Reinforced polymer composites

processing, characterization and post

life cycle assessment Wiley-Vch
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/reinforced-polymer-composites-processing-characteri
zation-and-post-life-cycle-assessment-wiley-vch/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Wool Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites Sabu Thomas

https://ebookmass.com/product/wool-fiber-reinforced-polymer-
composites-sabu-thomas/

Techno-economics and Life Cycle Assessment of

Bioreactors: Post-COVID-19 Waste Management Approach
Puranjan Mishra

https://ebookmass.com/product/techno-economics-and-life-cycle-
assessment-of-bioreactors-post-covid-19-waste-management-
approach-puranjan-mishra/

Sustainable Construction Technologies: Life-Cycle

Assessment Vivian W.Y. Tam

https://ebookmass.com/product/sustainable-construction-
technologies-life-cycle-assessment-vivian-w-y-tam/

Polymer Electrolytes: Characterization and Applications

Arof

https://ebookmass.com/product/polymer-electrolytes-
characterization-and-applications-arof/
Chemical catalysts for biomass upgrading Wiley-Vch

https://ebookmass.com/product/chemical-catalysts-for-biomass-
upgrading-wiley-vch/

Life Cycle Assessment for Sustainable Mining 1st

Edition Shahjadi Hisan Farjana

https://ebookmass.com/product/life-cycle-assessment-for-
sustainable-mining-1st-edition-shahjadi-hisan-farjana/

Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Thermal Properties

and Applications Senthilkumar Krishnasamy

https://ebookmass.com/product/natural-fiber-reinforced-
composites-thermal-properties-and-applications-senthilkumar-
krishnasamy/

Polymer Composites for Electrical Engineering Xingyi

Huang

https://ebookmass.com/product/polymer-composites-for-electrical-
engineering-xingyi-huang/

Lignin in Polymer Composites 1st Edition Faruk

https://ebookmass.com/product/lignin-in-polymer-composites-1st-
edition-faruk/
Reinforced Polymer Composites
Reinforced Polymer Composites

Processing, Characterization and Post Life Cycle Assessment

Edited by
Pramendra K. Bajpai
Inderdeep Singh
Editors All books published by Wiley-VCH
are carefully produced. Nevertheless,
Prof. Pramendra K. Bajpai authors, editors, and publisher do not
Netaji Subhas University of Technology warrant the information contained in
Division of Manufacturing Processes and these books, including this book, to
Automation Engineering be free of errors. Readers are advised
Azad Hind Fauz Marg to keep in mind that statements, data,
Sector 3 illustrations, procedural details or other
Dwarka items may inadvertently be inaccurate.
110078 New Delhi
India Library of Congress Card No.:
applied for
Prof. Inderdeep Singh
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication
Department of Mechanical and Data
Industrial Engineering A catalogue record for this book is
Haridwar Highway available from the British Library.
Roorkee
247667 Uttarakhand Bibliographic information published by
India the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The
Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this
publication in the Deutsche
Nationalbibliografie; detailed
bibliographic data are available on the
Internet at <http://dnb.d-nb.de>.

© 2020 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH &

Co. KGaA, Boschstr. 12, 69469
Weinheim, Germany

All rights reserved (including those of

translation into other languages). No
part of this book may be reproduced in
any form – by photoprinting,
microfilm, or any other means – nor
transmitted or translated into a
machine language without written
permission from the publishers.
Registered names, trademarks, etc. used
in this book, even when not specifically
marked as such, are not to be
considered unprotected by law.

Print ISBN: 978-3-527-34599-1

ePDF ISBN: 978-3-527-82096-2
ePub ISBN: 978-3-527-82099-3
oBook ISBN: 978-3-527-82097-9

Cover Design SCHULZ Grafik-Design,

Fußgönheim, Germany
Typesetting SPi Global, Chennai, India
Printing and Binding

Printed on acid-free paper

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 v

Contents

1 Overview and Present Status of Reinforced Polymer

Composites 1
Furkan Ahmad, Inderdeep Singh, and Pramendra K. Bajpai
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 FRPCs 4
1.2.1 Fabrication of Fiber Reinforced Composites 4
1.2.2 Present Status of FRPCs 5
1.3 FRPCs Applications and Future Prospects 9
1.4 Conclusion 12
References 12

2 Fabrication of Short Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites 21

Ujendra K. Komal, Manish K. Lila, Saurabh Chaitanya, and Inderdeep Singh
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Challenges with Composite Materials 23
2.3 Preprocessing of Natural Fibers and Polymeric Matrix 25
2.3.1 Fiber Surface Modification 25
2.3.2 Compounding of Natural Fibers and Polymeric Matrix 25
2.4 Processing of Polymeric Matrix Composites 26
2.4.1 Selection of Processing Techniques 28
2.4.2 Injection Molding 29
2.4.2.1 Operating Parameters 29
2.4.2.2 Challenges in Injection Molding of Natural Fiber-Based
Composites 33
2.4.2.3 Fabrication of Polymeric Composites by Injection Molding
Process 34
2.4.2.4 Mechanical Performance of Injection Molded Composites 34
2.5 Conclusions 35
References 36

3 Fabrication of Composite Laminates 39

Sandhyarani Biswas and Jasti Anurag
3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Fabrication Processes 40
vi Contents

3.2.1 Hand Lay-up Process 40

3.2.2 Filament Winding Process 42
3.2.3 Compression Molding Process 43
3.2.4 Vacuum Bagging Process 45
3.2.5 Autoclave Molding 46
3.2.6 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) Process 46
3.2.7 Pultrusion Process 48
3.3 Conclusions 49
References 50

4 Processing of Polymer-Based Nanocomposites 55

Ramesh K. Nayak, Kishore K. Mahato, and Bankim C. Ray
4.1 Introduction 55
4.2 Classification of Nanomaterials 58
4.2.1 Nanocomposites 58
4.2.2 Polymer Matrix Nanocomposites 59
4.3 Fabrication Techniques of Polymer Matrix Nanocomposites 60
4.3.1 Ultrasonic and Dual Mixing 61
4.3.2 Three-Roll Mixing of Nano-fillers in PMC 63
4.3.3 Intercalation Method 64
4.3.4 Sol–Gel Method 67
4.3.5 Direct Mixing of Polymer and Nano-fillers 68
4.3.5.1 Melt Compounding 68
4.3.5.2 Solvent Method 69
4.4 Future Perspective and Challenges 70
Acknowledgment 71
References 71

5 Advances in Curing Methods of Reinforced Polymer

Composites 77
Ankit Manral, Furkan Ahmad, and Bhasha Sharma
5.1 Introduction 77
5.2 Curing Method 79
5.3 Thermal Curing of FRPC 81
5.3.1 Autoclave Curing 81
5.3.1.1 Properties of FRPCs Influenced by Autoclave Parameters 85
5.3.2 Induction Curing 86
5.3.3 Resistance Curing 89
5.3.4 Microwave Curing 90
5.3.4.1 Properties Influenced by Microwave Curing of FRPC 92
5.3.5 Ultrasonic Curing 93
5.4 Radiation Curing of FRPCs 93
5.4.1 Electron Beam Radiation Curing 96
5.4.2 Ultraviolet Curing (UV) 98
5.5 Conclusion 99
References 100
 Contents vii

6 Friction and Wear Analysis of Reinforced Polymer

Composites 105
Pawan Kumar Rakesh and Lalit Ranakoti
6.1 Introduction 105
6.1.1 Fiber Reinforced Plastics 105
6.1.2 Failure Mechanism of Fiber Reinforced Plastics 106
6.1.3 Adhesion Wear 107
6.1.4 Abrasive Wear 109
6.1.5 Fatigue Wear 109
6.1.6 Wear Testing Method 111
6.2 Results and Discussion 114
6.3 Conclusions 116
References 116

7 Characterization Techniques of Reinforced Polymer

Composites 119
Manish K. Lila, Ujendra K. Komal, and Inderdeep Singh
7.1 Introduction 119
7.2 Fiber Reinforced Polymers 120
7.3 Characterization of FRPs 121
7.4 Chemical Characterization 122
7.5 Physical Characterization 126
7.5.1 Microscopic Characterization 126
7.5.2 Density 128
7.5.3 Void Fraction 129
7.5.4 Surface Hardness 130
7.5.5 Surface Roughness 131
7.6 Mechanical Characterization 132
7.6.1 Tensile test 133
7.6.2 Compression Test 134
7.6.3 Flexural Test 135
7.6.4 Impact Test 136
7.6.5 Shear Test 136
7.7 Thermal Characterization 137
7.7.1 Thermal Properties 138
7.7.2 Thermogravimetric Analysis 139
7.7.3 Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) and Differential Scanning
Calorimetry (DSC) 139
7.7.4 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) 140
7.8 Durability Characterization 140
7.8.1 Creep Testing 141
7.8.2 Fatigue Testing 141
7.8.3 Wear Testing 142
7.8.4 Fire Testing 143
7.8.5 Environmental Testing 143
7.9 Conclusion 144
References 144
viii Contents

8 Detection of Delamination in Fiber Metal Laminates Based on

Local Defect Resonance 147
Tanmoy Bose, Subhankar Roy, and Kishore Debnath
8.1 Introduction 147
8.2 Local Defect Resonance Based Nondestructive Evaluation 149
8.2.1 Concept of Local Defect Resonance 149
8.2.2 Modeling of GLARE-Fiber Metal Laminate 150
8.2.3 Determination of LDR Frequency from Steady State Analysis 152
8.3 Super-Harmonic and Subharmonic Excitation in Fiber Metal
Laminates 153
8.4 Detection of LDR Frequency Using Bicoherence Analysis 155
8.4.1 Theory of Bicoherence Estimation 155
8.4.2 Case Study of a Flat Bottom Hole 157
8.4.2.1 Modeling of a Flat Bottom Hole 157
8.4.2.2 Determination of LDR Frequency Using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
Plot 159
8.4.2.3 Determination of LDR Frequency Using Bicoherence Analysis 159
8.4.2.4 Validation of the LDR Frequency Using Steady State Analysis 161
8.5 Concluding Remarks 161
References 162

9 Secondary Processing of Reinforced Polymer Composites by

Conventional and Nonconventional Manufacturing
Processes 165
Manpreet Singh, Sarbjit Singh, and Parvesh Antil
9.1 Introduction 165
9.2 Secondary Processing of Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites by
Conventional Machining 166
9.2.1 Conventional Drilling of Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites 166
9.2.2 Grinding Assisted Drilling of Reinforced Polymer Matrix
Composites 167
9.2.3 Vibration Assisted Drilling (VAD) of Reinforced Polymer Matrix
Composites 168
9.2.4 High Speed Drilling (HSD) of Reinforced Polymer Matrix
Composites 168
9.2.5 Drilling of Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites with Drill Bit
Geometry of Different Materials 168
9.2.6 Milling of Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites 171
9.2.7 Turning of Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites 171
9.3 Secondary Processing of Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites by
Nonconventional Machining 173
9.3.1 Laser Beam Machining of Reinforced Polymer Matrix
Composites 173
9.3.2 Ultrasonic Machining of Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites 174
9.3.3 Abrasive Water Jet Machining of Reinforced Polymer Matrix
Composites 175
 Contents ix

9.3.4 Electrical Discharge Machining of Reinforced Polymer Matrix

Composites 178
9.3.5 Electrochemical Discharge Machining of Reinforced Polymer Matrix
Composites 179
9.4 Concluding Remarks 180
References 181

10 Hybrid Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites:

Mechanical Strength Characterization and Life
Assessment 189
Parvesh Antil, Sarbjit Singh, and Manpreet Singh
10.1 Introduction 189
10.2 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) 191
10.2.1 Matrix 191
10.2.2 Reinforcement 191
10.2.3 Fabrication of HGFRPC 192
10.2.4 Morphology of Normal and Hybrid PMC 193
10.2.5 Mechanical Strength Analysis 194
10.2.6 Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy 197
10.3 Environmental Degradation of PMCs 199
10.4 Life Assessment of PMCs 201
10.4.1 Morphological Inspection 202
10.5 Conclusions 205
References 206

11 Fire Performance of Natural Fiber Reinforced Polymeric

Composites 209
Divya Zindani, Kaushik Kumar, and João Paulo Davim
11.1 Introduction 209
11.2 Flammability Aspects and Thermal Properties of Natural Fibers and
Natural Fiber Reinforced Polymeric Composites 210
11.3 Fire Retardants 216
11.4 Flame Retardants 216
11.4.1 Mineral Flame Retardants 216
11.4.2 Bulging of Flame Retardants 217
11.5 Fire Performance for Usability as Materials in Transportation 218
11.6 Fire Performance for Usability as Building Materials 219
11.7 Summary 220
References 221

12 Post Life Cycle Processing of Reinforced Thermoplastic Polymer

Composites 225
N.H. Salwa, S.M. Sapuan, M.T. Mastura, and M.Y.M. Zuhri
12.1 Introduction 225
12.2 Polymer Composites 226
12.2.1 Thermoplastic Polymer 227
x Contents

12.2.2 Reinforcing Fibers in Composites 228

12.2.3 Green Bio-composites 229
12.3 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 230
12.3.1 Definition 230
12.3.1.1 Goal and Scope 233
12.3.1.2 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) 234
12.3.1.3 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) 235
12.3.1.4 Life Cycle Results Interpretation 237
12.4 LCA Studies on Bio-composites 238
12.4.1 LCA Bio-composites 238
12.4.1.1 LCA Natural Fiber 239
12.4.2 LCA Biopolymer 240
12.5 LCA Limitations 241
12.6 Conclusions 243
Acknowledgment 244
References 244

13 Reprocessing and Disposal Mechanisms for Fiber Reinforced

Polymer Composites 249
Vijay Chaudhary, Khushi Ram, and Furkan Ahmad
13.1 Introduction 249
13.2 Reprocessing or Recycling Methods of Fiber Reinforced Polymer
Composites 251
13.3 Mechanical Recycling 252
13.4 Chemical Recycling 254
13.5 Hydrolytic Degradation of Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composite 255
13.6 Photodegradation of Polymer Composite 256
13.7 Biodegradation of Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites 257
13.8 Conclusion 258
References 262

Index 267
 1

Overview and Present Status of Reinforced Polymer

Composites
Furkan Ahmad 1 , Inderdeep Singh 2 , and Pramendra K. Bajpai 1
1 Netaji Subhas University of Technology, MPAE Division, Sector-3, Dwarka, New Delhi, 110078, India
2
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Roorkee,
Uttarakhand, 247667, India

1.1 Introduction
Humans have been using a number of materials to improve their living stan-
dards since ages. In fact, the progress of human civilization has been classified
into three categories, popularly known as the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the
Iron Age, on the basis of materials only. Looking at the current rate of demand
and consumption of plastics, it would not be wrong if somebody categorizes the
present age as “The Age of Plastics” or “Plastic Age”. New materials form the
foundation for new technologies and help in understanding nature. The most
complex designs in the world can be of no use if suitable material is not used
during the fabrication of products with that design. In actual realization of a
design, the role of materials is quite indispensable. The limited availability of nat-
ural resources has forced material engineers to use materials in a more conscious
manner. Therefore, material scientists and engineers are trying to optimize the
use of materials in every possible field of application. In the present age, trans-
portation industry is the biggest contributor of carbon footprints in the envi-
ronment. Lower fuel consumption of automotive vehicles can lower the carbon
footprints. In the quest for achieving low fuel consumption, transportation indus-
try is leaning toward materials having high strength to weight ratio. Reinforced
polymer composites (RPCs), also known as fiber reinforced polymer composites
(FRPCs) are such promising materials for almost every industry looking for low
weight and high strength materials [1]. The application spectrum of FRPCs has
spread in almost every sector starting from engineered domestic products to the
highly sensitive biomedical industry. FRPCs are not only just a replacement for
conventional alloys but they also provide engineered properties. Rahmani et al.
[2] fabricated the carbon/epoxy-based FRPCs with 40 wt% of fiber. This system
of FRPCs was able to achieve a tensile strength of 2500 MPa, which is quite close
to the tensile strength of steel. The authors concluded that fiber orientation was
the most influencing factor among other factors, namely number of laminates
and resin type. The authors suggested the use of ±35∘ angle of plies to obtain

Reinforced Polymer Composites: Processing, Characterization and Post Life Cycle Assessment,
First Edition. Edited by Pramendra K. Bajpai and Inderdeep Singh.
© 2020 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Published 2020 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.
2 1 Overview and Present Status of Reinforced Polymer Composites

better tensile properties along with good flexural properties. Modification in the
matrix material can enhance the overall properties of FRPCs. Islam et al. [3]
modified the epoxy matrix by incorporating nanoclay and multiwalled carbon
nanotubes (MWCNTs). The authors found significant improvement in the static
and dynamic mechanical properties of the developed carbon fiber-based FRPCs.
Cho et al. [4] enhanced the in-plane shear strength and shear modulus of car-
bon fiber reinforced epoxy composites by incorporating graphite nanoplatelets
in the epoxy matrix using the sonication method. Increasing the volume fraction
of reinforcement can increase the mechanical properties of the developed FRPCs.
Aramide et al. [5] fabricated glass fiber/epoxy-based FRPCs with varying volume
fraction of fibers from 5% to 30%. The authors found that the mechanical strength
increased as the fiber volume fraction increased up to 30%. Treinyte et al. [6]
fabricated poly (vinyl alcohol)-based pots. Forestry and wood processing waste
was used as filler in the matrix. The authors claimed that the manufactured pots
showed 45% lower water evaporation rate in comparison to regular peat pots.
Architecture of the reinforcement also affects the mechanical performance of
developed FRPCs products. A range of reinforcement architectures is available
in the market such as short fiber, unidirectional prepregs, 2D and 3D woven
mats, braided mats, and knitted mats. Every architecture has its own merits and
demerits – 2D woven mats show better in-plane mechanical properties but they
lack in out-of plane properties while 3D woven mats offer better out-of-plane
properties in comparison to others [7]. Erol et al. [8] investigated the effect of
yarn material and weaving pattern on the macroscopic properties of FRPCs and
concluded that weave pattern greatly influenced the tensile and shear proper-
ties of the developed composites. Some authors [9] have even used 3D and 5D
braided reinforcement for the development of FRPCs. The authors concluded
that braided architecture affects the fracture mechanism in a significant way.
Kostar et al. [10] used two-sided co-braided carbon and Kevlar hybrid reinforce-
ment for the development of FRPCs and concluded that the tensile strength and
modulus of hybrid reinforcement-based FRPCs were 13% and 80% higher than
those with simple reinforcement. FRPs have evolved over a long time period as
shown in Figure 1.1.
Environmental problems and difficulty in the recycling associated with
synthetic composites have led to the development of biocomposites/green
composites. Biocomposites are eco-friendly materials with adequate mechanical
properties. Fombuena et al. [11] fabricated biocomposites using bio-fillers
derived from sea-shell waste as reinforcement in bio-based epoxy matrix. The
authors found impressive improvement in mechanical properties of bio-based
epoxy when reinforced with bio-fillers. End of life (EOL) impact of synthetic
fibers and polymers is negative to the environment. Duflou et al. [12] showed
that low mechanical strength of flax fiber is an obstruction in the replacement
of glass fiber but it can be used in many applications where high mechanical
strength is not the primary requirement. Effect of moisture on the mechanical
performance of natural fiber-based biocomposites is yet another concern while
using biocomposites. Baghaei et al. [13] developed poly lactic acid (PLA)-based
biocomposites and analyzed the moisture absorption behavior. The authors
found that the moisture absorption characteristic of the developed composite
 1.1 Introduction 3

Improvements in Development of high

polymeric materials performance fibers

Evolution of fabrication
techniques for fiber
reinforced plastics

Use of FRPs in
Optimization of process Development of green
automobile and
parameter composites
aerospace industries

Improvements at Improvement at Development of

macroscopic level microscopic level functional FRPs

(Chemical treatment and (Surface coating, use of (Improvement in

fabric architecture, etc.) nano-fillers, etc.) electrical properties)

Figure 1.1 Development stages of FRPs.

was reduced when the reinforcement was used in the woven form instead of the
nonwoven form.
Hybridization can improve the mechanical strength of green composites.
Hassanin et al. [14] developed a biocomposite particle board using a mixture
of wood particles and short glass fibers covered with an outer layer of jute
fabric. The particle board showed excellent mechanical and physical properties
in comparison to commercially available particle boards. Chaudhary et al. [15]
hybridized the reinforcement and found improved mechanical and thermal
properties of the developed biocomposites. The authors used three types of
woven fibers mats, namely jute, hemp, and flax, as reinforcement in epoxy matrix.
Chemical treatment of fibers/surface modification of fibers is also a promising
method for improvement in the mechanical properties of FRPCs. Alkali, acryl,
benzyl, and silane solutions are commonly used for the treatment of fibers [16].
Asaithambi et al. [17] treated banana fibers before using them as reinforcement
in PLA-based FRPCs. Banana fibers were first pretreated with 5% NaOH solution
at room temperature for around two hours, and then the chemical treatment of
the fiber was completed using benzoyl peroxide. Significant improvement in the
mechanical properties developed with treated FRPCs was found in comparison
to those developed with untreated FRPCs. Rahman and Khan [18] used ethylene
dimethyl acrylate (EMA) for the surface modification of coir fibers along with
UV treatment for the aging of fibers. The authors concluded that the mechani-
cal properties of FRPCs developed using treated fiber were better than those of
untreated fiber reinforced FRPCs.
4 1 Overview and Present Status of Reinforced Polymer Composites

1.2 FRPCs
FRPCs are multiphase materials comprised of natural/synthetic fiber as rein-
forcement and thermoset/thermoplastic polymer as matrix, resulting in synergis-
tic properties that cannot be achieved from a single component alone. In general,
reinforcement is in the form of long continuous fibers but they can be used in
various other forms such as short fibers, fillers, or whiskers. The fibrous form
of reinforcement is used in composite materials because they are stronger and
stiffer than any other form [19]. Synthetic fibers (carbon, glass, aramid, etc.) can
provide more strength than most of the metals along with being lighter than
those materials. On the other hand, natural fibers are also being used in a num-
ber of structural as well as nonstructural applications due to the environmen-
tal problems associated with synthetic fibers. Matrix material, which is gener-
ally continuous in nature, protects the reinforcement from adverse environment
and transfers the load to reinforcement from the point of application of load
[12]. The matrix material holds the flexible reinforcements together to make it a
solid. Matrix material is also responsible for the finish and texture of the com-
posite material. The properties of composite materials depend on the disper-
sion and properties of the constituents and their interfacial interaction. Tailoring
the properties of a material according to the requirement of application can be
easily done in composite materials [20]. Table 1.1 shows the commonly used
natural and synthetic polymers and fibers used as matrix and reinforcement,
respectively.

1.2.1 Fabrication of Fiber Reinforced Composites

Fabrication methods of FRPCs still require a lot of attention in order to pro-
duce defect-free high quality products. Some unique features of primary and
secondary processing of FRPCs are tabulated in Table 1.2.

Table 1.1 Matrix and reinforcement materials used in reinforced polymer composites.

Matrix Natural Synthetic

Polysaccharides such as
homoglycans, cellulose, chitin,
chitosan, heteroglycans, such as
alginate, agar, and agarose,
carrageenan, pectins, gums, and
proteoglycans, protein, peptides,
and enzymes
Reinforcement Natural
Animal-based – silk, wool, hair;
Plant-based – bast fibers (jute,
flax, ramie, hemp, kenaf, roselle,
etc.), leaf fibers (sisal, banana,
agava, etc.), seed, fruit, wood, and
stalk fibers
Polyolefins, poly(tetrafluoroethylene)
(PTFE), poly(vinylchloride)(PVC),
silicone, methacrylates, aliphatic
polyesters, polyethers, poly(amino
acids), polyamides, polyurethanes,
epoxy, polycarbonates
Synthetic
Carbon, glass, Aramid/Kevlar,
graphite, aromatic polyester fibers,
boron, silica carbide
 1.2 FRPCs 5

1.2.2 Present Status of FRPCs

RPC products such as pipes are being used in various adverse conditions such as
in offshore and marine applications. These pipes are exposed to severe climatic
conditions ranging from −40 to 80 ∘ C [21]. Benyahia et al. [21] tested the
mechanical properties of a filament wound glass/epoxy pipe of 86 mm diameter
and 6.2 mm thickness. The authors estimated that there was degradation of
mechanical properties at higher temperatures. Ellyin and Maser [22] investigated
the effect of moisture at elevated temperature on the mechanical properties of
glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite tubes. At lower temperature,
the ductility of the specimen was found to be decreased drastically and the
stiffness was increased. Above the glass transition temperature, there was sudden
degradation in the mechanical properties of composite pipes. In recent progress,
shape memory alloy (SMA) wires are being incorporated into the FRPCs as
reinforcement to increase the functionality of the developed composites such
as shape recovery, high damping capacity, generation of high recovery stresses,
and controlled overall thermal expansion. SMA wires not only improve the
functionality of the FRPCs but also offer improved mechanical properties [23].
Paine and Rogers [24] concluded that the low velocity impact properties of
FRPCs can be improved by incorporating SMA wires. Incorporation of just
2.8% volume fraction of SMA wires as reinforcement was able to increase the
impact delamination resistance by 25% in comparison to the FRPCs without the
SMA wire reinforcement. Pappada et al. [25, 26] fabricated hybrid glass fiber
reinforced vinyl ester-based FRPC material and incorporated SMA wires in two
forms, namely unidirectional SMA wires and knitted SMA wires. The authors
assessed impact properties and found that FRPCs reinforced with SMA wires
achieved higher impact properties than FRPCs with unidirectional SMA wires.
Polymer nanocomposites are also a relatively new class of materials. Nanocom-
posites are generally fabricated by incorporating one or more constituents of
the size of the order of nanometers. These constituents are generally inorganic
in nature and known as fillers, and not as reinforcement, due to their small size.
Various researchers have reported impressive properties of nanocomposites such
as high modulus and strength, high resistance to heat, and reduced flammability.
However, effective dispersion of the nano-sized fillers throughout the polymer
matrix is still a challenge, and moreover this dispersion controls and determines
the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of the developed FRPC
products [27–29]. The authors have used an in situ approach to homogenize
the dispersion of nano-sized fillers. In this approach, nano-fillers are directly
synthesized with the polymer using some suitable precursor [30, 31]. Although
the in situ approach provides controlled dispersion of nano-fillers, it involves
complex procedures and processing steps along with expensive reactants [32, 33].
Various researchers used the ball milling method to fabricate nanocomposites.
In this method, first both the constituents, polymer and nano-fillers, are mixed
with each other in solid state using ball mills and then the mixture is melted
to polymerize. Although the morphology of the fillers changes in the ball mill,
this change positively affects the composites by enriching the filler compatibility
with the polymer. The ball milling method is not just an alternative to ex situ
6 1 Overview and Present Status of Reinforced Polymer Composites

Table 1.2 Primary and secondary processing methods for FRPCs.

Fabrication
Processing technique Features

Primary Hand lay-up Minimum infrastructural requirement; low initial capital

processing requirement; only for thermosetting resins; lower
methods production rate; and low volume fraction of the
reinforcement
Spray lay-up Extension of hand lay-up technique; reinforcement in the
form of chopped fibers only
Compression Use of heat and pressure both simultaneously;
molding dimensionally accurate and finished products; process
parameters need to be optimized; both thermosetting and
thermoplastic polymers can be used; higher initial capital
requirement compared to hand lay-up
Injection Reinforcement only in the form of short fibers; damage of
molding fibers in barrel due to shearing action of screw. Highly
accurate dimensions of the product; used for mass
production
Pultrusion Resin impregnated continuous fibers are passed through
process a heating die for curing; automated process used for
continuous production; only products with constant
cross-sectional area depending on the die can be
manufactured
Resin transfer Liquid resin system is forced into the mold; high fiber
molding volume fraction can be achieved. Good surface finish
with minimum material wastage
Filament Continuous fiber strands as reinforcement; controlled
winding fiber orientation; high production rate; high capital
investment; not possible to produce female features of
products and expensive mandrel
Vacuum assisted Uses vacuum to ensure zero voids; superior quality
resin transfer composites using autoclave (a strong heating container
molding that is used for applying heat and pressure at the time of
curing of the composite laminates)
Secondary Conventional Drilling with twist drill is the most used conventional
processing machining method to produce holes in laminates. Requires milling
methods machine or drilling machine. Spindle speed, feed rate,
and drill geometry are influential parameters.
Delamination, fiber linting, and fiber pull-out are the
most common defects
Unconventional Abrasive water jet (AWJ) reduces the thermal damage
machining that could be generated in conventional machining.
Laser beam (LB) cutting is also being used for holes
generation in composite laminates. High energy input is
required.
Ultrasonic machining (USM) can also be used for hole
making in the composite laminates
 1.2 FRPCs 7

fabrication of FRPCs but is also an environment friendly and economical method

to produce nano-filler reinforced FRPCs [34]. Some authors [35] have also used
reinforcing metallic powders such as copper powder of 29.5 and 260 μm size in
the polyvinyl butyral (PVB) polymer matrix to fabricate polymer composites.
Fan and Wang [36] developed a transparent protective polymer composite
material with lightweight property, which could be used against high speed
impact loading.
The behavior and performance of FRPCs changes from application to applica-
tion. FRPCs exposed to various tribological environments lead to the necessity to
evaluate the tribological performance. Tribology of FRPCs is quite complex than
metal tribology due to the fact that polymers do not obey the well-established
laws of friction at high temperature [37]. Xue and Wang [38] studied the effect
of filler particle size on the wear and frictional properties of polymer compos-
ites. The authors concluded that addition of nano-sized SiC particles into the
polymer matrix effectively reduced the friction and wear of the neat polymer.
The nano-sized particles form a continuous and thin layer between the interface,
which results in reduction of friction and wear. Xing and Li [39] also confirmed
a similar behavior of FRPCs with the incorporation of nano-sized fillers. Gears,
bearings, shoe soles, and brake pads for automobile applications are some of the
mostly used tribological applications of FRPCs [40–42]. Researchers have sug-
gested a number of methods to reduce the friction and wear at the interface
between the FRPC product and the metal/nonmetal surface. Microencapsulation
of liquid lubricant was found to be an effective method to improve the tribo-
logical properties of polymers [43]. Guo et al. [44, 45] demonstrated that the
friction coefficient of epoxy-based FRPCs can be reduced up to 75% by incorpo-
rating just 10 wt% oil-loaded microcapsules. The authors have claimed to develop
self-lubricating polymer-based materials with the help of encapsulation method.
Khun et al. [46] and Imani et al. [47] added wax-loaded microcapsules in epoxy
matrix composites and found that friction and wear were very much reduced in
comparison to that in the neat epoxy polymer composite. In another study, Khun
et al. [48] used the two types of microcapsules in the polymer composite. One
type of microcapsules were loaded with wax and another type of capsules were
loaded with MWCNTs. The authors concluded that tribological and mechanical
properties were enhanced simultaneously. Wax-loaded capsules were found to
be responsible for improved tribological properties while MWCNTs loaded cap-
sules result in improved mechanical properties, which was achievable with only
wax-loaded capsules. Encapsulation may help in the development of self-healing
materials as explained by some authors [49].
Self-reinforced composites (SRCs) are yet another category of FRPCs in which
only a single polymer is used. Hard/processed form of the same polymer is used
as reinforcement that is being used as matrix material [50]. Huang [51] developed
a polypropylene (PP)-based SRC using melt-flow induced crystallization. Li
and Yao [52] and Makela et al. [53] developed PLA polymer-based fibers that
could be used as reinforcement in the SRCs. Similarly, Tormala [54] developed
PLA-based SRCs for medical applications. In the same series, Hine and Ward
[55] developed PET-based SRCs, Gilbert et al. [56] developed polymethyl
8 1 Overview and Present Status of Reinforced Polymer Composites

methacrylate (PMMA)-based SRCs, and Gindl and Keckes [57] manufactured

cellulose-based SRCs.
Gemi [58] developed glass and carbon-based hybrid composite pipes
and studied the effect of stacking sequence. The authors concluded that
glass–carbon–glass sequence of reinforcement during the winding of fibers
leads to no leakage property of pipes.
The superior electrical, mechanical, and thermal properties of graphene make
it very useful in the field of FRPCs [59]. Graphene, in the form of 3D foam and
gel is being used in FRPCs products in biomedical and electronics applications
[60, 61]. Various authors [62, 63] reported impressive improvement in the
mechanical properties of epoxy composites with the incorporation of 3D foam.
Sun et al. [64] reported that the incorporation of 3D graphene foam in polymer
significantly improved electrical properties. Jusza et al. [65] developed lumines-
cent composite materials for possible applications in opto-electronics, sensor
networks, and imaging field. Complex technology and expensive manufacturing
methods of optically active two-phase composite materials have made them
commercially unavailable.
Carbon nanotubes, popularly known as CNTs, are filler/reinforcement that are
being used in polymers to fabricate composites with improved physical, mechan-
ical, and electrical properties [66–69]. Nanomaterials are those materials that
have dimensions below 100 nm [70]. Several authors [71, 72] reported an incre-
ment of over 300% in the tensile strength of FRPCs reinforced with CNT-based
nano-fillers. Incorporation of nanocarbons resulted in the increment of electrical
properties up to over 14 orders of magnitude [73]. Carbon quantum dots (CQD),
a form of nanocarbon material, is also being used as reinforcement due to their
tunable optical and photochemical properties. Another emerging class of FRPCs
is thermally conductive polymer composites and nanocomposites [74]. Studies
[75, 76] have reported that polymers reinforced with aligned molecular chain can
obtain higher thermal conductivity than that of many metals. Rajapakse et al. [77]
prepared electronically conductive nanocomposites for potential application as
a cathode material.
Another advancement in the field of FRPCs is the production of shape mem-
ory polymer composites along with self-healing properties [78]. FRPCs are being
widely used in the field of electronics and biomedical and energy applications
from the last decades. However, low thermal conductivity and insufficient ther-
mal stability have restricted FRPCs usage to a limited number of applications [79].
Along with their advantages, there are some disadvantages associated with
FRPCs as well. The disadvantage with FRPCs is the need for recycling and dis-
posal methods after the finite life of the FRPC product. Li et al. [80] investigated
the environmental and financial problems associated with the manufacturing
of carbon FRPCs. The authors suggested the use of mechanical recycling of
FRPCs instead of landfilling and incineration. Landfilling method for disposal
of FRPCs was found to be modest with moderate landfilling tax. However,
incineration method results in the production of greenhouse gases causing
severe damage to environment. Longana et al. [81] suggested another method
of recycling known as multiple closed loop recycling of carbon FRPCs. In
this method, reclaimed carbon fibers (rCF) are again used to remanufacture a
 1.3 FRPCs Applications and Future Prospects 9

number of products once a virgin carbon fiber (vCF) product has completed its
defined life.

1.3 FRPCs Applications and Future Prospects

The high strength to weight ratio of FRPCs makes them irreplaceable in a num-
ber of applications in the automobile and aerospace industries [82–86]. Dhruv,
the advanced light helicopter (ALH) manufactured by Hindustan Aeronautics
Limited for the service of the Indian army, has around 60% of structural area
made up of FRPC components and sandwich structures [87]. A number of prod-
ucts are being successfully used in various automotive and other applications as
reported in Table 1.3. A number of medical devices have been developed using
biodegradable polymers alone. Drug-eluting stents, orthotropic devices, dispos-
able medical devices, drug delivery devices, and stents for urological applications
are some biomedical applications of polymers [101]. Tian et al. [101] stated that
along with the nontoxic nature and low biodegradability of polymers, mechanical
strength is also required in a number of medical applications. To strengthen these
biodegradable polymers, fibers are being incorporated in the polymers accord-
ing to the requirement of application. Carbon fiber reinforced epoxy composite
materials are being used to fabricate external fixation equipment used for frac-
tured bones. Bone plates are being used for the development of internal fixation
equipment. The authors [102] have reported carbon fiber reinforced polyether
ether ketone (PEEK)-based composite as a biocompatible material for bone plate.
Lin et al. [103] proposed short glass fiber reinforced PEEK composite material for
the fabrication of intramedullary nails, which are generally used to fix fractures of
long bones. These nails are fixed in the intramedullary cavity using a screw mech-
anism. Kettunen et al. [104] used carbon fiber to fabricate composite material for
these nails. Some authors [105, 106] have successfully used FRPCs as bone graft-
ing materials. Carbon fiber-based FRPCs are intensively being used to fabricate
stems for total hip replacement [107, 108]. Deng and shalaby [109] used ultrahigh
molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) to fabricate self-reinforced compos-
ite materials for possible application in knee replacement. In dental applications,
CF/epoxy-based FRPCs are being used to fabricate dental post [110]. Usually,
gold bridges were used to replace one or more teeth but their high cost and
time-consuming fabrication process have led to the development of FRPCs-based
bridges [111]. FRPCs are also being used to fabricate orthodontic arch-wires.
These wires are generally fitted over the teeth in order to align them [112, 113].
Artificial legs, used to support amputees during walk, were generally made of
metallic materials. Owing to the high weight of metals and low corrosion resis-
tance, FRPCs have replaced these metallic prosthetic limbs. As of now, all the
three components of prosthetic leg, namely shaft, socket, and foot, are being
manufactured using FRPCs [114–116]. Moving tables, used in CT and MRI scan-
ners, are being manufactured using FRPCs due to the requirement of lightweight
and high strength material [117]. Calcium phosphate (CaP)/polymer composite
materials are highly recommended materials in bone replacement due to high
compressive and flexural strength [118].
Table 1.3 Applications of reinforced polymer composites.

S. No. Composite Processing technique Application field Component References

1. Glass fiber/unsaturated polyester Hand lay-up method Automobile Front bumper [88]
2. Sisal, roselle fiber, banana/epoxy Hand lay-up method Automobile Visor in two-wheeler [89]
grade 3554 A Indicator cover
Pillion seat cover
Rear view mirror cover
3. Glass, carbon fiber/epoxy — Aerospace Vertical stabilizer [89]
4. GFRPC/epoxy/polyester/pp — Electronic Computer, electric motor covers cell [90]
phones
Home and furniture Roof sheet, sun shade, book racks, etc.
Aerospace Luggage rack, bulkheads, ducting, etc.
Boats and marine Boat frame
Medical X-ray beds
Automobile Body panel, seat cover, bumper, and
engine cover
5. CFRP laminates Vacuum bagging Aerospace Upper deck floor berns [91]
Pressure bulkhead
Centre wing box,
fin box, rudder HTP box
6. Glass, carbon, aramid/polyester, Filament winding, resin Energy industries Wind turbine blades [92]
vinyl ester, epoxy infusion, prepreg, etc.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Darting round the tree, and overthrowing the savages who barred
their way, they reached the canoe, which still lay upon the shore. So
sudden was the action that the Indians were stupefied, and the brave
trio gained a rod or so in advance before their foes started in pursuit.
They had gained the canoe, the Dead Chief and the Yankee were
already in it, and Floyd was following, when he fell by a hatchet
hurled at him by Willimack. Seth would have turned back to aid him,
but the Dead Chief seized the paddle and pushed off quickly, just as
the Indians pounced upon the fallen man. A score of them plunged
into the water, each with a hatchet or knife in his teeth, but the quick
strokes of the paddle soon left them far behind. A useless volley
from those on shore followed.
"Poor lad," said Yankee Seth. "I'm afeard he's gone under."
"The young soldier is very brave," replied the chief. "If he is not dead,
he will die like a man. And now, hear the words of the Dead Chief. I
swear by the grave of my father, by the totem of my tribe, that I will
not go back to the village where my squaw and pappooses dwell,
until the young war-chief is saved or I have avenged him. It is
spoken; the Dead Chief can not lie."
"Good for yew, old man," said the Yankee. "I'm with yew threw thick
an' thin. Thar's my hand on it. Shake."
The two woodmen clasped hands, while the canoe floated at will in
the midst of the dark stream.

They lifted Floyd and dragged him up the bank into the bushes,
where Willimack and Elskwatawa stood. He had been stunned at
first by the stroke of the hatchet and was still dizzy and faint when he
faced the chiefs. Their dark looks convinced him that he had little to
hope from them. The death-wail was rising from the Indian band as
they lifted the bodies of the fallen and laid them in a row along the
bank. Four were dead, including the neighbor of the Yankee in the
tree-top, and as many more desperately wounded. In such a melée
as this, when a body of men assail a desperate athlete like the
dreaded Long Man, some must get hurt. The cloud upon the face of
the Prophet grew darker as, one by one, the dead were brought out,
and Willimack uttered a snarl like a tiger as a man who had been his
best friend was laid with the rest.
"It is finished then," thought Floyd. "They will revenge themselves
upon me for the death of these men. I can only meet my fate like a
man; but my poor father, my darling Madge! Oh, if the Skeleton
Scout would but come now and scatter these fiendish knaves as he
did at the stockade! I wonder if Yankee Seth or the chief were
injured? Even if they are safe, what can they do against so many?"
At this moment the panther-call of which Seth had spoken came
from the opposite bank of the stream. A faint hope came into the
heart of the prisoner. The call was given to show that he was safe
and would not desert him in the hour of need. Willimack advanced
and looked in the face of Floyd with that vicious glance of triumph
which small natures feel in the power they may gain over an enemy.
"Floyd," said he, "the white man can not have all his own way. To-
night I was insulted in your wigwam—I, a chief of a great nation. I
told you then that a chief never forgot, and that the day of revenge
would come; behold it is here already!"
"Do not trouble me by too much talking, Willimack. I am in your
power, it is true, but for all that you shall not force me to cringe to
you, or to ask mercy at your hands."
"Waugh! Will you not beg for life from the Wyandot and Shawnee?"
"No."
"Listen. Was it you that cut the bonds which bound the Dead Chief to
the tree?"
"It was."
"Good! That is another thing against you. Did you know that the
Dead Chief was our prisoner?"
"Yes. That is the reason I set him free," replied Floyd, in an
undaunted tone.
"It is well. You speak like a great brave, and had you lived would
have been a great chief among the white men. But, the white men
must cease from off the face of the Indian country. We love it too well
to let the feet of bad men press it, and tread upon the earth where
our fathers' bones are laid. The English are friends to us, and will not
take our country; the Americans steal all."
"Do what you mean to do, and at once. I can bear any indignity you
may heap upon me, as becomes a man."
Willimack stood aside, and the Prophet advanced. His dark face was
working with passion, and he seemed to struggle to repress a desire
to strike down the young soldier where he stood. His fingers clutched
the handle of a hatchet convulsively, and now and then he half drew
it from its sheath.
"Let Elskwatawa speak, for he is the great Prophet of the Shawnees.
I see before me the dead of my tribe and one warrior of the
Wyandots. They had hoped to live to fight many battles against the
whites and again possess the land of their fathers. The Manitou
came to me in a dream and told me that the time had come for the
Indians to drive out the white dogs and take their own again.
Therefore you see us in our war-paint to-day."
He paused and cast a wild glance about him which seemed to have
a great effect upon the savages, and they uttered a wail of agony.
"But see," he cried. "They lie in their blood upon their own soil, and
the man who killed them is in our hands."
A triumphant shout went up as he said this, and fierce looks were
directed at the young soldier, who returned them by a glance of
haughty defiance.
"The Indians deal justly by all," said the Prophet. "No man can die by
their hands who is not worthy of death for some great wrong done to
the nations. Warriors and chiefs, I have gone among the white men
at Vincennes, and have spoken to the war-chief Harrison. The tears
have flowed from my eyes when I spoke of the wrongs of my people;
yes, my tears have fallen like rain. He is a man of iron, and I can not
melt him. He cares not for us, but for his own people. You stood by,
Willimack, when all the chiefs were seated and Tecumseh stood up
like a child about to be punished. At last they saw how great an insult
this was to the great chief. They offered him a chair; but the chief
looked at them with scorn when they said, 'Your father offers you a
seat!' 'My father?' he cried. 'The sun is my father and the earth is my
mother. I will repose on her bosom.'[1]
"The chief will bear no more. The battle must be fought and we will
win again the lands of our fathers. We must not fail. The mortification
of failure shall never be ours, and my great brother will not disgrace
me by a mistake. I hear the warriors shout as they gather. I hear
them in the South and East, in the North and West, with a sound like
the summer leaves rising and rustling in the breeze. I hear their tread
upon the mountains, by the silent rivers and in the green valleys. It is
well. Shall Tecumseh tremble and shall Elskwatawa fail? No! The
mountains and plains the Great Spirit gave us are around us, behind
and before.
"I too have my warriors; and here, on the Wabash, on the Scioto,
and on the broad waters of the North, my voice shall be heard for
war."
He ceased for a moment, and cast a sad glance upon the bodies on
the ground.
"There be our brothers, who had thought to take a part in this great
battle to come. Their eyes are closed, their voices are not heard,
their lips are pale, their ears hear no sound. What is this I see upon
their faces? It is blood, the blood of the white man's shedding. And
now, I think I hear a voice, speaking from the dead lips, and it says,
'Avenge me on my foes! My blood has been shed, and I can not
cross the dark river until I smell the blood of one of the accursed
race.'"
His eyes again fell upon Floyd, and fire seemed to flash from their
depths.
"Who is this I see before me? His hands are red with blood. It is the
blood of Negarish and Monado, of Cartain and Zeman. My brothers,
let us light a fire and burn this white man, and then the souls of my
brothers shall find rest and peace."
A wild cry arose from the assembled band, and they began to collect
dried leaves and sticks from the surrounding woods, and pile them
about the limbs of young Floyd after they had tied him to a tree. The
pile rose until it reached nearly to his shoulders, and he felt that his
last hour had come. He was brave enough to meet his fate, but it
was agony to him to know that, when the flames had consumed his
body, there would be no one left to protect his father, and Madge,
whom he had hoped to make his wife when the autumn leaves were
yellowing in the sun. He began to suspect that when he was gone,
Willimack would go back and storm the stockade. What then would
be the fate of his father and that sweet girl he could not think. Madge
was brave, he knew, but, would she have strength enough, when the
hour of her great peril came, to save herself from dishonor with her
own hand?
"Stand back," said Willimack. "Let the voice of a chief speak terror to
the ears of his enemy before he dies. I am Willimack, chief of the
Wyandot, and I am ashamed to be at the death of a child. I see
water in your eyes, and I know you are weeping in your heart. You
fear the pain which will come when the flames curl and the smoke
rolls about you. Let the chief of the Wyandots speak. You know that
you refused me the shelter of your dwelling when I came to it. The
yellow-haired hunter struck me down and bound me, but I saw that
the Bright Eyes looked sadly upon the disgrace of a chief. Good; the
Bright Eyes shall make the fire bright in the lodge of Willimack."
Bright Eyes was the Indian name given to Madge by those who, from
time to time, visited the cabin of the Floyds.
"Oh, red hound!" shrieked Floyd. "Oh, if I had dreamed half the
villainy you had in your black heart, I would have killed you as you
sat by my fire."
"The heart of a chief is not open to the eyes of a dull pale-face,"
replied Willimack, scornfully. "The Bright Eyes is very beautiful. Her
voice is like the song of the birds when the summer sun is high.
Floyd would have made a nest for her that she should sing for him
alone; but Willimack laughs, for he knows that she can only sing in
his lodge."
Floyd struggled manfully to break his bonds, glaring furiously at the
savage who knelt at his feet, and, striking a flint and steel, began to
kindle the flame. It burned slowly, for the leaves were damp. Again
and again it smoldered and went out, but the Indian persevered until
a little jet of flame leaped up. This he fed, leaf after leaf, until he had
a little fire burning, apart from the pile, about the person of the young
soldier. He took savage delight in prolonging the scene, and the
Indians, understanding his motive, yelled in concert and danced
wildly about the tree.

Willimack now took up a lighted brand, and with it touched the

person of the prisoner in various places, laughing in demoniac glee
when he shrunk from the contact. Others took the hint and followed
the same amusement for some time, the young man bearing it
bravely. They at length lit the pile, and the flames began to creep up
about his person, and a thick smoke arose. He was dimly able to see
through the smoke and flame, that the Indians were dancing and
shouting all around, when a new cry arose, and he saw the Indians
break and run in every direction, evidently in the greatest dread.
Then the figure of the being known as the Skeleton Scout bounded
into the open space. Seeing him closely, the young man could
conceive of nothing more horrible than the ghastly head, blazing
eyes, and tremendous hight of this strange being. "Oonah! Oonah!"
was the cry of the Indians as they fled, and the next moment the
brands were scattered and the young man was free!
"Stand here until you hear the loon-cry, and then make for the river,
where your friends are waiting. Remember the Skeleton Scout!"

FOOTNOTES:
[1] A fact.
 CHAPTER VI.
A YANKEE RUSE.
The strange apparition was gone, and the next moment the loon-call
sounded from the depths of the woods, mingled with cries which
seemed to burst from a hundred throats. The young soldier bounded
across the open space, and ran at his best speed toward the place
where he had left the boat. Suddenly, without warning, two dark
figures started up in his path and seized him, and he thought himself
again in the hands of his enemies, when he heard one of his captors
say, in a nasal tone not to be mistaken: "This yew, capting?" He had
fallen into the hands of his friends!
"All right, Seth," he answered. "Get back to the canoe as quick as
you can. The woods are alive with savages."
The Dead Chief led the way, and in a moment they were again in the
canoe, and pushed off from the shore. The moon had gone down,
and a darkness like Egypt had fallen on the river. The Dead Chief
had taken the paddle, and, under the strokes of his vigorous arm, the
light craft was shooting down the stream. The Pottawatomie knew
his course well, and how much danger lay before them. Not a word
was spoken, for they knew the virtue of silence. They must break
through the cordon of their enemies at any and every hazard. On
they went, the shadows dark about them, each grasping a weapon,
and ready to defend himself to the utmost if attacked. They knew
that by far the greater portion of the wild band had gathered about
the death-fire, and yet they were certain that the Prophet was too
able a warrior to leave the path to Vincennes clear.
"Back her a minnit, chief," whispered the Yankee. "I want tew speak
tew the young 'un here."
By the skillful use of his paddle the chief managed to keep the canoe
nearly stationary in the midst of the stream, while Seth bent forward
and whispered to his young companion:
"Yew got away; heow did yew dew it?"
"By aid of the Skeleton Scout," replied Floyd, in the same tone.
"Whatever he may be, he is at least a friend to us."
"He never hunts nothing but Injins, he don't," said the Long Man.
"Clever of him tew help yew, anyheow. Was they going to scorch
yew?"
"The fire was lit already," replied the young soldier. "Ugh! my throat is
dry by even thinking of it."
"A close shave!" chuckled the Yankee. "That Skeleton Scout is a
darned nice ghost, by gracious. How many Injins below, think?"
"Seventy or eighty danced around me at the stake."
"Pooty dancers?"
"Can't say I appreciated their efforts."
"No? that's queer! Let her go on, chief. The men we've got tew tackle
are waiting for us in the mash (marsh). Git yure weepons ready,
'cause we are 'most thar."
Again the canoe glided softly down the stream, until it struck the
marsh of which he spoke. It was a level bottom, where the soft soil
had drifted down and been left, leaving scarcely room in places for a
canoe to cross without grounding on the soft bottom. In this soil
gigantic rushes had grown up, as we see them in our creeks when
duck-hunting. These rushes rose above the water, to the hight of
eight or ten feet, and stood so thickly together that, unless a man
was well acquainted with them it would be impossible to force a
canoe through. Of course there was a channel running through the
marsh, but it was more than likely that the patrol canoes of the
Indians occupied this water-course, and it would not be an easy task
to get down, facing their weapons. The Dead Chief seized one of the
rushes and held the canoe, and all bent forward to listen. Not a
sound was heard except the sighing of the long blades as the wind
rustled through them. If the Indians were watching, they knew
enough to keep silent, and, for all the environed men knew, their foes
might be lying within twenty feet of them.
The Dead Chief was acquainted with all the passes through the
marsh, and had not for a moment thought of forcing a path through
the reeds. The rustling they must of necessity make would apprise
the lurking Indians of their vicinity, and put them on their guard. They
were rather ready to trust to their woodcraft on shore, but they would
have liked to find the exact position of the canoes of their enemies,
before striking for the shore. But, though listening carefully, they
could hear nothing of the red-skins, and determined to try the land.
The head of the canoe was pushed into a little channel which the
Dead Chief knew ran close to the bank, at a good place to land. This
was accomplished without a rustle, and Floyd leaped with the chief
to the shore, closely followed by his Yankee friend. The canoe was
left as of no further use to them, and pushed into the rushes out of
sight. This done, the Dead Chief sat down on the bank, and drew his
moccasins from his feet, and made Floyd understand by the sense
of touch that he was to take off his boots, and put on these. Will
hesitated to make the Indian go barefooted through the woods, but
the Dead Chief took his hand and pressed it upon the sole of the
bare foot. The moment his hand came in contact with the hard and
callous foot, he understood that the Indian had a protection there
which made a moccasin rather an object of ornament than use. He
offered no further objection, but drawing off his boots, he left them on
the bank, and put on the moccasins. He understood that the Indian
thought the boot a poor thing for a scout to wear. The moment he
was ready, the chief again took the lead, bending his body low, and
keeping one hand on the ground, carefully removing every
obstruction from the path which the less experienced soldier might
step on.
Floyd followed, imitating his attitude, and betraying at once a keen
sense of woodcraft, and the attributes of a scout. Not a stick
cracked, not a twig bent. The Yankee who followed him was
surprised at the celerity of his motions, and the quiet way in which he
performed his part. Their course led directly away from the river, for
they knew that they must make a wide circuit to get away from the
Indians, who had doubtless lined the shore with scouts. It was only
the extreme darkness of the night, since the moon had gone down,
which had allowed them to pass the sentries unperceived. Seth had
no doubt that, favored by the darkness, they already had passed one
of the guard canoes, but there were two more. One was probably in
the center of the marsh around which they were now describing a
circle, and the other further down, though where it was, they could
not say. Once out of reach of the river by half a mile, the Yankee
gave a signal to the chief to wait, and they sat down together in the
darkness.
"By jinks," he chuckled. "Had a right nice time of it so fur. I ain't
enjoyed myself so mighty well this year. The pizon critters didn't sort
o' kalkilate on finding us so foxy, did they? I hev all I ken dew tew
keep from laffing rite eout when I think heow I walked intew them
cussed thieves arter I tumbled eout of the tree with that ornery critter
that would hev that pertickler tree."
"I should think you would be afraid to talk so loud while we remain in
danger," said Will Floyd.
"Ain't no danger here, Lord love yew!" replied the volatile scout. "It's
glorious work fighting these cussid thieves! Now, look here; thar's
lots of good Injins in this created airth, but thar's a pizon heap of bad
'uns. There's my friend, Dead Chief, now; he's what I call a good
Injin. And if you raally want a mighty bad specimen, yew jest take up
Willimack or the Profit."
"That scoundrel Willimack threatened our family while I was tied to
the stake. Do not let us dally a moment, my friend. Think of them I
have left in danger—my old father and my darling Madge. He
insulted her, most of all, for he designed for her a fate worse than
death—a place in his lodge."
"He duz! Now look at me, yew. I'll never stop hunting that pesky
critter until I've got his skulp or he's got mine. Take that pooty gal into
his lodge, will he? Wants her for a squaw, duz he? Yew jest wait! He
won't live to see it, bet yure life he won't! I'm so cussid mad I could
hop rite over that tree-top. Oh, holy fly! Hold me, somebody, or I'll go
charging back rite intew them Injins, and cut and slash and hack and
hew. Oh, bu'st me all to pieces! Take my hat and stamp on it,
somebody, I'm so darned mad. Litening strike me intew a blind
nigger ef I ain't growed nigh a fool sense yew told me that. Come,
let's git along. Ef old man Harrison don't rair rite up on his hind feet
when I tell him this, then thar ain't no buffler on the prahary; not a
darned buffler."
The party kept out from the river for a quarter of an hour, and then
inclined again toward the stream. The Dead Chief still kept the lead,
but all at once he stopped and dropped to the earth as suddenly as if
he had received a ball in his bosom. The others followed his
example and listened, and understood what it was which caused this
hasty movement. It was the sound of human voices, just below them.
The bank at this point was rather high, and crawling on their hands
and knees to the edge of the bluff they looked down. The Indians
who held this last guard-boat evidently were not trained warriors, for
they had built a fire and were cooking some meat. To be sure, their
fire was built in a sheltered nook and could not be seen from the
river, but would have called down upon their heads the wrath of the
Prophet, if he had known of it.
There they sat, six stalwart young warriors, grouped in various
attitudes of ease and comfort about the fire, gnawing the flesh from
the bones of a young buck which one of their number had brought
down by a well-directed arrow. The flame lighted up their bronzed
figures and dark faces, and danced upon their waving plumes and
beaded belts and moccasins. They were chatting in low tones over
their feast, it being evident that they did not think it possible that the
two whites—for they knew nothing of the Dead Chief—could escape
from the hands of their companions above. But they had not
reckoned upon the fertility of resource possessed by the Yankee
scout. Long Seth touched his companions lightly, and they drew
back cautiously at least a hundred yards from the dangerous vicinity,
where they could converse with ease and not be heard by the
Indians below.
"Ain't got much time tew talk 'bout it," said the Yankee. "What do yew
say? Thar's six Injins, red with white blood. Shall we give 'em goss or
not? If we lick 'em—I'd ingage tew lick the hull bilin' myself—we kin
git the canoe tew ride tew Vincennes, and I'd ruther ride than walk,
any time."
"I'm for thinning this band as much as we can," said Floyd. "There
will not be so many to attack my father's stockade."
"Dead Chief is ready," said the Pottawatomie, in his short way.
"Good enuff!" replied Seth. "Waal, I'll creep down the bank below 'em
and come up on the back. You two creep up in front, and jest ez
soon as I give my loon-call, yew pick eout two of 'em and knock 'em
over. Pick eout the biggest, they ginerally fight the best. I'll give a
good account of number three, and then charge 'em like smoke.
Them's the sentiments I express upon this momentous occasion.
Now for it."
They separated, the chief and Floyd creeping cautiously to the front
and making their weapons ready for a shot, and the Yankee moving
away rapidly but silently to the left. After allowing five minutes to
pass, they heard the loon-call on the river.
Lifting their rifles, each sighted a man and pulled trigger. Down went
two of the savages, one shot through the brain and the other through
the breast, and with a hearty border shout they grasped their smaller
weapons and darted down the bank just as the weapon of Long Seth
spoke and a third Indian uttered his death-cry. At the same time the
Yankee appeared, and the three closed in upon their enemies, who,
like rats in a trap, turned and fought like men.
Singling out an adversary, the determined whites rushed on. Dashing
down the weak defense of his adversary, Seth struck him with his fist
a blow which seemed to shatter his jaws, for the bones absolutely
rattled as he went down.
"Take that, you red devil," he hissed, turning to seek a new foe. But,
the struggle was already at an end. The Dead Chief had hurled his
hatchet at his antagonist with the skill which only long practice in the
use of that weapon can give, and he rolled to the earth, the bright
bowl of the keen ax only showing through his skull. Will Floyd, at the
expense of a slight flesh-wound in the arm, had buried his dagger in
the breast of his own antagonist, and the struggle was over.
Seth knew that no time was to be lost, and darted for the canoe,
though for what purpose the chief remained behind the young soldier
could guess. When he joined them in the canoe he touched the
soldier on the arm and offered him two bloody scalps.
"No, no," said Floyd, pushing back his hand. "I can not take them."
"Two for you, Long Man," said the chief, offering the others to the
Yankee.
"I didn't hev time tew wait for 'em," replied Seth, coolly, taking the
bloody trophies and thrusting them into his belt. "Thank yew all the
same, chief. I reckon yew ain't used tew this sort of thing, cap.?"
"I confess I am not."
"Yew'll git over that. Climb intew the canoe and git hold of a paddle. I
reckon we'll hev a hard time of it yit. I hear them devils up above
coming down the rushes; hark! Du yew hear that?"
They listened and could hear the dip of paddles upon the river below.
They had been mistaken in the number of their enemies after all, it
seemed, and they had yet another patrol canoe below the rushes!
"Load up yure rifles, boys, and yew give the pistils fodder if they ain't
full already, Will. This old thief, the Profit, meant business when he
pitched on us. If we git threw it won't be for lack of head-work."
For some moments nothing was heard but the sound of preparation,
as they loaded their weapons. Then the canoe, which was a large
one, shot out into the stream, and Spink, who sat in the stern, caught
up a heavy stone which lay on the bank and laid it in the bottom of
the canoe, close to his feet. "Yew needn't mind the paddle jist yit,
Will. Let the chief keep her stiddy, and put her rite on tew the other
canoe, old man! I'll fix these heathen, yit."
The canoe was now only a few rods in advance, coming up under
the full sweep of the paddles in the hands of half a dozen strong
men. The morning was coming fast, but it was still too dark to
distinguish faces.
"Put her straight for 'em," said Seth. "I'll show 'em a trick."
As the two canoes neared each other, the Dead Chief shouted to the
coming savages in the Indian tongue:
"Who comes?"
"Brothers," replied the voice of the warrior in command. "Have the
white dogs been taken?"
"Who can escape the snares of the Prophet?" replied the Dead
Chief.
"Are they dead?" demanded the warrior.
"Why should we kill them?" replied the Dead Chief. "Come back and
we will see them burn by the same fire."
The canoes were now side by side, and the Indians were trying to
peer through the gloom of the morning to make out the figures in the
other craft, when Seth rose suddenly, and, uttering a wild cry, dashed
the huge stone through their canoe's bottom, tearing a great hole,
through which the water rushed in a torrent, and in a moment the
Indians were floundering in the water, while the other canoe,
impelled by the strong arms of Floyd and Dead Chief, passed on
down the river. In spite of the toils which the Prophet had set about
them, his prey had escaped.

CHAPTER VI.
THE AMBUSCADE.
Vincennes, on the Wabash, was the seat of government chosen by
Harrison, as Governor of that territory. Here he was gradually
collecting his forces for the coming struggle which he was assured
must come, with the Indians under the control of Tecumseh and the
Prophet. In the mean time his spies were everywhere gathering such
information as they could of the position and designs of the enemy.
In choosing these men, Harrison showed great knowledge of the
Indian character, and for this reason his most trusted scouts were
from that class of bordermen who, trained in border warfare, had
also suffered loss at their hands. These he sent into the Indian
country upon all sorts of pretenses, to collect information for future
use.
Thus he learned who were lukewarm in the British cause, and
therefore might be won over to the Americans.
Thus, when the struggle commenced, he knew upon whom to
depend, and what he had against him. The Governor was at his own
private residence when informed that the Pottawatomie, Dead Chief,
and his companions, Captain Floyd and Long Seth Spink, desired to
speak with him. He at once ordered them to his presence. Floyd was
admitted first, and found the Governor seated at a small table,
covered with papers and maps.
"Ah, captain," he said, "I am pleased to see you, although your leave
of absence has not yet expired. I don't see what brought you here
ahead of your time. You surely can not have had a quarrel with Miss
Madge?"
"No, your excellency. Far from that, but the family are in great
danger."
"Ha! In what way?"
"The Indians are on the war-path."
Harrison started up eagerly. "By heaven, I thought so. Who are their
leaders?"
"The Prophet and Willimack are with the party we met."
"Give an account of the affair in few words."
Floyd commenced with his meeting with the Yankee in the morning,
and the attempt of Willimack to enter the stockade, and told the story
up to their entrance into the town.
"Then there is not a moment to be lost. Take out your company of
the rangers and as many more as you need, and march up the river
to the stockade. How far do you call it?"
"About twenty miles."
"Very good. Get your men under arms. Take the Dead Chief with you
as a guide, and I will let this man Spink go also. You may send him
to me at once."
"The Dead Chief?"
"Seth Spink."
"Oh; do you know him, then?"
"I have heard of him," replied Harrison, with a slight smile. "This
action on the part of Willimack is premature, it is evident, and I am
certain that the Prophet is not pleased with it, nor do I think
Tecumseh knows any thing about it. Send Spink to me."
Floyd went out into the next room, but the Governor followed him to
the door, and, speaking with marked kindness to the Dead Chief, told
him to go with the captain as guide. Then beckoning to the scout, he
again entered the room. The Yankee followed him, closing the door
after him. They remained closeted in the room for more than an hour,
when the scout came out with a hurried step, and went down to the
river-side, where the company of Will Floyd, consisting of nearly a
hundred men, were under arms.
"Ha, Spink, my good fellow, hurry up," shouted the captain. "Death,
man, do you not see that I am impatient?"
"No use to hurry now, cap," replied Seth. "My father died in a hurry.
Ef he'd taken time tew think about it he needn't hev died at all. But,
he got it intew his head he couldn't live, and so he went off without
thinking. He won't dew that ag'in."
"Is this a time for jesting, sir?" said the captain, angrily. "Take your
place. Fall in, men. By fours; trot!"
They set off at a rapid pace, and rode along the river-side beneath
the bending branches, heavy with the morning dew. The birds sung
in the laden branches, as if a thought of blood or battle never could
or would disturb their grand old woods. But, the heart of young Floyd
was heavy, for he feared that Willimack would make good his threat
of the night before, and attack the stockade before his return. The
men shared his fears, and a shade of doubt once or twice crossed
the face of the Yankee, but he kept up a good heart, singing
snatches of old songs now and then in a quaint way, which caused a
smile among the ranks. But, before they had gone five miles his
mood changed, and he began to glance quickly from side to side as
if expecting an enemy. On they went through the oak openings until
the woods began to thicken, when the Yankee bent in his saddle,
and whispered in the ear of the captain.
"No, no," said Floyd, testily. "They have retreated, I tell you. They will
not risk an encounter now."
"But I think I'm right, fer all that, cap."
"It is impossible. You do not know my rangers, or you would not think
the Indians capable of resisting our march."
"I don't believe that the Prophet would fire a gun at a white man, dew
yew?" said the Yankee, with a quizzical look. "Cum mi'ty nigh
scorching yure legs last night, though."
"He is capable of any small villainy like that," replied the captain.
"But, he certainly is too able a warrior to commence before his plans
are ripe."
"It's forced upon him, cap. He knows that we've got clear, and that
both yew and the Dead Chief are aware of his hostility, so he can't
wait. You'd better ride a leetle grain more keerful."
"Nonsense."
"I ain't used tew being talked tew that way, cap. I'm a strange critter,
yew know. I dunno heow it is, but I've got a sort of sneaking notion I
know something 'bout Injin fi'tin'. Come; order the men tew pull in,
and don't make quite so much noise in the ranks."
"You take a great deal upon yourself, friend Spink," said Floyd, with a
light laugh. "Perhaps you had better lead the company yourself, as
you seem inclined to take command."
"See what it is tew be young," muttered the Yankee, with an
appearance of great vexation. "Yew'll force me tew dew something I
don't want tew, cap. Now, look here; yew ain't going tew ride intew
yonder narrow path, are yew, without sending out scouts?"
"What would you have me do, sir? You know as well as I do that it
makes the road three miles longer to keep in the oak openings."
"S'pose it duz? Yew don't want to lose half these nice-looking boys,
dew yew? Come; take good advice, and don't go threw them
woods."
"I will ride directly forward without turning out of my course for a
mere scarecrow cry from you."
A dark frown crossed the face of the Yankee, and he pulled hard on
his bridle and left the ranks.
"Go on then, if yew will. Bet yew forty dollars yew don't go fur."
With an angry exclamation Floyd put spurs to his horse, and calling
to his men to follow, dashed into the woods. Scarcely had he done
so when there was a rattling volley of musketry, and several saddles
were emptied, while high and wild above the rattle of the small-arms,
rose the gathering cry of the forest banditti. Dark forms glided from
bush to bush, and the young captain saw his error. Entangled in the
thick woods they must have been lost, but for his prompt action.
Snatching a bugle from the hand of a musician, he sounded the call
to fall back, and, taking their wounded comrades—for the rangers
would not leave them—they hastily retreated, and sheltered
themselves behind the bushes in front of the woods and looked after
their wounded comrades. Some of the savages showed themselves
for a moment, but a volley from the rifles of the rangers quickly drove
them back, and they waited for a new advance on the part of the
horsemen.
Floyd cast a sidelong glance for the Yankee, but he was gone. In the
melée he had taken his horse and slipped away, no one knew
whither. Angry with himself for his error, Floyd sent the wounded men
back to the village and buried the single dead man in the path, riding
over it with the rangers several times so that the Indians could not
find and mutilate the body. This done he took a wide detour, leaving
the woods on his right, and set off at the best rate of speed for his
home. Three miles on the way they met the Yankee coming back
with a look of sorrow on his face.
"I couldn't wait tew see it, cap.," he said. "How many of the boys
went under?"
"One," replied the captain, sorrowfully. "You were right, Seth. I ought
to have kept out of that trap. I know it now, but, that will not atone for
my folly. But, think what I feel now when I tell you that it would be a
kindness in you to shoot me through the head."
"No," replied Seth, slowly. "I don't think that would pay us, principally
because we kain't afford tew lose yew, and yew'll take advice next
time. I've been out scouting a little in advance. Ride a little to the
front and I'll tell yew what I've found eout."
They quickened their pace, and the Yankee bent in his saddle and
said in a low voice: "Willimack hez been over the road since last
night."
Floyd started violently, and his face grew pale. "How do you know
that?" he cried.
"I kan read Injin sign," answered the Yankee, calmly. "Thar's another
thing. I believe the critter they call the Skeleton Scout is arter
Willimack."
"Why?"
"'Cause I've seen his sign. Ef he's a ghost, then he's a mighty heavy
one. Why, he's got a foot bigger'n mine, ef I kin judge by his trail.
Now mind, I don't say he's a human; sartin he don't act like one; but
yew bet all yew'r worth he don't like Willimack, or heow in natur'
would he chase him up the way he did last night."
"But my father; my dearest Madge!" moaned the unhappy young
man. "Oh, why did I ever leave you?"
"'Twould only hev been tew more sculps ef we had been thar,"
replied the Yankee. "Now, I'll tell yew what I think. Willimack turned
back with his own warriors arter the Skileton Scout set you free, and
put out fer the stockade."
"I am afraid you are right. Let us press on as quickly as we can."
"No use of that. If he did turn back, and I'm pesky 'fraid he did, all we
kan do won't bring us thar in time. I'm afeard the old man didn't half
understand his danger, nuther, and was keerless arter we went
away. Here, order yure men to close up. Them Injins are behind us
now, but I reckin they won't leave a stick or stone standing along the
Wabash, now that their blood is up."
The rangers closed up. They quickened their pace, and, late in the
afternoon, began to near the clearing in which the settler had built
his house and stockade. As they entered the clearing, a heavy
smoke was seen to rise toward the summer sky, and, uttering a cry
of agony, the young soldier spurred quickly forward, to see what he
had most feared and yet had hardly dared to hope had not happened
—his father's house in ruins, and still smoking, though the flames
had nearly gone out! It was a terrible scene of desolation, but one all
too common in the history of these Indian wars.
The rangers surrounded the blackened walls. In some places the fire
had lost its power over the walls from their green state, and they still
stood, though blackened and half consumed. The house itself had
fallen, and the charred rafters lay among the smoldering embers of
that once happy home. The desolation did not stop here, for there, in
the opening between the stockade and the house, lay the bodies of
the two soldiers, who had been killed and scalped and horribly
mutilated.
"Poor Lefebre! unhappy Forbes!" said the young soldier. "Yours was
indeed a sad, sad fate. God in his mercy take you in his keeping!
But, where is my father?"
They searched here and there, and, at length, half hidden by a
heavy beam which had fallen upon their lifeless bodies, they found
the murdered forms of the three negroes, like the soldiers, scalped
and gory. All the indignities which savage ferocity could invent had
been heaped upon the wretched men who had here met their fate.
Floyd was ghastly pale, and reeled in his walk like a drunken man as
the five bodies were drawn out into the open space and laid down,
side by side. One of the soldiers dismounted, and, taking his blanket
from his saddle, and begging another from a comrade, covered the