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 PREFACE

In Assessment Procedures for Counselors and Helping Professionals, our goal is to help current and
future school counselors, marriage and family therapists, mental health counselors, career
counselors, and other helping professionals become better consumers of the various methods
and procedures used in the process of assessment. Assessment occurs in many settings, such
as schools, mental health clinics, career counseling centers, substance abuse treatment centers,
private practice, psychiatric hospitals, and vocational rehabilitation centers. Assessment is an
integral part of the counseling process in which the counselor and client work together to gain
a better understanding of the client’s problems. We believe that effectiveness and accuracy
in assessment are essential to effective counseling. Throughout the text, we stress that assess-
ment is more than simply giving tests. Assessment involves collecting and integrating infor-
mation about an individual from multiple methods and multiple sources. Throughout this
textbook, our aim is to provide students with an overview of the many approaches to assess-
ment so they can become competent and ethical practitioners in our multicultural society.
This textbook has three goals. The first goal is to supply foundational information
about assessment, which includes an overview of the various methods and sources of
assessment information. In addition, students must learn some basic principles of meas-
urement in order to understand the applications and issues in assessment. Thus, we also
provide foundational information about statistical concepts, test scores, and the psycho-
metric aspects of assessment (e.g., validity and reliability). The second goal of this textbook
is to present an overview of the general areas in which assessment is commonly utilized,
such as in assessing intellectual ability, achievement, aptitude, career interests and skills,
and personality. The third goal is to provide students with information about specific
assessment applications and issues, such as clinical assessment, communicating assess-
ment results, assessment with diverse populations, and ethical and legal issues.
To meet these goals, the textbook is divided into three parts that provide a balance of
theory and practice information as well as coverage of the assessment instruments and
strategies commonly used in school counseling, clinical mental health counseling, and
vocational or career counseling settings. These sections include Principles of Assessment,
Foundations of Assessment, and Types of Assessment.

PRINCIPLES OF ASSESSMENT
Part One of this textbook, Principles and Foundations of Psychological and Educational
Assessment, focuses on the underlying principles of all forms of psychological and educa-
tional assessment. We designed this section to provide counselors with the essential con-
cepts of measurement and evaluation that they need to engage in the assessment process.
Chapter 1 introduces assessment and provides historical information that has influenced
assessment practice. Chapter 2 focuses on the important ethical and legal issues related to
assessment. Because assessment strategies are applied to diverse populations, Chapter 3
supplies important information about multicultural assessment, including social and cul-
tural factors related to assessing individuals, groups, and specific populations, as well as
the competencies and standards required for assessing individuals from diverse back-
grounds. Chapter 4 focuses on the assessment process, emphasizing the importance of
vi
 Preface vii

collecting data by using multiple methods from multiple sources. The chapter provides
detailed information about formal and informal data-collection methods (e.g., interviews,
tests, observations) as well as the sources of assessment information (e.g., the client, parents,
significant others, teachers, and health professionals).

FOUNDATIONS OF ASSESSMENT
Part Two of the textbook, builds on the Principles section by exploring the foundations of
assessment. Chapter 5 presents basic statistical concepts associated with tests and assess-
ment. Chapter 6 presents information about types of scores and standards for scoring and
interpreting assessment instruments. Chapters 7 and 8 supply information about the key
psychometric considerations that are essential in assessment: reliability and validity. Chap-
ter 9 integrates the elements of the assessment process by presenting information about
selecting, administering, scoring, and reporting assessment results.

TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
The chapters in Part Three, Types of Assessment, center on the applications and issues related
to specific assessment areas. The main focus is the effective, competent, and ethical application
of assessment methods in various settings. Chapter 10 supplies information about assessing
intellectual ability, including the major theories of intelligence, the major tests of intelligence
(e.g., the Wechsler scales, the Stanford–Binet test, and the Kaufman test), and special issues in
intelligence testing. Chapter 11 covers assessment of achievement, including achievement test
batteries, individual achievement tests, diagnostic achievement tests, subject-area tests, and
other types of achievement tests. Chapter 12 presents information about aptitude assessment.
Extensive changes in U.S. social and economic conditions may result in more counselors work-
ing with clients on career-related issues; thus, Chapter 13 provides important information
about career and employment assessment. Chapter 14 focuses on personality assessment and
the many types of personality instruments and techniques. Chapter 15 focuses exclusively on
clinical assessment and the use of assessment procedures to diagnose mental disorders,
develop treatment plans, monitor counseling progress, and evaluate outcome. Chapter 16
presents information about assessment issues in education, such as the assessment activities
of school counselors, the types of assessment instruments used in schools, assessing specific
learning disabilities and giftedness, test preparation and performance, environmental assess-
ment in the schools, and assessment competencies for school counselors. Finally, Chapter 17
presents information about communicating assessment results.

NEW TO THIS EDITION

First published in 1988, this textbook has become a classic among assessment textbooks
designed specifically for counselors. The ninth edition hosts extensive changes in the con-
tent of the text; we have updated all of the chapters and strived to provide the most accu-
rate, up-to-date assessment information. At the same time, we have endeavored to maintain
the original appeal of the text by retaining an easy-to-read format and continuing to empha-
size assessment information that is most useful and relevant for school counselors, marriage
and family therapists, mental health counselors, and other helping professionals. Through-
out the text, we provide information and examples about widely used assessment
viii Preface

instruments in order to help students become familiar with these well-known tests. This
edition aligns with the 2014 standards for educational and psychological testing. The text
includes the following updates:

• Thoroughly updated with the most current assessment instruments

• Includes discussions of both the ICD-10 and DSM-5
• Additional case studies
• Reorganized contents so that ethical, legal, and diversity issues are considered as
underlying principles in assessment. This edition organizes principles, foundations
and assessment types in a more logical flow (see chapter-by-chapter detail below).
• Clearer definitions of key concepts
• Additional activities to illustrate key concepts
• Updated references throughout the text

Key chapter revisions in this edition include the following:

• Chapter 1, Introduction to Assessment, has been revised to provide a clearer discus-

sion on competency in assessment for counselors and to add more visual demonstra-
tions of key concepts (e.g., testing vs. assessment).
• Chapter 2, Ethical and Legal Issues in Assessment, has been shifted to the front of the
book in order to emphasize the importance of the topic. In addition, information has
been added in relation to the ASCA and ACES ethical codes. Finally, some case study
information was included to help explain ethical issues.
• Chapter 3, Assessment Issues with Diverse Populations, has been shifted to the front
of the book in order to emphasize the importance of the topic. In addition, definitions
have been updated to reflect current perspectives on diversity.
• Chapter 4, Methods and Sources of Assessment Information, has been updated to
make the information clearer and more student friendly.
• Chapter 5, Statistical Concepts, has been updated to provide a more thorough expla-
nation of types of correlation and to provide examples of the use of scores. In addition,
statistical calculations were simplified and more information is included to demon-
strate practical application of assessment concepts.
• Chapter 6, Understanding Assessment Scores, has been updated to provide a more
student-friendly introduction to scores. In addition, statistical calculations were sim-
plified and the language was softened to make it more consumable.
• Chapter 7, Reliability/Precision, has been updated with additional examples related
to internal consistency. In addition, we simplified the presentation by removing cal-
culations for measures of internal consistency and by providing more definition
around alternate and parallel forms.
• Chapter 8, Validity, has been updated clearer discussion around the differences
between reliability and validity. In addition, we revised the language of the chapter
to make it more student friendly.
• Chapter 9, Selecting, Administering, Scoring, and Interpreting Assessment Results,
has been updated to clarify the steps in the assessment process and to include clearer
links to diversity issues.
 Preface ix

• Chapter 10, Assessment of Intelligence and General Ability, has been updated to
provide a clearer connection between intelligence and counseling practice. The theo-
ries of intelligence have been updated and the chapter was revised to make it more
student friendly.
• Chapter 11, Assessment of Achievement, has been updated to provide statements of
relevance for each assessment instrument described in the chapter.
• Chapter 12, Assessment of Aptitude, has been updated to include more depth on
psychomotor abilities. In addition, information was added on adult aptitude related
to disabilities. Finally, information was updated in relation to GRE scoring.
• Chapter 13, Career and Employment Assessment, has been updated with a career
inventory activity. We removed three sections from the chapter in order to provide a
clearer focus on the information and to reduce the overlap between the information
in a career assessment chapter and a course in career counseling.
• Chapter 14, Personality Assessment, has been updated to provide a more thorough
exploration of the complexity involved in defining personality. Errors from the previ-
ous edition were corrected in relation to the MCM III Table.
• Chapter 15, Clinical Assessment, has been updated to include a clearer explanation
of the bio-psycho-social interview. In addition, information about the ICD-10 was
included in the revision.
• Chapter 16, Assessment in Education, has been updated to include a clearer explana-
tion of the application across various areas of counseling.
• Chapter 17, Communicating Assessment Results, has been updated to include more
information on flat profiles.

ALSO AVAILABLE WITH MYLAB COUNSELING

This title is also available with MyLab Counseling, an online homework, tutorial, and
assessment program designed to work with the text to engage students and improve results.
Within its structured environment, students see key concepts demonstrated through video
clips, practice what they learn, test their understanding, and receive feedback to guide their
learning and ensure they master key learning outcomes.
• Learning Outcomes and Standards measure student results. MyLab Counseling
organizes all assignments around essential learning outcomes and national standards
for counselors.
• Video- and Case-based Exercises develop decision-making skills. Video- and
Case-based Exercises introduce students to a broader range of clients, and therefore
a broader range of presenting problems, than they will encounter in their own pre-
professional clinical experiences. Students watch videos of actual client–therapist
sessions or high-quality role-play scenarios featuring expert counselors. They are
then guided in their analysis of the videos through a series of short-answer questions.
These exercises help students develop the techniques and decision-making skills
they need to be effective counselors before they are in a critical situation with a real
client.
• Licensure Quizzes help students prepare for certification. Automatically graded,
multiple-choice Licensure Quizzes help students prepare for their certification exami-
nations, master foundational course content, and improve their performance in the
course.
x Preface

• Video Library offers a wealth of observation opportunities. The Video Library pro-
vides more than 400 video clips of actual client–therapist sessions and high-quality
role-plays in a database organized by topic and searchable by keyword. The Video
Library includes every video clip from the MyLab Counseling courses plus additional
videos from Pearson’s extensive library of footage. Instructors can create additional
assignments around the videos or use them for in-class activities. Students can expand
their observation experiences to include other course areas and increase the amount
of time they spend watching expert counselors in action.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank the following colleagues, whose reviews improved this edition: Jared
Rose, Bowling Green State University; Rebecca McLean, Western Illinois University; R
­ oxanna
Pebdani, California State University, Los Angeles; and Joy-Del Snook, Lamar University. In
addition to acknowledging the contributions of reviewers, I would like to thank Ms. Ellis
Starkey and Dr. Donna Sheperis for their assistance in the development of the ninth edition
of this textbook. Their contributions were essential in completing this revision.
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Carl J. Sheperis
Dr. Carl J. Sheperis serves as Dean of the College of Education and Human Development
at Texas A&M University-San Antonio. Dr. Sheperis has served as President and CEO of
the National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC) and Affiliates. He is a past president
of the Association for Assessment and Research in Counseling and Associate Editor for
Quantitative Research for the Journal of Counseling and Development. He has worked with
the American Counseling Association as the Chair of the Research & Knowledge ­Committee,
and has served as the Editor of the Journal of Counseling Research and Practice.
In addition to this textbook, Dr. Sheperis is an author of Research in Counseling: Quan-
titative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods; Clinical Mental Health Counseling: Fundamentals of
Applied Practice; Diagnosing and Treating Children and Adolescents; and The Peace Train. He is
also published in various textbooks, academic journals, and reference volumes.

Robert J. Drummond
Dr. Robert Drummond passed away on March 14, 2005. He was a retired professor and
counselor educator at the University of North Florida for 20 years. He was foremost in the
field of assessment, and he specialized in educational and psychological testing, career
development, models for evaluation, educational research, and personality theory and
measurement. Dr. Drummond wrote the first edition of this text in 1988. Now in its ninth
edition, the book remains a popular assessment textbook in counseling.

Karyn Dayle Jones

Dr. Karyn Dayle Jones is an associate professor in counselor education at the University of
Central Florida. She has over 20 years of experience in the counseling profession and has
been a counselor educator for over 15 years. Jones is coauthor of Introduction to the Profession
of Counseling, has authored or coauthored several book chapters and refereed publications,
and has made numerous professional presentations. Her primary areas of research are
assessment and diagnosis. She is the past president of the Association for Humanistic Coun-
seling, a division of the American Counseling Association. Jones is a Florida Licensed Men-
tal Health Counselor and a National Certified Counselor, and she has worked as a counselor
in mental health agencies, schools, and private practice.

xi
 BRIEF CONTENTS

PART ONE The Principles of Assessment

Chapter 1    Introduction to Assessment    1
Chapter 2    Ethical and Legal Issues in Assessment    22
Chapter 3    Assessment Issues with Diverse Populations    42
Chapter 4    Methods and Sources of Assessment Information    61

PART TWO Foundations of Assessment

Chapter 5    Statistical Concepts    87
Chapter 6    Understanding Assessment Scores    111
Chapter 7    Reliability/Precision   132
Chapter 8    Validity   149
Chapter 9    Selecting, Administering, Scoring, and Interpreting
Assessment Results    168

PART THREE Types of Assessment

Chapter 10    Assessment of Intelligence and General Ability    195
Chapter 11    Assessment of Achievement    231
Chapter 12    Assessment of Aptitude    259
Chapter 13    Career and Employment Assessment    280
Chapter 14    Personality Assessment   307
Chapter 15    Clinical Assessment   338
Chapter 16    Assessment in Education    367
Chapter 17    Communicating Assessment Results    392
Appendix I        S tandards for Multicultural Assessment
Fourth Revision, 2012    412
Appendix II R  esponsibilities of Users of Standardized Tests
(RUST; 3rd Ed.)    417

xii
 CONTENTS

PART ONE The Principles of Assessment

Chapter 1 Introduction to Assessment    1
What Is Assessment?    2
The Purposes of Assessment    4
Multiple Methods and Multiple Sources    5
The Assessment Process    8
Competencies Required for Assessment    10
Historical Perspectives    12
Assessment and Technology    16
Computer-Based Assessment    16
Internet-Based Assessment    18
Controversial Issues in Assessment    18
Summary   19  •  Moving Forward    19  •  Questions for Discussion    20  •  
Suggested Activities    20  •  References   20

Chapter 2 Ethical and Legal Issues in Assessment    22

Professional Standards and Codes of Ethics    22
American Counseling Association (ACA) Code of Ethics    23
AERA, APA, and NCME Standards for Educational and
Psychological Testing    26
American School Counselor Association (ASCA) Ethical Standards
for School Counselors    27
American Psychological Association (APA) Ethical Principles
of Psychologists and Code of Conduct    27
Association for Assessment in Counseling (AAC) Responsibilities
of Users of Standardized Tests, 3rd Edition (RUST)    28
Joint Committee on Testing Practices Code of Fair Testing Practices
in Education    28
National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME) Code
of Professional Responsibilities in Educational Measurement    29
Ethical Issues in Assessment    29
Professional Training and Competence    30
Client Welfare Issues    31
Test-User Qualifications    31
Legal Issues in Assessment    34
Statutes and Regulations    34
xiii
xiv Contents

Judicial Decisions    38
Summary   39  •  Questions for Discussion    40  •  
Suggested Activities    40  •  References   41

Chapter 3 Assessment Issues with Diverse Populations    42

Multicultural Assessment    43
Privilege and Marginalization in Counseling Assessment    43
Measurement Bias    44
Multicultural Perspectives in Assessment    46
Acculturation    47
Strategies    48
Assessment of Linguistically Diverse Individuals    48
Assessment of Individuals with Disabilities    50
Assessment of Individuals with Visual Impairment    52
Assessment of Individuals with Hearing Impairment    52
Assessment of Individuals with Intellectual Disability    53
Assessment of Individuals with Neuropsychological Impairment    54
Assessment of Individuals with Communication Disorders    54
Assessment of Children with Disabilities    56
Standards for Assessment with Diverse Populations    58
Summary   58  •  Questions for Discussion    59  •  
Suggested Activities    59  •  References   60

Chapter 4 Methods and Sources of Assessment Information    61

Assessment Methods and Sources    61
Formal and Informal Assessment Instruments and Strategies    63
The Initial Interview    64
Degrees of Structure in Interviews    65
Interview Guidelines    67
Tests   68
Categories of Tests    70
Observation   75
Formal and Informal Observation    76
Direct and Indirect Observation    76
Natural and Contrived Settings    76
Unobtrusive and Participant Observation    77
Methods of Recording Observations    77
Self-Monitoring    82
Collateral Sources    82
Summary   84  •  Questions for Discussion    84  •  
Suggested Activities    84  •  References   85
 Contents xv

PART TWO Foundations of Assessment

Chapter 5 Statistical Concepts    87
Statistical Concepts for Assessment    87
Scales of Measurement    88
Nominal Scale    89
Ordinal Scale    90
Interval Scale    90
Ratio Scale    91
Describing Scores    91
Frequency Distributions    92
Measures of Central Tendency    97
Measures of Variability    98
The Normal Curve    101
Measures of Relationship    103
Summary   109  •  Questions for Discussion    109  •  
Suggested Activities    109  •  References   110

Chapter 6 Understanding Assessment Scores    111

Assessment Scores    111
Criterion-Referenced Scores    112
Norm-Referenced Scores    113
Norm Group    114
Types of Norm-Referenced Scores    116
Standard Scores    117
Grade and Age Equivalents    123
Qualitative Assessment    125
Tables and Profiles    127
Norm-Referenced, Criterion-Referenced, or Both?    127
Summary   130  •  Questions for Discussion    130  •  
Suggested Activities    130  •  References   131

Chapter 7 Reliability/Precision   132

Reliability   133
Measurement Error    134
Sources of Measurement Error    134
Methods of Estimating Reliability/Precision    136
Test-Retest    138
Alternate Forms    139
Internal Consistency Reliability    140
Interrater Reliability    141
xvi Contents

Selecting a Reliability Coefficient    142

Evaluating Reliability Coefficients    142
Standard Error of Measurement    143
Confidence Intervals    145
Increasing Reliability/Precision    146
Summary   147  •  Questions for Discussion    147  •  
Suggested Activities    147  •  References   148

Chapter 8 Validity   149

The Nature of Validity    149
Revisiting Construct    151
Threats to Validity    152
Validity and Reliability/Precision    152
Sources of Validity Evidence    153
Test Content Validity Evidence    154
Evidence Based on Internal Structure    156
Evidence Based on Relations to Other Variables    157
Evidence Based on Consequences of Testing    162
Evidence Based on Response Process    163
Summary   164  •  Questions for Discussion    164  •  
Suggested Activities    165  •  References   166

Chapter 9 S
 electing, Administering, Scoring, and Interpreting
Assessment Results    168
Selecting Assessment Instruments and Strategies    168
Identify the Type of Information Needed    169
Identify Available Information    169
Determine the Methods for Obtaining Information    169
Search Assessment Resources    171
Consider Culture and Diversity Concerns    175
Evaluate and Select an Assessment Instrument or Strategy    176
Administering Assessment Instruments    182
Before Administration    184
During Administration    186
After Administration    187
Scoring Assessment Instruments    187
Scoring Performance Assessment    189
Scoring Errors    189
Standards for Scoring Assessment Instruments    190
Interpreting Assessment Results    191
Summary   192  •  Questions for Discussion    192  •  
Suggested Activities    193  •  References   193
 Contents xvii

PART THREE Types of Assessment

Chapter 10 A
 ssessment of Intelligence and General Ability    195
Defining Intelligence    195
Theories of Intelligence    198
Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory    198
Vernon’s Hierarchical Model    200
Carroll’s Three-Stratum Model of Human Abilities    200
Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Hierarchical
Three-Stratum Model    201
Thurstone’s Multifactor Theory    203
Cattell-Horn Gf-Gc Theory    203
Guilford’s Structure-of-Intellect Model    204
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development    205
Luria’s Model    205
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence    206
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences    206
Planning-Attention-Simultaneous-Successive (PASS)
Theory of Cognitive Processing    207
Terman’s Study    207
Intelligence Tests   207
Ability, Intelligence, Achievement, and Aptitude    209
Individual Intelligence Tests    210
Group Intelligence Tests    222
Specialized Tests    223
Interviews and Observations    225
Issues in Assessing Intelligence    225
Summary   227  •  Questions for Discussion    227  •  
Suggested Activities    227  •  References   228

Chapter 11 Assessment of Achievement    231

Assessing Achievement    231
Standardized Achievement Tests    232
Achievement Test Batteries    233
Individual Achievement Tests    238
Diagnostic Tests    241
Subject-Area Tests    245
Adult Achievement Tests    246
Other Types of Achievement Assessment Instruments    246
Criterion-Referenced Tests and Minimum-Level Skills Tests    246
xviii Contents

State Achievement Tests    247

National Assessment of Educational Progress    248
Curriculum-Based Assessment and Curriculum-Based
Measurement    248
Performance Assessment    249
Portfolio Assessment    249
Factors Affecting Student Achievement    250
Analysis of Class Profile    255
Summary   256  •  Questions for Discussion    257  •  
Suggested Activities    257  •  References   258

Chapter 12 Assessment of Aptitude    259

Aptitude Tests   259
Multiple-Aptitude Test Batteries    260
Specialized Aptitude Tests    266
Admissions Tests    272
Readiness Tests    275
Adult Aptitude Related to Disabilities    277
Summary   277  •  Questions for Discussion    277  •  
Suggested Activities    277  •  References   278

Chapter 13 C
 areer and Employment Assessment    280
Career Assessment    280
Interest Inventories    281
Work Values Inventories    287
Personality Inventories    289
Abilities and Skills Assessment    289
Career Development Inventories    291
Combined Assessment Programs    292
Interviews    293
Employment Assessment    294
Selection Interviews    294
Biographical Information    295
Tests    296
Job Analysis    298
Assessment Centers    300
Guidelines for Employee Selection    301
Trends in Employment Assessment    302
Summary   303  •  Questions for Discussion    303  •  
Suggested Activities    304  •  References   305
 Contents xix

Chapter 14 Personality Assessment    307

Defining Personality    307
Traits, States, and Types    308
Personality Inventories    309
Approaches to Personality Inventory Development    310
Categories of Personality Inventories    312
Structured Personality Inventories    312
Projective Instruments and Techniques    322
Personality Inventories with a Positive Focus    330
Response Styles    332
Summary   333  •  Questions for Discussion    334  •  
Suggested Activities    334  •  References   335

Chapter 15 Clinical Assessment    338

Fundamentals of Clinical Assessment    338
Political Issues in Diagnosis    339
Determining a Diagnosis    339
DSM-5    340
Interviews in Clinical Assessment    343
Mental Status Exam (MSE)    345
Instruments Used in Clinical Assessment    346
Suicide Risk Assessment    352
Observation and Clinical Assessment    354
Neuropsychological Assessment    361
Cultural Considerations in Clinical Assessment    364
Summary   364  •  Questions for Discussion    365  •  
Suggested Activities    365  •  References   365

Chapter 16 Assessment in Education    367

School Assessment Programs    368
Planning a School Assessment Program    368
Instruments Used in School Assessment Programs    369
Assessment Activities of School Counselors    371
Needs Assessments    372
Assessing Specific Learning Disabilities    372
Assessing Giftedness    376
Consulting with Teachers    379
Environmental Assessment in the Schools    381
Competencies in Assessment and Evaluation
for School Counselors    383
Assessment Issues in Education    384
xx Contents

Test Preparation and Performance    385

Coaching    386
Test-Wiseness    386
Test Anxiety    387
Summary   388  •  Questions for Discussion    388  •  
Suggested Activities    389  •  References   389

Chapter 17 Communicating Assessment Results    392

Feedback Sessions    393
Group Feedback Sessions    395
Problem Areas    395
Feedback Sessions with Parents    398
Assessment Reports    400
Qualities of Well-Written Reports    401
The Assessment Report Format    402
Communicating Assessment Results to Other Professionals    407
Communicating Assessment Results to the Public    407
Summary   409  •  Questions for Discussion    409  •  
Suggested Activities    409  •  References   410

Appendix I Standards for Multicultural Assessment Fourth Revision, 2012    412

Appendix II Responsibilities of Users of Standardized Tests (RUST; 3rd Ed.)    417
Name Index    422
Subject Index    429
 CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Assessment

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
77 Define assessment.

77 Describe the various purposes of assessment.

77 Describe the broad categories of data collection methods and the various sources of

assessment information.
77 Explain the importance of integrating multiple methods and multiple sources of

assessment information.
77 List and describe the steps in the assessment process.

77 Describe the competencies required by counselors for the effective use of assessment

instruments.
77 Describe the historical context of assessment.

77 Describe the application of computer technology in the field of assessment.

Imagine being asked by a child welfare agency to conduct an assessment that would deter-
mine a child’s potential for transitioning from foster care status to adoption within a family.
As part of the assessment, you might visit the home of the potential parents to determine
the appropriateness of the environment and to have a realistic sense of how the family
functions. You would also have to evaluate the social and emotional development of the
child and the readiness for adoption. For example, it would be necessary to consider the
child’s ability to bond with a new family, any developmental issues that may be present,
and any potential barriers that might impact the success of the adoption process. In order
to gather enough information to make this type of determination, you might interview the
parents, observe the child playing and interacting, and conduct evaluations using standard-
ized assessment instruments (e.g., the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development).
Consider how important this assessment process would be to the children and the parents.
The overall assessment process would be quite involved, and the results would have incred-
ibly high stakes. The final assessment report would include information about any devel-
opmental concerns, an evaluation of the family environment, an interpretation of
standardized scores, and a final recommendation based on the data. Based on the assess-
ment results, the child welfare agency would make a decision about finalizing the adoption.
It is a privilege for an assessment professional to play a role in the adoption of
children and to give them the chance to have a positive family life. Consider how impor-
tant this assessment process was to these children and their new parents and consider the
1
2 Part One • The Principles of Assessment

huge responsibility that places on the assessment professional. While not always related to
such happy outcomes, assessment has long been regarded as a fundamental component of
all helping professions and the cornerstone of the counseling process. Simply put, assess-
ment is the process of gathering information about a client and determining the meaning
of that information. It is through assessment that counselors can uncover the nature of a
client’s problems or issues; the magnitude of these problems and how they are impacting
the client’s life; how the client’s family, relationships, or past experiences are affecting the
current problem; the client’s strengths and readiness for counseling; and whether coun-
seling can be beneficial to the client. Assessment is also critical for establishing the goals
and objectives of counseling and for determining the most effective interventions. Assess-
ment occurs in all counseling settings, including schools, mental health clinics, career
counseling centers, substance abuse treatment centers, private practice, psychiatric hospi-
tals, and vocational rehabilitation centers. In practice, counselors are always assessing.
Assessment is an ongoing, fluid, and dynamic process that continues throughout the
course of the helping relationship. Although students in the helping professions often ini-
tially question the need for assessment training, competency in assessment is integral to
successful counseling practice (Whiston, 2015).
The purpose of this textbook is to help current and future school counselors, mental
health counselors, career counselors, marriage and family therapists, and other helping
professionals recognize the integral role between assessment and counseling; understand
the process of assessment; develop an awareness of the applications of assessment; and
understand the legal and ethical issues specific to assessment. We believe that competency
in assessment is essential to positive outcomes in counseling. In order to be competent in
assessment, you will need to seek supervised practice opportunities in addition to learning
the content in this textbook. Each chapter in this book will help to build upon your ability
to integrate assessment into your practice as a professional counselor.
Throughout the textbook, we use the term assessment rather than testing. It is impor-
tant to understand that testing is just one component of the assessment process and that
the scope of assessment activities is far beyond the exclusive use of standardized tests.
Although we will present information about important and widely used educational and
psychological assessment instruments throughout the text, we stress that assessment is
more than simply giving tests. Assessment involves collecting and integrating information
about an individual from multiple methods (e.g., interviews, observations, tests) and multiple
sources (e.g., the client, family members, teachers, physicians, etc.). Corroborating data from
multiple assessment methods and sources helps create a more comprehensive and accu-
rate understanding of the client and their presenting concerns.

WHAT IS ASSESSMENT?
Before we can talk about the assessment process, it is important to understand our defini-
tion of assessment. The term assessment refers to any systematic procedure for collecting
information that is used to make inferences or decisions about the characteristics of a person
(American Educational Research Association [AERA], American Psychological Association
[APA], & National Council on Measurement in Education [NCME], 2014). Assessment
encompasses a broad array of data collection methods from multiple sources to yield rel-
evant, accurate, and reliable information about an individual. In counseling and other help-
ing professions, assessment is considered a process because it is the continual practice of
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to Assessment 3

gathering information. Some hold to a traditional, yet erroneous, belief that assessment is
limited to the first meeting with an individual; in reality, assessment is an ongoing process
that may begin even before the first face-to-face contact with the individual and continues
throughout the course of the helping relationship.
Many disciplines employ the activity of assessment, including psychology, coun-
seling, education, social work, health, military, and business and industry. Educators and
other school personnel use assessment to identify learning or behavior/emotional problems
in students and to determine appropriate interventions and educational plans. Psycholo-
gists and other mental health professionals utilize assessment to help in diagnosing mental
disorders, treatment planning, and monitoring and evaluating treatment progress. Career
counselors engage in assessment to evaluate individuals’ vocational interests and aptitudes.
Because numerous types of professionals engage in assessment, we will refer to those indi-
viduals as counselors, test users, assessors, examiners, or simply professionals throughout the
textbook. Similarly, we will refer to individuals who participate in the assessment process
as clients, test takers, assessees, or examinees.
Assessment is often equated with testing, and the two terms are often confused or
erroneously used interchangeably. Even today, many published textbooks hardly distin-
guish between assessment and testing. As Cohen and Swerdlik (2018) noted, the term testing
has been used for a broad array of associated elements ranging from administration of tests
to the interpretation of scores. However, assessment goes beyond merely giving tests. It is
a comprehensive process that involves the integration of information from multiple data
collection methods (e.g., interviews, tests, and observations). Therefore, tests are considered
just “one method of collecting information within the larger framework” of assessment
(AERA et al., 2014, p. 119). The fact that assessment can proceed effectively without testing
helps to distinguish between these two activities (Weiner, 2013). Figure 1.1 provides a
comparison of assessment and testing.
The methods for collecting assessment information can be grouped into three broad
categories: interviews, tests, and observations. Each category comprises a wide array
of formal and informal instruments and strategies, such as unstructured interviews,
rating scales, standardized tests, projective drawings, checklists, questionnaires, and so on.

Assessment Testing

Includes a variety of Collect Testing is a subset

methods for gathering information of assessment and
information, including is solely focused
Use types
the use of tests. on gathering data.
of measures
Assessment involves It often involves
a set of broad goals. Evidence- standardized
driven instruments.

FIGURE 1.1 Assessment vs Testing

Source: Based on Weiner, I. B. (2013). The assessment process. In J. R. Graham & J. A. Naglieri (Eds.), Handbook
of psychology: Volume 10 assessment psychology (2nd ed) (pp. 3–25). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
4 Part One • The Principles of Assessment

Assessment also involves obtaining information from various sources, which may include
the client, family members, spouses/partners, teachers, physicians, mental health profes-
sionals, and other professionals. The assessment process varies from assessment to assess-
ment, depending upon the purpose for assessment, the setting in which the assessment
takes place, the needs of the client, and the availability and utility of the methods and
sources of information (Weiner, 2013). We emphasize the importance of using multiple
methods in most assessments because the results of a single assessment instrument should
never be the sole determinant of important decisions about clients.

The Purposes of Assessment

Now that we have defined assessment, it is important to explore the rationale for conducting
assessment in counseling and other helping professions. Why do counselors assess? The short
answer to this question is to gather information about a client. However, the information that
counselors need to collect about a client depends a great deal on the purpose or reason for
assessment. The research literature contains at least four general purposes of assessment.
These include screening, identification and diagnosis, intervention planning, and progress
and outcome evaluation (Erford, 2006; Sattler & Hoge, 2006; Selborn, Marion, & Bagby, 2013).

SCREENING Screening is a quick part of the assessment process, usually involving a single
procedure or instrument, used to determine whether an individual has a high risk of having
a specific problem and needs more in-depth assessment at that time. The screening process
is not comprehensive, and the instruments used for screening are often held to lower stand-
ards of psychometrical soundness (Erford, 2012). Screening does not necessarily detect a
specific problem or disorder an individual might have or how serious it might be; rather,
it provides counselors with preliminary information that identifies those individuals with
a high probability of having a particular problem. If, through the screening process, an
individual is identified as having a high risk for a disorder, then further assessment is war-
ranted. For example, many colleges have “depression screening days” in which students
are given the opportunity to complete a questionnaire or instrument that detects a risk for
depression. If the results of the instrument indicate a high risk for depression, the student
is referred to the counseling center for further evaluation and, if needed, counseling. At the
counseling center, a clinician might use multiple assessment instruments to determine the
potential for a diagnosis of clinical depression and to help guide the treatment process.
A common example of screening occurs when a counselor has an initial concern about
the potential for substance abuse with a client. The counselor might use the Substance Abuse
Subtle Screening Inventory–4th Edition (SASSI-4) to identify the potential for a substance
use disorder. If a client scores at clinically significant levels, then the counselor would con-
duct a more thorough assessment to determine the types of substances, level of use, potential
for withdrawal, potential need for detoxification, and best options for treatment planning.

IDENTIFICATION AND DIAGNOSIS In counseling, assessment is often conducted as a means

of identifying or diagnosing problems, symptoms, or disorders. Diagnosis can be defined as
a “detailed analysis of an individual’s strengths and weaknesses, with the general goal of
arriving at a classification decision” (Erford, 2006, p. 2). The assessment process for diag-
nosis typically encompasses the use of a series of instruments and strategies to identify a
client’s problem areas that need to be targeted for intervention. Many counselors are
Another random document with
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 "I'll go to the park myself," exclaimed Mrs. Curtis,
beginning hurriedly to put up her work. "I'll search all about
the spot from which the stones must have been thrown, and
see if I can pick up nothing, if I can find no clue to the
secret. And you, dear Henry," Mrs. Curtis laid her hand on
the arm of her husband, "you have a Bible-class with the
boys this evening, let your subject be truth. You have such
a power to convince, to persuade, you may lead the culprit
to confess."

"I fear that you hope too much, Eliza," said the vicar,
shaking his head.

"I cannot hope too much," cried the lady, "when my

hope is in the mercy and justice of God, who can make all
dark things light, and who will clear the guiltless. I'll go at
once for my bonnet and shawl."

"The sun is very hot, still—"

"Oh! Never mind the heat," said Mrs. Curtis, as she

hurried out of the room, first to pray for success, and then
to take what other means she could to ensure it.

In about an hour the gentle little lady returned, looking

heated and tired, but with an eager expression on her face
as she reentered the study, where her husband was busy at
his desk.

"Have you found anything, Eliza?" he asked, glancing up

from his writing.

"Very, very little, but something," she said, taking out of

her bag a bit of whity-brown paper, roughly cut into shape.

"What may this be?" asked the vicar, taking it up in his

fingers.
 "It is the size, the exact size, as well as I could manage
to make it out, of a footprint which I found on one spot
where the ground was a little less dry than in other places.
It was just about a stone's throw from the conservatory of
Sir Lacy."

"A single footprint!" exclaimed the vicar.

"And so faint that I passed the place thrice before I saw

it all," said the lady. "But two things at least were clear;
there were nails in the boot which made the mark, as in
those which our village boys wear, and the foot that wore it,
was a good deal smaller than that of a tall man like Ned
Franks."

"There's something in that," observed the vicar, fixing

his eyes thoughtfully on the paper. "But it by no means
follows that the footprint was left by the person who broke
the glass."

"Then you think the paper of no use," said the lady, in a

tone of disappointment.

"I never said so; I trust that it may be of great use, my

dear, and I thank you, not only for bringing it, but for the
hint which you gave me in regard to my lecture this
evening. I have been thinking over the subject."

"And praying, I am sure," said his wife.

"Ay," replied the vicar of Colme; "we can do nothing

without God's blessing, and we can do everything if it be
ours."
 CHAPTER VIII.
THE SCHOOL-ROOM ADDRESS.

MR. CURTIS looked unusually thoughtful and grave as

he walked up the schoolroom. The boys missed the kindly
smile and familiar nod, and the inquiries after sick relatives,
which were wont to make his greeting resemble that of a
father. All felt that the vicar had something on his mind, as
he stood behind the reading-desk, with the sunset glow on
his bald head, looking down on the throng of boys
clustering in the closely-filled benches.

Instead of going on with the history of St Paul, which he

had been explaining in a course of lectures, the vicar turned
to the fifth chapter of Acts. Before beginning to read, with
his hand on the open Bible, Mr. Curtis said a few words to
the boys, who listened in the deep silence of expectation.

"You see me anxious and disturbed—I am so. You all

know, I doubt not, what has happened in our village to-day.
A sailor who, after serving his country through hardships
and dangers, had come here but yesterday to enjoy rest
and peace in a cottage-home, has been sent to the lock-up,
accused of an offence, which I believe from my soul that he
never committed."

Mr. Curtis paused, and the silence was so profound in

the room, that the murmur of a little neighbouring brook
was distinctly heard.

"My belief of his innocence," continued the vicar, "is

chiefly founded on his character for truth. I believe Franks
to be incapable of the meanness and sin of telling a lie. But
if the sailor be innocent, some one else must be guilty, and
I have chosen the history of Ananias and Sapphira for our
reading this evening, that we may all learn from it how
Almighty God sees, knows, and can bring to light these
things that we believe to be hidden for ever from the eyes
of all men."

Mr. Curtis then went on to read aloud the awful story

recorded in the Word of God, of the man and woman whose
characters had stood fair before the world, who had been
counted amongst the flock of faithful Christians, but who
had been struck down dead, with falsehood upon their
tongues! Fearful warning to all who think lightly of the guilt
of untruth!

Mr. Curtis closed the Bible. "Such a history as that

which I have just read," he remarked, "needs no comment
of mine. We see in it written, as with letters of fire, what
falsehood is in the sight of the Lord! Now, to return to the
subject on which I was speaking, I wish all here to know
that a clue, though a slight one, has been discovered as to
the real author of the mischief done. The footprint of a boy
has been left on the sod!"

A thrill at the words ran through the assembly; the

scholars looked one at another, and then fixed their eager
eyes on the speaker, gazing open-mouthed, as if they
expected that the next moment his finger would be
stretched forth to point out the offender.

"A boy!" repeated the vicar, emphatically. "Perhaps one

of these now before me! A fac-simile of the footprint has
been carefully taken on paper, and I intend tomorrow to
compare it with the boots of each one here present, unless
—as I hope and trust—he who broke the glass will earn the
respect and confidence of all who know him by frankly,
honestly, nobly, confessing the truth at once."

Again there was that kind of electric thrill through the

throng, again the boys turned inquiring looks one upon
another.

"In such case," continued the clergyman, "I shall do

everything in my power to shield that boy from the
punishment which his mischievous act has deserved, I shall
use my influence to procure his full pardon from Sir Lacy.
But even if he have something to bear, it will be more than
made up to him by the satisfaction of feeling that, in
confessing, he has done what is manly and right; that he
has saved an innocent man from distress; that he himself
has no sudden shameful disclosure to fear; that he has
earned a character for honour, the respect of his comrades,
the approval of conscience; and that he has put on that
Girdle of Truth without which whatever he may call himself,
or think himself, he can be a Christian only in name."

Mr. Curtis knelt down, and all the scholars followed his
example. Very fervent was the vicar's prayer to God, that
He might give to all present grace and courage ever to
speak the truth, to conceal nothing that ought to be
confessed, remembering that a great Day is coming when,
before assembled myriads of angels and men, the most
secret things shall be manifest, when we shall know even as
we are known! There was some encouragement to the
clergyman in the earnest "amen" from the boys, which
followed his prayer.

"I hope that your words have made an impression,

Henry," said Mrs. Curtis to her husband, as they sat
together that night in the little study.
 The vicar had been reading aloud to his wife, but the
minds of both had wandered from the book.

"Why, we have no evidence beyond your little slip of

paper, my love, and—" Mr. Curtis was interrupted by the
sound of a timid ring at the door-bell: faint as it was, both
the vicar and his wife instinctively turned to listen, and
nothing was said by either till the maid opened the study-
door with:

"The glazier's little boy says that he wishes to speak

with you, sir."

Mrs. Curtis knew Stephen White to be one of the

scholars, and her heart beat fast with expectation.

"Ask him to step in here," said the vicar.

A thin, sly, slouching boy soon stood at the entrance,

and then, after being twice desired to come forward, moved
one or two steps into the room. He hung his head, fumbled
with the buttons of his jacket, and looked the picture of
confusion and shyness.

"I am glad to see you here, Stephen," said Mr. Curtis,

encouragingly; "speak out freely, and tell me what you have
come for to-night."

"Please, sir-" stammered forth the boy, "you said as

how you would try to get me off."

Mrs. Curtis could hardly refrain from an exclamation of

pleasure, as she dropped her work on her knee.

"I will keep my promise to an honest, truthful boy, who,

having done a wrong and a foolish action, is going to make
what amends are in his power."
 Stephen White looked ready to cry, and put the back of
his hand up to his face.

"Why did you break the glass?" asked the vicar, seeing
that in this case silence was clearly consent.

"I thought as how it would give father a job," faintly

stuttered forth the boy.

"And how came you to have the ball, the leaden ball,
that was found in the hothouse?"

"I picked it up on the road yesterday," said Stephen,

"and put it in my pocket along with the stones. I didn't
think, indeed I didn't, of getting the sailor into trouble."

"I do not doubt you, my boy," cried the vicar.

Then, turning to his wife, he added, "Eliza, my love, just

write down his words; you and I will sign the paper as
witnesses, and I'll carry it myself to Sir Lacy Bar-ton's this
very night."

"But oh! Sir," cried Stephen in alarm, "you will, you will
get me out of this scrape!"

"I'll do my best," answered the vicar, "and I've little

doubt but that I shall succeed."

Mrs. Curtis, with a hand that trembled with joyful

excitement, had already dipped a pen into ink, and a clear
brief statement of the whole truth was soon drawn up and
signed, first by Stephen in round text, very shaky and
uneven, then by the pastor and his lady as witnesses.

"I am so glad," said the vicar's wife, as she brought to

her husband his hat and stick, and a comforter to protect
him from the night air. "I am so thankful that the character
of that gallant tar is now cleared from all suspicion."

"And I am as glad and thankful," said the vicar, looking

at Stephen White as he spoke, "that one of my boys,
resolving not to add sin unto sin, has come forward with a
brave confession, and that I shall always be able henceforth
to trust his honour and his word."

Stephen gave a great sigh of relief; a weight was lifted

off from the heart of the boy; he felt that now he could bear
even the risk of being sent to prison.

CHAPTER IX.
CLEARING UP.

"A PRECIOUS scrape Uncle Ned has got himself into!"

exclaimed Dan on the following morning, as he blew the
steam from his bowl of hot milk and bread. "He'll be had up
afore the magistrate to-day, and then clapped into jail for I
don't know how long!"

"If he'd only had the wit to say that he'd never entered
them woods!" exclaimed Bessy.

"Ah! He won't be atwitting me again for what he calls 'a

mean thing, a senseless, a wicked'—we shan't be hearing
no more that a liar is 'a sneak, a coward, a fool!'"
 "Don't make too sure of that, my lad!" cried a loud
cheery voice at the door.

Bessy and Dan both started up in surprise, as Mr. Curtis

and the sailor entered the cottage.

"Well, if ever! Is he cleared?" exclaimed Bessy, reading

an answer at once in the beaming face of her brother.

"Yes, cleared, come off with flying colours," said the

vicar; "truth has ever the victory at last."

"Why," exclaimed the wondering Dan, "here comes Sir

Lacy himself, at this hour of the day!"

In bustled the knight with his flushed face and his bushy
white whiskers, but looking a different man from what he
had done on the previous day. Notwithstanding a violent
temper, which led often to passion, and not unfrequently to
injustice, there was something kindly and generous still in
the character of Sir Lacy.

"I could not rest," he said, as to the utter amazement of

the Peeles, he held out his hand to the sailor, "I could not
rest till I had told you how much I regret yesterday's
mistake. But you'll own that appearances were against
you."

"Ay, ay, sir, things looked ill," replied Ned.

"I should wish—I should like," began the knight, half

pulling a sovereign out of his waistcoat pocket, but Ned
instinctively drew back, with a feeling utterly
incomprehensible to Mrs. Peele and her son.

"No, sir; if you do me a favour, please kindly to let off

the little chap who bravely spoke out the truth and cleared
me."

"I've done that already, at the request of my good

friend the vicar," said the knight. "I want to do something
else, my fine fellow, to show my feeling towards yourself."

"Then, sir, if you'd have the kindness not to send my

sister here adrift at Michaelmas: she has a love for her little
cabin, and is sore loath to leave it."

"As long as you remain here," said the knight, "I give
you my word that the cottage shall stand."

Bessy poured out a torrent of thanks and blessings to

which no one gave heed, while Ned Franks simply replied, "I
thank you, sir, kindly."

Then, turning towards the vicar, he expressed in few but

heartfelt words his gratitude towards him and his lady.

"Depend upon it, Ned Franks," said Mr. Curtis, "a man
who will not speak an untruth either for fear or for favour, is
never likely to want a friend. He only can walk on the
straight path freely, firmly, fearlessly, who keeps the
Master's command in mind and wears the Girdle of Truth."

THE END.
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