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 Preface vii

specific, thorough applications for those dealing with substance abuse issues. Second,
I use a “running case study” approach throughout the text. The case study, introduced
in Chapter 1, is incorporated throughout the book in each chapter. Thus, students can
follow how the client is conceptualized and counseled through the different theories.
This approach has been adopted in other theories texts (see Corey, 2009).

Organization of the Book

The organization of the book is divided into three major sections. The first section
includes Chapters 1 through 4, and consists of general information related specifi-
cally to substance abuse and substance abuse and addiction counseling. Chapter 1
provides a brief introduction to the text, highlighting the importance of theory, pro-
viding information on evidenced-based practices, and presenting the full case study
to be used throughout the text. In Chapter 2, I cover important terms and con-
cepts related to addiction, models of addiction, and key ethical issues that substance
abuse clinicians need to aware. In Chapter 3, classifications of substances, physiologi-
cal and psychological effects, and physiological aspects of addiction are provided.
Chapter 4 consists of information on screening, assessment, evaluation, and diagnosis
of ­substance-related problems.
The second section of the text consists of theoretically grounded approaches
that have empirical support in the substance abuse and counseling literature. These
approaches would be considered evidence-based in that, in general, they have greater
support from scientific outcome research as to their effectiveness in treating addictions
compared to approaches described in the third section of the text. This section may be
particularly important for students or professionals whose primary agency or place of
employment places a strong emphasis on evidence-based treatment approaches.
It is important to note that the counseling theories outlined in the second section
do not have the same degree of empirical evidence for their effectiveness. For exam-
ple, some approaches (i.e., Motivational Interviewing) have more scientific support
than others (group therapy). In writing this section, I attempted to present the theo-
retical applications in order from most empirical support to least. The section begins
with Chapter 5 and a thorough review of the principles and practices of Motivational
Interviewing, followed by cognitive behavioral therapy and its application to addic-
tions (Chapter 6), relapse prevention (Chapter 7), group therapy (Chapter 8), and fam-
ily therapy (Chapter 9).
The final section of the book includes theoretically grounded approaches that
are supported by an extensive conceptual literature base, although they do not have
the empirical research support as compared to the approaches in section two. Despite
the limited outcome research, the approaches in this section provide the clinician with
a comprehensive, theoretical road map for how to conceptualize addiction problems
as well as a complete system for intervention, including strategies and techniques
consistent with the theoretical model. These approaches should not be thought of
as “inferior” to the approaches in the first section: The lack of empirical outcome
research does not render any approach ineffective. Numerous authors have noted the
implementation of these approaches in their substance abuse and addiction agencies
or private practices around the world. Several also have commented how theoretically
based treatment has provided a “breath of fresh air” from more traditional approaches
viii Preface

that lack an organizing theoretical model. This section includes solution-focused ther-
apy (Chapter 10), Adlerian therapy (Chapter 11), Gestalt therapy (Chapter 12), and
existential therapy (Chapter 13).
Within each theoretical chapter, I begin with a brief introduction, followed by an
overview of the major tenets of the theoretical approach. Admittedly, I struggled with
finding a balance between covering the theory sufficiently to provide background,
and at the same time not turning the text into a book on theories! This was easier to
accomplish for some theories compared to others. For example, the Adlerian theoreti-
cal overview is quite extensive; however, this theory is multifaceted and complex and
I thus felt a bit more at liberty to expand this section of the chapter. Other theoretical
approaches are more straightforward and thus did not require an extensive explana-
tion. Following an overview of the major tenets, I discuss each theoretical approach
as applied to substance abuse and addiction counseling, followed by a survey of tech-
niques and strategies that one could employ consistent with each theory. Multicultural
considerations and the application of each theory to diverse clientele who may strug-
gle with addiction are given focus across all theoretical chapters. This is followed by
an example of how the theory might apply to the “running case study,” demonstrating
what the theoretical approach might “look like” with the same client. Where appropri-
ate, smaller, mini case studies that highlight specific points/techniques about a theory,
how to deal with different addiction issues, and strategies with clients from diverse
backgrounds are provided throughout the text. Each theoretical chapter concludes
with a summary of strengths, limitations, and potential ethical issues.

A Comment about Word Selection

In writing about substance abuse and substance abuse counseling, an author has
many choices of words to consider. For example, does he say substance abuse, chemi-
cal dependency, addiction, substance addiction, substance dependence, or some
­combination? I have been taught to avoid labels, for example, “alcoholic,” yet many of
my clients admit they are “alcoholics” and do not mind my use of the word (although
I use it sparingly, more in a sense of asking what the term means to the client). After
all, it is their language, and if this term fits for them and does not impede the change
process, what is the big deal?
Yet, language does matter: The way we communicate with our clients has a large
impact on whether or not they show up for the next session and plays a key role in
one of the most powerful common factors in therapy—the relationship. As such, I have
been intentional about avoiding more derogatory, labeling-based terms such as addict
and substance abuser and instead tried to use the more respectful “addicted individual”
or “client struggling with substance abuse [or addiction].” I may not have succeeded in
every instance, but the intention was there. This wording of client problems was sug-
gested by the American Psychiatric Association in the latest edition of the Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV-TR; APA, 2000).
The terms substance abuse, substance addiction, substance dependence, and
chemical dependency are used interchangeably throughout the text. When the reader
comes across these terms, he or she can assume I mean “heavy substance use and
associated problems.” Although “abuse” and “dependence” are not the same thing
from a strict clinical perspective, as explained in Chapter 4, these terms will most
 Preface ix

likely be dropped from the DSM-V, due out in 2013. I believe this is a good thing;
clients struggle with substance use problems, and these problems are often on a con-
tinuum rather than separated into two distinct categories.
A couple of other points on wording are worth mentioning. Throughout the
text I use the word clinician to refer to any mental health professional who works
with clients struggling with substance abuse. Therapy, psychotherapy, and counsel-
ing are used interchangeably. In most instances, I use the term client rather than
patient, a clear influence of my clinical training. However, it is important to note that
patient is typically used more often in medical settings, and so there might be occa-
sions when patient is used within a medical context or discussion in the text. The
book has many client examples, and I took strides to include both male and female
examples.
The reader should be aware that the substance abuse treatment field probably
has more acronyms than any other professional field! Sometimes the sheer number
can be overwhelming and difficult to keep straight. At the same time, they do serve
an important purpose: Acronyms provide an easy way to abbreviate the long name
of an organization or treatment approach and are especially helpful if these names
are used frequently throughout a chapter. In most cases, I spell out the organization
or treatment approach first, followed by the acronym. Subsequent mentioning of the
organization or approach is used with the acronym.

Did you know this book is also available as an Enhanced Pearson eText? The afford-
able, interactive version of this text includes 3-5 videos per chapter that exemplify,
model, or expand upon chapter concepts. Look for the play button in the margins to
see where video is available in the affordable enhanced eText version of this text.

To learn more about the enhanced Pearson eText, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/

etextbooks.

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x Preface

Acknowledgments
From the start, I envisioned being the sole author of the book and making this a
reality required many days and nights of solo writing. However, I would be remiss
not to mention those who have been a tremendous help in putting a project like this
together. I am grateful to my department chair, Dr. Scott Young, who believed in my
ideas and encouraged me to contact my publishing representative. It was his persis-
tence that allowed me to get connected with the right people and to see the project
through. I also would like to thank my colleagues at UNCG, many of whom continu-
ously inquired about the book, how it was coming along, and provided encourage-
ment along the way.
I am indebted to Rev. Jack Hileman at Presbyterian Counseling Center in
Greensboro, North Carolina, who brought me onboard and gave me the experiences
and supervision I needed to strengthen and develop my clinical approach to working
with clients struggling with addiction. His encouragement and positive attitude are
characteristics that I strive to emulate every day. I wish to thank my research apprentice
and doctoral student, Ed Wahesh, for his assistance in organizing the literature review
for each chapter. His work saved many hours on my end and for that I am grateful.
A special thanks to Meredith Fossel, my Senior Acquisitions Editor at Pearson.
Meredith was extremely supportive of my endeavor and provided the encouragement I
needed to push through. Her feedback was always on point, and she guided me in this
process. I also appreciated her patience with me as deadlines were moved or renegoti-
ated several times. Her commitment to the project strengthened my commitment to the
project. I also enjoyed our informal conversations about our beloved Buckeyes!
I also wish to express my appreciation for those individuals who reviewed
the manuscript throughout its development: Gonzalo Bacigalupe, University of
Massachusetts Boston; Shoshana Kerewsky, University of Oregon; Diane McDermott,
University of Kansas; Fidencio Mercado, The University of Texas-Pan American;
Victoria Osbourne, University of Missouri; Tresvil G. Pack, University of Arkansas at
Little Rock; Mark S. Parrish, University of West Georgia; Carol Rankin, California State
University, Fresno; Thomas Smith, Florida State University; Dallas M. Stout, California
State University, Fullerton; David Tews, Loyola University Chicago; and Metoka Welch,
South University-Richmond.
Finally, I would like to thank my beautiful wife, Denise, and two adorable chil-
dren, Evelyn and Alexander, who endured long hours of “Daddy is in the barn writing
again.” Their unending support, encouragement, and love I will always cherish. This
project is as much a part of them as it is of me.
Todd F. Lewis
Greensboro, NC, USA
July 25, 2012
 Brief Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

Part I  asic Concepts of Substance Abuse and Addictions

B
Counseling 15
Chapter 2 Terms, Models, and Ethical Issues in Substance Abuse
and Addiction 16
Chapter 3 Substance Classifications, Effects, and Associated
Dangers 33
Chapter 4 Assessment, Diagnosis, and Treatment Planning 53

Part II Theoretical Approaches Supported by Empirical

Evidence 85
Chapter 5 Motivational Interviewing 86
Chapter 6 Cognitive Behavioral Therapy 116
Chapter 7 Relapse Prevention in the Treatment of Substance Abuse
and Addiction 148
Chapter 8 Applying Group Theory in the Treatment of Substance
Abuse and Addiction 180
Chapter 9 Applying Family Systems Approaches in the Treatment of
Substance Abuse and Addiction 216

Part III Theoretical Approaches with Less Empirical

Support 251
Chapter 10 Solution-Focused Therapy in the Treatment of Substance
Abuse and Addiction 252
Chapter 11 Adlerian Therapy in the Treatment of Substance Abuse
and Addiction 276
Chapter 12 Gestalt Therapy in the Treatment of Substance Abuse
and Addiction 312
Chapter 13 Existential Therapy in the Treatment of Substance Abuse
and Addiction 344

xi
 Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
The Importance of Theory 2
A Possible Roadmap to Theory Utilization 5
A Word about Evidence-Based Treatments 8
▶ Case Study: The Case of Michael 9
Multicultural Issues in Substance Abuse Counseling 12
Summary 13 • References 14

Part I  asic Concepts of Substance Abuse and

B
Addictions Counseling 15
Chapter 2 Terms, Models, and Ethical Issues in Substance Abuse
and Addiction 16
Introduction 16
The Scope of Substance Abuse and Addiction 17
Basic Terminology of Addiction 19
Models of Addiction 20
Ethical and Legal Issues Related to Substance Abuse
and Addiction 26
Other Ethical and Legal Issues 28
The NAADAC Code of Ethics 30
Summary 31 • References 31

Chapter 3 Substance Classifications, Effects, and Associated

Dangers 33
Introduction 33
Physiological and Pharmacological Aspects Related to Substance
Abuse and Addiction 35
Mechanisms of Action 35
Routes of Administration 36
How the Brain becomes Addicted: A Theory 37
Additional Terminology 37
Substance Classifications, Effects, and Dangers 39
Central Nervous System Depressants 40
Central Nervous System Stimulants 43
Opiates 45

xii
 Contents xiii

Hallucinogens 47
Marijuana 49
Inhalants 50
Federal Drug Administration Schedule of Substances 50
Summary 51 • References 51

Chapter 4 Assessment, Diagnosis, and Treatment Planning 53

Introduction 53
Evaluation and Diagnosis 54
Screening for Substance Use Problems 54
Assessment 57
Substance Abuse Screening and Assessment Protocol:
An Example 62
Assessment Feedback 64
Substance-Related Diagnoses 66
Substance Use Disorders 66
Substance-Induced Disorders 68
Dual Diagnosis 69
Diagnostic Changes on the Horizon: DSM-V and Substance Use
Disorders 70
Treatment Planning 72
Treatment Settings 72
The Treatment Plan 75
Do a Client Map 78
Sample Do a Client Map 80
Summary 82 • References 82

Part II  heoretical Approaches Supported by

T
Empirical Evidence 85
Chapter 5 Motivational Interviewing 86
Introduction 86
A Bit of History 87
Goals of MI 87
Influences on MI 88
Ways to Implement MI 89
The Major Tenets of Motivational Interviewing: Basic Overview 90
MI Spirit 90
Principles of MI 91
The Four Key Processes of MI 94
xiv Contents

Application of Motivational Interviewing 94

Increasing Importance 94
Resolving Ambivalence 98
Enhancing Confidence 103
Strengthening Commitment 105
Motivational Interviewing in the Treatment of Diverse
Populations 106
▶ Case Study: Using MI with the Case of Michael 108
Strengths, Limitations, and Ethical Issues Related to MI 113
References 114

Chapter 6 Cognitive Behavioral Therapy 116

Introduction 116
The Major Tenets of Cognitive Theory: Brief Overview 118
Cognitive Schemas 118
Automatic Thoughts 119
Cognitive Distortions 119
Cognitive Models of Substance Abuse and Addiction 120
Complete Cognitive Model of Substance Use 121
Application of Cognitive Therapy with Substance Abuse
Problems 122
Therapeutic Relationship 123
Assessment 123
Session Structure 124
Cognitive-Based Techniques 126
Behavior Theory, Counseling, and Techniques 130
Behavioral Techniques 131
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Examples 133
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in the Treatment of Diverse
Populations 139
▶ Case Study: Using Cognitive Behavior Therapy in the Case of Michael 141
Strengths, Limitations, and Ethical Issues Related to Cognitive
Behavioral Therapy 145
References 146

Chapter 7 Relapse Prevention in the Treatment of Substance

Abuse and Addiction 148
Introduction 148
The Major Tenets of Relapse Prevention: Brief Overview 149
What Is a Relapse? 150
 Contents xv

Recovery and Its Relation to Relapse 151

REBT and Relapse 157
Application of Relapse Prevention in the Treatment of
Substance Use 157
Relapse Prevention Goals and Style 158
Relapse Management 164
Behavioral Chain Analysis: Breaking Down What
Happened 166
Emerging Relapse Prevention Strategies 169
Relapse Prevention in the Treatment of Diverse Populations 170
▶ Case Study: Using Relapse Prevention Strategies in the Case
of Michael 173
Strengths, Limitations, and Ethical Issues Related to Relapse
Prevention 176
References 178

Chapter 8 Applying Group Theory in the Treatment of Substance

Abuse and Addiction 180
Introduction 180
The Major Tenets of Group Therapy: Brief Overview 183
Inpatient vs. Outpatient Addictions Group Counseling 183
Therapeutic Factors 183
Stages of Group Therapy 190
Application of Group Therapy with Substance Abuse and
Addiction Problems 191
Working with Client Defenses 192
Other Considerations in Substance Abuse Group Counseling 194
Common Substance Abuse and Addiction Group Formats 195
Other Techniques 200
Substance Abuse and Addiction Group Counseling through
the Lens of Theory 201
Mutual Support Groups 202
The Range of Mutual Help Groups 203
Incorporating Mutual Group Attendance into
Therapy 204
Group Therapy in the Treatment of Diverse Populations 206
▶ Case Study: Using Group Therapy in the Case of Michael 209
Strength, Limitations, and Ethical Issues Related to
Group Therapy 212
References 213
xvi Contents

Chapter 9 Applying Family Systems Approaches in the Treatment

of Substance Abuse and Addiction 216
Introduction 216
The Major Tenets of Family Therapy: Brief Overview 218
Boundaries 219
Homeostasis 219
Subsystems 220
Rules 220
Bowen Systems Family Theory 221
Does Bowen’s Work Have Any Empirical Support? 223
Characteristics of the Addicted Family 224
The Addicted Family 224
Family Roles 224
Enabling 226
Codependency 226
Application of Family Therapy with Substance Abuse Problems and
Addiction 228
Bowen Systems Family Therapy 228
Techniques and Strategies 231
Sequential Family Addictions Model 234
Other Family Therapy Approaches 237
Family Systems Therapy in the Treatment of Diverse Populations 238
▶ Case Study: Using Family Systems Therapy in the Case of Michael 242
Strengths, Limitations, and Ethical Issues Related to Family
Therapy 246
References 247

Part III Theoretical Approaches with Less Empirical

Support 251
Chapter 10 Solution-Focused Therapy in the Treatment of
Substance Abuse and Addiction 252
Introduction 252
The Major Tenets of Solution-Focused Therapy: Brief Overview 254
Underlying Assumptions 254
Role of the Solution-Focused Clinician 256
Theory of Change 257
Criteria for Effective Counseling Outcomes 257
Application of Solution-Focused Therapy with Substance Abuse and
Addiction Problems 258
Solution-Focused Based Techniques 261
 Contents xvii

Solution-Focused Therapy in the Treatment of Diverse

Populations 266
▶ Case Study: Using Solution-Focused Therapy in the Case of Michael 269
Strengths, Limitations, and Ethical Issues Related to
Solution-Focused Therapy 272
References 274

Chapter 11 Adlerian Therapy in the Treatment of Substance

Abuse and Addiction 276
Introduction 276
The Major Tenets of Adlerian Theory: Brief Overview 277
Lifestyle 278
The Importance of Goals 282
The Tasks of Life 283
Social Interest: The Heart of Healthy Human Functioning 283
Application of Adlerian Therapy with Substance Abuse
and Addiction Problems 285
Goals of Adlerian Therapy 287
Interpretation 291
Reorientation and Change 292
Adlerian-Based Techniques 292
Case Study 295
Adlerian Therapy in the Treatment of Diverse Populations 299
▶ Case Study: Using Adlerian Therapy in the Case of Michael 301
Strengths, Limitations, and Ethical Issues Related to
Adlerian Therapy 309
References 310

Chapter 12 Gestalt Therapy in the Treatment of Substance Abuse

and Addiction 312
Introduction 312
The Major Tenets of Gestalt Therapy: Brief Overview 314
Figure/Ground 314
Contact 315
Gestalt Cycle of Experience 320
Awareness 321
Here and Now 322
The Creative Stance and the Role of the Gestalt Clinician 323
Paradoxical Principle of Change 324
Criteria for Effective Counseling Outcomes 324
xviii Contents

Application of Gestalt Therapy with Substance Abuse

and Addiction Problems 324
Clemmens’s Addictive Cycle Model 325
Working with the Person–Drug Relationship 328
Multiphasic Transformation Process 330
Gestalt-Based Techniques 332
Gestalt Therapy in the Treatment of Diverse Populations 337
▶ Case Study: Using Gestalt Therapy in the Case of Michael 339
Strengths, Limitations, and Ethical Issues Related to Gestalt
Therapy 342
References 343

Chapter 13 Existential Therapy in the Treatment of Substance

Abuse and Addiction 344
Introduction 344
The Major Tenets of Existential Therapy: Brief Overview 346
Dasein (Being-in-the-World) 346
Self-Transcendence 347
Authenticity 347
View of Human Nature 348
The Four Givens of Existence 348
Existential Psychodynamics 354
Process of Existential Therapy 354
Application of Existential Therapy with Substance Abuse and
Addiction Problems 356
Development of Maladaptive Behavior 356
Goals of Existential Therapy with Substance Abuse and
Addiction 357
Existential Techniques 358
Existential Therapy in the Treatment of Diverse Populations 364
▶ Case Study: Using Existential Therapy in the Case of Michael 365
Strengths, Limitations, and Ethical Issues Related to
Existential Therapy 370
References 371
Index 373
 1
■ ■ ■

Introduction

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70
Visit the 0\&RXQVHOLQJ/DE for Substance Abuse and Addiction Treatment to
enhance your understanding of chapter concepts. You’ll have the opportunity to
practice your skills through video and case based Assignments and Activities as
well as Building Counseling Skills units, and prepare for your certification exam
with Practice for Certification quizzes.

Year after year in the substance abuse counseling class I teach, when I ask students
how many of them know someone close who struggles with a substance use problem,
at least 75 percent raise their hands. As a follow-up question, I ask how many have
family members or close friends who have suffered serious negative consequences
as a result of substance use—again, the majority raises their hands. As a professional
counselor and counselor educator, I continue to be astonished at the pervasiveness
of substance use problems in our society. Statistics on the prevalence and scope of
substance use and its associated consequences in the United States provide students
with hard quantitative data, but that simple survey conducted at the beginning of
class tells it all. Simply looking around the classroom, one is hard-pressed not to run
into someone who either struggles with substance problems themselves or is close to
someone who does.
The pervasiveness of substance abuse and addiction begs the question of what
or how is the best way to address these problems clinically—that is, what is effective
substance abuse treatment? What does effective treatment look like? Scores of scientific
research has shown that a variety of approaches are effective in treating substance
abuse and addiction, many of which are covered in this text. Some approaches have
amassed an impressive amount of outcome research support, whereas others are
more conceptual in nature. A survey of the substance addiction literature suggests that
1
2 Chapter 1 • Introduction

much more information is related to the first question (What is effective substance
abuse treatment?) and less information is related to the second (What does effective
treatment look like?). In this text, which is constructed with the practitioner in mind,
I attempt to address both questions, with a strong emphasis on the gap related to the
latter question—the how to—with theory as the foundation.
In this introductory chapter, I set the stage for the rest of the chapters by discussing
the importance of counseling theory and how to incorporate it with greater intentionality
into substance abuse treatment. This is followed by a brief overview of each theory
presented in the text. A roadmap as to when certain theories are most useful in
substance abuse treatment is provided, followed by clarification of what is meant by
evidence-based approaches and associated research. The running case study for the text
is provided, in full, in this chapter. The chapter concludes with some general comments
regarding multicultural issues and substance abuse counseling.

The Importance of Theory

The concept of theory has traditionally held an important place in the psychological
sciences. Theories of Counseling and Psychotherapy is one of the first courses students
take in mental health training programs and is most certainly required before students
begin their internship experiences and see bona fide clients with real-life problems
for the first time. On a practical level, theories offer an organizing philosophy for how
problems develop. They also provide grounding from which to develop and implement
techniques within a counseling session. Theories contain assumptions about people
and have in common the desire to help others live more effective lives (Sharf, 2004).
Traditional substance abuse and addiction treatment has generally consisted of
loosely defined and organized approaches based on mental health techniques but with-
out a central, organized set of principles (Rawson, Obert, McCann, & M ­ arinelli-Casey,
1993). This has led to a somewhat random application of therapy techniques to address
substance abuse problems (Rawson et al., 1993). Some clinical settings bear more of
a resemblance to case management or crisis intervention (Rawson et al., 1993) rather
than facilities designed to assess, treat, and monitor those on substances. The inten-
tional application of psychological theory and associated techniques can provide this
structure. The field of substance abuse counseling and addiction treatment has moved
too far astray from psychological theories, which can offer clinicians a comprehensive
way to conceptualize clients struggling with addiction as well as provide a system of
techniques and strategies to help clients on the road to recovery. Put differently, the
theories presented in this text can provide the clinician with a set of organizing prin-
ciples from which to operate when counseling those struggling with substance abuse
and addiction issues.
It is no longer adequate to treat addictions in isolation of other problems. Indeed,
many, if not most, clients who present with substance abuse and addiction issues also
have other problems in their lives. Theoretically grounded approaches can be help-
ful guides when addressing clients with co-occurring disorders (discussed in greater
depth in Chapter 4). Psychological theories were created to address problems in living,
whether these problems stem from depression, anxiety, substance abuse and addic-
tion, thought disturbances, or a combination of some or all of these. The sheer rich-
ness of theories makes them ideal for complex issues that characterize co-occurring
 Chapter 1 • Introduction 3

problems. As we will see in Chapter 4, the literature on effective treatment of co-

occurring disorders calls for an integrative approach, one that draws from many dif-
ferent schools of thought, theories, and traditional substance abuse and addiction
treatment ideas. Theories give us ideas, ways to think about a problem or problems,
and strategies for how to intervene.
Overview of Theories The selection of theories for this text was based on a com-
bination of empirical support, conceptual literature, and my own clinical ­experience.
The theories presented in Part II of the text generally have more empirical support
compared to the theories presented in Part III. However, all theories have a substantial
literature base from which much of the information in this text was drawn. In select-
ing theories to include, I also relied on the successes and struggles of my own clinical
experiences. I have implemented evidence-based practices, such as relapse prevention
strategies, as well as less evidence-based approaches, such as Gestalt ­therapy. When
positive experiences are not forthcoming, I have learned (and continue to learn) that it
is okay to switch approaches and try something new if a theoretical application is not
a good fit for a client. Let’s now turn to a brief overview of the theoretical approaches
to substance abuse and addiction counseling presented in this text.
Motivational Interviewing (MI) Any textbook on substance abuse and addiction
counseling strategies must have a chapter on motivational interviewing (MI). Not only
was MI born out of the addictions field, but it has also amassed an impressive array
of empirical evidence. MI is an excellent strategy to use at the beginning of counsel-
ing, which is one of the reasons it is presented first. (MI is not technically consid-
ered a theory; however, its concepts are derived from many theoretical approaches
and can be used as a stand-alone strategy with clients.) In a survey of the frequency
with which substance abuse treatment facilities used certain clinical approaches,
55 percent reported using MI “always or often” (Office of Applied Studies [Division of
SAMSHA], 2009).
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) Most counseling theories textbooks have
separate chapters on cognitive therapy and behavioral therapy, with some mention
of how the two have been combined as cognitive behavioral therapy. In doing the
research for this text, it became clear that in the application of substance abuse and
addiction counseling, cognitive and behavioral methods were almost always together
and in conjunction with one another in the empirical literature. As such, attention is
given to cognitive and behavioral theories separately, followed by a focus on their use
in combination (CBT). Current approaches that heavily rely on CBT principles, such
as dialectical behavior therapy, also are presented as examples. CBT and its varia-
tions are well-known, evidence-based models used in substance abuse and addiction
counseling. The amount of literature and empirical evidence to support their inclusion
is impressive. In a survey of the frequency with which substance abuse and addic-
tion treatment facilities used certain clinical approaches, 66 percent of those surveyed
reported using CBT “always or often” (Office of Applied Studies [OAS; Division of
SAMSHA], 2009).
Relapse Prevention Much of substance abuse and addiction counseling is
relapse prevention. Although this is not a traditional counseling theory, it leans heav-
ily on cognitive behavioral, person-centered, and motivational interviewing principles.
4 Chapter 1 • Introduction

Its inclusion is supported because of the strong empirical research base showing its
effectiveness as an intervention to manage and prevent a return to substance use. In
the OAS (2009) survey, 87 percent of substance abuse treatment facilities reported
using relapse prevention “always or often.”
Group Therapy Group therapy and practice have a theoretical and empirical
base of literature supporting this modality as a best practice in substance abuse and
addiction treatment. In this chapter, I discuss general considerations in the formation
and functioning of a substance abuse counseling group, keeping consistent with gen-
eral group theory. Mutual help groups (i.e., AA) are also discussed. Twelve-step group
facilitation was used by 56 percent of facilities that treat substance abuse and addic-
tion issues (OAS, 2009).
Family Therapy The problem of substance addiction often impacts the entire
family, making family therapy an important part of any text on substance abuse coun-
seling. In this chapter, I focus on family systems theory as well as other approaches
and techniques clinicians can implement in their work with addicted families. The
material from this chapter comes from many different sources: clinically generated
concepts, the experiences of family therapists, the writings of family systems experts,
and empirical studies on family-based models.
Solution-focused Therapy (SFT) Solution-focused counseling is a brief, behav-
iorally based intervention that is quite applicable to substance abuse and addiction
issues. SFT complements MI (the two share similar philosophies) and can even serve
as an extension of MI. In addition, there is a growing, impressive base of empirical
support for counseling addicted clients through this approach.
Adlerian Therapy The inclusion of Adlerian theory is based more on clinical
wisdom and experience than empirical evidence, although some empirical support
exits. Adlerian theory is comprehensive in that it is analytic, cognitive, behavioral, and
systemic. As such, comprehensive theory has much to offer substance abuse treat-
ment. Adlerian theory assumes substance abuse is secondary to general psychological
problems and provides an appropriate contrast to the “addiction as disease” concept.
Gestalt Therapy Gestalt therapy can be an effective and powerful approach to
those struggling with addiction. A growing theoretical base of literature supports this
notion, although the empirical work is scant. However, the lack of empirical support
is not because this approach is ineffective but because the concepts and philosophy
underlying Gestalt theory are not as amendable to empirical investigation. A Gestalt
approach can help an addicted person live with greater awareness, integration, and
authenticity on their recovery journey.
Existential Therapy Existential theory, like Gestalt, is difficult to study empiri-
cally; however, a foundation of literature and clinical experience suggests that sub-
stance use often manifests as crises in meaning and other “givens” of existence. The
role that lack of meaning, existential isolation, and anxiety plays in substance abuse
has been well established. However, relatively little has been written about what an
existential exploration of substance abuse would look like with clients. As you will
see in this chapter, I have found that clients, even younger, adolescent clients, often
respond well to discussions of existential topics and themes.
 Chapter 1 • Introduction 5

Each theory presented in this text, no matter the level of empirical support,
can be effective if the “how to” is demonstrated. Of course, not all theories will be
a fit for every client; some clients might respond better with an explorative existen-
tial approach compared to a structured CBT approach. In addition, clinicians may
be more comfortable with some approaches versus others. In all chapters, I cite
empirical research (if available) and note that more research may be desirable
for some theoretical approaches. However, no approach is discussed willy-nilly;
that is, each approach has empirical support, conceptual support, clinical sup-
port, or all of them. It is my hope that this text will provide students, clinicians,
and researchers a template or model to apply in their practice or research. From
a research perspective, understanding the “how to” can help one design treatment
protocols for future research studies. In essence, that is the way much outcome
research is generated; theory is presented first, followed by empirical investigation
to test effectiveness.
The 2009 Office of Applied Studies report demonstrated that many substance
abuse treatment facilities use approaches that are well established in the substance
abuse field—MI, CBT, Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT), relapse preven-
tion, and 12-Step facilitation. However, the report also cited that 96 percent of facili-
ties engage in substance abuse and addiction counseling “always or often.” Substance
abuse counseling was defined as generally short-term treatment that included sup-
portive techniques, expressive techniques, approaches to enhance interpersonal rela-
tionships, and strategies to increase self-understanding. All the theories presented in
this text promote one or more of these general counseling strategies, offer a con-
ceptual framework, and provide techniques to assist in accomplishing therapeutic
goals. Furthermore, the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), based on decades
of research, included “counseling and other behavioral therapies” as part of their
13 Principles of Drug Addiction Treatment (NIDA, 1999) and specifically noted that
counseling and behavioral therapies are “critical components of effective treatment for
substance addiction.” Activities such as building motivation, building drug resistance
and refusal skills, improving problem solving, improving interpersonal relationships,
and replacing drug-using activities with rewarding non-drug activities were mentioned
as key benefits of addictions counseling.1

A Possible Roadmap to Theory Utilization

It is fair at this point to wonder where in the recovery process should each theory
be utilized (active use, transition [abstinence], early recovery, or ongoing recovery;
Brown, 1995, 1997) or which theory best matches inpatient versus outpatient settings.
Unfortunately, there are no firm guidelines in terms of specific theoretical application
for specific recovery stages or settings, although some suggestions can be inferred
from the literature.
Brown (1995, 1997) outlined four stages in the recovery process (Brown’s
Developmental Model of Alcoholism and Recovery was intended to focus on alcohol-
ism but can reasonably be applied to other substance addictions). The first stage is
active drinking or use, where denial is the main defensive structure because clients

1
For a complete listing of the 13 principles of drug addiction treatment, visit www.nida.gov.
6 Chapter 1 • Introduction

believe they have control over their use (when they clearly do not) and thus minimize
subsequent problems. The second stage is transition, where clients develop little inter-
est outside substance use, and drugs have become the central organizing principle of
their lives. Negative consequences begin to pile up. When clients come to see that (a)
they are an “alcoholic” or “addict” and (b) they have lost control, they transition into
the end of using and the beginning of abstinence. This is a critical and vulnerable spot
for clients because depression, anxiety, eating problems, and other addictions rise to
the surface to fill the void (Brown, 1997). According to Brown (1995, 1997), funda-
mental building blocks of recovery need to be in place for clients to move on toward
recovery. Relapse is a constant possibility. The third stage is early recovery, where the
client begins to gain some momentum in the recovery process, experiences a decline
in impulses, and is committed to attending a 12-Step mutual support group in addition
to regular counseling. Those in early recovery begin the shift from external support
to internal support. Their world begins to open as they catch their impulses and make
alternative choices to using. The fourth stage is ongoing recovery where the client is
firmly in recovery and has expanded his life interests and pursuits. Clients generally
engage in deeper levels of self-exploration in this stage (Brown, 1995, 1997). Twelve-
Step attendance is still an important component but is at a maintenance level. It may
take several years for a client to reach ongoing recovery (Brown, 1997). Notice how
abstinence is in the middle of the model as the client transitions away from using or
drinking. According to Brown (1997), many have wrongly assumed that once a client
is abstinent from substances, then treatment stops. As one can see, abstinence is really
the start of treatment, rather than the end.
Brown’s model is helpful in understanding the recovery process and provides
insights into where certain theoretical approaches might be most useful. In gen-
eral, the earlier in the model the client is (active use, transition, beginning of early
­recovery), the more one should rely on the theoretical approaches discussed in Part II
of this text: Motivational Interviewing, CBT, relapse prevention, group therapy, and
family therapy, in addition to assessment and evaluation procedures. As a client pro-
gresses from early recovery to ongoing recovery, approaches such as Gestalt ther-
apy, existential explorations, and Adlerian interventions become more appropriate.
These latter approaches may invoke greater emotion and generally involve deeper,
more philosophical explorations that the client may not be ready to experience during
active use or early recovery.
Indeed, Brown (1997) noted that for much of active use, transition, and even
early recovery, clients are not ready to deal with deep psychological explorations or
therapies that may have the potential to dig up old emotional wounds. Motivational
interviewing can be quite effective when a client is actively using or has reached
abstinence but may be less effective and even unproductive when the client is sol-
idly in recovery and is motivated to stay there. In the early stages of Brown’s model,
clients benefit more from practical considerations related to motivation (motivational
interviewing), negative thinking processes that maintain substance use (CBT), relapse
concerns (relapse prevention), staying in therapy (both group and individual), and
12-Step mutual help group attendance. As clients build their recovery and are ready
to delve into topics such as personal choice, emotional processing and exploration,
meaning, and awareness, Gestalt, existential, and Adlerian therapies become more rel-
evant and useful to strengthen one’s life free from substance use.
 Chapter 1 • Introduction 7

The preceding guidelines can generally be applied to inpatient versus outpatient

treatment. For clients in inpatient treatment (who are most likely actively using), in
transition, or in very early recovery, the theories in Part II of the text are a good fit.
For outpatient treatment, where clients may be more firmly established in recovery,
additional theoretical approaches would be appropriate. There is risk, however, in
oversimplifying the matching of theory to stage of recovery or location of treatment.
For example, I work primarily in an outpatient facility and have used Motivational
Interviewing, relapse prevention, and CBT with my clients. In addition, I also have
used Adlerian, solution-focused therapy, and Gestalt in relatively early stages of the
recovery process. When determining which theories to use, perhaps the more critical
aspects to consider are what would be the best fit for the client, good clinical judgment
and intuition, familiarity with the theory, client motivation, input, resources, and the
cultivation of the therapeutic relationship. Buchbinder (1986) added that one’s choice
of a theoretical approach depends on many variables, including individual personality,
professional training, peer and academic influence, and supervisory consultation. By
and large, no firm “this is the only way to work” mandates exist in substance abuse
and addiction treatment. Table 1.1 outlines one possible set of guidelines for which
theoretical approaches fit best with the stage of recovery the client is experiencing.

Table 1.1 B
 rown’s (1995, 1997) Developmental Model and Possible Approaches
that Fit Best with Each Phase1
Phase Approach Description
Active drinking or use Motivational Interviewing, CBT, Treatment is usually focused on
Group Therapy, 12 step group stopping or seriously limiting use,
attendance, Family Therapy (if rather than psychological explorations;
family’s goal is to help member client motivation and consciousness
stop using) raising are important considerations
Transition (to abstinence) Motivational Interviewing, CBT, Client is in emotionally vulnerable
Relapse Prevention, Group position; Assessing motivation, relapse
Therapy, Family Therapy, 12 step potential, and providing support
group attendance via group and family care become
important
Early Recovery (1-3 years) Relapse Prevention, Group Treatment begins to move away from
Therapy, Family Therapy, 12 step motivation issues (although these
group attendance, Solution- could still come back) and more toward
Focused Therapy; Existential, preventing relapse and putting together a
Gestalt, Adlerian as client is solid plan for recovery. Support continues
ready and with caution to be important; slowly introduce other
approaches with caution
Ongoing Recovery (3-5 years) Existential, Gestalt, Adlerian Client solidly in recovery and more
amenable to deeper psychological
explorations.
1
This chart is only one possible way to approach substance abuse counseling using theoretical approaches. For
example, motivational interviewing may be important to come back to even in later stages of recovery. For some clients,
Adlerian or Existential therapy might fit earlier in the process, depending on client motivation, pattern of use, emotional
vulnerability, and so forth.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
deplore the destructive effects of that mistaken spirit, of pretended
philosophy, and pretended patriotism, which had levelled with the
ground the churches and country seats, the ruins of which reminded
us, in every village, of the excesses committed during the revolution;
we made these reflections with double force, and double regret, in
viewing what was once the palace of Chantilly. The principal building
is entirely pulled down; but le petit château, and the superb edifice of
the stable, still remain. This latter was saved by the orders of the
present government, who forbade its being sold; and the mistress of
the inn, with tears in her eyes, acquainted me, that had Bonaparte
been at the head of public affairs six months sooner, the palace also
would have been rescued from destruction. That extraordinary man
visited Chantilly after the sale, but before the demolition of the
building. He heard that the purchaser had ordered it to be pulled
down—he expressed his regret; but, at that time, he had no means
of preventing what he sincerely deplored.
The stables, though unhurt, are neglected and dirty. They contain,
at present, a regiment of cavalry. The woods have also been greatly
thinned; the garden no longer exists; and, altogether, Chantilly
presents rather the picture of decayed magnificence, than that of
actual beauty.
On leaving this once celebrated place, we found a fine paved road
all the way to Paris. The regular avenue of hills, the rich country, the
vineyards, the villas, and the carriages of all descriptions which we
met, announced an approach to the capital, at the gates of which we
arrived at two o’clock.
Here, and at Boulogne, we were asked very civilly for our
passports, which were instantly returned us. These were the only
interruptions or examinations which we experienced, during the
whole of our journey. Carriages are not stopped, as formerly, at
every town, to be searched for contraband goods, but, en revanchè,
turnpikes are numerous and expensive. The inns are nearly as dear
as those of England; and it is now not less necessary, than under the
ancien régime, to make a previous bargain, before the horses are
taken from the carriage. If this is not done, impositions and disputes
are sure to occur.
 On arriving at Paris, I drove to several hotels, before I could get
accommodated at all. I am now wretchedly lodged, and fear, from
what I have already seen and heard, that I must waste a
considerable portion of valuable time, before I shall obtain such
apartments as I wish. Good rooms are very scarce, many of the
hôtels garnis having been unfurnished during the revolution, and
those which remain being nearly filled with foreigners, who, since the
peace, have flocked hither in great numbers, from every nation of the
world.
Persons, intending to visit Paris, ought to write some days before
hand to their correspondents, if they desire to be comfortably lodged
on their arrival.
Adieu, my friend. I have now given you a full account of my
journey. I say nothing of Paris, or its inhabitants, the only person I
have yet seen being M. Peregaux, my banker. His new dignity of
senateur has made no alteration in his conduct. He is as civil, and as
obliging as ever.
As soon as I have seen any thing worth communicating, I shall
write again. In the mean time, I take my leave. And
Am, &c.
 LETTER II.
The palace and gardens of the Thuilleries.—The Louvre.—The musée
central des arts, or picture gallery.—Maria Cosway.—Gallery of
antiquities.—Apollo Belvidere.—Laocoon.—List of pictures.

Paris, november the 6th, 1801 (15 brumaire, an 10.)

my dear sir,
Having in my last letter given the details of my journey, I shall
proceed to speak in this of what I have already seen at Paris. The
first objects of curiosity to which my steps were directed, were of
course the Thuilleries and the Louvre. Of the garden of the former it
is difficult to say any thing at this unfavourable season of the year. It
appears, however, to have undergone but little alteration, and to
have received the additional ornament of several statues, which are
scattered about the grounds. The château or palace of the
Thuilleries is also unchanged in that part of it which faces the
garden, but the appearance of the great front, (I mean that towards
the Carousel,) is much improved, and has become strikingly
magnificent. It promises to be still more so, when the whole of the
projected amendments are completed. When I last visited Paris, a
number of small houses surrounded the palace, and seemed to
conceal it from the profane eye of the vulgar. The greater part of
these houses are already pulled down, and the gallery of the Louvre,
no longer kept from view, forms a magnificent side to the spacious
court by which the palace is approached, and in which the first
consul reviews his troops, on the 15th of every month. This court is
separated from the street, by a beautiful iron railing, the four gates of
which are ornamented with the celebrated horses taken from Venice,
and with the birds (I believe cocks) which, in imitation of the roman
eagles, the french republic has adopted as her distinguishing
symbol. The opening is already extended as far as la rue St. Nicaise.
Houses are daily pulled down, and I understand it is the intention of
the present government to clear away all the remaining obstacles,
which separate the palace of the Louvre from that of the Thuilleries.
When this great plan is fully executed, the residence of the first
consul will greatly exceed in magnificence all the palaces of Europe.
In the Louvre is situated the museum or musée central des arts.
This superb collection, without exception the finest in the world,
occupies a room equally unrivalled, covering a space at least equal
to a quarter of an english mile. The antichamber[2] to this vast gallery
is at present filled with a modern exhibition of paintings, which,
indifferent in themselves, become still more contemptible by an
involuntary, though perhaps unfair, comparison, which one is led to
make between the artists of our times, and those of our ancestors.
An excellent likeness in full length of madame Bonaparte, and a
beautiful miniature of a father and a son, by Isabey, were the only
objects which attracted my attention. My impatience soon carried me
forward. At length I found myself in the magnificent room, which I
have before mentioned, the walls of which are covered as far as the
eye can reach with the sublimest efforts of human art. Where the
mind has long been promised a pleasure, when fancy has dressed it
in all her choicest colours, how seldom does the reality approach the
phantom of heated imagination! For once I was not disappointed. I
expected it is true, a high gratification. I had formed to myself an
exalted idea of the objects, which I was about to visit, yet the
satisfaction I felt exceeded, far exceeded, what I supposed it
possible for the power of sight to afford; nor did I believe that the
hand of man was capable of attaining that degree of perfection,
which I now beheld. For some time I was lost in wonder, I knew not
where to fix my enraptured eye. A catalogue which was offered me,
by one of the attendants, and which as I afterwards found, is drawn
up with great clearness and precision, roused me from this pleasing
reverie, and gave some order to the train of my thoughts. The
arrangement of the collection is admirable.
After viewing the masterpieces of la Sueur, le Brun, Nicolas
Poussin, and the three Van Loos, I supposed I had already seen the
utmost efforts of the art, and even, under this supposition, was ready
to allow that my highest ideas of the power of painting fell short of
what these specimens presented. Think of my surprise, when,
looking on my catalogue, I found that I had not yet passed the limits
of the french school. Astonished and delighted I went on. The
flemish, dutch, and german masters occupy the second division.
Among them I beheld the exquisite works of Van Dyck, of Hans
Holbein, of Paul Potter, of Rembrandt, of Teniers, and of Rubens.
Sublime as were the first, objects that had claimed my admiration,
even they were exceeded by the latter. Nor had I yet seen the acme
of the art. Charmed with the fancy and execution of all the flemish
painters, I was particularly pleased with the beautiful pasturage, by
Paul Potter, every object of which seems alive on the canvass.
A few steps would bring me in view of the wonders of Italy, to see
which so many of my countrymen had crossed the Alps; yet so
enraptured was I with the objects already before me, that it required
all the importunity of my companions, to persuade me to proceed. I
was soon rewarded for this temporary sacrifice, and in contemplating
the almost supernatural works of Corregio, of Caravaggio, of the
Carracci, of Dominichino, of Guido, of Leonardo da Vinci, of Paul
Veronese, of Raphael and of Titian. I discovered, that what I had
seen before were only so many links in the great chain of perfection,
which was now complete. If among those models of the art, you wish
me to name some particular picture, I should give the preference to
the communion of St. Jerome, by Dominichino, which in expression,
colouring, feeling, and variety, seems to me to possess every beauty
united.
Before I quit a subject so interesting in every respect, I ought to
mention, that this assemblage of the chefs-d’œuvres of former times,
begins already to hold out the promise of improving the taste of
modern painters. I saw artists of both sexes, occupied in taking
copies of the most celebrated subjects; and as curiosity led me to
observe some of these unfinished attempts, I discovered, with infinite
pleasure, that the figures, and even the countenances of the most
striking objects, were in several instances successfully imitated. It is
indeed, almost impossible, that the study of such unrivalled works
should be pursued, without considerable benefit to the individual,
and improvement to the art. To me it appears highly probable, that,
assisted by the great facilities and advantages which this gallery
affords, painting will, in the course of twenty years, recover all its
former splendour.
An English lady[3], who has long very deservedly enjoyed a
considerable portion of public praise, is now employed in copying the
principal pictures in the museum; and from her designs, prints are to
be published, the proposals for which are already circulated at Paris.
If she should execute her plan as well as one has reason to expect
from her known talents, the collection will become highly valuable
and interesting, not only to those who have seen the originals, but
likewise to such as have not had that advantage.
The musée, like every other establishment of the kind in this town,
is conducted on principles of liberality, truly honourable to the
government and the nation. The gallery is open to foreigners and
artists, every day of the year; but to the public, only once or twice in
each week. No fee or recompense is either required, expected, or
received by any of the attendants; and the exquisite pleasure of
contemplating these sublime pictures, for which indeed it would be
difficult to fix any adequate price, is enjoyed gratuitously[4].
The gallery of antiquities, containing statues, busts, and basso-
relievoes, is immediately under the gallery of pictures. It is divided
into la salle des saisons, la salle des hommes illustres, la salle des
Romains, la salle de Laocoon, la salle de l’Apollon, et la salle des
Muses.
Were I to attempt an account of all these statues, my letter would
never end. I shall therefore only mention those by which the rest,
however excellent, are rendered petty, and contemptible, in
comparison with them. I mean the Apollo Belvidere, and the
Laocoon[5]. These masterpieces of human ingenuity are also so well
known, and have been so well described, that I shall confine my
remarks to their present state and present situation. The Apollo
seems to have received no injury from the journey, and has as just
claims as ever to the preeminence which, for so many centuries, has
been allowed it. Did I not fear to appear presumptuous in hinting at
any defect in a statue, esteemed so perfect, I should say, that the
ancles were rather too thick, in proportion to the rest of the leg, and
to the general lightness of the figure. I should have concealed my
criticism, if a friend, on whose judgment and knowledge I can rely,
had not assured me, that the objection was not novel, and that many
connoisseurs have suspected that the legs are modern.
Not having had the happiness of seeing this wonderful statue in
Italy, I cannot draw a comparison between the spot where it formerly
stood, and that which it at present occupies. I certainly think, that it is
not now seen to the greatest advantage. The room is not either high
or large enough for the purpose, and too many statues are crowded
together.—The Apollo Belvidere stands between the Venus d’Arles
and another female figure, within a railed space of no great
dimensions. The catalogue gives the following history:

“No. 145. APOLLON PYTHIEN,

DIT APOLLON DU BELVIDERE.
(After describing the statue and the subject).
“Cette statue la plus sublime de celles que le tems nous ait
conservées, a été trouvée, vers la fin du quinzième siècle, à
Capo d’Anzo, à douze lieues de Rome, sur le rivage de la
mer, dans les ruines de l’antique Antium, cité célébré et par
son temple de la Fortune, et par les maisons de plaisance,
que les empereurs y avaient élevées à l’envi, et embellies de
plus rares chefs-d’œuvres de l’art. Julius II, n’étant encore
que cardinal, fit l’acquisition de cette statue, et la fit placer
d’abord dans le palais qu’il habitait près l’église de Santi
Apostoli. Mais bientôt après étant parvenu au pontificat, il la fit
transporter au Belvidere du Vatican, où depuis trois siècles
elle faisait l’admiration de l’univers, lorsqu’un héros, guidé par
la victoire est venu l’en tirer, pour la conduire et la fixer à
jamais sur les rives de la Seine....
“On ignore entierement le nom de l’auteur de cet inimitable
chef-d’œuvre. L’avant-bras droit et la main gauche qui
manquaient out été restaurés par Giovanni Angelo da
Montorsoli, sculpteur élève de Michael Ange.”
TRANSLATION.
 “THE PYTHIAN APOLLO.
CALLED
“THE APOLLO BELVIDERE.
“This statue, the most sublime of those which time has
preserved, was found, towards the conclusion of the fifteenth
century, at Capo d’Anzo, twelve leagues from Rome, on the
sea shore, near the ruins of the ancient Antium, a city no less
celebrated for its temple of Fortune, than for the elegant
seats, which the different emperors, emulous of each other,
had built there, and ornamented with all the rarest works of
art. Julius II, while yet but a cardinal, bought this statue, and
placed it first in the palace where he resided, near the church
of the Holy Apostles. When he became sovereign pontiff, he
ordered it to be conveyed to the Belvidere of the Vatican,
where for three centuries it excited the admiration of the
universe. A hero, guided by victory, drew it from the Vatican;
and, transporting it to the banks of the Seine, has fixed it
there for ever....
“The name of the artist, who made this inimitable chef-
d’œuvre, is unknown. The right arm, and the left hand, which
were wanting, were restored by the sculptor, Giovanni Angelo
da Montorsoli, pupil of Michael Angelo.”

I hope, my friend, you admire the modesty with which it is

declared, that the Apollo is for ever fixed on the banks of the Seine!
—After the singular fate which this statue has experienced, it
required all that happy confidence, with which the french determine
the most difficult questions in their own favour, to make so bold an
assertion. The Apollo lay two thousand years under the ruins of
Antium, and yet preserved its beauty. It was drawn thence, placed in
the Vatican, and after receiving there, for three centuries, the
applauses of mankind, is carried over the Alps, and seen at Paris in
all its original symmetry. If it be the destiny of this matchless figure to
follow the tide of fortune, and to change its residence with the
changes of empire, and the casualties of human affairs, who shall
decide where it may next be found? If Julius II, when he placed the
Apollo in the Vatican, had been told, that, three hundred years
afterward, a french warrior would attach it to his car of victory, in
entering the city of Paris, would even the pope himself have had faith
enough to believe such a prophecy? After this, no conjecture
becomes improbable. Who knows, that this celebrated statue may
not, some centuries hence, be discovered on the frozen plains of
Siberia, or in the burning sands of Egypt?
The subject of the Laocoon is so pathetic, and the execution so
admirable, that the group which it presents, is, as the catalogue well
observes, a specimen, at once, of composition, art, and feeling. The
following is the historical account of this statue:

“Il a été trouvé en 1506, sous le pontificat de Julius II, à

Rome sur le mont Esquilin, dans les ruines du palais de Titus,
contigu à ses thermes. Pline qui en a parlé avec admiration,
l’avait vu dans ce même endroit. C’est à cet écrivain que nous
devons la connoissance des trois habiles sculpteurs
Rhodiens qui l’ont exécuté, ils s’appellaient Agésandre,
Polydore, et Athenodore. Agésandre étoit probablement le
père des deux autres, ils florissaient au premier siècle de l’ere
vulgaire. La groupe est composé de cinq blocs si artistement
réunis, que Pline l’a cru d’un seul. Le bras droit du père et
deux bras des enfans manquent. Sans doute un jour on les
exécutera en marbre. Mais provisionnellement on les a
suppliés par des bras moulés sur la groupe en plâtre,
restauré par Gerardon, qui se voit dans la salle de l’école de
peinture.”
TRANSLATION.
“It was found in 1506, under the pontificate of Julius II, at
Rome, on the Esquiline mount, in the ruins of the palace of
Titus, near his thermæ, or hot baths. Pliny, who speaks of this
statue with admiration, had seen it in the same place. It is to
this writer we are indebted for the knowledge of the three able
sculptors of Rhodes, who executed this masterpiece. Their
 names were, Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus. It is
probable, that the first of these was the father of the other
two. They flourished during the first century of the common
era. The group consists of five pieces of marble, joined in so
workmanlike a manner, that Pliny thought the whole was of
one. The right arm of the father, and two of the arms of the
children, are wanting. They will, no doubt, be executed
hereafter in marble; in the mean time, the deficiency is
supplied by arms moulded on the group in plaister of Paris,
the work of Gerardon, which is to be seen in the hall of the
school of painting.”

In taking leave of the gallery of statues, I ought, perhaps, in

answer to several inquiries, which have been made me in letters
from England, to mention, that the Hercules Farnese, and the Venus
de Medici, are not in the collection. A british officer, lately returned
from Egypt by way of Italy, tells me, that both these statues are at
present in the island of Sicily. They are in the possession of the king
of Naples, who keeps them locked up in cases, and refuses
permission, even to his greatest favourites, to see them.
Adieu.

POSTSCRIPT.
I add, for the sake of gratifying the curiosity of such of your friends
as are connoisseurs, and wish to know where their favourite pictures
may be found, a list of those of the most celebrated masters, now in
the Louvre.

FRENCH SCHOOL.

charles le brun.
No. 9. The Courage of Mutius Scævola.
10. The Death of Cato.
 11. Portrait of Charles le Brun, taken in his youth, by
himself.
12. St. Stephen stoned.
13. The Magdalen at the Pharisee’s.
14. Jesus asleep, or Silence.
15. The Benedicite.
16. The Cross surrounded with Angels.
17. The Defeat of Porus.
18. The Tent of Darius.
19. The Entry of Alexander into Babylon.
20. The Death of Meleager, king of Calydon.
21. The Conquest of Franche-Compté.—(The sketch from
which le Brun drew the celebrated picture, in the
great gallery at Versailles.)
22. The Nativity.
nicholas poussin.
No. 67. The Martyrdom of St. Erasmus, the Bishop.
68. The Philistines attacked with the Plague.
69. The Rape of the Sabines.
70. The Fall of Manna in the Desert.
71. Time makes Truth triumph.
72. The Last Supper.
73. St. Francis Xavier in India.
74. St. John Baptising in the river Jordan.
75. Rebecca and Eliezer.
76. Diogenes throwing away his Cup.
77. The Judgment of Solomon.
78. The Blind Men of Jericho.
79. Portrait of Poussin, taken by himself.
80. The Adultress.
81. The Death of Sapphira.
82. Winter, or the Deluge.
83. The Death of Eurydice.
 84. The Holy Family.
85. The Assumption of the Virgin.
restout.
No. 88. Alpheus and Arethusa.
le sueur (eustache.)
No. 98. The Preaching of St. Paul at Ephesus.
99. The Descent from the Cross.
100. The Celebration of Mass by St. Martir.
101. St. Gervais and St. Protais.
102. Clio, the Muse of History.
Euterpe, the Muse of Music.
Thalia, the Muse of Comedy.
103. Calliope, the Muse of Epic Poetry.
104. Urania, the Muse of Astronomy.
105. Terpsichore, the Muse of Dancing.
106. Melpomene, the Muse of Tragedy.
Erato, the Muse of Lyric Poetry.
Polyhymnia, the Muse of Eloquence.
van loo (carlo.)
No. 115. Æneas and Anchises.
116. The Marriage of the Virgin.
van loo (john baptiste.)
No. 117. Diana and Endymion.
van loo (louis michael.)
No. 118. The Picture of Carlo van Loo, the historical painter.
DUTCH, FLEMISH, AND GERMAN SCHOOL.

champagne (philip of.)

No. 212. The Archbishop of Milan, St. Ambrose.
 213. The carrying the Bodies of St. Gervais and St. Protais,
from the spot where they were found, to the
cathedral of Milan, by order of the Archbishop.
214. A dead Christ extended on the Bier.
215. The Supper.
216. The Nuns.
217. Philip of Champagne, painted by himself, in 1668, at the
age of 66 years.
claissens (antony.)
No. 218. The Judgment of Cambyses.
219. Cambyses orders an unjust Judge to be flayed alive,
directing his skin to be turned into a cover for the
bench of his successor.
durer (albert)
No. 249. The Portrait of a Geometrician.
250. The Portrait of a Musician.
251. A Crucifix.
dyck (antony van.)
No. 252. Christ lying dead in the Arms of the Virgin: near him are
St. Magdalen and St. John.
253. St. Augustin in a Swoon.
254. Charles the First, king of England.—(A delightful
picture.)
255. The Mother of Pity.
256. Francis of Moncade, Marquis d’Aylonne, governor of the
Netherlands for Philip the Fourth.—This man was
both a warrior and an historian.
257. St. Martin cutting his Cloak, in order to give half of it to a
poor Man.—(This is one of the most interesting
pictures in the whole collection.)
258. Antony van Dyck.
259. Comte de Luck, holding an orange in his hand.
 260. Half-length Picture of a Man, with his hand on his
breast.
261. The Picture of a Man in Black.
262. The Ex-voto and the Virgin.
263. Jesus carrying his Cross.
264. The Portraits of Charles the First, Elector Palatine, and
Prince Robert his Brother, both in military dresses.
265. The Portrait of a Man on Foot, holding his daughter, who
is on horseback, by the hand.
266. The Portrait of a Lady and her Son.
267. The half-length Portrait of a Man of 37, having a glove
on his left hand.
268. Half-length Portrait of a young Woman, with a fan of
feathers in her hand.
269. John Richardot (president of the privy council of the
Netherlands), one of the negotiators sent by the
king of Spain to Vervins—died in 1609.
270. Portrait, in the shape of a bust, of a Man in a black
Cloak.
271. Venus soliciting from Vulcan Arms for Æneas.
272. The taking down from the Cross, a sketch.
dyck (philip van) called the little van dyck, pupil of arnold
boonen.
No. 270. B. Sarah presenting Agar to Abraham.
271. B. Agar repudiated by Abraham, at the instigation of
Sarah.
272. B. Judith giving to her Maid the Head of Holophernes.
273. A Woman at her Toilet.
274. A young Woman playing on the Guitar.
gyzen (peter.)
No. 295. A Village Holiday.—(A very laughable picture.)
holbein (hans or john) pupil of john holbein, his father.
No. 313. The Portrait of a Man, with a black Cat.
314. Thomas Moore (lord chancellor of England) beheaded
by order of Henry VIII.
315. The Portrait of a young Man carrying a Hawk.
316. The Sacrifice of Abraham.
317. A young Woman in a Necklace of Pearls, and a red
Jacket.
318. Erasmus.
319. A young Woman with a yellow Veil.
320. Robert Cheeseman, at the age of 48, with a Hawk.
321. Master Nicholas Kratzer, astronomer of Henry VIII of
England.
322. The Archbishop of Canterbury, painted in 1528, at the
age of 70.
323. Ann of Cleves, wife of Henry VIII of England.—(Henry
the eighth married her on seeing this picture, but
repudiated her six months after, finding that her
beauty by no means equalled that which had been
given her by the painter.)
324. The Portrait, in miniature, of Erasmus.
paul potter.
No. 446. Landscape, with Cattle.—(This is the picture in which I
particularly admired the exact and wonderful
imitation of Nature.)
447. A Meadow.
448. A Meadow watered by a River, in which animals are
drinking and men bathing.—(This is a charming
picture.)
449. Oxen and Pigs in a Pasture, near a cottage.
450. Two Horses at a Trough, near the door of a public
house. A man brings them water.
451. A Field.—In the front, three cows are standing under an
oak; and, on the left, an ox with white and black
spots.
 rembrandt (van ryn paul.)
No. 455. The Head of a Man, with a hat ornamented with black
feathers.
456. Portrait of Rembrandt in his youth, taken by himself.
457. The Head of a Woman, dressed in long ear-rings, and a
fur cloak.
458. The good Samaritan.
459. The Head of an old Man with a long beard, who is also
bald.
460. A Jewish Bride.
461. The Head of a young Man with a black cap, and a
golden chain round his neck.
462. The meditating Philosopher.
463. The contemplating Philosopher.
464. Small Head of a Man, dressed in a straw bonnet.
465. The Family of a Joiner.
466. Tobias and Family prostrate before the angel Raphael,
who disappears from their sight, after making
himself known.
467. Susannah at the Bath.
468. The Pilgrims of Emans, and the breaking of Bread.
469. The Presentation of Jesus in the Temple.
470. St. Matthew, the Evangelist.
471. The Portrait of Rembrandt, in a more advanced period
of life than that of 456.
472. Venus and Cupid.
473. An old Man at his Meditations.
rubens (peter paul.)
No. 479. The Education of Mary of Medici.
480. The Lying in of Mary of Medici.
His celebrated picture of the Assumption has lately been
put up in the Musée.
481. The Happiness of Peace.
508. Adriana de Perès, wife of Nicholas Rockox, married in
 1589, died in 1619.
509. The Crucifixion of St. Peter.
510. Christ on the Cross, between the two Thieves, at the
moment when the centurion wounds him in the
side.
511. The Last Supper.
512. The Adoration of the Kings, larger than life.
513. St. Roch interceding for the Persons afflicted with the
Plague.
514. St. Roch fed by his Dog.
N. B. I particularly recommend these last six pictures to
your attention. They are more than commonly
beautiful.
515. St. Roch cured of the Plague by an Angel.
516. Christ dead in the Arms of his Father.
517. The Adoration of the Wise Men.—(An admirable
picture.)
518. The Beheading of St. John the Baptist.
519. St. John the Evangelist thrown into a Copper of boiling
Oil.
520. The Portrait of a Woman, dressed in a hat, and, holding
a bunch of roses in her hand.
521. Another Portrait of a Woman in black, her head
uncovered, and her hands crossed.
522. The Nativity of our Saviour, a sketch.
523. The Resurrection of Christ, a sketch.
524. Lot and his Family leaving Sodom, led by an Angel.
525. The Virgin and the Infant Jesus, surrounded with
Innocents. This is called the Virgin and the Angels.
526. The Kernesse, or Village Holiday.—(A very curious
picture.)
527. The Descent from the Cross.
528. The Miraculous Draught of Fishes.
529. The Apostles finding in the Mouth of a Fish, the Piece of
Money necessary for the Payment of the Tribute.
 530. The Angel, making the Young Tobias angle for the Fish,
the gall of which was to restore his Father’s sight.
531. The Portrait of a Princess, who appears to be Elizabeth
of Bourbon, Daughter of Henry the IVth, and Wife of
Philip, King of Spain.
532. The Triumph of Pomona.
533. Venus and Adonis.
534. A View of Malines.
535. A View of Cadiz.
teniers (the younger david.)
No. 575. The Smoker.
576. The Grinder.
577. Country people dancing to the sound of the Bagpipe.
578. The Works of Charity.
579. The Village Wedding.
580. The Preparations for a Repast.
581. Peter’s Denial of our Saviour.
582. A Landscape.
583. The inside of an Ale-house, with Persons playing at
Cards.
584. The Prodigal Son at Table, with his Mistresses.—(In this
picture Teniers is supposed to have drawn himself
and his Family.)
585. Hern shooting.
586. The Alchymist in his Laboratory.
587. An old Man’s Head in a Fur Dress and Bonnet.
588. The inside of an Ale-house.
teniers (the elder david.)
No. 589. A Man playing on a Bagpipe.
ITALIAN SCHOOL.

gio benedetto castiglione (called at genoa, il grechetto,

 and in france, the bendette.)
No. 689. The Nativity.
690. The Money-sellers driven from the Temple.
691. Melchisedec, King of Salem, offering Bread and Wine to
Abraham.
692. A Woman carrying a Vase on her head, an old Man, and
an African with a Turban on his head holding a
copper plate.
693. In the middle of a Court a Woman carrying a Copper
Vessel, and an Ass loaded with Kitchen Furniture.
694. Jacob leaves Mesopotamia, in order to see his Father in
Canaan.
695. Bacchanalians and Satyrs resting, and playing on
different Instruments.
albani (francesco.)
No. 660. The Birth of the Virgin.
661. Mystic Vision of the Cross.
662. Diana and Acteon.
663. The Holy Family.
664. The Rest in Egypt.
665. The Rest in Egypt.
666. St. Francis praying before a Crucifix.
667. God the Father in his Glory.
668. Adam and Eve.
669. The Annunciation of the Virgin.
670. The Annunciation of the Virgin.
671. Our Saviour appearing to Mary Magdalen.
672. The Baptism of Jesus in the Waters of Jordan.
673. The preaching of St. John in the Desert.
674. Apollo at the House of Admetus, King of Thessaly.
675. The Triumph of Cybele.
676. Fire.
677. Air.
 678. Water.
679. Earth.
680.
681.
682. } The Loves and Graces at the Toilet of Venus.
683.
684. Apollo and Daphne.
685. Salmacis and Hermaphroditus.
the carracci.

The four Elements by the three Carracci, that is to say,

No. 703. Earth, by Lodovico Carracci.
704. Water, by Lodovico Carracci.
705. Fire, by Agostino Carracci,
706. Air, by Annibale Carracci.
carracci (agostino.)
No. 707. The Assumption of the Virgin.
708. St. Cæcilia and St. Marguerite.
709. The Communion of St. Jerom.
710. Hercules in his Cradle, strangling the Serpents.
carracci (lodovico.)
No. 711. The Virgin, St. Francis, and St. Joseph.
712. St. Hyacinth, to whom the Virgin appears.
713. The vocation of St. Matthew.
714. St. John baptizing Christ.
715. The Annunciation of the Virgin.
716. The Nativity of Jesus Christ.
717. The Virgin and the Infant Jesus.
carracci (antonio, natural son of agostino carracci.)
No. 718. The Deluge.