However, to
nizable microscopic foci of naked neurites observe tumor differentiation/maturation, it
without Schwannian coverage. This category seems to take a certain amount of time; i.e.,
includes two subtypes: maturing and mature. in vivo latent period. It is expected to take
The maturing subtype contains both maturing up to 18 months for those tumors of NB-PD sub-
and mature ganglion cells, whereas the mature type to become NB-D subtype, and up to
subtype contains only mature ganglion cells. 60 months to become GNB-I or GN. In contrast,
The mature ganglion cells are surrounded by tumors of NB-UD subtype in any age group, tu-
the satellite cells. The stromal tissue is usually mors of NB-PD subtype over 18 months of age,
well organized and shows the fascicular profile and tumors of NB-D subtype over 60 months
of Schwann cells bundled with perineurial of age are considered as having limited or no
cells. Ganglioneuroma is a biologically/clinically differentiating potential, and they are classified
benign tumor. However, there are markedly into the Unfavorable Histology Group.
rare cases where malignant Schwannoma de- Another morphologic indicator for predicting
velops in ganglioneuroma with or without clinical behavior in this disease is mitotic and
irradiation therapy [14]. karyorrhectic activities of neuroblastic cells,
Ganglioneuroblastoma, Nodular (composite, and that is applied to tumors in the NB category
Schwannian stroma-rich/stroma-dominant and stroma- [16]. One of three MKI (Mitosis-Karyorrhexis
poor)dGNB-N: Tumors in this category are Index) classes based on the activities is assigned
characterized by the presence of grossly visible, to the given NB tumors: They are Low (<100/
often hemorrhagic and/or necrotic, NB 5000 cells), Intermediate (100e200/5000 cells),
nodule(s) (stroma-poor component), coexisting and High (>200/5000 cells) and their prognostic
with GNB-I (stroma-rich component) or with effects are also age-dependent. Low MKI
GN (stroma-dominant component) (Fig. 1.1G). tumors in the patients <5 years of age at
The term “composite” implies that the tumor is diagnosis, and Intermediate MKI tumors in the
composed of biologically different clones. patients <18 months of age at diagnosis are
classified into the Favorable Histology Group.
High MKI NB tumors in any age group, Interme-
diate MKI tumors >18 months of age at diag-
Prognostic Grouping (Favorable
nosis, and Low MKI tumors >60 months of age
Histology Vs. Unfavorable Histology) at diagnosis are classified into the Unfavorable
INPC distinguishes two prognostic groups, Histology Group. MYCN amplified tumors are
Favorable Histology Group and Unfavorable typically associated with high MKI (please see
Histology Group (Fig. 1.2) [5,15]. Tumors in the Fig. 1.1C) [17,18].
6 1. NEUROBLASTOMA PATHOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION
Mitosis-Karyorrhexis Index*
Neuroblastoma
Law Intermediate High Age at Diagnosis
Undifferentiated UH UH Any
Intermediate h UH
High
Poorly Differentiated FH FH UH <18 months
Subtype
UH UH UH 18 – 60 months
C A T E G O R Y
UH UH UH >60 months
FH UH UH 18 – 60 months
UH UH UH >60 months
Ganglioneuroblastoma,
Intermixed** FH Any**
Ganglioneuroma** Any**
FH
Favorable Unfavorable
FH UH
Histology Histology
FIGURE 1.2 International Neuroblastoma Pathology Classification *: Mitosis-Karyorrhexis Index is not assigned for
“Ganglioneuroblastoma, Intermixed” and “Ganglioneuroma”. **: “Ganglioneuroblastoma, Intermixed”, “Ganglioneuroma”,
and “Ganglioneuroblastoma, Nodular” are diagnosed in older children. ***: Prognostic distinction of “Ganglioneuroblastoma,
Nodular” is determined by the age-linked evaluation of histologic markers (grade of neuroblastic differentiation and mitosis-
karyorrhexis index) of the neuroblastomatous nodule (see text).
GNB-I and GN are always classified into the pathology report. It is critically important since
Favorable Histology Group [19], while tumors the clinical behavior of the given tumor would
in the GNB-N category are classified into the depend on the characteristics of NB nodule(s),
Favorable Histology Group or Unfavorable His- if present [14].
tology Group based on the characteristics of NB In neuroblastoma, the patient’s age at diag-
nodule(s) [15]. For this purpose, the same criteria nosis is one of the prognostic indicators. Histor-
of age-linked evaluation for the grading of ically, 1 year has been used as the cutoff mark.
neuroblastic differentiation and the MKI class The prognostic contribution of age to the clinical
utilized for the prognostic distinction of NB outcome seems to be naturally continuous, and
tumors are applied to the NB nodule(s). It should the survival rates of younger patients are always
be noted that making the correct diagnosis of better than older patients in any age cutoff.
GNB-N is often difficult by biopsy or partial Based on the Children’s Oncology Group
tumor resection, since NB nodule could be hid- (COG) Neuroblastoma study, London et al.
den and not sampled for pathology examination. reported the statistical evidence of an age cutoff
In that situation, it is recommended to add a greater than 1 year for risk stratification [20], and
disclaimer ”based on the review of limited the COG is now in the process of moving the
material” in the diagnosis line after GN or cutoff from 1 year (365 days) to 18 months
GNB-I, Favorable Histology in the surgical (548 days). The age factor should be considered
INTERNATIONAL NEUROBLASTOMA PATHOLOGY CLASSIFICATION (INPC) 7
as a surrogate for other genetic/biologic risk the Unfavorable Histology Group patients dies
markers. Although the INPC has an already from the disease despite the high-intensity multi-
built-in age cutoff point of 18 months, Sano modal therapy. Clearly, new innovative thera-
et al. demonstrated that the INPC was able to peutic approaches are required for those in the
add independent prognostic information Unfavorable Histology Group, who are resistant
beyond the prognostic contribution of age [21]. to the current treatment protocols. To address
In other words, the INPC clearly distinguishes this problem, we have attempted to identify the
two prognostic groups (Favorable Histology expression of potentially drug-targetable pro-
identifying a significantly better prognosis teins that appear to lay the foundation for the
group than Unfavorable Histology) in different aggressive behavior of certain neuroblastomas
age groups, such as < versus >12 months; < existing in the Unfavorable Histology Group.
versus >18 months, and < versus >24 months Examples of those proteins are summarized in
of age at diagnosis (Fig. 1.3). the following section. At this stage, we are plan-
Importantly, the survival rate of Favorable ning to refine the current INPC by incorporating
Histology Group is estimated to be around or immunohistochemical detection/evaluation of
over 90%, whereas that of Unfavorable Histol- the target proteins and developing a more pre-
ogy Group has remained at 50%e40% or less cise system of pathology classification for future
[5,21,22]. It indicates that at least one in two of patient stratification and protocol assignment.
(A) (B)
1.0 >=12 months, FH (n=149) 1.0
>=18 months, FH (n=86)
<12 months, FH (n=278) <18 months, FH (n=341)
PROBABILITY
PROBABILITY
0.75 0.75
0.5 0.5
<12 months, UH (n=25)
<18 months, UH (n=57)
0.25 <12: FH v. UH: P<0.0001 >=12 months, UH (n=294) 0.25
<18: FH v. UH: P<0.0001
>=18 months, UH (n=262)
>12: FH v. UH: P<0.0001 >18: FH v. UH: P<0.0001
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
YEARS YEARS
(C)
1.0 >=24 months, FH (n=62)
<24 months, FH (n=365)
PROBABILITY
0.75
0.5
<24 months, UH (n=96)
0.25
<24: FH v. UH: P<0.0001 >=24 months, UH (n=223)
>24: FH v. UH: P<0.0001
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
YEARS
FIGURE 1.3 International Neuroblastoma Pathology Classification significantly distinguishes event-free survivals for FH
(Favorable Histology) patients from UH (Unfavorable Histology) patients within different age groups: (A) <12 months versus
>12 months; (B) <18 months versus >18 months; and, (C) <24 months versus >24 months at the time of diagnosis. The figure
reproduced from Figure 3 in the published article by Sano H, Bonadio J, Gerbing RB, London WB, Matthay KK, Lukens JN, et al. Inter-
national neuroblastoma pathology classification adds independent prognostic information beyond the prognostic contribution of age. Eur J
Cancer 2006;42:1113e1119.
8 1. NEUROBLASTOMA PATHOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION
P<0.0001
(C-I) (D)
(C-II)
FIGURE 1.4 A new concept of MYC driven neuroblastoma: (A) Event-free survivals by International Neuroblastoma
Pathology Classification and MYCN/MYC protein expression in Neuroblastoma, Undifferentiated and Poorly differentiated
subtype. Patients with MYC protein overexpressing tumor and those with MYCN protein overexpressing tumor have a similar
and significantly low survival rates. (B) Different nuclear morphologies; “salt-and-pepper” nuclei in non-MYC driven neuro-
blastoma (BeI) and prominent nucleolar formation (nucleolar hypertrophy) in MYC driven neuroblastoma (B-II). (C) MYC
driven neuroblastoma with MYCN protein overexpression (CeI) and MYC protein overexpression (C-II). (D) Large-cell neu-
roblastoma, a member of MYC driven neuroblastoma characterized by enlarged and uniquely open nuclei containing highly
conspicuous nucleoli. (A) The figure adapted by permission from Macmillan Publications Ltd.: Wang LL, et al. Augmented expression of
MYC and/or MYCN protein defines highly aggressive MYC driven neuroblastoma: a Children’s Oncology Group Study. Br J Cancer 2015;
113:57e63.
ALK mutations/overexpression and amplifica- and ALK expressions has been reported
tion are also found in around 10% of sporadic [37e39]. ALK abnormalities seem to cause dys-
neuroblastoma cases [33,34]. It was also found regulation of multiple pathways, including
that ALK gene amplification and F1174 muta- PI3K, AKT, MEKK3, and MEK5 signal transduc-
tions, which are among the most active forms tion pathways, to bring an uncontrolled prolifer-
of the mutations in in vitro assay, are associated ation of neuroblasts [38].
with MYCN amplification [35]. Interestingly, However, the prognostic significance of ALK
overexpression of ALK due to ALK amplification mutations/overexpression has been controver-
as well as gene mutations appears to be respon- sial, as some reports suggest an association of
sible for its oncogenic function [36]. In addition, ALK mutations/overexpression with fatal
a feed forward activation loop between MYCN outcome of the disease, whereas others suggest
10 1. NEUROBLASTOMA PATHOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION
otherwise. Initially, De Brouwer et al. showed no Telomere elongation by increased TERT activity
significant survival difference in neuroblastomas (Fig. 1.6A and B): Immunohistochemically,
with or without ALK mutations or amplification TERT (telomere reverse transcriptase) overex-
and reported no significant difference in the fre- pression can be observed in both MYC driven
quency of ALK mutations between low- and and non-MYC driven NBs in any age groups of
high-stage tumors [35]. Subsequently, however, the neuroblastoma patients [42]. In other words,
Schulte et al. reported that high levels of mutated there seem to be multiple mechanisms for upre-
and wild-type ALK expression were associated gulation of TERT expression: It can be associated
with reduced survival of neuroblastoma [36]. with MYCN/MYC protein overexpression,
This difference appeared because the cohort of TERT rearrangement, or promoter hypermethy-
De Brouwer et al. had included more unfavorable lation, etc. [43e47].
neuroblastomas than that of Schulte et al. Thus, if Alternative lengthening of telomere by ATRX loss
we only considered unfavorable neuroblastomas, (Fig. 1.6C and D): ATRX (alpha-thalassemia/
there would be no difference in survival of neuro- mental retardation syndrome X-linked) muta-
blastomas with or without ALK mutations or tions are reported in older children with neuro-
amplification. This idea is supported by the data blastoma and indicate a poor prognosis [48].
shown in Fig. 1.5, where there is little difference Most of the tumors with ATRX mutations
in survival between ALK high- and low- show alternative lengthening of telomere
expressing tumors in the high-risk subset as (ALT). ATRX mutations causing loss of ATRX
well as in the fatal cases of neuroblastoma pa- expression can easily be detected by immunohis-
tients. Passoni et al. first reported the immunohis- tochemistry. Neuroblastomas with loss of ATRX
tochemical detection of ALK protein in are diagnosed in older children (>5 years of age
neuroblastoma and its prognostic significance in at diagnosis), and almost exclusively found in
2009 [40], in that, high-level expression of ALK the non-MYC driven neuroblastomas with Unfa-
was associated with adverse outcome of the dis- vorable Histology [49]. Also, reported are rare
ease. However, Regairaz et al. later showed NBs with DAXX (Death Domain Associated Pro-
immunohistochemically that ALK and its active tein) gene mutations that are also known to cause
form pALK expression were observed in many ALT [50]. ATRX and DAXX are components of
neuroblastomas independent from ALK muta- the molecular complex that functions to replace
tion/amplification [41]. Based on these observa- Histone 3.1/2 with Histone 3.3. ATRX recog-
tions, it is less likely that future INPC will nizes DNA segments containing H3K4me0 and
incorporate the immunohistochemical detection H3K9me3, and DAXX removes Histone 3.1/2
of ALK and/or pALK expression in the pathol- and inserts Histone 3.3 in a replication-
ogy classification. independent fashion [51]. DAXX interacts with
KAP1 and SETDB1 to catalyze H3K9me3 modifi-
Telomere Maintenance and Elongation in cation on newly deposited H3.3. ATRX/DAXX/
Neuroblastoma H3.3 are able to act continuously through the cell
cycle to ensure constant maintenance of
Telomere maintenance and even elongation H3K9me3 heterochromatin (transcriptionally
could prevent neuroblasts from replication inactive chromatin) at telomeres [52]. Therefore,
senescence/cellular death due to telomere ATRX or DAXX loss will lead to recombinogenic
erosion. Accordingly, neuroblasts could acquire telomeres leading to the ALT phenotype (see
infinite proliferating capability. below).
SEARCHING FOR ACTIONABLE/DRUGGABLE TARGETS ASSOCIATED WITH THERAPY RESISTANCE
FIGURE 1.5 Prognostic significance of ALK expression in neuroblastoma: Possible prognostic significance of ALK expression was assessed using the
whole cohort, High-Risk subset or Fatal cases. Analysis was done by R2 (http://r2.amc.nl), using Tumor Neuroblastoma - SEQC - 498 - RPM - seqcnb1
Dataset [88]. Note: ALK mutations and amplification result in high levels of ALK expression.
11
12 1. NEUROBLASTOMA PATHOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION
FIGURE 1.6 Immunostainings for ATRX (alpha-thalassemia/mental retardation syndrome X-linked) and TERT (telomerase
reverse transcriptase) Expression: (A) Neuroblastoma with ATRX loss (Note: endothelial cells retain ATRX); (B) Neuroblastoma
with positive ATRX; (C) Neuroblastoma with TERT overexpression; (D) Neuroblastoma without TERT overexpression.
PROPOSED SUBGROUPS OF with a dismal survival rate [27]. Thus, this study
UNFAVORABLE HISTOLOGY was able to retrospectively identify a group of
NEUROBLASTOMA FOR high-risk patients who would likely fail the cur-
“PRECISION MEDICINE” rent high-risk therapy. Those patients are who
would likely benefit from an alternative high-
As we have gained additional knowledge risk protocol that includes an MYC-targeted
about the potential molecular targets that under- regimen (see below). For this study, we have
lay the therapy-resistant phenotype associated used anti-MYCN (NCM II 100) and anti-MYC
with Unfavorable Histology neuroblastomas (Y69) antibodies separately to detect MYCN
(indicated above), we may incorporate such and MYC proteins. In future studies, we are
information into the INPC toward precision planning to use an anti-pan-MYC antibody
prognosis and therapy stratification. (NCM II 143) that can simultaneously detect all
The first example of this approach was to three members of the MYC family proteins,
examine the expression of MYC family proteins. MYC, MYCN, and MYCL (though we still have
Consequently, this study has led to the concept not identified MYCL overexpressing neuroblas-
of MYC family protein driven neuroblastoma tomas in our file), to streamline the process
or in short MYC driven neuroblastoma, having (Fig. 1.7). Recently, we have been extending the
a high-level expression of MYC family proteins immunohistochemical approach to TERT and
PROPOSED SUBGROUPS OF UNFAVORABLE HISTOLOGY NEUROBLASTOMA FOR “PRECISION MEDICINE” 13
H&E
MYCN FISH
MYCN
MYC
Pan-MYC
FIGURE 1.7 Neuroblastomas overexpressing MYCN protein (left column), MYC protein (middle column), and no MYCN/
MYC protein (right column) shown by H&E staining, MYCN FISH (Fluorescence in situ hybridization), MYCN protein immu-
nostaining, MYC protein immunostaining, and Pan-MYC protein immunostaining (Note: MYCN overexpressing neuroblas-
toma is MYCN amplified): In contrast, MYC overexpressing neuroblastoma and both protein negative neuroblastoma are
MYCN nonamplified. Pan-MYC immunostaining yields positive signals in both MYCN and MYC overexpressing
neuroblastomas.
ATRX expression, and the preliminary results exhibit prominent nucleolar formation (nucle-
appear promising [42,49]. olar hypertrophy) and hypertrophic cell
Based on these observations, we could refine morphology. In addition, MYC family protein
the Unfavorable Histology Neuroblastoma overexpression would also lead to open chro-
stratification using immunohistopathological matin as MYCN/MYC proteins recruit histone
analysis shown in Table 1.1. We propose to acetyltransferases on to chromatin globally.
use three (or four) immunohistochemical stain- Thus, the overall histologic appearance of MYC
ings with anti-pan-MYC antibody (or anti- driven tumors would ultimately become the
MYCN and anti-MYC), anti-TERT antibody, large-cell neuroblastoma. It is also expected
and anti-ATRX antibody to classify Unfavor- that a considerable number of MYC driven neu-
able Histology Neuroblastomas into four roblastomas are associated with TERT overex-
subgroups. pression, and this is because TERT is a direct
MYC subgroup: As augmented MYC family gene target of MYC family proteins, whereas
protein expression stimulates rRNA synthesis TERT can stabilize MYC protein via its non-
and protein translation, this subgroup should canonical enzymatic function, creating a positive
14 1. NEUROBLASTOMA PATHOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION
IHC Markers
feedback loop between MYCN/MYC and TERT Null subgroup: There are still Unfavorable
expression [46,53]. Histology Neuroblastomas without MYCN/
TERT subgroup: Higher levels of TERT MYC overexpression, TERT overexpression,
expression are also observed in neuroblastomas and ATRX loss. Unless otherwise any other
without MYCN/MYC protein overexpression. aggravating factors are found, the patients in
The activation of TERT expression, in this case, the Null subgroup would hopefully respond to
is likely due to long-range genomic rearrange- the current high-risk treatment regimens.
ments, but not to promoter mutations in
neuroblastoma [54]. TERT promoter hyperme-
thylation might also be its activating mechanism
MOLECULAR TARGETING
[45,55].
THERAPIES FOR UNFAVORABLE
ALT subgroup: ATRX loss results in the ALT
HISTOLOGY NEUROBLASTOMA
(alternative lengthening of telomere) phenotype. RESISTANT TO THE CURRENT
ATRX is rarely mutated in the MYC subgroup
THERAPY
and TERT subgroup, and loss of ATRX is exclu-
Along with the well-documented ALK inhib-
sively seen in the older children over 5 years of
itors for ALK overexpression [57], potential
age. Because one of the normal ATRX functions
agents targeting MYC family protein overex-
is to insert the variant histone H3, namely
pression and telomere maintenance/elongation
H3.3, in concert with DAXX into chromatin to
are discussed in this section. Those are candi-
maintain transcriptionally active euchromatin
dates to be included in our future protocols of
[56], the absence of ATRX may result into a
molecular targeting therapy in neuroblastoma
more transcriptionally inactive heterochromatic
(Table 1.2).
state. Thus, the histological/cytological appear-
ance of the ALT subgroup could be the conven-
Targeting of MYC Driven Neuroblastoma
tional type with salt-and-pepper nuclei rather
than that with nucleolar hypertrophy or bull’s In order to develop treatment strategies for
eye type. the “MYC driven neuroblastomas”, new targets
MOLECULAR TARGETING THERAPIES FOR UNFAVORABLE HISTOLOGY NEUROBLASTOMA 15
TABLE 1.2 Potential Agents Against Therapy Refractory and Resistant Unfavorable Histology Neuroblastomas
and potential therapeutic agents should be unfavorable neuroblastomas [64]. In fact, those
clearly defined. However, the direct targeting small molecules, such as CX-5461 and Halofugi-
of MYC family proteins with small molecules none, are currently examined for their efficacy in
has turned out to be a highly formidable task various human diseases in clinical trials [65,66].
[58]. Hence, many have sought indirect CX-5461 disrupts the binding of the SL1
approaches to downregulate MYC family transcription factor to the rDNA promoter and
protein expression in cancer cells. The strategies prevents the initiation of rRNA synthesis by
under current consideration include transcrip- RNA Pol I [67]. Consequently, the ribosomal
tional repression of MYC/MYCN genes by BET assembly will be halted, leading to the accumu-
(Bromo- and Extra-Terminal)-inhibitors [59,60] lation of unassembled ribosomal proteins. Free
and CDK (Cyclin-dependent kinase) inhibitors ribosomal proteins will then promote cancer-
[61,62] or destabilization of MYCN by Aurora specific activation of p53 [64]. Interestingly, a
kinase A inhibitors [63]. similar set of freed ribosomal proteins could
We have been seeking other indirect strategies also down-regulate MYC protein by distinct
to down-regulate MYC family protein expres- mechanisms [68,69]. Halofuginone, on the other
sion in neuroblastoma. Since MYC driven neuro- hand, specifically inhibits glutamyl-prolyl
blastomas are characterized by prominent tRNA synthetase (EPRS) [70], resulting in the
nucleolar formation, inhibition of rRNA gene accumulation of uncharged prolyl tRNAs, which
transcription and protein translation by small then leads to suppression in protein translation
molecule inhibitors could be a potential thera- via the induction of amino acid starvation
peutic approach for this subset of biologically response [71]. In addition, inhibition of EPRS
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