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UPDATED TO 2024 SYLLABUS

EDEXCEL IGCSE
CHEMISTRY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY SYLLABUS
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EDEXCEL IGCSE CHEMISTRY

Diffusion: The spreading out of particles from where they

are at a higher concentration to a lower concentration.
1. State of Matter Diffusion in liquids is very slow if the liquid is very still

1.1. Solid, Liquid, and Gases

Properties Solid Liquid Gas
Particle
arrangement
Forces
Weaker than
between Strongest Weakest
solids
particles
Vibrate in fixed Move
Slip and slide
Motion of positions and randomly at
over other
particles regular high speed in
particles
arrangement all directions
Take the shape Takes the 1.4. Solutes, Solvents, and Solutions
Shape Fixed shape of the shape of the
container container Solute: The substance that dissolves in the liquid
Expansion Expands Expands more Expands the Solvent: The liquid the solid dissolves in
when heated slightly than solids most Solution: The liquid formed
Can it be Saturated Solution: A solution that contains as much
No Slightly Yes dissolved solid as possible at a particular temperature
compressed?
Solubility: The mass of solid that must dissolve in 100g of
solution at that temperature to form a saturated solution
1.2. Changes in the State of Matter
Melting point: when a solid melts
Boiling point: when a liquid turns to a gas
Freezing point: when the liquid changes to a solid
Boiling: When a liquid is heated so strongly that all the
particles move fast and can overcome the forces of
attraction between them.
Evaporation: When some fast-moving particles at the
surface of the liquid have enough energy to change into a
gas.
Sublimation: Solid to gas
Deposition: Gas to solid
2. Elements, Compounds and
Mixtures
Elements: Substances that can’t be split into anything
simpler by chemical means. It contains only 1 type of
atom
Compounds: Contains Two or more elements that are
chemically combined together
Mixture: Various substances mixed with no chemical
reaction that occurs

1.3. Diffusion

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Pure substances: Melt and boil at fixed temperatures

Mixtures: boil over a range of temperatures

2.2. Methods to Separate Mixtures

Fractional distillation: Used to separate a mixture of
Filtration: Used to separate a solid from a liquid
liquids from each other like ethanol and water as they are
Residue: Substance left in the filter paper
completely miscible with each other
Filtrate: Liquid that drains through the Filter paper

Crystallisation: Used to separate a solute from a solution
The solution is heated to allow a saturated solution to
form and tested by dipping a glass rod onto the surface of
the solution and seeing if crystals form on the surface
when removed. The Bunsen burner is turned off and
crystals are formed as water evaporates and the solution
cools. The crystals can be removed by filtration.
Paper chromatography: Used to separate a variety of
mixtures like coloured inks and food dyes
Rf value calculation= (distance moved by spot) / (distance
moved by the solvent front)
3. Atomic Structure
An Atom is the smallest piece of an element that can be still
known as that element
Molecule - Two or more atoms chemically combined together

Simple distillation: Used to separate the components of a

solution. The liquid boils and is condensed back into a
liquid by the condenser, leaving the solid behind in the
flask.

Particle Relative Mass Relative charge

Neutron 1 0
Proton 1 +1
Electron 1/1836 -1

Atomic Number - Number of protons in the nucleus of an

atom

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Mass Number - The number of protons and neutrons in Noble Gases: These occupy group 0, also called group 8,
the nucleus of an atom as they contain 8 electrons in their outermost shell so are
Isotopes - Atoms of the same element that have the same extremely inert and unreactive
atomic number but a different mass number. (same
number of protons, different number of neutrons) 4.2. Properties of the Elements
Relative atomic mass - Average mass of an atom. Takes
into account the isotopes naturally occurring in a sample Property Metals Non-metals
present.
No, Non-metals
Relative atomic mass = [(% of atom naturally occurring x
can’t conduct
atomic number) + (% of atom naturally occurring x atomic Yes, As the
electricity as they
number) / 100 ] delocalised
don’t have
electrons are free
Conduction of delocalised
to move and can
4. The Periodic Table electricity
carry the charge
electrons.
Exceptions such as
allowing metals to
graphite and silicon
conduct electricity
can’t conduct
electricity
The type of Oxide
Form basic oxides Form Acidic Oxides
formed
Type of ions formed Positive ions Negative ions
Is it Malleable and Ductile and
Brittle
ductile? malleable
Conductors of Good conductors of Don’t conduct
electricity and heat heat and electricity electricity or heat
Not as shiny as
Lustre Shiny and lustrous
metals
Ionic and covalent
Compounds formed Ionic compounds
compounds
Vertical Columns are called groups
Horizontal rows are called periods
The elements are arranged in increasing order of atomic
number in the periodic table
5. Chemical Formulae,
Electrons are arranged around the nucleus in shells and
lower ones are filled before the higher ones
Equations and Calculations -
In the first shell, a max of 2 electrons can fit, in the second
a max of 8 electrons can fit and in the third shell a max of
Part 1
8 electrons can fit (only for the first 20 elements - till
Calcium) “2H2 O” The larger “2” Shows 2 moles of “H2 O”, whereas the
​ ​

The arrangement of electrons in its shell is called its
electronic configuration
smaller subscript 2 shows 2 atoms of Hydrogen
Remember - Every equation HAS to be
balanced. You can count the number of atoms
of a particular element to make sure the left
and right side of the equations are balance.

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar ) : The relative atomic mass is

​

the weighted average of the isotopes of the element and

is measure on a Carbon-12 scale where each carbon-12
atom has a mass of exactly 12.
Relative Formula Mass (M r ) : Measure the masses of
​

compounds using the Carbon-12 scale.

To find the percentage of an element in a compound, find
the Mr of the compound and the Ar of the element and
Elements in the same group of the periodic table have the
divide them and multiply the answer by 100
same number of electrons in their outermost shell
The period number gives the number of occupied shells (Ar / M r ) ∗ 100
​ ​

Groups in the periodic table have similar chemical

properties 1 Mol = 6.022 * 10 23 atoms

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Empirical Formula: Shows the simplest whole number

ratio of atoms present in a compound
Molecular Formula: Shows the actual number of atoms of
each element present in the compound

Element 1 (eg Copper Element 2 (eg Oxygen

(Cu)) (O))
mass in grams
number of
moles
molar ratio
Empirical
formula
Charge Substance Ion
The sample table above shows the table method that can be Positive Zinc Zn2+
used to calculate the empirical formula Silver Ag +
Percentage yield: (Actual Yield) / (Theoretical Yield) * 100
Hydrogen H+
Calculating excess: Find the ratio of the compounds by
looking at the formula for example - N a2 C O3 (s) + 2HCl
​
Ammonium N H4+ ​

(l) shows 2 mols of HCl and 1 mol of N a2 C O3 so the molar

​
Negative Nitrate N O3− ​

ratio is 2:1. Using the data given we can calculate the moles Carbonate C O32− ​

of both and whichever is in excess can then be easily

Hydroxide OH −
identified.
Sulfate SO42− ​

5.2. Chemical Formulae, Equations and

Calculations - Part 2 6.2. Finding the Formula of the
Compound
Avogadro’s Law - Equal Volumes of all gasses at the same
temperature and pressure willhave the same number of
molecules.
IMPORTANT FORMULAS -

For a solid: n= m/M r Just cross the charges of the elements over and the Charge
For aqueous solutions: n = cV for Chlorine ( C l− ) is 1 itself so there is no extra number
For a gas: n = V /M added.

1 litre = 1dm3 = 1000cm3

6. Ionic Bonding
Ionic Bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between
the oppositely charged ions (positive and negative ions)
Ionic compounds usually contain a metal
Positive ions are called Cations
Negative ions are called Anions
Elements in groups 1,2,3 will form 1+, 2+, 3+ ions. Whereas
elements in groups 5,6,7 will form 3-,2-,1- ions as they gain
electrons to become stable
Whereas if the charges are the same, there is no need to
cross the charges as they are the same so become balanced.
6.3. Giant Ionic Structures
A lattice is a regular array of particles and each lattice is
held together by the electrostatic force of attraction
between the oppositely charged ions.
In Magnesium Oxide, the 2+ ions and 2- ions are being
attracted, whereas the 1+ and 1- charge in Sodium
Chloride and so due to the 2 ions being transferred,
magnesium oxide has stronger electrostatic forces of
attraction.

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Carbon has 4 electrons in its outermost shell so would share

1 each with the 4 hydrogen atoms and form Methane - C H4 ​

Ionic Compounds:
Ammonia -
Have high melting and boiling points because of the
strong electrostatic forces of attraction holding the lattice
together so a lot of thermal energy has to be supplied to
break these strong bonds.
Tend to be crystalline
Tend to be brittle as any distortion of the structure can
cause like charges to come together and as like charges
repel, the crystal splits itself apart.
Tend to be soluble in water
Tend to be insoluble in organic solvents
Don’t conduct electricity when in the solid state as the ions
aren’t free to move but can conduct electricity in molten Nitrogen has 5 electrons in its outermost shell so would share
and aqueous. 1 each amongst the 3 hydrogen atoms and form ammonia -
N H3 ​

7. Covalent Bonding Organic Molecules -

A covalent bond is the electrostatic force of attraction
between the nuclei of the atom and shared pair of electrons.

7.1. Diatomic Molecules -

A Hydrogen Molecule consists of diatomic atoms hence
hydrogen has the formula H2 ​

Hydrogen forms molecules as the H2 molecule is more

​

stable than two separate hydrogen atoms

The structure is for Ethane and consists of Carbon-Hydrogen

and Carbon-Carbon bonds and is called a hydrocarbon.
(These structures will be discussed in more detail in Unit 4.)

Examples of diatomic molecules would be Chlorine, Fluorine Oxygen has a double Covalent bond as 4 electrons are
and the Halogens, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen shared
Nitrogen has a triple covalent bond as 6 electrons are
Inorganic Molecules - shared

Methane -
7.2. Simple Molecular Structures

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Contain Intermolecular forces that are weaker than the
covalent bonds
These substances tend to be solids with low melting and
boiling points as not a lot of thermal energy is needed to
break these weak intermolecular forces of attraction
Intermolecular forces of attraction increase as the
relative molecular mass increases
Example - H2 O, C O2 , C H4 , N H3 , C 2 H4
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
7.3. Giant Covalent Structures
Diamond -
Pure Carbon form
Tetrahedral Structure
Each carbon bonds strongly to 4 other carbons
High melting and boiling points as the strong covalent
bonds require a lot of thermal energy to break
Very Hard as a lot of energy has to be applied of break the
strong covalent bonds
Doesn’t conduct electricity as the electrons in the outer
shells are held tightly and not free to move around
Graphite -
Form of Carbon
Layer structure
Soft material as even though it has covalent bonds, only
the weak forces between the layers have to be broken so
can easily be separated and flaked off
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Has high melting and boiling points as to melt or boil the
structure all bonds have to be broken including the
covalent bonds which are very strong and require large
amounts of thermal energy to break
Conducts electricity as each carbon atom is only joined to
3 others so the 4th electron of the atom in each shell are
free to move and can carry the charge (delocalised
electrons) allowing graphite to conduct electricity
Fullerene -
Lower melting and boiling points than diamond and
graphite as only weak intermolecular forces need to be
broken
Not as hard as diamond as it doesn’t take a lot of energy
to break the weak intermolecular forces
Doesn’t conduct electricity as even though the 4 electron
is free to move it can only move around within the atom
and can’t jump from atom to atom so can’t carry the
charge or conduct electricity
Non-toxic so used in the body for medicines
Allotropes: Different forms of the same element
8. Metallic Bonding
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Electrostatic force of attraction between the lattice of positive
ions and sea of delocalised electrons \n
Metals have giant structures, so don’t contain individual
molecules
Metals are hard and have high melting and boiling points -
Due to the strong electrostatic forces of attraction
between the lattice of positive ions and sea of delocalised
electrons
Conduct electricity as the delocalised electrons are free to
move throughout the structure
Malleable and Ductile as when a force is applied the
layers of positive ions slide over each other
9. Electrolysis
NOTE - PAPER 2 CHAPTER
Conduction of electricity is very important for compounds
to undergo electrolysis and the charged particles present
in a compound move allowing it to conduct electricity.
These compounds would mainly be -
9.1. Ionic Compounds –
These don’t conduct electricity when solid but do conduct
electricity in the molten or aqueous state (which is when
they are dissolved in water) as the IONS are free to move.
The ionic compounds consist of cations which are positive
and anions which are negative.
Covalent Compounds –
These don’t conduct electricity regardless of the state
they are in as they consist of individual molecules and
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hence don’t have any overall electrical charge so can't
move.
Furthermore, they have covalent bonds which are very
strong and so hold the electrons in the atoms firmly in
place.
Electrolysis is a chemical change caused by passing a
current through a compound that’s molten or in a solution.
An electrolyte is a liquid or solution that undergoes the
process of electrolysis.
Electrodes are electric conductors that are used to make
contact and carry the electric current into the non-metallic
solids, liquids or gases. The electrodes are made of
carbon and platinum and are inert so they don’t react
Electrons flow from positive to negative
Positive ions go towards the cathode while the negative
ions go to the anode.
PANIC: Positive (is) Anode, Negative is Cathode
9.2. Electrolysis of Ionic Compounds
Molten compounds undergo electrolysis and always produce
their respective elements.
Lead (II) Bromide is an ionic compound and consists of lead
(II) ions and Bromine ions packed together. When heated they
melt and the ions become free to move.
The lead ions are attracted to the cathode and pick up two
ions and become lead atoms and fall to the bottom forming
molten lead.
The bromine ions are attracted to the anode and lose an
electron forming a bromine atom.
Half-ionic equations are used to show what happens at each
electrode.
At the cathode: P b2+ + 2e− ⟹ Pb
At the anode: 2Br − ⟹ Br 2 + 2e− (don’t forget that
​
Bromine is di-atomic)
The discharge of ions means that ions are losing their charge.
9.3. Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
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CCRG: Cathode, Cation, Reduction (is) Gain of electrons,

Reducing Agent
AAOL: Anode, Anion, Oxidation (is) Loss of electrons,
Oxidising Agent

Aqueous solutions will always have water present and some

split up into hydrogen and hydroxide ions, H+ and OH- and
participate in electrolysis reactions.

At the positive electrode, the OH- ions or the non-metal

ions are discharged and lose electrons or gain oxygen
(oxidised)
At the negative electrode, the H+ ions or the metallic ions
are discharged but only one would gain electrons or lose
oxygen (reduction)
Aqueous Sodium Chloride solution contains Na+ and H+
ions which are attracted to the cathode. 9.5. Reactivity Series
Hydrogen is less reactive than sodium so we can more
easily add an electron to hydrogen ions to form a If the metal is above hydrogen in the reactivity series, you
hydrogen molecule. would get Hydrogen produced at the cathode eg:
Hydroxide ions present in the solution due to the water Potassium would produce Hydrogen at the cathode
If the metal is below hydrogen, you would get the metal at
splitting make the solution alkaline \n 2H + (aq) + 2e− ⟹
the cathode, eg: Gold would produce gold itself at the
H2 (g)
cathode.
​

At the anode, Cl- and OH- ions are present but as there are
If you have halides, you get that at the anode but any
many more chloride ions these are oxidised and form C l2
other negative ions would produce oxygen at the anode.
​

2C l− (aq) - 2e− ⟹ Cl2 (g) ​

The remaining solution now consists of N a+ and OH − ions.

So we are left with Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) IMPORTANT IONS AND CHARGES -
We get less chlorine than we expect as chlorine is more
soluble in water, reducing its yield Cations Anions
During the electrolysis of Dilute Sulfuric acid, twice as much +
K : Potassium ion SO42− : Sulfate ions
​

hydrogen is produced +
N a : Sodium ion N o−
3 : Nitrate ions
2H + (aq) + 2e− ⟹ H2(g)
​

4OH − (aq) ⟹ 2H2 O (l) + O2 + 4e−

​ ​
C a2+ :Calcium ion − −
Cl−, Br , I : Halide ions
3+
If you look at the equations above you would see that 2 Al : Aluminum ions OH− : Hydroxide ions
electrons produce 1 mol of hydrogen meaning 4 electrons 2+
Zn : Zinc ions
would produce 2 mols of hydrogen.
F e2+ : Iron (II) ions
In the second, 4 electrons produce 1 mol of oxygen
This means that twice as much hydrogen is produced P b2+ : Lead ions
compared with oxygen H + : Hydrogen ions
C u 2+ : Copper ions
9.4. Oxidation and Reduction Ag+ : Silver ions

Reduction is the gain of electrons or the loss of oxygen.

Oxidation is the loss of electrons or the gain of oxygen.
OILRIG: Oxidation is loss (of electrons), Reduction is gain (of
electrons)
Reduction always occurs at the cathode while oxidation
occurs at the anode.
Not all ionic compounds can be electrolysed as they break
up into similar chemical compounds before their boiling
point making it impossible to melt.
9.6. Experiments
Electrolysis of aqueous NaCl (Sodium Chloride) solution
Take a glass tube, close it with a rubber bung, place the
electrodes through it and connect it to the battery.
Pour the concentrated NaCl into the glass tube
Invert a test tube and place it over the electrodes and
ensure that the electrodes aren’t completely covered, or
the ions won't be able to flow

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Connect the electrodes to the battery
Conduct the experiment in a fume cupboard to ensure
that the poisonous fumes produced from chlorine gas are
ventilated away
Hydrogen forms at the cathode and Chlorine gas forms at
the anode
Quantitative electrolysis
Take a glass tube, close it with a rubber bung, place the
electrodes through it, connect it to the battery and add a
variable resistor and ammeter to the circuit.
Place an inverted test tube over the electrodes to collect
the Chlorine and Hydrogen gas
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Pour 50cm3 of concentrated NaCl into the glass tube
Place a glass burette with NaCl solution over the cathode
Take the initial reading on the glass burette
Set the current to 0.2A using the variable resistor and
connect the battery
Start the timer
Repeat for different currents (0.4A, 0.6A, 0.8A and 1A)
Repeat the experiment to get accurate and reliable
results
Collect the data in a table and plot a graph
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EDEXCEL IGCSE
Chemistry

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