Units and Measurements LC ies 1. Briefly explain the need for measurement in physics. Ans. Need for measurement. Physics is an exact science which expresses various natural phenomena in terms of the relationships among the quantities involved. The accuracy of these relationships depends upon the measurements we make. The recent progress in science and technology has been made possible due to the development of high precision instruments used in such measurements. 2. What are physical quantities ? Distinguish between fundamental and derived quantities, Ans. Physical quantities. All those quantities which can be measured directly or indirectly and in terms of which the laws of physics can be expressed are called physical quantities. For example, length, mass, temperature, speed, force, electric current, etc. Physical quantities are of two types - fundamental and derived. (@ Fundamental quantities. The physical quantities which can be treated as independent of other physical quantities and are not usually defined in terms of other physical quantities are called fundamental quantities. The seven fundamental quantities are mass, length, time, electric current, temperature. himinous intensity, and amount of, substance.2 PHYSICS - XI (ii) Derived quantities. The physical quantities whose defining operations are based on other physical quantities are called derived quantities. For example, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, etc. 3. What is meant by the term measurement ofa physical quantity ? State how the numerical value of a physical quantity is related to the size of the unit. Ans. Measurement. The measurement of a physical quantity is the process of comparing this quantity with a standard amount of the physical quantity of the same kind, called its unit. To express the measurement of a physical quantity, we need to know two things : (The wnit in which the quantity is measured. (ii) The numerical value or the magnitude of the quantity ie., the number of times that unit is contained in the given physical quantity. ++ Measure of a physical quantity = Numerical value of the physical quantity size of the unit or If the size of the unit is small, then the numerical value of the quantity will be large and vice-versa i.e,, the numerical value (n) is inversely proportional to the size (u) of the unit. 1 na— or nu=constant u Ifn, and n, are numerical values for a physical quantity Q corresponding to the units u, and wy, then Qa, Hy = My My 4. What is a physical unit ? Write the essential requirements that a physical unit/standard must meet. Ans, Physical unit. The standard amount of a physical quantity chosen to measure the physical ‘quantity of the same kind is called a physical unit. Desirable characteristics of a physical unit : 1, It should be well-defined. It should be of convenient size It should be easily reproducible. It should be imperishable or indestructible. It should not be affected by the change in physical conditions such as pressure, tem- perature, etc. 6. It should be internationally acceptable. 5. Although the number of physical quantities which we measure is very large, yet we do not need a very large number of units for this measurement. Why ? Ans. This is possible because the various physical quantities are related to each other and so their units can be expressed in terms of just seven basic or fundamental units. 6. What are fundamental and derived units ? Give some examples. Ans. Fundamental units. The physical units which can neither be derived from one another, nor they can be further resolved into more simpler units are called fundamental units. The units of fundamental quantities such as mass, length, etc. are fundamental units. eenChapter 1: UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS. 3 Derived units. Al! the other physical units which can be expressed in terms of the fundamental units are called derived units. Let us consider the unit of speed. Speed = Distance travelled Time taken Unit of distance _ metre Unit of time ~ second Unit of speed = s! Thus the unit of speed (ms~ ')is a derived unit as it has been expressed in the fundamental units of length and time. 7. What is a system of units ? Mention the various types of systems of units. Define all the basic and supplementary SI units. Ans. System of units. A complete set of units which is used to measure all kinds of fundamental and derived quantities is called a system of units. Some of the commonly used systems of units are as follows : (@ egs system. It is based on centimetre, gram and second as the fundamental units of Jength, mass and time respectively. (i). fps system. It is based on foot, pound and second as the fundamental units of length, mass and time respectively. (ii) mks system. It is based on metre, kilogram and second as the fundamental units of length, mass and time respectively. (iv) SI: The international system of units. SI is the abbreviation for “Systeme Internationale d’ Unites”, which is French equivalent for international system of units. It covers all branches of science and technology. It is based on the following seven basic units and two supplementary units. Th 1.1 Basic SI quantities and units S. | Basic physical | Basic " | No. | quantity unit_| Symbol Definition 1. | Length metre m_—_| One metre is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/298,792,458 of a second, 2. | Mass kilogram | kg | One kilogram is the mass of a platinum-iridium cylinder (90% Pt and 10% Ir) whose height is equal to its dia- meter (each = 3.9 cm) preserved at International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres 3. | Time second s | One second is defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom. 4. | Electric ampere A | One ampere is that constant current which, if main- current tained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 210” newton per metre of length.4 PHYSICS ~ XI s. | Basic physical | Basic No. quantity unit | Symbol Definition 5. | Temperature | kelvin K | One kelvin is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermo- dynamic temperature of the triple point of water. 6. | Luminous candela | cd _| One candela is the luminous intensity, in a given intensity direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540» 10” hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian. 7. | Quantity of | mole mol | One mole is the amount of substance of a system, which matter coniains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 01012 kilogram of carbon-12. Te 1.2 Supplementary SI units S. | Supplementary | Basic No Ngocatily ‘mit | Symbol Definition 1. | Plane angle radian rad | One radian is defined as the plane angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle, Arc _! Radius r 2. | Solid angle steradian sr | One steradian is the solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere by a surface of the sphere equal in area to that of a square, having each side equal to the radius of the sphere. Surface area (in steradian) = “UTBCE axe Radius’ 0 (in radians) = 8. What is a coherent system of units ? Give an example, Ans. Coherent system. It isa system of units based on a certain set of fundamental units from which all derived units can be obtained by simple multiplication or division without introducing any numerical factor. Example : mks system is a coherent system of units in mechanics, All derived units in mechanics such as those of area, volume, density, acceleration, force, etc., can be obtained by the multiplication or division of the fundamental units of mass, length and time. 9. State the advantages of SI over other systems of units. Ans. Advantages of SI over other systems of unii 1. Slis a coherent system of units covering all branches of physics. 2. It is rational system of units. 3. It is a metric system, 4. It is an internationally acceptable system of units. 5. Its base units are invariant and easily reproducible. 10. Mention the various prefixes used for powers of 10. Give some examples to illustrate their use. Ans. Abbreviations in powers of ten. To express various multiples and submultiples of the SI units, we use the following prefixes for powers of ten.Chapter 1: UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS 5 Bs. 13 Prefixes for powers of ten Multiple Prefix symbol ali a Prefix Symbol {10 deca da 0 deci d 1 | hecto h 10 cent ¢ 10° kilo k 109 milli m | to [mega S| SM 10-6 mio » | 10” giga | os. 10 nano [a 10? tera T 10? ico P 10 _| peta rp | w® feno | | Cs a . | Examples : 1 megaohm =1 MQ. =10° 2 1 milliampere =1 mA =10° A 1 kilometre =1 km =10° m 1 microvolt uV=10~°V 1 decagram =1dag=10g Inanosecond =1ns=10~*s 1 centimetre =1cm =10 ? m I picofarad =1pF=10-" F 11. Mention the various practical units used for measuring small distances. Give their relations with SI units. Ans. Practical units for measuring small distances (0 Fermi, It is used for measuring nuclear sizes. It is also called femtometre, 1 fermi = 1 fm=10-'m (ii) Angstrom. It is used to express wavelength of light. angstrom =1A=10- m=10~* cm (iii) Nanometre, It is also used for expressing wavelength of light. nanometre = 1 nm=10~ m (iv) Micron. It is the unit of distance defined as micrometre. A micron = 1m = 10° m 12. Mention the various practical units used for measuring large distances, Give their relations with SI units. ‘Ans. Practical units used for measuring large distances : ( Light year. It is the distance travelled by light in vacuum in one year. light year = Speed of light in vacuum x 1 year =3x 10% ms”! x 365.25x 24x 60x 605 1 light year = 1 ly = 9.467 10" m6 PHYSICS — Xt (ii) Astronomical unit, It is defined as the mean distance of the earth from the sun. 1 astronomical unit = 1 AU = 1.496% 10" m (iif) Parsec (parallactic second). It is the largest practical unit of distance used in astronomy. It is defined as the distance at which an arc of length 1 astronomical unit subtends an angle of 1 second of arc. As Sun TAU 1 parse Earth Figure 1.1 Parsec. =3.08 x 10"° m I parsec = 3.08% 10" m =3.26 ly 13. Deduce relations between astronomical unit, light year and parsec. Arrange them in decreasing order of their magnitudes. ‘Ans, Relations between astronomical unit, light year and parsec : 1AU=15x 10" m; — 1ly =9.46x 10m ; 1 parsec =3.08« 10 %m_ lly _ 9.46% 1015 TAU 15x10" 1ly = 6.3% 104 AU Lparsec _3.08x 101° lly 946x105 3x 104 1 parsec = 3.26 ly Clearly, 1 parsec>1ly>1AU 14. Mention the various practical units used for measuring small and large areas, Give their relations with SI units. ‘Ans, Practical units for measuring areas : (Bam. It is used for very small areas, such as nuclear cross-sections. 1bam = 10° m? (ii) Acre. It is used for measuring large areas. Jacre = 4047 m? ii) Hectare. It is also used for measuring large areas. ‘Thectare = 10* m?Chapter 1: UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS z 15. Mention the various practical units of mass. Give their relation with the SI unit of mass. Ans. Practical units used for measuring large masses 1 tonne or 1 metric ton = 1000 kg 1 quintal = 100 kg 1 slug = 14.57 kg, 1 pound = 1 Ib =0.4536 kg, 1 Chandra Shekher limit = 1 CSL = 1.4 times the mass of the sun. CSL is the largest practical unit of mass. Practical unit used for measuring very small masses : Atomic mass unit. Itis defined as “1th of the mass of one "ZC atom. 1 atomic mass unit = 1 amu =1 u = 1.66 10°” kg 16. Mention the various practical units used for measuring time. Ans. Practical units used for measuring time : () Solar day. It is the time taken by the earth to complete one rotation about its own axis w.r.t, the sun. (i) Sedrial day. It is the time taken by the earth to complete one rotation about its own axis w.r.t. a distant star. (iii) Solar year. It is the time taken by the earth to complete one revolution around the ‘sun in its orbit. 1 solar year = 365.25 average solar days = 366.25 sedrial days (iv) Tropical year. The year in which there is total solar eclipse is called tropical year. (v) Leap year. The year which is divisible by 4 and in which the month of February has 29 days is called a leap year. (vi) Lunar month. It is the time taken by the moon to complete one revolution around the earth in its orbit. 1 lunar month =27.3 days (vii) Shake, It is the smallest practical unit of time. 1 shake =10"* s 17. Mention the various practical units of pressure. Ans. Practical units used for measuring pressure 1 bar = 1 atmospheric pressure =10° Nm~ =10° pascal (Pa) A millibar = 10? Pa 1 torr = 1 mm of Hg column atmospheric pressure = 1 bar = 760 mm of Hg column = 760 torr.8 PHYSICS - XI 18. Define order of magnitude of a physical quantity. How is it determined ? IMustrate it with some examples. Ans, Order of magnitude. The order of magnitude of a physical quantily is that power of 10 which . is closest to its magnitude. It gives an idea about how big or how small a given physical quantity is. To determine the order of magnitude of a number N, we first express it as N=nx10*. 1f05 1) kgm? 4. | Speed or velocity Limi) ms! T°: 5 —T 2 5. | Acceleration Ti ur =U? =|MLT?| ms - 6. | Momentum ‘Mass x velocity MxLT7! =[MLT"!) kg ms? 7. | Force ‘Mass x acceleration MxLT7 =[MLT?) N 8. | Work Force x distance MLT? xL =(MUT?} J 9. | Energy Amount of work (MUT?} JChapter 1: UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS. 17 s. with oth ‘ de, | Physical quantity =) = Dimensional formula SI unit ow Work 10. | Power ime IMer 4 Ww 11. | Pressure Force MUT? ts Pa or, ‘Area Mery Nm? 12. | Moment of force | Force 1, distance MLT? xL =[M2-T?] Nm or torque 13. | Gravitational Force (distance )* MLT? xt? Nmkg? constant “@ Mass Tas tong OETA * 14. | Impulse of a force | Force xtime MLT? xT =[MLT“] Ns 15. | Stress Force a Nm? ‘Area = er 16. | Strain ‘Change in dimension [M°L°T°} (dimensionless) - Original dimension 17. | Coefficient of Stress MO a Nm? elasticity Strain 7 r 5 F = a 18, | Surface tension ‘orce MULT? er? oor? Nm’ Tength TMT? = IMT? a Work 2: mat 19. | Surface energy MET =r? = Mer} i ——} 20. | Coefficient of MLT?xL _ ig -ty-y Nm? s viscosity aurt ~MLT") or Pas. “y 21. | Angle a L_1=,M°L°T] (dimensionless) | tad Radius L 22. | Angular velocity | Angle dite} Time T T 7 | 23, | Angular Angular velocity, Ty rads acceleration Time x. r va 24, | Moment of inertia ML? = (ML) kgm? 25. Distance L=[M°LT"] m Vos. Mass» velocity xradius | MxLT~! xt =[MUT") 27, | T-ratios Length £2 1=[M°L"r| (dimensionless) {sin 8, cos, tan6) | Length pT aDeEr iG 28, | Time period Time T=[MUT) s 29, | Frequency i ny ot or Ha Time period 718 PHYSICS — x! s. Relation wit menstonat { | io, | Physieal quantity | *e!a Sane Dimensional formula ST unit 30. | Planck's constant E __Energy eee ma = | eres Mery f 31. | Relative densit of a substance ML * ‘Density of water at °C (MPLET®} dimensionless) ~ 32. | Velocity gradient | Velocity Distance T= IMT] 33, | Pressure gradient Pesue MEAT _iygt-27-2) Pam 34. | Force constant Force 2 a Seer Mn MT? =[ML°T) Nm"! 35. | Heat or enthalpy | Energy (MUT?] J 36. | Specific heat Heat 2pa i = MasvTemprate | yg 7 MCUT AC Ie 37, | Latent heat Heat ig aa a cae ma = (Moet Tkg* 38 | Thermal Heat x distance MET? aa conductivity ‘Brea «temp. time TT MT O KY _—* 39. | Entroy Heat ad z PY ‘Tempers mer = [MeT?K7} kt 40. | Universal gas Pv MUTT 2.19 riqt = MLIT? D2 2} mot }y [J mort K constant nT ma MEE Komal] 41, | Boltzmann's Energy Mu 1? . constant METH = MET ior? ist m? K+ U-T-R 1 ra — = (ML Tr} Ist 44, | Mechanical Ta MET? _ 401070 equivalent of heat H ap? 7 MPUTY (dimensionless) | Electric charge T.A=[MPL°TA] c (coulomb) Blectrical ipa potential MT MUTA Vie___Chapter 1: UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS 19 s. 5 ity | Relation with other it No. | Physical quantity (quantities Dimensional formula SI unit a7, | Resi Potential difference aq - Resistance vali MET?AF eat?r-ta Q(ohm) ‘urren' A 48. | Capacitance ___Chai TA tray F (farad) Potential difference MET sat OTA‘) 49. | Inductance __ EMF H (henry) Current / time - 50. | Permittivity of =hh At? free space OE Nom? 51. | Relative a pure ratio = [M°L°T ] - permittivity or (dimensionless) dielectric constant 52. | Intensity of MLT? 3y-1 NC" or electric field ar MLT Ay Vm" 53. | Conductance 1 = [ML 7A} at rR MTA PAA) or mho 54. | Specific resistance RA MUTA. Om oF resistivity 7 = =[ML*T a7} ‘55. | Specific ous (ML TA) atm conductance P or conductivity rt 56. | Electric qxal -L=[M°LTA] cm dipole moment 57. | Magnetic field pace MTA" T (tesla) qosin 0 58. | Magnetic flux $= BA MT7A7. 2 = [ML T?A7y Wb i (weber) 59. | Permeability of — 4m . py free space Lata ere 60. | Magnetic moment | Current x area AL = [MUP A} Am? - 61. | Pole strength Mai ‘moment Av 0, Am Magnetic length MEP AI 45, Distinguish between dimensional and non-dimensional variables. Give examples of each type. Ans. Dimensional variables. The physical quantities which possess dimensions and have variable values are called dimensional variables. Examples : Area, volume, velocity, force, ete. Dimensionless variables. The physical quantities which have no dimensions but have variable values are called dimensionless variables. Examples : Angle, specific gravity, strain, etc.20 PHYSICS ~ XI 46. Distinguish between dimensional and non-dimensional constants. Give examples of each type. ‘Ans. Dimensional constants. The physical quantities which possess dimensions and have constant values are called dimensional constants. Examples : Gravitational constant, Planck’s constant, ete. Dimensionless constants. The constant quantities having no dimensions are called dimensionless constants. Examples : r, ¢, ete. 47, Mention some applications of dimensional analysis. Ans. Applications of dimensional analysis. The method of studying a physical phenomenon on the basis of dimensions is called dimensional analysis. Following are the three main uses of dimensional analysis : 1. To convert a physical quantity from one system of units to another. 2. To check the correctness of a given physical relation. 3. To derive a relationship between different physical quantities. 48. How can a physical quantity be converted from one system of units to another ? Explain it with the help of a suitable example. Ans. To convert a physical quantity from one system of units to another. It is based on the fact that the magnitude of a physical quantity remains the same, whatever may be the system of units. If u, and u, are the units of measurement of a physical quantity Q and n, and n, are the corresponding, numerical values, then Qeanyuy =m LetM, , L, and T, be the sizes of fundamental units of mass, length and time in one system ; and. M,,L,, T, be corresponding units in another system. If the dimensional formula of quantity Qbe ML) T¢, then and uy =MS LETS 7 fre) JET ™ “fy i] [th ‘This equation can be used to find the numerical value in the second or new system of units. Example : Let us convert one newton into dyne. Newton is the SI unit of force and dyne is the CGS unit of force. Dimensional formula of force is [MLT~?), 4 at, bal, ce-2 sr ccs nn, =1(newton) nm, =? (dyne) M, =1kg=1000 g M,=1g L, =1m=100cm L,=1an T=Is T=1sChapter 1: UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS: 241 newton = 105 dyne. 49. State the principle of homogeneity of dimensions. What is its basis ? Ans. Principle of homogeneity of dimensions. According to this principle, a physical equation will be dimensionally correct if the dimensions of all the terms occurring on both sides of the equation are the same. This principle is based on the fact that only the physical quantities of the same kind can be added, subtracted or compared. Thus, velocity can be added to velocity but not to force. 50. How can we check the dimensional correctness of a physical equation ? Explain it with a suitable example. Ans, To check the dimensional correctness of a physical equation. For this purpose, we make use of the principle of homogeneity of dimensions. If the dimensions of all the terms on the two sides of the equation are same, then the equation is dimensionally correct. Example. Let us check the dimensional accuracy of the equation of motion, u+hat? 2 Dimensions of different terms are B=1) [ut] =(LT-'](T}= (41 [348 |-ur 2y(r2)=[L] As all the terms on both sides of the equations have the same dimensions, so the given equation is dimensionally correct. 51. How can the method of dimensions be used to deduce a relation among the physical quantities ? Explain it with the help of a suitable example. ‘Ans, To derive the relationship among physical quantities. By making use of the homogeneity of dimensions, we can derive an expression for a physical quantity if we know the various factors on which it depends. Example. Let us derive an expression for the centripetal force F acting on a particle of mass mm moving with velocity v in a circle of radius r. Let Feemf o'r or F=Kri' vr of) where Kis a dimensionless constant. Writing the dimensions of various quantities in equation (1), we eet (MLT?}=1 (Mp (LT (LY or MILT? = M°L?*“T-?22 PHYSICS ~ XI Comparing the dimensions of similar quantities on both side From equation (1), we get F=Kmv? r This is the required expression for the centripetal force. 52. Mention the limitations of the method of dimensional analysis Ans. Limitations of the method of dimensions : 1. The method does not give any information about the dimensionless constant K. 2. It fails when a physical quantity depends on more than three physical quantities. 3. It fails when a physical quantity (e.g, more quantities. 4, It fails to derive relationships which involve trigonometric, logarithmic or exponential functions. 5. Sometimes, it is difficult to identify the factors on which the physical quantity depends. 53. Define significant figures in a measured quantity. {Himachal 04, 09C] ul +4 at) is the sum or difference of two or Ans, Significant figures. The significant figures are normally those digits in a measured quantity which are known reliably or about which we have confidence in our measurement plus one additional digit that is uncertain. The larger the number of significant figures in a measurement, the higher is the accuracy of the measurement. Suppose the length of an object is measured as 273.6 cm. It has four significant figures. The digits 2, 7 and 3 are reliable while the digit 6 is uncertain. 54, State the rules for counting the number of significant figures in a measured quantity. ‘Ans, Rules for determining the number of significant figures : (@ All non-zero digits are significant. So 13.75 has four significant figures. (i) All zeros between hoo non-zero digits are significant. Thus 100.05 km has five significant figures. (iii) All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of an understood decimal point are not significant. For example, 86400 has three significant figures. But such zeros are significant if they come from a measurement. For example, 86400 s has five significant figures. (iv) AUl zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of a decimal point are significant. For example, 648700. has six significant figures. (0) All zeros to the right of a decimal point are significant. So 161 m, 161.0 em and 161.00 cm have three, four and five significant figures respectively.Chapter 1: UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS, 23 (vi) AN! zeros to the right of a decimal point but to the loft of a non-zero digit are not significant. So 0.161 cm and 0.0161 cm, both have three significant figures. Moreover, zero conventionally placed to the left of the decimal point is not significant (ii) The number of significant figures does not depend on the system of units. So 16.4 cm, 0.164 m and 0.000164 km, all have three significant figures. 55. State the rules for rounding off a measurement. Ans. Rules for rounding off a measurement : (i) If the digit to be dropped is smaller than 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged. (ii) If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, then the preceding digit is increased by 1. If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by non-zero digits, then the preceding di; increased by 1. (iv) If the digit to be dropped is 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged if it is even. (©) If the digit to be dropped is 5, then the preceding digit is increased by 1 if it is odd. 56. State the rules for determining the significant figures in the sum, difference, product and quotient of two numbers. Ans.1. Significant figures in the sum or difference of two numbers. In addition or subtraction, the final result should be reported to the same number of decimal places as that of the original number with minimum number of decimal places. 2. Significant figures in the product or quotient of two numbers. In multiplication or division, the final result should be reported to the same number of significant figures as that of the original number with minimum number of significant figures. 57, Distinguish between the terms precision and accuracy of a measurement. Explain with the help of a suitable example. Ans. Accuracy. It refers to the closeness of a measurement to the true value of the physical quantity. It indicates the relative freedom from errors. As we reduce the errors, the measurement becomes more accurate. Precision. It refers to the resolution or the limit to which the quantity is measured. Precision is determined by the least count of the measuring instrument. Tie smaller the least count, greater is the precision. For example, suppose the true length of a certain object is near 3.678 cm. With a measuring instrument of resolution 0.1 cm, its length is found to be 3.5 cm, while with a measuring instrument of better resolution, say 0.01 em, the length is found to be 3.38 cm. Clearly, the first measurement has more accuracy (as it is closer to the true value) but less precision (as its resolution is just 0.1 cm), while the second measurement is less accurate but more precise. 58. What do you mean by error in a measurement ? Briefly explain the different types of errors and their causes. How can these errors be minimised ? ‘Ans. Error in a measurement’. Tie error in a measurement is equal to the difference between the true value and the measured value of the quantity. Error = True value - Measured value24 PHYSICS ~ XI Different types of errors* : 1. Systematic errors. The errors which tend to occur in one direction, either positive or negative, are called systematic errors. We can eliminate such errors once we know the rule which governs them, ‘These errors may be of the following types (i) Instrumental errors. These errors occur due to the inbuilt defect of the measuring instrument. For example, wearing off the metre scale at one end, zero error in a vernier callipers. Such an error can be removed by measuring a physical quantity by two different methods. (i) Imperfections in experimental technique. These errors are due to the limitations of the experimental arrangement. For example, error due to radiation loss in calorimetric ‘experiments. Necessary correction can be made for such an error. (iii) Personal errors. These errors arise due to individual's bias, lack of proper setting of apparatus or individual's carelessness in taking observations without observing proper precautions, ete. For example, when an observer (by habit) holds his head towards right, while reading a scale, he introduces some error due to parallax. (iv) Errors due to external causes. These errors arise due to the change in external conditions like pressure, temperature, wind, etc. For example, the expansion of a scale due to the increase in temperature. Such errors can be easily detected and necessary corrections may be made accordingly. 2, Random errors. The errors which occur irregularly and at random, in magnitude and direction, are called random errors. Such errors occur by chance and arise due to slight variation in the attentiveness of the observer while taking the readings or because of slight variations in the ‘experimental conditions. For example, if a person repeats the observation a number a times, he may get different readings everytime. 3. Least count error. The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called its least count, All the readings or measured values are good only upto this value. 4. Gross errors or mistakes. These errors are due to either carelessness of the person or due to improper adjustment of the apparatus. No corrections can be applied for gross errors. 59. How is random error eliminated ? What do you mean by (i) absolute error (ii) mean absolute error (iti) relative error and (iv) percentage error ? Ans, Elimination of random error”. Normal or Gaussian law of random errors shows that the probability of occurrence of positive and negative errors is same, so random error can be minimised by repeating measurements a large number of times. Then the arithmetic mean of all measurements cart be taken as the true value of the measured quantity. If 24,5, a5,...a, be the nm measured values of a physical quantity, then its true value, @ is given by the arithmetic mean, ay +a, tay + FOF Bapean (i) Absolute error. The magnitude ofthe difference between the true value of the quantity measured and the individual measured value is called absolute error.Chapter 4 : UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS 25 If we take arithmetic mean @ as the true value, then the absolute errors in the individual measured values will be Aa, = -a, Ae, -a@, Aay=a-a, Aa, n (ii) Mean or final absolute error. The arithmetic mean of the positive magnitudes ofall the absolute errors is called mean absolute error. It is given by (Aa, [+1 Aa, |+...+1 Aa | Aa m1 FS haa nist n ‘Thus the final result of the measure of a physical quantity can be expressed as a=@ + Aa. (iii) Relative error. The ratio of the mean absolute error to the true value of the measured quantity is called relative error. aa Relative error, a= a (iv) Percentage error. The relative error expressed in percent is called percentage error. Percentage error =“# x 100% a 60. How can we estimate the error in the (i) sum (ii) difference (iii) product (iv) quotient (v) power Of different measured quantities. Deduce the general rule for evaluating the error in a combined calculation. ‘Ans. Propagation or combination of errors”, Following rules are used to evaluate maximum permissible error in a measurement. (d Error in the sum of two quantities. Let AA and ABbe the absolute errors in the two quantities A and B respectively. Then, Measured value of A= AtAA Measured value of B= Bt AB Consider the sum, Z= A+B The error AZ in Z is then given by Z4AZ=(A+AA)+(B+AB) =(A+ B)t(AA+AB)=Z4(AA+AB) =AA+AB or A Hence the rule. The maximum possible error in the sum of two quantities is equal tothe sum loaf the absolute errors tn the individual quantiles. (ii) Error in the difference of two quantities. Consider the difference, Z=A-B The error AZ in Z is given by ZtAZ=(A+AA)—(BtAB)=(A-B)tAAFAB=Z4AAFAB26 PHYSICS ~ XI For error AZ to be maximum, 4 A and A Bmust have the same sign, therefore AZ=AA+AB Hence the rule. The maximum error in the difjerence of two quantities is equal to the sum of the absolute errors in the individual quantities. (iii) Error in the product of two quantities. Consider the product, Z = AB ‘The error AZ in Z is given by Z4AZ=(AtAA)(BtAB)= ABt AAB+ BAALAA.AB Dividing LHS. by Z and RS. by AB, we get AZ_,_AB,AA_AA AB 1a Sete Sal, Z BA’ A’B AA ry 7 As and a are small quantities, their product term can be neglected. The maximum fractional error in Z is AZ_AA_AB = ved zZ AB Hence the rule. The maximum fractional error in the product of two quantities is equal to the ‘sum of the fractional errors in the individual quantities, (iv) Error in the division or quotient. Consider the quotient, Z= 4 The error AZ in Z is given by Z4LAZ= ALAA (a) ( aA) aBy! ‘BEALE AB) BY AIC Bs, +A (ae?) A B) or z2az=2(12A4)(13 2) [+ (1+2)" =1+ ns, when x< (1+.x)" =14 mx, when x < 81. The radius of the sun is 696 000 000 m. Express it in scientific notation (in powers of 10). Ans. Radius of the sun = 696000 000 m = 6.96 10° m 82, Express 0.00000538 in powers of 10. ‘Ans. 000000538 = 5.38 10° * 83, What is the difference between mN, Nm and nm ? Ans. 1 mN =1 millinewton = 10" newton (unit of force). 1 Nm =1 Newton metre (unit of work) ‘1 nm = 1 nanometre =10-° metre (unit of distance) #4, Define dimensions of a physical quantity. Ans, The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental quantities must be raised to represent that quantity completely. 85. Do alll physical quantities have dimen- sions ? If no, name three physical quantities which are dimensionless. Ans, No, all physical quantities do not have dimensions. The physical quantities like angle, strain and relative density are dimensionless.Chapter 1 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS 86, State the principle of homogeneity of dimensions. ‘Ans. The principle of homogeneity of dimensions states that a physical equation will be dimensionally correct if the dimensions of all the terms occurring on both sides of the equation are the same, 87, What is the basis of the principle of homogeneity of dimensions ? Ans, The principle of homogeneity of dimensions is based on the fact that only the physical quantities of the same kind can be added, subtracted or compared. 88, If slap’ times speed equals power, what will be the dimensional equation for ‘slap’ ? ‘Ans, AS slap x speed = power Mir? =(MLT~?}, 89, Write the dimensions and SI unit of linear momentum. Ans, Linear momentum = Mass x velocity {Linear momentum] =[M} {LT '] =(MLT*] SI unit of linear momentum =kgms"! 99, Name two physical quantities having the dimensions [MI7T™*]. ‘Ans, Work and torque. 91, Write three physical quantities having dimensions [ML*T~*]. ‘Ans, Pressure, stress and Young’s modulus ity. 92, If the units of force and length each are doubled, then how many times would the unit of energy be affected ? ‘Ans, Energy = Work done = Force x length So when the units of force and length each are doubled, the unit of energy will increase four times. 93, Which of the following has the same dimensions as ‘Planck's constant’ : Torque, gravitational constant and angular momentum ? ‘Ans, Angular momentum. of el 33 94, What are the dimensions of rate of flow? Ans. [Rate of flow) =(UT) 95, Give names of a scalar quantity and a vector quantity which have same dimensions. ‘Ans, Speed is a scalar quantity and velocity is a vector quantity. Both have the same dimensions of [LT] 96, Ifg is the acceleration due to gr: id 2 is wavelength, then which physical quautity does Jig represent ? Ans. VAg =yL-LT? «LT? Ag represents velocity. 97, Write the dimensional formula of wave- Jength and frequency of a wave. (Dethi 99, 23) Ans, (4) =[M°L'T?] and Wv]=—MLT 7] 9g, If x= a+ bt?, where x is in metres and t iin seconds, find the units of a and b. ‘Ans, Unit of a= unit of x= metre Unit of b= unit of (x / 1?) =m /s? 99, If x=at + bt?, where xis in metres and in hours (hr), what will be the units of and’? [Central Schools 08] Ans, Unit of a=unit of (x/#)=m/h Unit of b = unit of (x/t?)=m/h2 100, If x= a+ bt+ct?, where x is in metre and t in second; then what is the unit of ¢? (Himachal 05C} Ans, Fe]=[e?] or w(t “+ Unit of e= ms"? 101, What are the dimensions of a and b in the relation : F= a+ br, where F is force and x is distance ? le] =[F]=(MLT~) 2 ] MLT? = iver’ ¥ L Ans. (434 PHYSICS - XI_ = 102. The velocity v of a particle depends on time t as t+ Bi+C v where v is in m/s and ¢ in seconds. What are the units of A, Band C? Unit of v _ Ans. Unit of A= 8 = Unit of? — s? Unitofv_ ms! _ > Unit of t s Unit of C= Unit of v = mst 103. Can a quantity have dimensions but still has no units ? Ans. No, a quantity having dimensions must ‘have some units of its measurement. 104. Can a quantity have different dimen- sions in different systems of units 7 ‘Ans. No, a quantity has same dimensions in all system of units, 105. Can a quantity have units but still be dimensionless ? ‘Ans. Yes. For example, a plane angle has no dimensions but has unit like radian for its measurement. 106. Does the magnitude of a physical ‘quantity depend on the system of units chosen ? ‘Ans. No. The magnitude of physical quantity remains same in all systems of units. 107. Justify L+ L= LandL-L= 1. ‘Ans, When we add a length to another length, ‘we get length only so L + L = Lis justified, When we subtract a length from another length, again we get length. This justifies L~L=L 108. Can there be a physical quantity that has no units and no dimensions ? ‘Ans. Yes, strain is a physical quantity that has no units and no dimensions. 109. Give the no. of significant figures in 6.200% 10° sec. [Central Schools 07] Ans. Four : 6, 2, 0,0 110. Write the number of significant figures in each of the following measurements : (a) 1.67x 10°” kg ; (6) 0.270 cm Unit of B= [Delhi 04] Ans. (a) Three : 1, 6,7 () Three : 2, 7,0 111. Add 82 and 10.163 and round off the sum to two significant figures. [Delhi 06] Ans. 82 $10,163. 8.363 Corrected sum = 18 [Rounded off upto 2 significant figures] 112. What is the difference between the measurements 4.0 cm and 4.000 cm ? ‘Ans. () 4.0 cm has two significant figures while 4.000 cm has four significant figures. (ii) 4.0 em is correct upto first decimal place while 4.000 cm is correct upto third place of decimal. 113. What importance is attached to the final zeros in a number without any decimal point ? Ans. All such zeros are not significant. For example, 86,400 has three significant figures. 114. If f = x°, then relative error in f would be how many times the relative error in x ? fn en fa, aa BE : ~ Relative error in f Sum = Three times the relative error in x. 115. A junior research fellow takes 100 careful readings in an experiment. If he repeats the same experiment by taking 500 readings, then by what factor will the probable error be reduced ? Ans. The probable error will be reduced by a factor of 1/5. 116. Can an instrument be called precise with- out being accurate ? Can it be accurate without being precise ? Ans. Yes, an instrument can be precise without being accurate but the measurements cannot be accurate without being precise. 117. Which of the following length ‘measurements is (i) most precise and (i) least Precise ? Give reason (i) 1= 5 cm (if) 1= 5.00 cm (Gti) 5.000 cm (iv) 5.0000 cm (v) 5.00000 cm.Chapter 1: UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS Ans. (i) The last measurement is most precise, because it has been taken with an instru- ment whose least count is equal to 0.00001 cm. Gi) The first measurement is least precise because it has been taken with a device having least count equal to 1 cm. 118. Which of the following readings is the ‘most accurate : (@ 5000 m (i) 5x10? m (i 5x 10° m? Ans. () 5000 m is most accurate. 119. Which quantity in a given formula should be measured most accurately ? Ans. The quantity which has maximum Power (say, n) in the formula should be measured more accurately because an error in measurement is multiplied 1 times in the final result. 120. Which of the following measurements is more accurate and why ? (a) 0.0002 g () 200g UXTe MAC SoM te mel iitt t ‘1. Why do we treat length, mass and time as basic or fundamental quantities in mechanics ? Ans. In mechanics, the quantities like length, mass and time are taken as fundamental quantities because : () these quantities represent basic scientific notations, (i) there is no other quantity simpler to them, (iii) length, mass and time cannot be ‘expressed in terms of one another, and (io) all other physical quantities in mechanics can be expressed in terms of these quantities, 2. SLisa rational system of units while mks system is not so. Justify. 35 Ans. The measurement (@) 0.0002 g is more accurate because itis correct upto fourth decimal place, while measurement () 20.0 g is correct upto first decimal place. 121. What do you understand by absolute error? [Himachal 04] Ans. The magnitude of the difference between the true value and the measured value is called absolute error. Such errors are giv: a, Aa Aas Aa, ‘122. How can a systematic error be eliminated ? Ans. The errors which tend to occur in one direction, positive or negative, are called systematic errors. Such an error can be eliminated by detecting the source of error and the rule governing this error. 123. Which of the following length ‘measurements is most accurate and why ? [Central Schools 14] (@) 500.0. cm (b) 0.0005 cm (c) 6.00 cm Ans. The measurement (b) is most accurate because it is correct upto fourth decimal place. oi b ~a, 2 or 3 marks each Ans. SI assigns only one unit to a particular physical quantity so it is a rational system. For example, all types of energies are measured in joule in SI. But in mks system, mechanical energy is measured in joule, heat energy in calorie and electrical energy in watt-hour. So mks system is not a rational system of units. 3. Why it became necessary to redefine metre on atomic standard ? Ans. It became necessary to redefine metre ‘on atomic standard because the prototype metre offered the following difficulties : (i It is difficult to preserve a metre bar. (i Itis difficult to produce replicas of metre bar for their use in different countries. (iii) The techniques used for producing replicas are not of very high accuracy.