730

730
DRY AIR, N2, CO2 AND N2/SF6 MIXTURES

FOR GAS-INSULATED SYSTEMS
WORKING GROUP
D1.51
JUNE 2018
DRY AIR, N2, CO2 AND N2/SF6
MIXTURES FOR GAS-INSULATED
SYSTEMS
WG D1.51
Members
H. HAMA, Convenor JP S. OKABE, Secretary JP
R. BÜHLER CH D. GAUTSCHI CH
A. GIRODET FR M. HERING DE
K. JUHRE DE Y. KIEFFEL FR
J. KINDERSBERGER DE W. KOLTUNOWICZ AT
J. LOPEZ-ROLDAN US S. NEUHOLD CH
C. NEUMANN DE R. PIETSCH DE
U. RIECHERT CH T. ROKUNOHE JP
U. SCHICHLER AT D. STEYN DE
T. YASUOKA JP
Copyright © 2018
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DRY AIR, N2, CO2 AND N2/SF6 MIXTURES FOR GAS-INSULATED SYSTEMS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Gas-insulated equipment using SF6 has widely been applied to power equipment due to its high reliability and
compactness. Since SF6 has, however, high global warming potential (GWP) of 23 500, the demand to reduce
its environmental impacts is now increasing, for instance, lowing SF6 emissions to the atmosphere and
studying alternative solutions of SF6 gas-insulated systems. Improving recyclability of materials used in the
gas-insulated systems, e.g. solid insulators, is another problems to be solved.
Under the above circumstances, the purpose of this WG D1.51 is to study basic and practical properties in the
potential gas-insulated systems and to apply the knowledge to existing SF6 gas-insulated systems together
with recyclable solid insulators from technical viewpoints. Here, the potential gas-insulated systems are the
systems using natural-origin gases (dry air, N2, CO2) and N2/SF6 gas mixtures.
The followings are main study items of this Technical Brochure, and applicable to the gas-insulated systems
for gas-insulated switchgear (GIS), gas circuit-breaker (GCB), gas-insulated line (GIL) and mixed technology
switchgear (MTS).
1. Insulation properties of potential gases:
 application criteria of potential gases and candidates,
 breakdown properties in quasi- and non-uniform field,
 breakdown properties of gas-insulator interface.
2. Practical insulation and small current interruption techniques:
 improvement of dielectric performance,
 partial discharge diagnostics and monitoring,
 current switching performance by disconnectors and earthing switches,
 recyclability of potential gases and polyethylene-terephtalate (PET).
3. Alternative dielectric (routine) tests:
 selection of gases for alternative dielectric tests,
 possibility of alternative dielectric routine tests and expected effects,
 practical limits of proposed approach and acceptance of alternative routine testing.
This Technical Brochure gives the latest information on basic and practical properties of the potential gas-
insulated systems using dry air, N2, CO2 and N2/SF6 mixtures. The knowledge together with the techniques of
recyclable solid materials will help lower the environmental impacts of existing SF6 gas-insulated systems.
3
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................... 3
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................... 7
1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 11
2 INSULATION PROPERTIES OF POTENTIAL GASES .............................................................. 13

2.1 APPLICATION CRITERIA OF POTENTIAL GASES AND CANDIDATES ......................................................... 13
2.1.1 Criteria for application .................................................................................................................................. 13
2.1.2 Candidates of potential gases ..................................................................................................................... 15
2.2 BREAKDOWN PROPERTIES IN QUASI-UNIFORM FIELD................................................................................ 17
2.2.1 Basic breakdown properties at LI and AC voltages ............................................................................... 17
2.2.2 Gas pressure dependence ............................................................................................................................ 22
2.2.3 Effect of surface roughness and area effect of electrodes ................................................................... 26
2.2.4 Impulse ratio ..................................................................................................................................................... 30
2.2.5 Characteristics at low, medium and high gas pressure range .............................................................. 32
2.3 BREAKDOWN AND PARTIAL DISCHARGE PROPERTIES IN NON-UNIFORM FIELD ................................ 37
2.3.1 Influence of particles on insulation properties .......................................................................................... 37
2.3.2 Influence of protrusions on insulation properties ...................................................................................... 40
2.3.3 Characteristics at low, medium and high gas pressure range .............................................................. 49
2.4 BREAKDOWN PROPERTIES OF GAS-INSULATOR INTERFACE .................................................................... 54
2.4.1 Basic breakdown properties at LI and AC voltages ............................................................................... 54
2.4.2 Influence of particles on insulation properties .......................................................................................... 61
2.5 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................................ 66
3 PRACTICAL INSULATION AND SMALL CURRENT INTERRUPTION TECHNIQUES ........... 69

3.1 IMPROVEMENT OF DIELECTRIC PERFORMANCE ............................................................................................ 69
3.2 PARTIAL DISCHARGE DIAGNOSTICS AND MONITORING .......................................................................... 73
3.2.1 Basic partial discharge properties .............................................................................................................. 73
3.2.1.1 Properties in N2, CO2, dry air and SF6 at AC voltages ................................................................... 74
3.2.1.2 Properties in N2/SF6 mixtures and SF6 ................................................................................................ 85
3.2.2 Differences with SF6 ........................................................................................................................................ 89
3.3 RECYCLABLE INSULATING MATERIALS ............................................................................................................. 92
3.4 CURRENT SWITCHING PERFORMANCES BY DISCONNECTORS AND EARTHING SWITCHES ............ 96
3.4.1 Basic small current switching properties ..................................................................................................... 96
3.4.1.1 Bus-charging current switching ............................................................................................................... 96
3.4.1.2 Bus-transfer current switching ................................................................................................................ 99
3.4.2 Differences with SF6 ...................................................................................................................................... 107
3.4.2.1 Bus-charging current switching............................................................................................................. 107
3.4.2.2 Bus-transfer current switching .............................................................................................................. 109
3.4.2.3 Switching operations with earthing switches..................................................................................... 112
3.5 PRACTICAL EVALUATION OF POTENTIAL GASES........................................................................................ 112
3.6 RECYCLABILITY ..................................................................................................................................................... 116
3.6.1 Recyclability of N2, CO2, dry air............................................................................................................... 116
3.6.2 Recyclability of N2/SF6 mixtures ............................................................................................................... 117
3.6.3 Recyclability of PET ...................................................................................................................................... 117
3.7 APPLICATION EXAMPLES FOR POTENTIAL GAS-INSULATED SYSTEMS ................................................. 118
3.7.1 Application of N2, CO2, dry air ................................................................................................................. 118
3.7.2 Application of N2/SF6 mixtures.................................................................................................................. 119
3.7.3 Application of PET ......................................................................................................................................... 120
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3.8 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................................................................... 121
4. ALTERNATIVE DIELECTRIC (ROUTINE) TESTS ..................................................................................................... 123

4.1 BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................... 123
4.2 SELECTION OF GASES FOR ALTERNATIVE DIELECTRIC TESTS .................................................................. 125
4.2.1 Available gases under quasi-uniform field ............................................................................................. 125
4.2.2 Available gases under non-uniform field ................................................................................................ 126
4.2.3 Evaluation of gases....................................................................................................................................... 131
4.3 POSSIBILITY OF ALTERNATIVE DIELECTRIC ROUTINE TESTS AND EXPECTED EFFECTS ........................ 133
4.3.1 Proposed test procedure ............................................................................................................................. 133
4.3.1.1 Testing complete bays........................................................................................................................... 133
4.3.1.2 Testing shipping units with circuit-breakers ....................................................................................... 134
4.3.1.3 Testing of other shipping units ............................................................................................................. 135
4.3.1.4 Testing mixed technology switchgear ................................................................................................ 136
4.3.2 Expected effects............................................................................................................................................ 136
4.3.2.1 Testing complete bays........................................................................................................................... 136
4.3.2.2 Testing shipping units with circuit-breakers ....................................................................................... 137
4.3.2.3 Testing of other shipping units ............................................................................................................. 137
4.3.2.4 Testing mixed technology switchgear ................................................................................................ 137
4.4 PRACTICAL LIMITS OF PROPOSED APPROACH AND POSSIBLE MODIFICATIONS ............................. 137
4.5 ACCEPTANCE OF ALTERNATIVE ROUTINE TESTING ................................................................................... 138
5 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................... 139
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................. 141
ANNEX A: BREAKDOWN PROPERTIES FOR NON-STANDARD LIGHTNING IMPULSE ... 153

A.1 BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................................................... 153
A.2 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND CONDITIONS .................................................................................................... 153
A.2.1 Experimental waveforms ............................................................................................................................. 153
A.2.2 Generation circuit for non-standard lightning impulses ........................................................................ 154
A.2.3 Experimental conditions ............................................................................................................................... 154
A.3 BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE PROPERTIES FOR NON-STANDARD LIGHTNING IMPULSE
WAVEFORMS ....................................................................................................................................................... 155
A.4 COMPREHENSIVE EVALUATION OF NON-STANDARD LIGHTNING IMPULSE WAVEFORM ............. 159
A.4.1 Evaluation with time duration ..................................................................................................................... 159
A.4.2 Insulation evaluation algorithm .................................................................................................................. 160
ANNEX B: PARTIAL DISCHARGE PROPERTIES IN N2, CO2, DRY AIR AND SF6 ................. 163
B.1 PARTIAL DISCHARGES IN A NEEDLE-TO-PLANE ELECTRODE SYSTEM AT DC VOLTAGES ................. 163
ANNEX C: SMALL CURRENT SWITCHING PROPERTIES ....................................................... 169

C.1 INSULATION RECOVERY VOLTAGE UNDER BUS-CHARGING CURRENT SWITCHING ...................... 169
C.2 PERFORMANCE OF AIR-INSULATED DISCONNECTORS DURING BUS-TRANSFER CURRENT
SWITCHING .......................................................................................................................................................... 170
C.3 OTHER INFLUENCING PARAMETERS IN BUS-TRANSFER CURRENT SWITCHING PROPERTIES .......... 172
ANNEX D: APPLICATION EXAMPLES OF POTENTIAL GASES AND PRESSURE RANGES175

D.1 STUDY ITEMS OF WG D1.51 AND GAS PRESSURE RANGES OF POTENTIAL GASES ....................... 175
ANNEX E: EXAMPLES OF ALTERNATIVE ROUTINE TESTS USING POTENTIAL GASES ... 177
E.1 PRESENT TEST PROCESS USING SF6 ................................................................................................................ 177
6
E.2 ALTERNATIVE TEST PROCESS USING NON-SF6 GASES.............................................................................. 178

E.3 REDUCTION OF SF6 EMISSION BY ALTERNATIVE ROUTINE TESTS AND ITS PRACTICAL
EVALUATION ........................................................................................................................................................ 182
E.4 INVESTIGATIONS ON CONTACT TRAVEL OF CIRCUIT-BREAKER IN SF6 AND ALTERNATIVE
GASES ..................................................................................................................................................................... 183
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
α Ionization coefficient of gas
 Coefficient of gas pressure dependence of breakdown voltage
εr Relative permittivity
 Attachment coefficient of gas
 Standard deviation of Gaussian distribution
Eb Breakdown electric field strength under clean condition (under quasi-uniform field)
Ebp60s AC breakdown electric field strength at 60 s of V-t characteristic caused by moving particles
E50% Breakdown electric field strength of 50 % probability
Ecr Critical electric field strength at which effective ionization coefficient becomes zero
Ecp Electric field strength on enclosure inner surface at which a moving particle crosses to high voltage
conductor at AC voltage (root-mean-square value)
Ecp bare Electric field strength on enclosure inner surface for bare enclosure at which a moving
particle crosses to high voltage conductor at AC voltage (root-mean-square value)
Ecp coated Electric field strength on enclosure inner surface for dielectric coated enclosure at which a
moving particle crosses to high voltage conductor at AC voltage (root-mean-square value)
Ecph Electric field strength on high voltage conductor at which a moving particle crosses to high voltage
conductor at AC voltage (root-mean-square value)
Elp Electric field strength on enclosure inner surface at which a moving particle stands up and levitates
at AC voltage (root-mean-square value)
Elp bare Electric field strength on enclosure inner surface for bare enclosure at which a moving
particle stands up and levitates at AC voltage (root-mean-square value)
Elp coated Electric field strength on enclosure inner surface for dielectric coated enclosure at which a
moving particle stands up and levitates at AC voltage (root-mean-square value)
Eth Minimum streamer inception electric field strength (theoretical breakdown electric field strength)
ipd Partial discharge current
ipd peak Peak value of partial discharge current
m Shape parameter of Weibull distribution
P Gas pressure (absolute value)
q Charge quantity of partial discharge
Rz Mean surface roughness according to EN ISO 4287
Tg Glass transition temperature of insulator material
7
tr Rise time of partial discharge current pulse
U (Breakdown) voltage
U0.1% Breakdown voltage of 0.1 % probability in Weibull distribution
U50% Breakdown voltage of 50 % probability
U50%-3 Minimum breakdown voltage defined by U50% minus the value of 3 of Gaussian distribution
UAC Breakdown voltage at AC voltage
UAC peak Breakdown voltage (crest value) at AC voltage
Ub Breakdown voltage under clean condition (under quasi-uniform field)
Ub dry air Breakdown voltage in dry air under clean condition
Ub N2 Breakdown voltage in N2 under clean condition
Ub CO2 Breakdown voltage in CO2 under clean condition
Ub N2/SF6 Breakdown voltage in N2/SF6 gas mixtures under clean condition
Ub SF6 Breakdown voltage in SF6 under clean condition
Ub bare Breakdown voltage of bare electrode under clean condition
Ub bare SF6 Breakdown voltage of bare electrode in SF6 under clean condition
Ub coated Breakdown voltage of coated electrode under clean condition
Ub min Minimum breakdown voltage under clean condition
Ubp Breakdown voltage initiated by metallic particles
Ubp dry air Breakdown voltage initiated by metallic particles in dry air
Ubp N2 Breakdown voltage initiated by metallic particles in N2
Ubp CO2 Breakdown voltage initiated by metallic particles in CO2
Ubp N2/SF6 Breakdown voltage initiated by metallic particles in N2/SF6 gas mixtures
Ubp SF6 Breakdown voltage initiated by metallic particles in SF6
Ubp50% Breakdown voltage of 50 % probability initiated by metallic particles
Ubp60s Breakdown voltage initiated by moving particles at 60 s in the V-t characteristics
Ucp AC voltage at which a moving particle crosses to high voltage conductor
U Location parameter of Weibull distribution for breakdown voltage
U Scale parameter of Weibull distribution for breakdown voltage
ULI Breakdown voltage at lightning impulse voltage
Umin Minimum breakdown voltage
LIUmin Minimum breakdown voltage at standard lightning impulse waveform
Upd Partial discharge inception voltage
Updp50% Partial discharge inception voltage of 50 % probability initiated by metallic particles
Uth Minimum streamer inception voltage (theoretical breakdown voltage)
8
Uws Withstand voltage statistically assured by 15 impulse voltages repeated at least three times
AC Alternating current
ACWV Alternating current withstand voltage, i.e. rated short-duration power-frequency withstand
voltage in IEC 62271-203 in kV (root-mean-square value)
BD Breakdown
BDV Breakdown voltage
CT Current transformer
DC Direct current
DCM Disassembled compartments of GIS/MTS after routine tests (see Annexes E.1, E.2)
DS Disconnector switch
EM Electromagnetic
ES Earthing switch
FOV Flashover voltage
GCB Gas circuit-breaker
GIL Gas-insulated transmission line
GIS Gas-insulated switchgear
GWP Global warming potential
HV High voltage
LI Lightning impulse
LIW Lightning impulse waveform
LIWV Lightning impulse withstand voltage
MTS Mixed technology switchgear (Hybrid IS)
NDCM Non-disassembled compartments of GIS/MTS after routine tests except for GCB (see Annexes
E.1, E.2)
PD Partial discharge
PDIV Partial discharge inception voltage
PET Polyethylene-terephtalate
pu per unit
rrrV Rate of rise of recovery voltage
SI Switching impulse
VFTO Very fast transient overvoltage
NOTE: In order to unify the symbols and abbreviations in this Technical Brochure, some of those in
the original figures and tables in references are appropriately modified, and the modifications are
noted in every figure and table caption.
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10
1 INTRODUCTION
In the near future, both improved SF6 gas-insulated systems and other gas-insulated systems, for example,
the system using dry air, N2, CO2 and N2/SF6 gas mixtures (hereafter, potential gas-insulated systems) will be
required in order to reduce environmental impacts. To realize such systems, various techniques that are
different from those of SF6 gas-insulated systems are needed [1.1]. These are, for example, insulation, partial
discharge (PD) diagnostics/monitoring and small current interruption techniques for the gas-insulated systems.
In addition, the studies on alternative dielectric tests applying the potential gases will help minimise SF6 use
and SF6 emissions in a factory [1.2].
The aim of this Technical Brochure is to study basic and practical properties in the potential gas-insulated
systems and to apply the results to existing SF6 gas-insulated systems from technical viewpoints. First, the
incentive and necessity for the improved SF6 and the potential gas-insulated systems are mentioned. Then,
application criteria of the potential gases and the candidates are indicated. The main study items of this
Technical Brochure are shown in Figure 1.1 as follows (see Annex D for gas pressure ranges of the study
items referring to section 3.7):
 basic and practical properties of the gases for the potential gas-insulated systems, e.g. insulation, PD
diagnostics and monitoring techniques, small current interruption properties by disconnectors and
earthing switches, and recyclability of the gases, from the view point of differences from SF6 and
differences between the gases,
 alternative dielectric (routine) tests by using the potential gases, and recyclable solid insulator
techniques for the improved SF6 gas-insulated systems.
The results of the studies are applicable to the gas-insulated systems for gas-insulated switchgear (GIS), gas
circuit-breaker (GCB), gas-insulated line (GIL) and mixed technology switchgear (MTS).
This Technical Brochure summarizes the available information and will look for the state-of-the-art improved
SF6 and the potential gas-insulated systems using dry air, N2, CO2 and N2/SF6 mixtures.
Improved SF6 Potential

gas-insulated system gas-insulated system
<Study item> <Study item>
◊Alternative dielectric tests by ◊ Basic/ practical properties
using the potential gases is of the potential gases:
possible? insulation, PD diagnostics/
monitoring, small current
interruption, gas recyclability
- Differences from SF6,
◊ Recyclable solid insulator
- Differences between the gases
techniques
• Potential gases: dry air, N2, CO2

and N2/SF6 mixtures
Figure 1.1: Main study items of this Technical Brochure to realize improved SF6 and potential gas-
insulated systems
11
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2 INSULATION PROPERTIES OF POTENTIAL GASES
Breakdown properties are most essential aspects for the application of the potential gases in gas-insulated
systems. This chapter gives the background for the choice of potential candidates (section 2.1) as well as
experimental results from several investigations.
The dielectric strength in quasi-uniform field, not affected by technical surface roughness of conductors or
defects, can be derived from the gas discharge process, but it does not allow a reliable design of industrial
gas-insulated systems. Practical investigations under service-comparable conditions support the evaluation of
applicable limit values. Section 2.2 gives such information about experimental results for quasi-uniform fields.
The influence of imperfections on the breakdown properties is also of high importance. Section 2.3 introduces
investigations of breakdown properties in non-uniform fields, especially for metallic particles and further
defects.
Solid insulators are important components of gas-insulated systems. The presence of insulators influences the
electric field distribution in the gas and at the gas-insulator interface. Section 2.4 reports about investigations
of partial discharge inception and breakdown properties of gas-solid interfaces under clean conditions and also
with metallic particles attached to the surface.
2.1 APPLICATION CRITERIA OF POTENTIAL GASES AND CANDIDATES
2.1.1 Criteria for application

For more than 50 years, SF6 has been used in GIS and GCB, and has also been applied to GIL and MTS. It
has a very good combination of properties which made it very suitable for the application as an insulating gas
and current interruption media.
The only drawback of SF6 is the high global warming potential (GWP) of about 23 500 (100 year time horizon,
CO2 equivalent) [2.1.1]. For many years now, the greenhouse effect is under a more intensive scrutiny
worldwide. Due to the very high GWP, SF6 has been in the focus of attention, and it has been replaced in those
applications that release high quantities of material to the environment and where substitutes are readily
available [2.1.2].
For GIS, it had been shown that ecological substitutes were not available which met all of the technical
requirements and at comparable costs. In order to limit the environmental drawback of SF6 technology, leakage
rates of SF6 have been limited since the early days. Considering the closed handling of SF 6 over its lifetime,
SF6 gas insulation technology has made substantial improvements since its introduction.
Today, the use of SF6 in switchgear applications is monitored quite intensively and handling is only permitted
by trained personnel. Nevertheless, taxes or even a ban of SF 6 is still under discussion in some areas.
The followings are basic properties required for the potential gases when they are applied to gas-insulated
systems and the capability of large current interruption as circuit-breakers is not necessary [2.1.2].
(1) Dielectric properties

This is covered in detail in this chapter and section 3.2. The main dielectric properties to analyse would be
[2.1.3-2.1.5]:
 dielectric strength at AC and transient voltages,
13
 sensitivity to area effect of electrodes (quasi-uniform field) and to metallic particles (non-uniform field),
 impulse ratio, i.e. ratio of lightning impulse (LI)-breakdown voltage to AC-breakdown voltage,
 partial discharge properties.
(2) Thermal properties

Current flowing through gas-insulated equipment generates heat. According to IEC 62271-1, particular
attention must be paid to the maximum temperature of contacts to avoid ageing phenomena. If SF 6 is to be
replaced by another gas or gas mixture, it is necessary to establish the thermal properties of the new gas
relative to those of pure SF6. The characteristics of the gas have to be taken into account for the thermal
resistance between the main conductor and the enclosure, whereas the temperature rise of the enclosure
depends mainly on the thermal resistance of the ambient medium. The SF 6 used in GIS exhibits a good thermal
conductivity and it allows to dissipate the heat and to keep the temperature rise in GIS at acceptable levels.
(3) Physico-chemical properties

Gas-inslated switchgear must perform at temperatures above -30 ˚C. The SF6 gas at normal operating
pressure liquefies at low temperatures. In some countries as in Sweden and Canada where a lower working
temperature is required, SF6 gas is used as gas mixture with N2 or CF4. Compared to pure SF6 of the same
pressure, the liquefaction temperature of the gas mixture is reduced, due to a reduced partial pressure of the
SF6 content. Alternative gases or gas mixtures must have the low operating temperatures, and this property
shall be taken into account. Fluorocarbon gases have in general high liquefaction temperatures which imposes
a constraint to be used in combination with gases of low liquefaction temperatures.
The gas tightness and permeability is dependent on the diffusion characteristics at the working temperature
and pressure range.
The long-term gas stability also at high temperatures is another important factor to be considered. It is required
to minimise the reaction of the gas with the metallic and insulating materials inside GIS [2.1.6].
(4) Toxicity of the gas and gas by-products

Although the insulated gas such as SF6 is inert, the gas can form various dissociation products when it is
subjected to electrical discharges (corona, spark, arc) and in the presence of impurities (such as oxygen or
moisture) and solid materials.
The decomposition products of the gas combination have to be studied. For instance, investigations with
discharges during small current interruption in N2/SF6 gas mixtures have confirmed effects that are known in
relation to the individual gases. In addition, some special effects due to the mixture of N2 and SF6 have been
observed. As an example, many parameters influence the amount of dissociation products such as SF4, SOF2,
SOF4, SO2 and HF, and the tendency is for them to become more dominant in the mixture than would be
expected from the SF6 amount alone [2.1.7]. The toxicity of these by-products must be assessed and compared
to acceptable levels.
(5) Arc quenching capabilities for disconnector switching

Disconnectors in GIS, as defined by IEC 62271-102, have as their main operational function to isolate the
circuit in the open position. They are operated under no load, but they have to interrupt at high voltages small
capacitive bus-charging currents (maximum 1.0 A), or larger induced currents (60 % to 80 % of rated
continuous current limited to 4 000 A) with a very low voltage (10 V to 42 V) during bus-transfer current
14
switching. In both cases, no special arc extinction system is required due to the low current or voltage during
the switching operation. However, in the case of bus-charging current switching, the disconnector switching
performance requires adequate properties of the insulation system, achieved by the combination of the design
and the insulating gas used [2.1.5]. Sparkover to ground from the arc between the contacts during the switching
of bus-charging currents has to be avoided by appropriate measures, especially at higher rated voltages
(300 kV or higher).
(6) Performance during internal arc

A fault leading to arcing within GIS has a low order of probability due to the precautions taken according to
IEC 62271-203 and IEC 62271-204. Nevertheless, the behaviour of the gas in the event of an internal arc has
to be considered.
The main influences of the gas in the event of the internal arc inside GIS enclosure are as follows.
 Pressure rise: The energy generated by the arc produces a sudden increase of the gas pressure inside
the enclosure. Overpressure generated during the internal arc fault test causes mechanical stress on
the switchgear enclosures and on building walls. Air has faster and higher pressure rise than SF 6 gas
[2.1.8].
 Burn-through time: This effect is caused by the arc which can burn on a surface of the metallic
enclosure and it melts and punctures walls. The gas has an effect in the arc root diameter which has
an influence in the time for the arc to burn-through the enclosure. For instance, the resulting arc roots
on bare electrode surfaces of N2/SF6-insulated equipment (about 80 % N2 content) have been found to
be much smoother compared to affected surfaces with SF6 insulation [2.1.5].
 Flammability and gas decomposition: It is necessary to check that the alternative gas used is not
explosive in the event of an internal arc. As mentioned before, even inert gases such as SF 6 are
decomposed at the high temperatures produced by an internal arc. The decomposition products react
with the insulated and metal materials, and produce other gaseous and solid components. In the case
of SF6, these components are toxic and they might be released to the atmosphere after the opening of
the rupture disk or burn-through. Therefore, special safety measures must be taken in the event of an
internal fault.
2.1.2 Candidates of potential gases

A lot of researches on feasible SF6 substitutes have been done for many years, but no more excellent gases
than SF6 to fulfill the application criteria described in section 2.1.1 has been found at the moment. The possible
candidates are introduced in [2.1.9, 2.1.10], which are air, N2, CO2, perfluorocarbon (PFC), hydrofluorocarbon
(HFC), gas mixtures containing SF6 as shown in Figure 2.1.1. These gases do not have higher dielectric
strength but lower GWP than SF6, and their boiling points are below 0 ˚C.
Other approaches to apply new alternative gases with low GWP to gas-insulated systems are now under study.
These are CF3I [2.1.11], Fluoronitrile (C4F7N) [2.1.12, 2.1.13] and Fluoroketones (C5F10O: C5 F-ketone, C6F12O:
C6 F-ketone) [2.1.14], and suggested to use as mixtured gas with CO2 and O2. These gases have a feature of
more excellent dielectric strength but higher boiling point than SF6.
15
Figure 2.1.1: Dielectric strength versus boiling temperature of gases [2.1.9, 2.1.10]
In this Technical Brochure, gases such as dry air, N2, CO2 and N2/SF6 gas mixtures are chosen and studied
according to the terms of reference. A lot of investigations have been done for these gases and the data are
now available. Dry air, N2 and CO2 have lower dielectric performance, but they are environmentally-friendly,
easy to handle and suitable for alternative dielectric (routine) tests in a factory, and have a potential to be
widely applied to gas-insulated systems. These gases do not require special gas treatment procedures, as it
is necessary for SF6. National or international regulations concerning the application and the treatment of flour-
containing gases do not take effect for such gases as dry air, N 2 or CO2. Gas mixtures of N2/SF6 are also
included in the study, since it has already been used to gas-insulated systems for GIL for more than ten years,
and is effective to reduce the GWP of the systems.
Researches on the new alternative gases like Fluoronitrile and Fluoroketones started a few years ago but not
so many practical data are available at the moment. These gases will be studied and discussed in another
CIGRE working group.
16
2.2 BREAKDOWN PROPERTIES IN QUASI-UNIFORM FIELD

2.2.1 Basic breakdown properties at LI and AC voltages
(1) Weibull distribution of breakdown voltages
Basic breakdown properties of the potential gases like dry air, N2, CO2, N2/SF6 gas mixtures selected in section
2.1 are introduced by using real-size gas-insulated busbar in [2.2.1-2.2.3]. The experimental setup is shown
in Figures 2.2.1 (a) and (b). The test electrodes were installed to the high voltage (HV) conductor of an actual
busbar system of which length and diameter are 5 200 mm and 340 mm, respectively. The electrodes tested
were made of aluminum alloy whose diameter and length were 240 mm and 100 mm, respectively. The
distance between each electrode was set to 150 mm to avoid the interference with each other. The field
utilization factor (average electric field / maximum electric field) of the test electrode system was around 0.59
whose value was equivalent to an actual busbar. The surface roughness of the electrodes was ±3 m (the
mean roughness Rz according to [EN ISO4287] was around 6 m). The number of the electrodes was changed
between one and twelve to investigate area effect of breakdown voltages.
340 mm
High voltage conductor

Test electrode (240 mm×100 mm)
Insulator Enclosure
(a) Cross-sectional view (b) Overview of experimental set up
Figure 2.2.1: Experimental setup using real-size gas-insulated busbar [2.2.1-2.2.3]
The breakdown tests were conducted by up-and-down method applying standard lightning impulse voltages
of positive and negative polarities. Voltages of 60 Hz AC were raised at 5 kV/s until breakdowns occurred. The
gas pressure of the potential gases was varied in the range between 0.23 MPa and 0.7 MPa corrected at the
gas temperature of 20 C. The minimum and 50 % probability breakdown voltages were obtained by statistical
analysis of Weibull distribution.
It is well known that breakdown voltages in quasi-uniform electric field decrease by increasing the electrode
area. The minimum breakdown voltages need to be obtained from the cumulative breakdown probability by
Weibull plots. Also, the minimum breakdown voltages defined as breakdown probability of 0.1 % in Weibull
plots are basically comparable to 50 % - 3 ( : standard deviation) by Gaussian distribution.
The cumulative breakdown probability F(U) of Weibull plots for a voltage U is given by the following equation:
F(U) = 1 - exp[ - {(U-U ) / U }m ] (2.2.1)
where m is the shape parameter that indicates deviation of breakdown voltages. The values of U and U are
the scale parameter and the location parameter, respectively.
Figure 2.2.2 shows Weibull plots of positive and negative lightning impulse breakdown voltages of the test
electrodes in dry air, N2, CO2, 80%N2/20%SF6 gas mixture and SF6 at 0.55 MPa [2.2.1-2.2.3]. The number of
the test electrodes was twelve. The breakdown tests were conducted 30 times at least in each test
configuration. The figure shows that the linearity of every breakdown plot is very good for both polarities. In
17
negative polarity, the Weibull plots of all gases have the location parameters that correspond to the minimum
breakdown voltages. On the other hand, noted that it is not possible to obtain the location parameter from the
Weibull plot of N2 in positive polarity.
Cumulative breakdown probability （％）

2 99.9 2 99.9
CO2 N2 Dry air N2/SF6 CO2 N2 Dry air N2/SF6 SF6
99.0 99.0

1 90.0
1 90.0
70.0 70.0
0 0
ln(ln(1/(1-F)))
ln(ln(1/(1-F)))
50.0 50.0
-1 30.0 -1 30.0
20.0 20.0
-2 -2
10.0 10.0
Marks Gases
Marks Gases SF6
80%N2/20%SF6
-3 Dry air
5.0 -3 80%N2/20%SF6
Dry air
5.0
CO2 CO2 3.0
3.0
N2 N2
2.0 2.0
-4 -4
200 400 600 800 1000 2000 200 400 600 800 1000 2000
Breakdown voltage (kV) Breakdown voltage (kV)
(a) Positive polarity (b) Negative polarity
Figure 2.2.2: Weibull plots of lightning impulse breakdown voltages of test electrodes in dry air,
N 2 , CO 2 , 80%N 2 /20%SF 6 mixture and SF 6 at 0.55 MPa [2.2.1-2.2.3]
Table 2.2.1 summarizes LI breakdown voltages of the test electrodes in N2, CO2, dry air and 80%N2/20%SF6
mixture at 0.55 MPa [2.2.1-2.2.3]. The breakdown voltage calculated by location parameter Umin and 50 %-3
breakdown voltage (U50%-3) by Weibull plots are shown as the minimum breakdown voltage. The values of
U50% are breakdown voltages of 50 % probability of Weibull distribution. The minimum breakdown voltage of
N2 is calculated from the 0.1 % breakdown probability of Weibull plot estimated by location parameter as zero,
since N2 had no location parameter. The followings can be seen from the table. The value of Umin is lower than
U50%-3 for all the gases tested except for 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture at +LI. In the case of N2, the standard
deviations  of positive polarity are larger than those of negative polarity, and especially the deviation of
positive polarity are three times larger than that of negative one. Regarding the polarity effect, the breakdown
voltages of CO2, dry air and SF6 in negative polarity are smaller than those of positive one, while the breakdown
voltages of N2 and 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture in positive polarity are smaller than those in negative one.
Figure 2.2.3 shows Weibull plots of AC breakdown voltages of the test electrodes in dry air, N2, CO2,
80%N2/20%SF6 gas mixture and SF6 at 0.7 MPa [2.2.1-2.2.3]. The number of the test electrodes in Figure
2.2.1 was twelve and the gas pressure of every potential gas was 0.7 MPa. The plots of the breakdown
voltages fit well to Weibull distribution, and each gas has the location parameter Umin. It is summarized that N2,
dry air, CO2, 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture and SF6 have breakdown voltages in ascending order.
18
Table 2.2.1: Summary of LI breakdown voltages of the test electrodes in N 2 , CO 2 , dry air and
80%N 2 /20%SF 6 at 0.55 MPa [2.2.1-2.2.3]. The parameters of the original table in the reference are
modified as in U 50% , U min and U 50%-3 .
+LI -LI
Gases U min U 50%  U 50%-3 U min U 50%  U 50%-3 Ratio to SF6
(kV) (kV) (%) (kV) (kV) (kV) (%) (kV) (U 50%)
N2 264 396 7.2 310 359 401 2.2 375 0.39
CO2 382 411 2.3 383 358 388 1.5 371 0.38
Dry air 420 489 3.5 439 387 455 1.3 438 0.44
80%N2/20%SF6 699 765 3.5 685 714 787 2.9 720 0.77

2 99.9
Marks Gases
SF6 N2 CO2 Dry air N2/SF6 SF6 99.0
80%N2/20%SF6
Dry air
1 CO2
90.0
N2
70.0
0
ln(ln(1/(1-F)))
50.0
-1 30.0
20.0
-2
10.0
-3 5.0
3.0
2.0
-4
100 200 400 600 800 1000
Breakdown voltage (kV)
Figure 2.2.3: Weibull plots of AC breakdown voltages of the test electrodes in dry
air, N 2 , CO 2 , 80%N 2 /20%SF 6 mixture and SF 6 at 0.7 MPa [2.2.1-2.2.3]
(2) Influence of electric field non-uniformity

In [2.2.4, 2.2.5], another experimental result of LI and AC breakdown voltages of the potential gases is
reported. Figure 2.2.4 shows electrode configurations for the breakdown voltage measurements. The gases
used for the experiment were SF6 and other gases such as N2, CO2 and dry air. Applied voltages were positive
and negative LI and AC, and the gas pressure was changed between 0.1 MPa and 0.9 MPa. The field non-
uniform factor (Emax / Eave: maximum electric field / average electric field) of the electrode configuration, and
electrode surface roughness of HV and ground electrodes are described in the figure. Note that a field non-
uniformity factor is the reciprocal value of a field utilization factor.
19
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Rod-plane Rod-rod Rod-plane Sphere-plane Parallel plane
(Rod: =10 mm) (Rod: =30 mm) (Rod: =30 mm) (Sphere: =100 mm) (Plane: =100 mm)
F = 45 mm
Electrode
configuration
Gap = 15 mm Gap = 5 mm Gap = 15 mm Gap = 15 mm Gap = 10 mm

Non-uniformity factor
3.01 1.11 1.71 1.20 1.01
(Emax / Eave)
Electrode surface HV: Rz = 15 m HV: Rz = 15 m HV: Rz = 15 m HV: Rz = 2 – 30 m HV: Rz =7 m
roughness Ground: Rz = 1.5 m Ground: Rz = 1.5 m Ground: Rz = 1.5 m Ground: Rz =1.5 m Ground: Rz =7 m
(f) (g) (h) (i)

Coaxial cylinder Coaxial cylinder Coaxial cylinder Coaxial cylinder
(30 mm/60 mm) (60 mm/150 mm) (60 mm/90 mm) (70 mm/150 mm)
Electrode
configuration
L = 50 mm L = 340 mm L = 35 mm, 100 mm, 150 mm, 600 mm
L = 150 mm
Gap = 15 mm Gap = 45 mm Gap = 15 mm Gap = 40 mm
Non-uniformity factor
1.44 1.68 1.23 1.86
(Emax / Eave)
Electrode surface HV: Rz = 1 – 50 m HV: Rz = less than 25 m HV: Rz = 15 m HV: Rz = less than 25 m
roughness Ground: Rz = 1.5 m Ground: Rz = 10 m Ground: Rz = 1.5 m Ground: Rz = less than 25 m
Figure 2.2.4: Electrode configurations for breakdown voltage measurements [2.2.4, 2.2.5]
Figure 2.2.5 shows the influence of electric field non-uniformity on breakdown electric field strength in dry air,
N2, CO2 and SF6 [2.2.4, 2.2.5]. The electrode configuration of (a), (c) and (d) was used, and gas pressure was
0.9 MPa for dry air, N2, CO2 and 0.3 MPa for SF6. The voltages applied were positive and negative LI and AC.
The curves of Ecr and Etheory in the figure correspond to critical electric field strength at which effective ionization
coefficient becomes zero, and theoretical breakdown electric field strength (hereafter, Eth in this Technical
Brochure), respectively. The breakdown (BD) electric field strength in the figure shows 50 % breakdown field
based on up-and-down method of lightning voltage application. The field non-uniformity factor of the electrode
configuration is in the range between 1.0 and 3.0.
Regarding high-pressure CO2, breakdown electric field strength at negative LI increases by about 80 % when
the electric field non-uniformity rises from 1.2 to 3.0. Dry air indicates a similar tendency to CO2. In the case of
SF6, the increasing rate caused by electric field non-uniformity is smaller than that of CO2 and dry air. As to
high-pressure N2, the tendency might not be clear. The results could be explained by the relationship between
(α-)/P and E/P, where α,  and P are ionization coefficient, attachment coefficient and gas pressure,
respectively.
20
Figure 2.2.5: Influence of electric field non-uniformity on breakdown electric field strength in dry
air, N 2 , CO 2 and SF 6 [2.2.4, 2.2.5]. (In the figure, E theory =E th )
(3) Breakdown properties at non-standard lightning impulse waveforms

To evaluate the rational insulation design and insulation reliability of GIS, it is important to understand the
insulating characteristics for non-standard lightning impulse waveforms (non-standard LIWs) actually
appearing at substations. Breakdown voltage properties of N2 [2.2.6], CO2 [2.2.7], and dry air [2.2.8] have been
obtained for non-standard LIWs under quasi-uniform electric fields compared with those of SF6 [2.2.9]. These
results [2.2.10, 2.2.11] are applicable to examination on the representative overvoltage for setting LIWV in
insulation-coordination procedure [2.2.12, 2.2.13].
As an example, Figure 2.2.6 shows the V-t characteristics under the oscillation frequency of 5.3 MHz and
20.0 MHz with damping time constant  1.0 s. Almost all the breakdown plots at 5.3 MHz with  =1.1 s can
be observed near the peak value of each peak. The value of minimum breakdown voltage Umin (Vmin in the
figure) is 130 kV at the third peak of oscillation (0.48 s) for CO2 and 161 kV at the first peak of oscillation
(0.13 s) for N2, meaning Umin is lower and the breakdown time longer for CO2. As for the breakdown plots at
20.0 MHz with  =0.51 s, the V-t plots decline sooner than those of the waveform of 5.3 MHz for both CO 2
and N2 due to the steep initial rise in voltage. While breakdown frequently occurs near the peak values, some
breakdowns can also be observed at the valley of oscillation. These breakdowns at the valley are considered
attributable to the influence of preceding waveforms.
Details of the experimental results with changing parameter values are described in Annex A, together with
their application of the evaluation method from the viewpoint of insulation-coordination.
21
Time (s)
Figure 2.2.6: Comparison of insulation characteristics obtained while changing frequency and
keeping   1.0 s waveforms [2.2.6-2.2.13]. See Figure A.3 (a) for test configuration. (In the
figure, V min =U min )
2.2.2 Gas pressure dependence

Figure 2.2.7 shows gas pressure dependences of 50 % (U50%) and minimum breakdown voltages (Umin) at
positive and negative LI in dry air, N2, CO2, 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture and SF6 [2.2.1-2.2.3]. The breakdown
voltages of U50% and Umin were obtained from Weibull distribution. The number of the test electrodes in the
experimental setup in Figure 2.2.1 was twelve.
The gas pressure dependence of breakdown voltages U can be usually expressed by the following equation:
U = Ap P (2.2.2)
where, P,  and Ap are gas pressure, coefficient of gas pressure dependence and constant, respectively. The
breakdown voltages for all gases increase as the gas pressure rises for both polarities. The coefficients of gas
pressure dependence  in the potential gases are in the range between 0.6 and 0.8, which are the similar value
of around 0.7 in SF6 [2.2.14]. In CO2, dry air, 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture and SF6, the values of U50% are larger
than those of Umin by 5 % to 10 % for both polarities. However, the differences between U50% and Umin in N2
are much larger than the other gases, e.g. 36 % for positive polarity and 20 % in negative polarity at 0.7 MPa.
This fact suggests that the scatter of the breakdown voltages in N2 are prominent compared to the other gases.
22
N2 SF6 SF6/N2
50%Air 50&SF6 50%N2SF6
DRY AIR, N2, CO2 AND N2/SF6 MIXTURES FOR GAS-INSULATED
Air SYSTEMS
50%N2 CO2
50%CO2 CO2-2 50%CO2-2
累乗 (N2) 累乗 (SF6/N2) 累乗 (SF6 )
累乗 (Air ) 累乗 (50&SF6) 累乗 (50%N2SF6)
累乗 (50%Air) 累乗 (50%N2) 累乗 (CO2-2)
累乗 (50%CO2-2)
V 50% V min Gases

1400 SF6
80%N2/20%SF6

1200 Dry air SF6
CO2
N2
1000 N2/SF6
800
600 Dry air

CO2
400 N2
200
0
0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9
Pressure (MPa)
(a) Positive polarity (b) Negative polarity
Figure 2.2.7: Gas pressure dependence of 50 % (U 50% ) and minimum (U min ) breakdown voltages at
LI in dry air, N 2 , CO 2 , 80%N 2 /20%SF 6 mixture and SF 6 [2.2.1-2.2.3]. (In the figure, V 50% =U 50% and
V min =U min )
Figure 2.2.8 shows gas pressure dependences of AC breakdown voltages in dry air, N2, CO2, 80%N2/20%SF6
mixture and SF6 [2.2.1-2.2.3]. The coefficients of gas pressure dependence  in all the gases except for N2 are
N2
in the similar range of variation, SF6
but the coefficient of 0.3 inAir SF6/N2
N 2 is very small compared to that in LI and the
50%N2 50%Air 50&SF6 50%N2SF6
tendency of saturation in the CO2
gas pressure
累乗 (SF6 )
50%CO2
dependence
累乗 (N2)
can CO2-2
be seen
累乗 (Air )
in the 50%CO2-2
high pressure region.
累乗 (SF6/N2)
累乗 (50&SF6) 累乗 (50%N2SF6) 累乗 (50%Air) 線形 (50%N2)
累乗 (CO2-2) 累乗 (50%CO2-2)
1200
V 50% V min Gases
SF6
80%N2/20%SF6
1000 Dry air SF6
CO2
N2
800
600 N2/SF6
CO2 Dry air

400
N2
200
0
0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9
Pressure (MPa)
Figure 2.2.8: Gas pressure dependence of AC breakdown voltages in dry air, N 2 , CO 2 ,

80%N 2 /20%SF 6 mixture and SF 6 [2.2.1-2.2.3]. (In the figure, V 50% =U 50% and V min =U min )
Figure 2.2.9 shows gas pressure dependences of 50 % breakdown electric field strength (E50%) at positive and
negative LI and AC in dry air, N2, CO2 and SF6. The values of E50% were obtained by up-and-down method
based on normal distribution. The electrodes configuration (h) in Figure 2.2.4 was chosen for the
23
measurements. The curves of Ecr and Etheory (=Eth) in the figure correspond to the critical electric field at which
effective ionization coefficient becomes zero and theoretical breakdown electric field, respectively.
Figure 2.2.9: Gas pressure dependence of 50 % breakdown electric field strength (E 50% ) at positive
and negative LI and AC in dry air, N 2 , CO 2 and SF 6 [2.2.4, 2.2.5]. (In the figure, E theory =E th )
Additional experimental data on gas pressure dependence of breakdown electric field strength in N2, CO2 are
available in [2.2.15]. Figure 2.2.10 shows the test setup built with special GIS components for pressures up to
2.0 MPa. Inside these test vessels, an excentric cylindrical electrode around a cylindrical inner conductor was
positioned. Pure gas gap tests were performed with N2, CO2 and a mixture of both gas components
(80%N2/20%CO2) in this test setup. In the tests, 50 Hz AC withstand voltages and standard lightning impulse
withstand voltages were applied for N2, N2/CO2 and CO2 at 0.6 MPa, 0.9 MPa, 1.2 MPa, 1.5 MPa and 1.8 MPa
(gauge values) gas pressure. Regarding the surface roughness of the inner conductor, Rz from 1.5 µm to
2.8 µm was used for test 01, and Rz from 10.8 µm to 17.3 µm for test 02 as commonly used for conventional
GIS.
(a) Cross-sectional view (b) Overview of experimental setup
Figure 2.2.10: Test setup for basic investigations [2.2.15]
24
The testing procedure was standardized to get comparable test results for all different test series as follows.
Starting from 50 % of the expected breakdown value, the voltage was risen up in 3 % steps with 2 impulses at
each step until a breakdown occurred. Then the voltage was lowered in 3 % steps until 15 impulses without
breakdown were reached. This last value has been defined as withstand voltage. This procedure was repeated
at least three times to obtain statistically assured withstand voltage values (hereafter Uws).
Figure 2.2.11 shows gas pressure dependences of LI and AC withstand electric field strength in N2 (a) and
CO2 (b) [2.2.15]. For LI voltage, the withstand electric field strength increases approximately linearly with rising
pressure until 1.5 MPa (gauge value) for all gases. Below this pressure value, the withstand electric field
strengths for positive polarity are higher than those for negative polarity, as also known for SF 6 insulation at
common gas pressures. For all investigated gases, a polarity reversal at 1.5 MPa (gauge values) can be stated.
It should be noted that the polarity effects of LI breakdown properties in the potential gases especially in N 2
are different between the results in Figures 2.2.7, 2.2.9 and 2.2.11, which will be summarized in section 2.2.5.
For AC voltage, the test results do not show an increase of the electric field strength for N2 and N2/CO2 (see
Figure 2.2.12) within the investigated pressure range. With N2, the electric field strength is decreasing with
rising pressure. With N2/CO2, an approximately constant electric field strength between 0.6 MPa and 1.8 MPa
(gauge values) has been observed. The gas of CO2 alone shows a linear increase in the complete investigated
pressure range. The AC withstand voltages are not much lower than those for LI voltages.
(a) LI and AC withstand electric field strength (b) LI and AC withstand electric field strength of
of N 2 CO 2
Figure 2.2.11: Gas pressure dependence of LI and AC withstand electric field strength in N 2 and CO 2
[2.2.15]
The gas pressure dependences of LI and AC withstand electric field strength in N2, CO2, 80%CO2/20%N2
mixture in comparison with those of SF6 are shown in Figure 2.2.12 [2.2.15]. The minimum withstand electric
field strength of LI at both polarities is shown in (a) of the figure. Within the investigated pressure range, the LI
withstand values for CO2 gas are much higher than those for N2. The gas mixture is comparable to pure CO2.
In comparison to SF6, the investigated gases N2, N2/CO2 and CO2 do not obtain the insulating behaviour of
SF6 at 0.4 MPa (gauge values).
From (b) of Figure 2.2.12, the AC withstand electric field strength of SF6 is remarkably higher than those for
the investigated gases at low pressures. The withstand electric field strength up to 1.8 MPa (gauge values) in
N2 and N2/CO2 is lower than that of SF6 at 0.2 MPa (gauge values). Regarding the AC withstand electric field
strength of CO2, the 1.5 MPa (gauge values) values are comparable to that of SF6 at 0.4 MPa (gauge values).
25
(a) LI withstand electric field strength (b) AC withstand electric field strength
Figure 2.2.12: Gas pressure dependence of LI and AC withstand electric field strength in N 2 , CO 2 ,
80%CO 2 /20%N 2 mixture compared with those of SF 6 [2.2.15]
2.2.3 Effect of surface roughness and area effect of electrodes

(1) Effect of surface roughness
The effect of electrode surface roughness is investigated as shown in Figure 2.2.13 [2.2.4, 2.2.5]. The
experimental setup for the breakdown measurement corresponds to Figure 2.2.4, and the electrode
configuration of (d) (for upper four figures) and (f) (for lower two figures) were chosen. The breakdown electric
field strength E50% were obtained by up-and-down method based on normal distribution. The curves of Ecr and
Etheory (=Eth) in the figure correspond to the critical electric field strength at which effective ionization coefficient
becomes zero and theoretical breakdown electric field strength, respectively.
Concerning high pressure CO2 under 0.9 MPa, negative LI breakdown electric field strength decreases by
about 5 % to 10 % with an increase of electrode surface roughness in the range of Rz from 1 m to 50 m. In
SF6, the rate of decrease of breakdown voltages by electrode surface roughness is larger than that of CO2. A
similar tendency as CO2 can be seen in dry air. Note that electrode surface roughness causes the strongest
influence on the breakdown properties in N2. It is suggested that field emission from cathode is the main reason
of electrode surface roughness effect by comparison between negative and positive LI.
26
Figure 2.2.13: Effect of electrode surface roughness on 50 % breakdown electric field strength
(E 50% ) at positive and negative LI and AC in CO 2 , dry air, N 2 and SF 6 [2.2.4, 2.2.5]. Upper four
and lower two figures correspond to electrode configuration of (d) and (f) in Figure 2.2.4,
respectively. (In the figure, E theory =E th )
In further tests using the experimental setup in Figure 2.2.10, the influence of electrode surface roughness on
LI and AC withstand electric field strength was investigated [2.2.15]. Figure 2.2.14 shows the influence of inner
conductor surface roughness on LI and AC withstand electric field strength in N2. The surface roughness of
the inner conductor for test 01 and test 02 was Rz from 1.5 µm to 2.8 µm and Rz from 10.8 µm to 17.3 µm,
respectively.
Figure 2.2.14: Influence of inner conductor surface roughness on LI and

AC withstand electric field strength in N 2 [2.2.15]
27
As shown in Figure 2.2.14, no appreciable differences in the test results were observed, neither for LI nor for
AC voltage between 0.6 MPa and 1.8 MPa in N2 (gauge values). Note that this result is different from that in
the experiments in N2 in Figure 2.2.13.
(2) Area effect of electrodes

Figure 2.2.15 shows the dependences of LI breakdown voltages on effective electrode area in dry air, N2, CO2,
80%N2/20%SF6 mixture and SF6 at 0.55 MPa [2.2.1-2.2.3]. The test equipment in Figure 2.2.1 was used and
the number of the test electrodesN2 CO2
was varied from oneAirto twelve.
SF6 N2/SF6
1200 Marks Voltage Gases

-LI SF6
SF6 (-LI)
+LI 80%N2/20%SF6
-LI Dry air
1000 -LI
+LI
CO2
N2
N2/SF6 (+LI)
800
600
Dry air (-LI)
CO2 (-LI)
400
N2 (+LI)
200
0
1.E+03
103 1.E+04
104 1.E+05
105 1.E+06
106
2
Effective electrode area (mm )
Figure 2.2.15: Breakdown voltages versus effective electrode area in dry

air, N 2 , CO 2 , 80%N 2 /20%SF 6 mixture and SF 6 at 0.55 MPa [2.2.1-2.2.3]
The breakdown voltages correspond to the minimum value Umin in both polarities, e.g. negative LI for CO2, dry
air and SF6, and positive LI for N2 and 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture. The effective electrode area is defined as the
area where the electric field strength is equal or higher than 90 % of its maximum value. It is obvious that the
minimum value Umin gradually decreases and approaches a constant value with increasing the effective
electrode area for all the gases.
Comparable test results were found in further investigations for dry air gas [2.2.16]. In these tests, the withstand
voltages at lightning impulse and AC voltage were determined. The test setup was assembled of typical GIS
components, with sphere-plane electrode configurations (“small surfaces”: surface area 1x10 3 mm2, surface
roughness < 5 µm, “machined surfaces”: surface area 1.5x104 mm2, surface roughness < 5 µm, and “technical
surfaces”, surface area 1.5x104 mm2, surface roughness from 5 µm to 25 µm) of electrode arrangements. The
gas pressure was in the range of 0.4 MPa to 0.8 MPa. As shown in Figure 2.2.16, the surface area as well as
the surface quality are influencing factors for the withstand voltages, in dependence on the gas pressure.
28
Figure 2.2.16: Breakdown voltages versus gas pressure of different

surface area and quality in dry air [2.2.16]
Figure 2.2.17 shows the breakdown voltages (Umin) in Figure 2.2.15 normalized by the theoretical breakdown
values (Uth) versus effective electrode area in dry air, N2, CO2, 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture and SF6 at 0.55 MPa
[2.2.1-2.2.3]. The valuesN2 Uth are derived from
Air the streamer CO2
inception voltages,
SF6referring to the effective
ionization coefficient of each insulating gas in [2.2.17].
SF6 curve N2/SF6 N2 curve air
100
Uth (%)(％)
Dry air (-LI) CO2 (-LI)

80 N2/SF6 (+LI)
/ V/ theoretical
60 SF6 (-LI)
N2 (+LI)
Marks Voltage Gases
40 -LI SF6
Umin
+LI 80%N2/20%SF6
Vmin
20 -LI Dry air

-LI CO2
+LI N2
0
103
1.E+03 104
1.E+04 105
1.E+05 106
1.E+06
Effective electrode area (mm2)
Figure 2.2.17: Breakdown voltages (U min ) normalized by theoretical breakdown value

(U th ) versus effective electrode area in dry air, N 2 , CO 2 , 80%N 2 /20%SF 6 mixture and SF 6
at 0.55 MPa [2.2.1-2.2.3]. The parameter of the original vertical axis in the reference is
modified as in U min /U th .
The value of Umin / Uth in SF6 (-LI) lowers down to about 60 %, while the values in CO 2 (-LI), dry air (-LI) and
80%N2/20%SF6 (+LI) are higher than that in SF6 (-LI), especially the value in dry air is higher by about 10 %
than that in SF6. On the other hand, Umin / Uth in N2 (+LI) is lower by about 5 % than that in SF 6 (-LI), which
suggests that dielectric properties in N2 are much sensitive to micro-protrusions on electrode surfaces
compared with the case in SF6.
Area effect of electrode in high pressure CO2 was reported in [2.2.4, 2.2.5] using the test electrodes in Figure
2.2.4. Figure 2.2.18 shows 50 % LI breakdown electric field strength normalized by theoretical breakdown
electric field (E50% /Eth) versus effective electrode area of high voltage electrode in CO 2 (0.9 MPa) and SF6
29
(0.3 MPa). The test electrodes from (a) to (i) in Figure 2.2.4 were applied, and the effective electrode area
were changed in the range between 20 mm 2 and 2105 mm2.
In the case of negative LI and AC voltages, the electrode area effects can be seen clearly, because the surface
conditions on high voltage electrode are decisive for the breakdown characteristics. The rate of decrease of
the normalized breakdown electric field strength due to electrode area effects in CO2 at 0.9 MPa is comparable
to that in SF6 at 0.3 MPa under this experimental condition.
(a) CO 2 (0.9 MPa) (b) SF 6 (0.3 MPa)
Figure 2.2.18: 50 % LI breakdown electric field strength normalized by theoretical breakdown

electric field (E 50% /E th ) versus effective electrode area of high voltage electrode in CO 2 and SF 6
[2.2.4, 2.2.5]. (In the figure, E theory =E th )
2.2.4 Impulse ratio

It is essential to understand the ratio (impulse ratio) of LI breakdown voltages ULI to AC breakdown voltages
UAC in insulation designs of gas-insulated systems, since an adequate design margin is required to satisfy
specified withstand voltages by the standards like lightning impulse withstand voltage (LIWV) and AC withstand
voltage (ACWV).
Figures 2.2.19 and 2.2.20 show pressure dependences of impulse ratio ULI/UACpeak in dry air, N2, CO2,
80%N2/20%SF6 mixture and SF6, referring to the three experimental results using real-size equipment in [2.2.1-
2.2.5, 2.2.15, 2.2.18]. Here, the voltages of UACpeak are crest values of AC breakdown voltages. The hatched
area indicates the variation (1.45 to 1.72) of the ratio of LIWV to ACWV (crest value) in IEC 62271-1. The data
of breakdown voltages were obtained by the experimental setups in Figures 2.2.1, 2.2.4 and 2.2.10. The
impulse ratio of ULI/UACpeak are calculated for 50 % breakdown voltages U50% [2.2.4, 2.2.5], withstand voltages
Uws of 15 impulse voltages repeated at least three times [2.2.15] and minimum breakdown voltages Umin [2.2.1-
2.2.3, 2.2.18]. Here, U50%, Uws and Umin are defined by selecting the smaller values in both polarities of LI
breakdown voltages and LI withstand voltages, which are indicated in Figures 2.2.19 and 2.2.20.
The impulse ratios ULI/UACpeak of all the gases increase as the gas pressure rises due to the differences of the
gas pressure dependences of breakdown and withstand voltages between LI and AC voltages. The impulse
ratios in dry air, N2, CO2 and SF6 are below 1.5 under the gas pressure from 0.1 MPa to 0.7 MPa (from low to
medium pressure ranges). However, the ratios of 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture are higher than that of SF6 and are
in the hatched area between 1.45 and 1.72.
30
Figure 2.2.19: Gas pressure dependence of impulse ratio of U LI /U ACpea k in N 2 ,

80%N 2 /20%SF 6 mixture and SF 6 [2.2.1-2.2.5, 2.2.15]
Under the high pressure region from 0.7 MPa to 1.9 MPa, the impulse ratios of CO 2 are below the ratio of
LIWV to ACWV in IEC 62271-1 (the hatched area), while the ratios of N2 reach the hatched area at 1.3 MPa.
Especially, the pressure dependence of AC breakdown voltage in N2 saturates at the high pressure region
(see Figures 2.2.9 and 2.2.12), which makes the impulse ratio higher as the gas pressure increases.
When the value of the impulse ratio is lower than the ratio of LIWV/ACWV, the insulation design of gas-
insulated system is basically dominated by LIWV, since the stress of LIWV is severer than that of ACWV. It is
suggested that the insulation design of the system in dry air, N 2, CO2 up to 0.7 MPa will be determined by
LIWV as well as the case of SF6, while the design in N2 and 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture under high pressure
region may be dominated by ACWV, e.g. in N2 over 1.6 MPa and in 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture over 0.7 MPa.
Figure 2.2.20: Gas pressure dependence of impulse ratio of ULI/UACpeak in CO2, and dry air [2.2.2-
2.2.5, 2.2.15, 2.2.18]
31
2.2.5 Characteristics at low, medium and high gas pressure range

In this section, the properties of breakdown voltages are transversally compared between the potential gases
and SF6.
(1) Ratio of breakdown voltage to its theoretical value

Figure 2.2.21 shows the dependence of the ratio Ub/Uth on gas pressure in terms of measured LI breakdown
voltages [2.2.1, 2.2.2, 2.2.15, 2.2.18-2.2.24]. Here, Ub and Uth are measured breakdown voltages and their
theoretical values, respectively. The breakdown probability of the measured breakdown voltages is classified
into the following 4 cases. The breakdown voltages of [2.2.15] and [2.2.1, 2.2.2, 2.2.19, 2.2.21, 2.2.23] are
withstand values of 15 impulses repeated at least three times and 0.1 % breakdown probability values of
Weibull distribution, respectively. Those of [2.2.20] and [2.2.18, 2.2.22] correspond to 10 % quantiles of normal
distribution and 50 % values minus 3 ( : standard deviation) of normal distribution, respectively. The
theoretical values are given as streamer inception voltages referring to the effective ionization coefficient of
each insulating gases in [2.2.17]. The test configurations of real-size GIS busbar (coaxial cylinder and cylinder
electrodes configuration) are taken from [2.2.1, 2.2.2, 2.2.15, 2.2.18-2.2.23], which have a large effective
electrode area from 3104 mm2 to 2105 mm2. The details of the electrode configurations and the test
conditions are summarized in Table 2.2.2. The insulating gases used in the experiments are dry air, N2, CO2,
N2/SF6 gas mixtures and SF6.
The breakdown voltages are usually lower at negative LI (-LI) than positive LI (+LI), but note that there are the
cases that they are smaller at positive than negative for N2 and N2/SF6 mixtures.
100
(%)
80
Ub //UVththeoretical
(%)
60
Applied
Bare Coated Gases Reference
voltages
40 CO2 -LI Goshima, Juhre, Ka

Vbreakdown
Dry air -LI Belz, Ka

X N2 -LI Juhre, Ka
20%SF6/80%N2
20 10%SF6/90%N2
+LI Hama
SF6 -LI Lederle, Hama

N2 +LI Ka
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2
Gas pressure (MPa)
Figure 2.2.21: Ratio of U b /U th as a function of gas pressure in dry air, N 2 , CO 2 , N 2 /SF 6 mixture and
SF 6 [2.2.1, 2.2.2, 2.2.15, 2.2.18-2.2.24]. The parameter of the original vertical axis in the reference
is modified as in U b /U th .
The pressure increase lowers the ratio Ub/Uth for dry air, N2, CO2, N2/SF6 mixtures and SF6. Under the same
gas pressure in the range between 0.2 MPa and 0.7 MPa, the ratios of SF 6 (-LI) are lower than the values of
32
dry air, N2, CO2 (+LI) and N2/SF6 mixtures (+LI) which show similar values. The ratios of N2 (+ LI) are, however,
further lower than those of SF6 (-LI), which should be noted in the insulation design for N 2 gas-insulated
systems. The advanced dielectric coatings, which are thick casting epoxy coating (10 mm thickness) [2.2.19,
2.2.25] and hard anodic-oxide coating (0.03 mm thickness) & PTFE-immersion (to fill PTFE into the fine holes
of the Al2O3 layer) [2.2.22, 2.2.25], realize high dielectric performances over 80 % of the theoretical values in
CO2 and SF6. The details of this dielectric coating effect to improve the dielectric performance of gas-insulated
systems are described in section 3.1.
Table 2.2.2: Electrode configurations and test conditions of the data in Figure 2.2.21 [2.2.1, 2.2.2,
2.2.15, 2.2.18-2.2.25]
Marks Electrode material /

Electrode configuration Effective electrode area *1
Gas Applied voltage surface roughness 2 Reference
(Inner / outer diameter) (mm )
Bare Coated (x 10-3 mm)
Coaxial cylinder electrodes

70 / 150 mm,
Cylinder electrodes Aluminum / 25, 1x105, Goshima,
CO2 Negative LI 120 / 230 mm Aluminum / 1.5 - 2.8, 3x104, Juhre,
Excentric /30 mm clearance, Aluminum / ±3 2x105 Ka
240 / 340 mm
Coaxial cylinder electrodes Beltz,

Dry air Negative LI
240 / 340 mm
Aluminum / ±3 5x104
Ka
Cylinder electrodes
120 / 230 mm
Aluminum / 1.5 - 2.8, 3x104, Juhre,
X N2 Negative LI Excentric /30 mm clearance,
Aluminum / ±3 2x105 Ka
240 / 340 mm
20%SF6/80%N2
Positive LI
240 / 340 mm
Aluminum / ±3 2x105 Hama
10%SF6/90%N2

Aluminum / 4-6, 5x104, Lederle,
SF6 Negative LI 80 / 140 mm,
240 / 340 mm
Aluminum / ±3 2x105 Hama

N2 Positive LI
240 / 340 mm
Aluminum / ±3 2x105 Ka
*1: Defined as the area that is equal or higher than 90 % of the maximum electric field strength of HV
electrode.
(2) Ratio of breakdown voltage in the potential gases to the value in SF6 (reduction rate)
Figures 2.2.22 to 2.2.25 show the rate of breakdown voltages Ub in the potential gases (dry air, N2, CO2, N2/SF6
mixtures) to those in SF6 (hereafter, reduction rate Ub/Ub SF6) as a function of gas pressure P. The applied
voltages for the reduction rate are LI for Figures 2.2.22 and 2.2.23 and AC for Figures 2.2.24 and 2.2.25.
In the case of LI voltages, N2 and dry air have higher reduction rate around 0.4 than CO 2 under low pressure
range from 0.1 MPa to 0.4 MPa. Dry air has the higher reduction rate over 0.4 than N 2 and CO2 in the middle
pressure range between 0.4 MPa and 0.7 MPa. The reduction rate of CO 2 increases gradually as gas pressure
rises, and has the higher value about 0.4 than N 2 and dry air at high pressure region, especially at 1.0 MPa. If
applying 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture, the reduction rate at LI voltages shows the highest values (around 0.75 to
0.8) of all the gases in the figures due to the high dielectric strength of SF 6.
At AC voltages, similar tendencies can be seen in the pressure dependences of the reduction rate except for
80%N2/20%SF6 mixture. For N2, CO2 and dry air, the reduction rate at AC voltages tends to be slightly higher
than that at LI voltages under all gas pressure ranges.
33
Figure 2.2.22: Gas pressure dependence of reduction rate of U b /U bSF6 in N 2 and

80%N 2 /20%SF 6 mixture at LI voltages [2.2.3-2.2.5, 2.2.15, 2.2.19]
Figure 2.2.23: Gas pressure dependence of reduction rate of U b /U bSF6 in CO 2 and dry air at
LI voltages [2.2.3-2.2.5, 2.2.15, 2.2.18]
34
Figure 2.2.24: Gas pressure dependence of reduction rate of U b /U bSF6 in N 2 and

80%N 2 /20%SF 6 mixture at AC voltages [2.2.3-2.2.5, 2.2.15, 2.2.19, 2.2.26, 2.2.27]
Figure 2.2.25: Gas pressure dependence of reduction rate of U b /U bSF6 in CO 2 and dry air at
AC voltages [2.2.3-2.2.5, 2.2.15]
35
(3) Comparison of basic insulation properties between the potential gases and SF6
Tables 2.2.3 to 2.2.5 show the comparison of dielectric strength, impulse ratio and LI polarity giving lower
breakdown voltages (Ub) in dry air, N2, CO2, 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture and SF6 under low (0.1 MPa  P <
0.4 MPa), medium (0.4 MPa  P  0.7 MPa) and high (0.7 MPa < P) gas pressure range, respectively [2.2.3-
2.2.5, 2.2.15, 2.2.19, 2.2.26, 2.2.27]. The values in the tables correspond to the mean values in each gas
pressure range. The following characteristics of the potential gases can be found by comparing with those of
SF6.
Table 2.2.3: Comparison of basic insulation properties between N 2 , CO 2 , dry air, 80%N 2 /20%SF 6
mixture and SF 6 under low gas pressure range (0.1 MPa  P < 0.4 MPa) [2.2.3-2.2.5, 2.2.15, 2.2.19,
2.2.26, 2.2.27]
Dielectric strength
Impulse ratio LI polarity
Gas Ratio to SF6 Ratio to theoretical
U LI / U AC peak giving lower U b
U b / U b SF6 U b / U th
LI AC LI
N2 0.38 0.40 No data 1.00 -LI
CO2 0.34 0.37 No data 0.98 -LI
Dry air 0.40 0.42 0.86 *1 1.12 -LI
80%N2/20%SF6 No data No data No data No data
SF6 1.00 1.00 0.66 *1 1.18 -LI
*1: This value was derived from limited amount of data in one literature.
mixture and SF 6 under medium gas pressure range (0.4 MPa  P  0.7 MPa) [2.2.3-2.2.5, 2.2.15,
2.2.19, 2.2.26, 2.2.27]
Dielectric strength
Impulse ratio LI polarity
Gas Ratio to SF6 Ratio to theoretical
U LI / U AC peak giving lower U b
U b / U b SF6 U b / U th
LI AC LI
0.66 0.53
N2 0.30 0.35 1.23 -LI / +LI *1
-LI +LI
CO2 0.39 0.42 0.72 1.17 -LI
Dry air 0.43 0.43 0.69 1.36 -LI
80%N2/20%SF6 0.78 0.68 0.67 1.60 +LI
SF6 1.00 1.00 0.59 1.41 -LI
*1: The data in [2.2.3] showed lower Ub at +LI, although those in the other literatures at –LI.
36
As to the polarity effect at LI voltages, negative polarity basically gives lower minimum breakdown voltages in
dry air, N2, CO2 as well as in SF6, while the literatures [2.2.3-2.2.5, 2.2.15] report that positive polarity shows
the minimum breakdown voltages in dry air, N2, CO2 and the gas mixture at middle and high pressure ranges.
The comparison of the reduction rate (Ub/Ub SF6), the breakdown voltage normalized by the theoretical value
(Ub/Uth) and impulse ratio (ULI/UAC peak) between the potential gases and SF6 can be referred to the above
explanations of Figures 2.2.22 - 2.2.25, Figure 2.2.21 and Figures 2.2.19 and 2.2.20, respectively.
mixture and SF 6 under high gas pressure range (0.7 MPa < P) [2.2.3-2.2.5, 2.2.15, 2.2.19, 2.2.26,
2.2.27]
Dielectric strength
Impulse ratio
Gas Ratio to SF6 Ratio to theoretical LI polarity
U LI / U AC peak
U b / U b SF6 U b / U th giving lower U b
LI AC LI
Pressure (MPa) 0.7 - 1.0 0.7 - 1.4 1.4 - 2.0 0.7 - 1.4 1.4 - 2.0
N2 0.29 0.34 0.60 0.58 1.26 1.91 -LI / +LI *1
CO2 0.40 0.45 0.68 0.63 1.13 1.36 -LI / +LI *1
Dry air 0.38 *3 0.38 *3 No data 1.23 *3 No data -LI / +LI *2
SF6 1.00 1.00 No data No data No data
*1: The data in [2.2.15] showed lower Ub under +LI at 1.9 MPa, although those in the other literatures
at –LI.
*2: The data in [2.2.4] had lower Ub under +LI at 0.9 MPa, although those in the other literatures at
–LI.
2.3 Breakdown and partial discharge properties in non-uniform field

Typical defects like metallic particles or needle-shaped protrusions lead to local strong inhomogeneous electric
fields, resulting in a considerable reduction of the discharge inception voltage. The influence of defects on the
partial discharge and breakdown properties is the main issue of this section 2.3. Section 2.3.1 gives information
about particle movement and the subsequent influence on partial discharge and breakdown properties. In
section 2.3.2, investigations about the influence of fixed protrusions are reported. In section 2.3.3, the
properties are compared between the potential gases (dry air, N2, CO2, N2/SF6 mixtures) and SF6.
2.3.1 Influence of particles on insulation properties

One of the most frequently found defects in gas-insulated systems are free moving particles; the
sensitivity of dry air, N2 and CO2 against this type of defect is an important aspect for the insulation design.
In this section, particle motion and breakdown properties are introduced and compared to SF6.
Particle jumping height, particle lift-off electric field and crossing electric field were parameters in basic
investigations of dry air, N2 and CO2 at 0.55 MPa, compared to SF6 [2.3.1, 2.3.2]. The tests were performed in a
commercial GIS busbar of a coaxial electrode system of 125 mm / 330 mm in diameter, with a dielectric
coated or bare enclosure (Figure 2.3.1).
37
For the test, defined free moving metallic particles were chosen: aluminum wires of 0.2 mm in diameter and
3 mm in length. With ten pieces of metallic particles set on the bottom of the enclosure, AC voltage tests were
performed, while the AC voltage was increased stepwise with 5-kV steps. During voltage increase, the
particles were stimulated by some plastic hammer impacts at around 10 G from outside of the enclosure [2.3.3].
The experimental results of PD measurements will be given in section 3.2.1.
Only for PD measurement
Figure 2.3.1: Test setup for particle movement investigations [2.3.1 , 2.3.2]
The relation between particle movement (jumping height, lift-off and crossing) and the electric field strength on
the enclosure inner surface was evaluated. In Figure 2.3.2, the results are shown. In general, particle lift-off,
jumping height and crossing to the HV conductor occurred in a comparable way in dry air, N2 and CO2 at lower
electric field strength compared to SF6. The lowest electric field strength values were achieved for N 2.
The field strength at lift-off was found to be in correlation to the dielectric strength of the insulating gas, based
on the charge quantity and PD onset voltage at the triple junction between particle, dielectric coating and gas.
Figure 2.3.2: Metallic particle jumping height vs. electric field strength in dry
air, N 2 , CO 2 and SF 6 (coated enclosure) [2.3.1]
The gas pressure dependence of the electric field strength at lift-off and crossing of the particles are shown in
Figure 2.3.3. As already mentioned, the differences between dry air, N2, CO2 are relatively low, while the field
strength for SF6 is remarkably higher. The gas pressure dependence is weak for all the gases.
38
(a) Lift-off electric field (b) Crossing electric field
Figure 2.3.3: Gas pressure dependences of lift-off and crossing electric field strength of free
moving metallic particles in dry air, N 2 , CO 2 and SF 6 (coated enclosure) [2.3.1]
For comparing the influence of particles on the breakdown risk, the relation of the dielectric strength of the
different gases under sound conditions, as given in Table 2.2.4, has to be taken into account. While the
dielectric strength of dry air, N2 and CO2 compared to SF6 is in the range of 30 % to 40 %, the lift-off field
strength is about 60 % and the crossing field strength is in the range of 70 % to 80 % (see Figure 2.3.3).
In further tests with metallic particles, the relation between breakdown voltage and time was investigated.
Figure 2.3.4 summarizes the V-t characteristics of dry air, N2 and CO2 and SF6 with moving metallic particles
at AC voltage. The figure shows the time for 50 % breakdown probability based on a Weibull evaluation.
It was found that the performance of CO2 and dry air was comparable, at voltage levels of about 45 % of SF6.
This means that the breakdown voltage relation with free metallic particles is comparable to clean conditions
at about 45 % of the SF6-value. On the other hand, N2 gave the lowest breakdown values in this test with a
voltage level of 30 % compared to SF6, slightly below the value of clean conditions (Table 2.2.4).
Figure 2.3.4: V-t characteristics initiated by moving metallic particles in dry air , N 2 ,
CO 2 and SF 6 under AC voltages (bare and coated enclosure) [2.3.1, 2.3.2]
39
Figure 2.3.5 compares the relation of Ubp60s (AC breakdown voltage after 60 s) to Ucp (particle crossing voltage
to HV conductor) for all the investigated gases. It was found that the difference between the breakdown and
the crossing voltage was the largest for SF6, while at N2 the breakdown voltage was only slightly higher than
the crossing voltage. Dry air and CO2 were found to be in between.
Based on the effect that the crossing or touching particle generates partial discharges, the difference between
Ubp60s and Ucp is indicating the detectability of particles before breakdown with PD measurements. This means
that in practical applications the detection of partial discharges from free metallic particles in N 2 of 0.55 MPa
before breakdown would be difficult.
Ubp60s / Ucp
Figure 2.3.5: Comparison of U bp60s /U cp in N 2 , CO 2 , dry air and SF 6 (coated enclosure) [2.3.1]. The
parameter of the original vertical axis in the reference is modified as in U bp60s /U cp .
2.3.2 Influence of protrusions on insulation properties

(1) PD and breakdown properties at LI and AC voltages for sphere to plane electrode configuration
Besides basic breakdown properties of the potential gases caused by free moving particles, as given in the
previous section, further typical failure types have been investigated to estimate their influence on the PD and
breakdown properties. One essential failure type, representing strong inhomogeneous non-uniform electric
fields, are needle-shaped protrusions, e.g. fixed particles on high voltage conductors or on insulators. In this
section, information about these investigations is given.
The determination of breakdown properties of dry air, N2 and CO2 in non-uniform electric fields at LI voltage
is reported in [2.3.4]. The test setup is shown in Figure 2.3.6. The tests were conducted with ‘clean’ conditions
in a quasi-uniform field as well as with a fixed particle (needle electrode) in a non-uniform field.
(a) Quasi-uniform field (b) Non-uniform field
Figure 2.3.6: Test setup for PD and breakdown voltage investigations [2.3. 4]
40
The tests were performed with dry air, N2, CO2 and SF6 in the pressure range from 0.1 MPa to 0.5 MPa.
Standard lightning impulse voltages (1.2/50 µs) of positive and negative polarity were applied. The tests under
the quasi-uniform field were done with and without an UV-irradiation lamp in terms of generation probability of
initial electrons.
Figure 2.3.7 shows the gas pressure dependence of positive Ubp50% (50 % breakdown voltage) and Updp50%
(50 % partial discharge initiation voltage) in dry air, N2, CO2 and SF6 under the non-uniform field. In this figure,
the error bar indicates the standard deviation ( σ). As shown in Figure 2.3.7, the positive Updp50% of SF6, CO2
and dry air increased linearly by the pressure increase, while the positive Ubp50% of these gases seemed to
saturate at the high pressure region. Since breakdown in N2 occurred just when partial discharge was
generated, The value of Updp50% of N2 could not be measured. The positive Ubp50% in dry air, N2 and CO2 were
about 30 % to 70 % to that of SF6. Under the non-uniform field, the positive Ubp50% of dry air was higher than
those of N2 and CO2 at LI voltages.
Ubp50% and Updp50% (kV)
Gas pressure, P (MPa)
Figure 2.3.7: Gas pressure dependence of 50 % positive breakdown voltage and PDIV under
non-uniform field at LI voltage [2.3. 4]. The parameter of the original vertical axis in the
reference is modified as in U bp50% and U pdp50% . (In the figure, U BD = U bp50% and U PD =U pdp50% )
Figure 2.3.8 shows the relation between breakdown voltage Ubp50% and U under the non-uniform field at LI
voltage. The U was defined by the following equation:
U = Ubp50% - Updp50% (kV) (2.3.1)
As shown in Figure 2.3.8, the value of U in SF6, CO2 and dry air increased linearly as the Ubp50% increased
from 0.1 MPa to 0.3 MPa. However, U decreased from 0.4 MPa to 0.5 MPa. This property can be explained
as follows. The positive Ubp50% of SF6, CO2 and dry air increased linearly as the gas pressure increased up to
0.3 MPa, but the Ubp50% of these gases seemed to show saturation under 0.4 MPa to 0.5 MPa as shown in
Figure 2.3.7. This result shows that discharge type turned from streamer-type to leader-type discharge from
0.4 MPa to 0.5 MPa in SF6, CO2 and dry air. The PD detection in dry air might be the easiest between dry
air, CO2 and N2, considering the largest U value between them.
41
80
1 : 0.1 MPa Applied voltage : LI voltage
2 : 0.2 MPa 3
3 : 0.3 MPa 3
60 5
4 : 0.4 MPa 4
4
5 : 0.5 MPa
ΔV (kV)
(kV)
2 5
40
Dry air 2 SF6
U
3 1
5
20 1 2 4
CO2
1
1 2 3 4 5 N2
0
50 100 150 200
Uvoltage,
Breakdown bp50% (kV)
VBD(particle) (kV)
Figure 2.3.8: Relation between BDVs and U in dry air, N 2 , CO 2 and SF 6 at LI voltage [2.3.4].
The parameters of the original axes in the reference are modified as in U and U bp50% .
Table 2.3.1 shows the values of Ecr, Ub min, Ubp50%, U and Ubp50%/Ub min in dry air, N2, CO2 and SF6 at 0.5 MPa
that are normalized by the value in dry air. Here, Ubp50% and Ub min are the 50 % breakdown voltages under the
non-uniform field when the metallic particle length is 3 mm, and the minimum breakdown voltages for both
polarities under the quasi-uniform field, respectively. As listed in Table 2.3.1, Ub min, Ubp50% and U of dry air
were the highest compared to those of N2 and CO2, while the value of Ubp50%/Ub min was almost similar to those
of N2, CO2.
Table 2.3.1: Summary of E cr , U b min , U bp50% , U and U bp50% /U b min in dry air, N 2 , CO 2 and
SF 6 at 0.5 MPa (normalized by the value of dry air) [2.3.4]. The parameters of the
original table in the reference are modified as in E cr , U b min , U bp50% , U and U bp50% /U b min .
E cr U b m in U bp50% U U bp50% / U b m in
Gas
(a.u.) (a.u.) (a.u.) (a.u.) (a.u.)
SF6 3.30 - 1.59 0.80 0.5
Dry air 1 1 1 1 1
CO2 0.88 0.83 0.87 0.41 1.04
N2 *1
- 0.86 0.92 0 1.06
*1: The value of PDIV in N2 was undetectable.
Further investigations were reported in [2.3.5]. This paper gives information about PD measurements and AC
and LI breakdown tests with fixed metallic particles in CO 2 at pressures from 0.15 MPa to 0.90 MPa, in
comparison to SF6 from 0.45 MPa to 0.75 MPa. Standard lightning impulse voltage (1.2/50 µs) of positive and
negative polarity as well as 50 Hz AC voltage were applied.
Figure 2.3.9 introduces the test setup. Fixed particles of 1.5 mm, 3 mm and 5 mm length in a gas gap of 15 mm,
30 mm and 45 mm were applied. The influence of these parameters were investigated in several tests and
compared with the conditions without particle. Further comparison was done with SF 6.
42
Figure 2.3.9: Test setup for PD measurements and AC and LI breakdown

tests with fixed metallic particles in CO 2 [2.3.5]
Figure 2.3.10 shows the pressure dependence of the AC partial-discharge inception voltage and the AC and
LI breakdown voltages, for a gap length of 30 mm and a particle length of 3 mm.
Figure 2.3.10: Pressure dependence of partial discharge and breakdown voltages of CO 2

(30 mm gap length, 3 mm particle length) [2.3.5]
The PD inception voltage (PDIV) was lower at negative polarity for all investigated gas pressures. The
breakdown characteristics at AC voltage indicated the highest breakdown voltage at approximately 0.3 MPa,
with decreasing tendency for lower and higher gas pressure values. While the LI breakdown voltage with
negative particle tip was increasing with pressure, the positive particle tip led to a slight increase with pressure
only. A maximum was found around 0.7 MPa, but in the same range as at AC voltage.
In further tests, the influence of the protrusion length was investigated. Particles of 1.5 mm, 3 mm and 5 mm
length were applied, with a fixed gap of 30 mm. As shown in Figure 2.3.11, PD inception and AC and LI
breakdown voltages for 3 mm and 5 mm length were almost comparable with increasing tendency at
decreasing particle length. For the smallest particle, the positive LI breakdown voltage had a large scatter with
the highest values at around 0.5 MPa.
43
Figure 2.3.11: Influence of particle length L at AC and LI voltages of CO 2 (gap length: 30 mm)
[2.3.5]
Also, the gap length was a parameter of investigation (15 mm, 30 mm and 45 mm). While there was found an
increase in the negative LI breakdown voltage with increasing gap as shown in Figure 2.3.12, there was no
strong increase for positive LI and AC breakdown voltage for larger gap. As expected, also in these tests the
positive LI breakdown voltage was lower than the negative LI breakdown voltage.
Figure 2.3.12: Influence of gap length d at AC and LI voltages (particle length: 3 mm) [2.3.5]
As a main outcome of the investigations, Figure 2.3.13 shows comparisons of breakdown voltages initiated by
a fixed particle in CO2 and in SF6 from 0.1 MPa to 0.9 MPa at LI voltage [2.3.4]. Breakdown voltages in SF6
were nearly constant or decreased as the pressure increased between 0.4 MPa and 0.8 MPa. Pressure
dependences of breakdown voltages in CO2 showed complicated properties depending on the gap length from
0.1 MPa to 0.9 MPa. The breakdown voltages in CO 2 to those in SF6 were about 50 % to 80 % between
0.4 MPa and 0.8 MPa for the gap length of 30 mm. The value of breakdown voltages in CO2 to those in SF6 is
higher than the value in quasi-uniform field (ratio to SF6 without particles) of 39 % (at medium pressure) and
40 % (at high pressure) in Tables 2.2.4 and 2.2.5, respectively.
44
Figure 2.3.13: Comparison of breakdown voltages initiated by a fixed particle in CO 2 and in SF 6 at

positive LI voltage (d: gap length, L: particle length) [2.3.5]
Figure 2.3.14 compares the test results for positive LI voltage with and without fixed protrusions for CO 2 and
SF6. The test results indicate a higher sensitivity of SF 6 compared to CO2 at the same gas pressure.
Nevertheless, the much lower dielectric strength of CO2 compared to SF6 in clean conditions at equal pressure
has to be taken into account. With increasing gas pressure, the influence of the protrusion on the breakdown
voltage reduction also increases.
Figure 2.3.14: Decreasing rate of BDV caused by metallic particle [2.3.5]
(2) PD and breakdown properties at LI and AC voltages for coaxial cylinder configuration
Further tests were reported in [2.3.6]. Beside investigations of CO2 basic breakdown characteristics, the
influence of fixed metallic particles on the breakdown strength was examined for high gas pressures (1.0 MPa
and 1.8 MPa). The test setup is shown in Figure 2.3.15. The particle length was varied between 1 mm and
10 mm, and the test voltage type was lightning impulse voltage of positive polarity.
45
Figure 2.3.15: Experimental setup using 72 kV class GIS model busbar [2.3.6]
Comparable tests were performed with SF6 of 0.5 MPa. The test results are shown in Figure 2.3.16 (coaxial
cylindrical electrode). Further test results are included in this figure (80 mm diameter sphere-plane electrode
with 20 mm gap, field utilization factor = 0.74), but with comparable test conditions. With increasing particle
length, a strong decrease of the breakdown electric field strength was found. For this comparison, the electric
field strength was estimated by a simple field calculation at the tip of the protrusion only. The gases of CO2
and SF6 had a comparable declining slope.
Figure 2.3.16: Breakdown electric field strength versus metallic particle length in CO 2
at positive LI voltage [2.3.6]
Figure 2.3.17 shows an experimental setup to measure partial discharge inception (corona onset) voltages
and breakdown voltages in N2/SF6 mixtures and pure SF6 at LI and AC voltages [2.3.2]. The SF6 content of
the gas mixtures was varied between 10 % and 30 %. A photomultiplier tube (effective range: 350 nm to
600 nm) was used to detect streamer corona onset and leader inception voltages initiated by a needle in Figure
2.3.17 (a). The electric field distribution in the vicinity of the needle tip in the figure, which dominates the
properties of streamer corona onset and first leader inception, was set to be equal to that of the #2 experiment
(3 mm fixed metallic particle on the HV conductor) in Figure 2.3.17 (b).
46
(a) Needle to plane electrode (b) Model busbar system
Figure 2.3.17: Experimental setup to measure partial discharge inception voltages and breakdown
voltages initiated by needle and metallic particle in N 2 /SF 6 mixtures and pure SF 6 [2.3.3]
Figure 2.3.18 (a) shows the dependence of 50 % probability breakdown and corona onset voltages on the gas
pressure at positive LI in N2/SF6 mixtures. Figure 2.3.18 (b) corresponds to the similar pressure dependence
of 50 % breakdown and corona onset voltages at AC voltages. The breakdown voltages in the gas mixtures
for both positive LI and AC were almost constant over a wide range from 0.4 MPa to 0.75 MPa. The corona
onset voltages had a slight dependence on gas pressure for both positive LI and AC voltages. The difference
of the voltages in all the gas conditions including pure SF6 was small at AC voltages, while the voltages in the
gas mixtures were smaller than those in pure SF6 at positive LI voltages.
(a) Positive LI voltage (b) AC voltage
Figure 2.3.18: Pressure dependence of 50 % breakdown voltages and corona onset voltages [2.3.3]
By using actual GIS busbar, metallic particle-initiated PD and breakdown (BD) properties of dry air and SF6 at
AC voltages (60 Hz) were studied in [2.3.7]. Figure 2.3.19 (a) shows the experimental setup. The diameters of
the HV conductor and enclosure of the busbar were 125 mm and 330 mm, respectively. The gas pressure of
dry air and SF6 was 0.55 MPa. Four aluminum wire particles of 0.2 mm in diameter and 5 mm or 10 mm in
length were fixed on the HV conductor for breakdown voltage measurements. One aluminum wire particle of
the same size was used for the PD measurements as shown in the figure. The electromagnetic waves were
detected by loop antenna (300 Hz to 2 GHz) and PD capacitive coupler (100 MHz to 2 GHz), and PD
magnitudes were measured by the method according to IEC 60270.
47
Partial discharge inception voltages (PDIVs) in both gases were measured, and 50 % probability BD voltages
(U50%) in dry air and SF6 were obtained by about ten BD voltages as shown in Figure 2.3.19 (b). The BD voltage
in SF6 (with an arrow mark in the figure) was not measured due to the limitation (460 kVrms) of the test facility.
(a) Experimental setup (b) Partial discharge and breakdown properties
Figure 2.3.19: Partial discharge and breakdown properties initiated by particles of 5 mm or 10 mm fixed on
HV conductor of model busbar in dry air and SF 6 at AC voltage [2.3.7]
The ratio of the PDIVs and BDVs of dry air to that of SF6 was below 0.5, and similar to the ratio for BD voltages
under quasi-uniform field (0.43) in Table 2.2.4 and under free moving particles (0.45) in Table 2.3.4. The PD
magnitudes in dry air and SF6 detected by the IEC 60270 method were in a similar level from 0.6 pC to 1.4 pC.
(3) Breakdown properties at non-standard lightning impulse waveforms

insulating characteristics for non-standard lightning impulse waveforms actually appearing at substations.
Likewise section 2.2.1 (3) in the case of the quasi-uniform electric fields, breakdown voltage properties of the
gases of N2 [2.3.8], CO2 [2.3.9] and dry air [2.3.10] have been obtained for non-standard LIWs under non-
uniform electric fields, and compared with those of SF 6 [2.3.11]. These results [2.3.12, 2.3.13] are applicable
to examination on the representative overvoltage for setting LIWV in insulation-coordination procedure [2.3.14,
2.3.15].
The non-uniform electrode was configured as an aluminum needle electrode with a hemispheric end (needle
end diameter of 1 mm and length of 10 mm) fixed to a rod electrode (diameter of 20 mm and length of 28 mm)
and opposed to a plane electrode (diameter of 120 mm) with an intermediate gap of 30 mm.
As an example, Figure 2.3.20 compares the V-t characteristics of CO2 and N2 for the 5.3 MHz single frequency
oscillation waveform with that of SF6 under both positive and negative polarities. As for the positive
characteristics, there are few discrepancies among gases. On the other hand, Umin of N2 takes the larger value
than the other gases under the negative polarity. In the case of SF6, BDV decreases largely in a relatively long
time region and the time to Umin reaches about 4 s.
Details of experimental results with changing parameter values are described in Annex A, together with their
application of the evaluation method from the viewpoint of insulation coordination.
48
Figure 2.3.20: Insulation characteristics for 5.3 MHz single frequency oscillation waveform
under non-uniform electric field at N 2 and CO 2 gases comparing with SF 6 [2.3.8, 2.3.9, 2.3.11]
2.3.3 Characteristics at low, medium and high gas pressure range

The properties of breakdown voltages in non-uniform field (with metallic particles) are transversally compared
between the potential gases and SF6 in this section as well as in section 2.2.5.
(1) Ratio of particle-initiated breakdown voltage in the potential gases to the value in SF6
Figures 2.3.21 and 2.3.22 show the value of particle-initiated breakdown voltages Ubp in the potential gases to
those in SF6 (Ubp SF6), i.e. reduction rate Ubp/Ubp SF6 versus gas pressure [2.3.3-2.3.5, 2.3.16-2.3.18].
Figure 2.3.21: Gas pressure dependence of reduction rate of U bp /U bp SF6 in N 2 and 80%N 2 /20%SF 6
mixture at positive LI voltages [2.3.3-2.3.5, 2.3.16-2.3.18]
49
Figure 2.3.22: Gas pressure dependence of reduction rate of U bp /U bp SF6 in CO 2 and dry air at
positive LI voltages [2.3.3-2.3.5, 2.3.16-2.3.18]
The applied voltages in the figures are basically positive lightning impulse that gives lower breakdown voltages.
All the data in the figures correspond to 50 % breakdown voltages. The details of the electrode configurations
and the test conditions are summarized in Table 2.3.2. The insulating gases used in the experiments are dry
air, N2, CO2, 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture and SF6. The curves that fit the data of the reduction rate Ub/Ub SF6 without
metallic particles in Figures 2.2.22 and 2.2.23 are included in Figures 2.3.21 and 2.3.22.
Comparing the data of Ubp/Ubp SF6 (with particles) with the curves (Ub/Ub SF6 without particles), the followings
can be seen. The values of the reduction rate with particles in dry air, CO 2 and N2 are higher than those without
particles, while the values with particles in the gas mixture are lower than those without particles. These facts
suggest that dry air, CO2 and N2 are not so sensitive to metallic particles in the dielectric strength at lightning
impulse voltages, but 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture is sensitive to the particles. In section 3.5, these will be
discussed in details in terms of the balance of dielectric strength between with and without metallic particles
compared with SF6.
50
Table 2.3.2: Electrode configurations and test conditions of the data in Figures 2.3.21 and 2.3.22
[2.3.3-2.3.5, 2.3.16-2.3.18]. See section 2.4.2 regarding the detailed electrode configuration s and
test conditions, and the test results for “Attached on spacer” in this table.
Gas pressure Metallic particle Breakdown

Mark Gas Electrode configuration Applied voltage Reference
(MPa) (diameter / length) voltage
Needle - plane 1 mm / 3 mm
0.1 - 0.5 (gap length) Positive LI Sonoda
30 mm (tip diameter 0.2 mm)
Attached on spacer
Coaxial cylinder electrode
N2 0.4, 0.6 0.45 mm / 3 mm Positive LI Rokunohe
(inner / outer diameter)
80 mm / 250 mm
◇ Attached on spacer
0.5 0.25 mm / 5 mm Positive LI Hoshina
120 mm / 434 mm
0.1 - 0.5 (gap length) Positive LI Sonoda
▲
Needle - plane
CO2 0.5, 0.7 (gap length) 0.25 mm / 3 mm Positive LI Yasuoka
30 mm
Attached on spacer
△ 0.4, 0.6 Coaxial cylinder electrode
0.45 mm / 3 mm Positive LI U 50% Rokunohe
80 mm / 250 mm
■ 0.1 - 0.5 (gap length)
Positive LI Sonoda
Attached on spacer
Dry air 0.4 - 0.6 0.45 mm / 3 mm Positive LI Rokunohe
80 mm / 250 mm
□ Attached on spacer Alternate between
0.55, 0.7, 0.8 (inner / outer diameter)
0.2 mm / 3 mm positive LI and negative LI Ka
240 mm / 340 mm *1
Needle - plane
● 0.2 - 0.7 (gap length)
63 mm
0.2 mm / 20 mm Positive LI Hama
N2/SF6
Attached on spacer
○ 0.5 Coaxial cylinder electrode
0.25 mm / 5 mm Positive LI *2 Hoshina
120 mm / 434 mm
*1: Lower breakdown voltages were as follows: negative LI at 0.55 MPa, positive LI or negative LI
at 0.7 MPa, positive LI at 0.8 MPa (See Figure 2.4.17 (a)).
*2: Flashover voltage in the 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture was estimated from the relation between FOV
and SF6 content in the N2/SF6 mixtures (See Figure 2.4.21 (a)).
(2) Ratio of particle-initiated breakdown voltage in the potential gases to the value without particle
(under clean condition)
A summary of some investigations concerning the gas pressure dependence of breakdown at lightning impulse
voltage is given in [2.3.4]. Figure 2.3.23 shows the relation between the breakdown voltages with defined
particles (particle length: 3 mm), compared to the clean conditions (without particles). A reduction rate, Ubp/Ub
was introduced to discuss the influence of the particle on the breakdown voltages. Here, Ubp and Ub are 50 %
breakdown voltage under the non-uniform field (with 3 mm particle) and minimum breakdown voltage for both
polarities under quasi-uniform field (without particles), respectively. The minimum breakdown voltages are
classified into the following two cases: U50% minus 3 of a normal distribution and 0.1 % breakdown probability
values of Weibull distribution.
For all investigated gases, a strong decreasing tendency is found at increasing gas pressure. This fact leads
to an increasing influence of field distortions on the breakdown voltage at increasing gas pressure. The
51
strongest influence was found for SF6 gas. The similar tendency was found in CO2 from 0.45 MPa to 0.9 MPa
in Figure 2.3.14.
Figure 2.3.23: Gas pressure dependence of U bp /U b in dry air, N 2 , CO 2 and SF 6 at

LI voltage [2.3.4]. The parameter of the original vertical axis in the reference is
modified as in U bp /U b .
(3) Comparison of breakdown properties with and without metallic particles between the potential
gases and SF6
Tables 2.3.3 to 2.3.5 show the comparison of ratio to SF 6 (reduction rate Ubp/Ubp SF6 with particles, Ub/Ub SF6
without particles) and ratio of particle-initiated breakdown voltages to breakdown voltages without particles
(Ubp/Ub) in N2, CO2, dry air, 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture and SF6 under low (0.1 MPa  P < 0.4 MPa), medium
(0.4 MPa  P  0.7 MPa) and high (0.7 MPa < P) gas pressure range, respectively [2.3.3-2.3.5, 2.3.16-2.3.18].
The values in the tables correspond to the mean values in each gas pressure range. The following properties
of the potential gases can be seen from the tables.
52
Table 2.3.3: Comparison of breakdown properties with and without metallic p articles between N 2 ,
CO 2 , dry air, 80%N 2 /20%SF 6 mixture and SF 6 under low pressure range (0.1 MPa  P < 0.4 MPa)
[2.3.3-2.3.5, 2.3.16-2.3.18]
Ratio to SF6 Ratio to BDV

without particles
with particles without particles
U bp / U bp SF6 U b / U b SF6 U bp / U b
Gas
LI AC LI
Needle - Needle -
Needle - Attached on LI AC Attached on
plane, plane,
plane spacer spacer
Crossing Coaxial
N2 0.43 0.38 0.42 0.53 No data
CO2 0.57 No data 0.34 0.37 0.79 0.9 *1
Dry air 0.60 No data 0.40 0.42 0.73

No data
80%N2/20%SF6 0.60 0.76 No data No data
SF6 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.52 0.52 *1
Table 2.3.4: Comparison of breakdown properties with and without metallic particles between N 2 ,
CO 2 , dry air, 80%N 2 /20%SF 6 mixture and SF 6 under medium pressure range (0.4 MPa  P  0.7 MPa)
[2.3.3-2.3.5, 2.3.16-2.3.18]

without particles
Gas
LI AC LI
Needle - Needle -
plane, plane,
plane spacer spacer
Crossing Coaxial
N2 0.55 0.46 0.30 *2 0.30 0.35 0.37 No data
CO2 0.57 0.49 0.45 *2 0.39 0.42 0.45 0.41
Dry air 0.62 0.65 0.45 *2 0.43 0.43 0.44

No data
0.76 *1
80%N2/20%SF6 0.60 0.73 *1 0.78 0.68 No data
0.71 *2
SF6 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.23 0.27
*1: This value was derived from limited amount of data in one literature. *2: This value was derived
from limited amount of data in one literature based on BDVs during particle crossing at 0.55 MPa.
There are no significant differences in the influence of metallic particles to the dielectric strength between
“needle-plane electrode” and “attached on spacer” in the potential gases.
In the middle pressure range (0.4 MPa  P  0.7 MPa), the gases like dry air, CO2 and N2 seem to be more
sensitive in metallic particles at AC voltages than at LI voltages. This fact will be discussed again in terms of
the balance of dielectric strength between with and without metallic particles in section 3.5.
53
Table 2.3.5: Comparison of breakdown properties with and without metallic particles between N 2 ,
CO 2 , dry air, 80%N 2 /20%SF 6 mixture and SF 6 under high pressure range (0.7 MPa < P) [2.3.3-2.3.5,
2.3.16-2.3.18]

without particles
Gas
LI AC LI
Needle - Needle -
plane, plane,
plane spacer spacer
Crossing Coaxial
N2 0.29 0.34 0.26 No data

No data
CO2 0.40 0.45 0.24 0.33
Dry air No data 0.76 *1 No data 0.38 0.38
SF6 1.00 1.00 1.00
2.4 BREAKDOWN PROPERTIES OF GAS-INSULATOR INTERFACE

Surface flashover properties of insulators in compressed gases are important properties for the design of gas-
insulated systems. This section summarizes information on basic breakdown properties of gas-insulator
interfaces at LI and AC voltages (section 2.4.1) and the influence of particles at gas-insulator interfaces on
insulation properties (section 2.4.2).
2.4.1 Basic breakdown properties at LI and AC voltages

Different types of insulators are important parts of a typical gas-insulated system. The presence of insulators
influences the electric field distribution in the gas and at the gas-insulator interface. The dielectric strength at
the interface of technical insulators is an important design criteria for GIS insulators.
Different authors report about investigations of the dielectric strength of clean and particle-contaminated gas-
insulator interfaces in different types of gases, especially dry air, N2, CO2 and N2/SF6 mixtures [2.4.1-2.4.10].
This section reports about the interfaces under clean conditions.
Figure 2.4.1 shows the test setup for flashover measurements at the interface of a spacer [2.4.1], integrated
in a commercial 420 kV GIS. The spacer, made of epoxy resin, filled with Al2O3, was of 25 mm diameter and
45 mm height. The gas pressure was varied between 0.1 MPa and 1.0 MPa. The investigations were done at
AC and LI voltages. With AC, the voltage was increased until breakdown at a rate of 6 kV/s. With LI, the voltage
was risen in 10 % steps of the expected flashover voltage, starting at 50 %. For the tests reported in this
section 2.4.1, no particle was attached to the spacer.
54
Figure 2.4.1: Test setup (left) and potential distribution (right) for flashover investigations on a
spacer [2.4.1]; (1) HV electrode, (2) ground electrode, (3) and (4) specially shaped electrodes,
(5) spacer model, (6) particle (4 mm in length/ 0.2 mm in diameter), (7) piston
In Figure 2.4.2, the results for AC voltage are given. For CO2 and dry air, the test results show a similar increase
of the breakdown field strength with increasing gas pressure. With N 2, the breakdown field strength remains
considerably below the other gases, with a saturating tendency at higher gas pressures. Further results, with
particle contamination, are given in section 2.4.2.
Figure 2.4.2: Flashover field strength vs. pressure f or N 2 , CO 2 and dry air
without particle [2.4.2]
For N2, further investigations are reported [2.4.3] for the same test setup, but in direct comparison to SF 6 and
N2/SF6 mixtures. In Figure 2.4.3, the test results for AC and LI voltages are shown.
55
Figure 2.4.3: Flashover voltage vs. gas pressure for different gases in the clean test setup without
particle, stressed with AC voltage (left) and LI voltage (right) [2.4.3]. The parameters of the original
vertical axis in the reference are modified as in U AC (left) and U LI (right).
For all tested gases, an increasing flashover voltage with increasing gas pressure was found within the
investigated pressure range. With higher pressure, the difference between the flashover voltage of N2/SF6
mixtures and pure SF6 is increasing, especially at AC voltage.
The influence of the testing procedure, step-up method versus single impulse applications, is reported in
[2.4.4]. The authors investigated the flashover performance of spacers in dry air, N2, CO2 and SF6. The test
setup is shown in Figure 2.4.4. In this test, embedded electrodes in the epoxy spacers were applied, therefore,
any further effects of triple points were avoided.
Figure 2.4.4: Test setup (left) and potential distribution (right) for flashover tests on a spacer [2.4.4]
The test results, shown in Figure 2.4.5, give an increasing tendency of the lightning impulse flashover voltage
with increasing gas pressure for low pressure regions, but a saturating tendency for gas pressures 0.6 MPa
and above, tested at step-up method. The method of voltage application had a strong impact on the scatter of
the flashover voltages. The authors supposed that charges on the surface of the spacer, coming from pre-
applied impulses, influenced the flashover voltage values.
56
Figure 2.4.5: Flashover voltages of a spacer at lightning impulse voltage

(step-up method) for dry air, N 2 , CO 2 and SF 6 [2.4.4]
The test results of CO2 at 0.9 MPa for the first applied only method were drawn in a Weibull plot, compared to
SF6 at 0.5 MPa as shown in Figure 2.4.6. The results indicate the same tendency for the two gases, in both
cases with approximately 10 % spread. As shown in Figure 2.4.6 (b), the inclination for gas-insulator interfaces
is different from pure gas insulation.
Figure 2.4.6: Weibull plots of flashover field strength [2.4.4]; (a) left: CO 2 gas, 0.9 MPa, (b) right:
SF 6 gas, 0.5 MPa
Further investigations on the flashover performance of epoxy insulator samples in dry air were reported in
[2.4.5], varying the gas pressure within the range of 0.5 MPa to 0.9 MPa. As in the previously described
investigations, special care was taken to avoid influences from triple points. Epoxy resin samples, filled with
Al2O3, were casted with embedded alumina electrodes, as shown in Figure 2.4.7. “Small” and “big” cylindrical
insulator samples were applied to simulate parts of GIS with small (e.g. support insulators) and big surface
area (e.g. partitions). To be comparable with commercial GIS conditions, the size of the electrically high-
stressed surface area as well as insulating material, surface quality and manufacturing technology were
chosen as it was typical for GIS.
57
Figure 2.4.7: Electrode arrangement for flashover tests on a spacer in dry air [2.4.5];
left: electrodes and “small” and “big” test samples ,
“small”: Ø 25 mm, height 34 mm, surface area ≈ 3 x 10 3 mm 2 ,
“big”: Ø 130 mm, height 34 mm, surface area ≈ 14 x 10 3 mm 2 ,
right: surface tracks on an insulator sample
The test samples were integrated in a commercial 245 kV GIS, as shown in Figure 2.4.8. The tests were
performed with the progressive stress test method [2.4.11], at AC and LI voltages. With this method, the voltage
was increased from a start value in defined steps until breakdown. Then this test sequence, starting again from
the start value, was repeated for a defined number of cycles. The parameters for one test series were chosen
as: voltage step 10 kV, 10 (AC) or 20 (LI) breakdown events for each test sample, starting voltage below 90
% of lowest breakdown voltage. In total, more than 110 test series were performed with several thousand
breakdown events to investigate the influence of gas pressure, surface area size, gas humidity and voltage
type.
Figure 2.4.8: Test setup for automated flashover tests on epoxy spacers in dry air [2.4.5]
The test results were analyzed by statistical methods and approximated to the normal density function [2.4.11].
The following parameters and tests were evaluated and performed: Arithmetical mean and standard deviation
(StDev) of each test series, Anderson-Darlington (AD) factor (indicating the quality of approximation to normal
distribution), independence test of breakdown events, iteration test (Mosch and Hauschild), Phase test (Wallis
and Moore), H test (Kruskal-Wallis). The data of nearly all test series passed these tests. As an example,
Figure 2.4.9 shows the breakdown voltage of the first, the second and the subsequent flashovers, indicating
independent subsequent breakdown events on a sample.
58
Figure 2.4.9: Flashover electric field strength of first, second, third and following flashover
events on a single test sample in dry air at 0.5 MPa [2.4.5]
An example for a breakdown probability plot is given in Figure 2.4.10. The dots represent the breakdown
events, assigned to the breakdown field strength and the breakdown probability. The plotted lines indicate the
upper and lower confidence limit for 95 % as well as the mean value, based on the empirical function. The 95
% confidence interval means that 95 % of all breakdown values should be in between the upper and the lower
confidence limit. The lower the Anderson-Darlington (AD) factor, the better the quality of approximation to the
normal density function. The factor N indicates the number of breakdown events considered for the statistical
analysis.
Mean – mean value

StDev – Standard deviation
N – number of BD events
AD – Anderson-Darlington factor
P-Value – probability value
Figure 2.4.10: Breakdown probability plot of a spacer in dry air at 0.5 MPa in semi-logarithmic
scale [2.4.5]
In Figure 2.4.11, test results for the impact of gas pressure on surface flashover electric field strength under
different voltage stress are given for a range of 0.5 MPa to 0.9 MPa and for small and big samples [2.4.5].
Under AC voltage stress, pressure increase leads to increase of mean breakdown values, but the increase is
nonsignificant, since standard deviation is increasing as well at higher pressure. At LI voltage stress, no
significant increase was observed (positive LI voltage) in this specific test.
59
Generally, a large scatter of the flashover voltages was found at high gas pressures. A decreasing ratio of LI
to AC dielectric limits at increasing pressure led to the conclusion that special care must be taken for the design
of insulators in dry air gas-insulated systems.
Figure 2.4.11: Flashover electric field strength of a spacer in dry air from 0.5 MPa
to 0.9 MPa at AC peak and LI voltages [2.4.5]
The gas moisture was also an aspect, which was investigated, as given in Figure 2.4.12. Within a typical range
for the application in gas-insulated systems, corresponding to a frost point of -50 °C up to -25 °C at 0.1 MPa,
no significant influence of the gas moisture on the flashover voltages was found. In this figure, an evaluation
of the first three surface flashovers is given.
Figure 2.4.12: Flashover voltages of a spacer at LI voltage vs. water content in dry air at
0.5 MPa [2.4.5]
The impulse ratio, indicating the relation between dielectric limits at lightning impulse and AC voltage, is an
important factor for the insulation coordination and the testing requirements of gas-insulated systems. Further
evaluation of the test results was done to determine this relation [2.4.5], based on the mean values of surface
flashover electric field strength at positive LI voltage stress, divided by mean peak values under AC voltage
stress for small and big insulator samples. The results are given in Table 2.4.1.
60
Table 2.4.1: Ratio of LI to AC peak mean surface flashover electric field strength [2.4.5]
Pressure Insulator surface Gas Ratio

(MPa) Ratio LI+ / ACpeak LI- / ACpeak
0.5 1.36 1.30
0.6 1.29 1.35

0.8 1.21 1.50
0.9 1.09 -
The ratio decreases with increasing pressure, disagreeing with the ratio described for breakdown in dry air
without insulator surfaces (Figure 2.2.20). However, the scatter of breakdown values, having influence on the
arithmetical mean values, is assumed to be higher on insulator surfaces compared to breakdown in the gas,
which may be the reason for the deviation of values.
2.4.2 Influence of particles on insulation properties

Adhering particles on the surface of post-type and barrier insulators are typical defects in gas-insulated
systems. Therefore, the influence of these defects on insulation properties are important aspects for design,
manufacturing conditions and service of gas-insulated systems. Investigation results, comparing different
types of gases, are reported in the literature [2.4.6-2.4.10]. Reference [2.4.6] reports about investigations with
fixed particles on cone-type and post-type insulators in different gases, including dry air, N2 and CO2. The test
configurations are given in Figure 2.4.13. Metallic particles of 0.45 mm diameter and 3 mm length were applied
for the tests. For the cone-type spacer, the positions (A), (B) and (C) were chosen to adhere the particles on
the surface as shown in Figure 2.4.13 (a). For the post-type spacer, the positions were shown in Figure 2.4.13
(b). The tests were performed with LI voltage, applying the up-and-down method.
(a) Cone-type spacer (b) Post-type spacer
Figure 2.4.13: Configuration of experimental electrode systems [2.4.6]
In Figure 2.4.14 (a), the results for the post-type insulators at 0.5 MPa are summarized. Normalized to the
dielectric strength at negative LI of N2, the flashover voltages are given for the different gases. Under the
chosen test conditions, the dielectric strength of dry air and dry air with increased O 2-content was significantly
higher than those for N2 and CO2, and comparable to those for N2/SF6 mixtures. Comparing the dielectric
61
strength with particles on insulator (Figure 2.4.14 (a)) and under clean conditions without insulator (Figure
2.4.14 (b)), the test results indicate a lower sensitivity of dry air and comparable gas mixtures to fixed particles
on insulators than N2 or CO2 gas. The authors presumed that this increase was based on the electron affinity
of O2.
With the same test setup, further tests were done for dry air, investigating the dependence of the flashover
voltage on the particle length. The test results are given in Figure 2.4.14 (c). Compared to SF 6, the 50 %
flashover voltage for a 2 mm particle was about 60 %. With increasing particle length, the flashover voltages
decreased, but with a lower decreasing rate for dry air compared to SF 6. The authors of [2.4.6] presumed that
this effect was based on the different discharge development in dry air compared to SF6, namely the
dependency of the effective ionization coefficient on the electric field strength.
The gas pressure dependence of flashovers caused by particles was further investigated on cone-type spacers
for various gases. The test results are given in Figure 2.4.14 (d). The 50 % flashover voltage at 0.2 MPa was
almost the same for the gases of N2, CO2 and dry air. With increasing pressure, the flashover voltage increased
for dry air remarkably, but had only slight effects on the flashover voltage of N2 and CO2 in the pressure range
from 0.4 MPa to 0.6 MPa. At 0.6 MPa, the 50 % flashover voltage was 40 % to 60 % higher for dry air in relation
to N2 and CO2, and comparable to a gas mixture of 90%N2/10%SF6. The flashovers occurred at position (C)
in Figure 2.4.13 (a). The authors concluded that for all gas types the tangential field strength was the limiting
factor to evaluate the effect of particles on insulator surfaces.
(a) Post-type insulators with particles in (b) Gas gap in various gases (without
various gases, normalized to N 2 at particles), normalized to N 2 at negative
negative lightning impulse voltage lightning impulse voltage
(c) Influence of particle length for dry air, (d) Gas pressure dependence for various
normalized to a 2 mm particle in SF 6 gases (cone-type spacer), normalized
to dry air at 0.4 MPa
Figure 2.4.14: Flashover voltages caused by metallic particles at LI voltage [2.4.6]
62
Reference [2.4.7] reports further tests with CO2 at high pressures. In a test setup as shown in Figure 2.4.15,
breakdown tests were conducted with LI voltage of positive polarity at 1.0 MPa and 1.5 MPa. The fixed
aluminum particles were of 0.25 mm diameter and 3 mm length. The tests were performed with LI voltage
higher than the expected breakdown voltage in order to avoid charging effects of previous voltage applications.
The breakdown voltage was evaluated during the instant of breakdown. Comparing 1.0 MPa and 1.5 MPa,
there was a slight increase (13 %) of breakdown voltage only, which was smaller compared to 36 % (positive
polarity) to 47 % (negative polarity) under clean conditions.
(a) Test setup (b) Surface flashover trace

Figure 2.4.15: Test setup and flashover marks from tests with metallic particle s on insulators [2.4.7]
Further investigations on surface flashover properties initiated by metallic particles on insulator surface in dry
air and comparison with those in SF6 are reported in [2.4.8, 2.4.9]. Figure 2.4.16 shows the experimental setup
using model busbar (see Figure 2.2.1), and a view of the spacer on which four (for breakdown measurements)
or one aluminum wire particle (for PD measurements) were attached. The diameter of the particle was 0.2 mm,
and the length was changed between 3 mm and 10 mm. The gases of N2, CO2, dry air and SF6 were filled and
pressurized in the enclosure from 0.1 MPa to 0.7 MPa.
Standard lightning impulse voltages of positive and negative polarity were alternately applied by a step
increase of 3 % to 5 %. When a surface flashover occurred, the next voltage application was lowered by the
several steps and the similar test sequence was continued. The track of each surface flashover was observed,
and the first flashover initiated by each particle was recorded as flashover voltages (FOVs). Around the ten
FOVs were obtained for each test case by exchanging the particles on the spacer.
Figure 2.4.16: Experimental setup to measure PDIVs and FOVs initiated by

metallic particles on spacer in dry air and in SF 6 at LI voltage [2.4.8, 2.4.9]
63
In AC (60 Hz) voltage experiments, partial discharge inception voltages (PDIVs) and electromagnetic (EM)
waves were measured, and about ten FOVs were obtained to calculate 50 % probability values of the FOVs.
The EM waves were detected by loop antenna (300 Hz to 2 GHz) and PD capacitive coupler (100 MHz to
2 GHz), and PD magnitudes were measured by the method according to IEC 60270.
Figure 2.4.17 (a) shows dependencies of 3 mm particle-initiated FOVs on gas pressure of dry air and SF 6 at
LI voltage. In SF6, the pressure dependence of FOVs showed a peak value at around 0.6 MPa, and the FOVs
lowered as the gas pressure increased over 0.6 MPa. Almost linear increase of FOVs in dry air were observed
from 0.1 MPa to 0.3 MPa, but the increase of FOVs were saturated at the pressure region between 0.55 MPa
and 0.8 MPa. Note that the particle-initiated flashover properties are different between in dry air and in SF 6
especially in the medium pressure range from 0.4 MPa to 0.7 MPa.
(a) Pressure dependent FOV in dry air and SF 6 (b) FOV vs. particle length in dry air at 0.23 MPa
Figure 2.4.17: Surface flashover properties caused by metallic particles at LI voltage [2.4.8]
Figure 2.4.17 (b) shows the influence of particle length on particle-initiated FOVs in dry air of 0.23 MPa at LI
voltage. The decrease of the FOVs was observed as the particle length increased, and this tendency is similar
to the property of the FOVs in SF6.
Figure 2.4.18 shows comparisons of sparkover (a) and flashover (b) voltages between in dry air and in SF6 at
0.7 MPa at LI voltage [2.4.8]. The particle length was 3 mm. The sparkover voltage in dry air decreased to
51 % of that in SF6 under quasi-uniform electric field (without particles), but the flashover voltage had a higher
value of 67 % compared to that in SF6 when the particles were attached on spacer surface. It should be noted
that this tendency is similar to the results in CO2 in Figure 2.3.22.
(a) Sparkover under quasi-uniform field (b) Flashover initiated by particles on spacer
Figure 2.4.18: Comparison of sparkover (a) and flashover (b) voltages between in dry air and in
SF 6 at 0.7 MPa at LI voltage [2.4.8]
64
Figure 2.4.19 shows comparisons of PDIVs and 50 % probability FOVs between N2, CO2, dry air and SF6 at
0.55 MPa under AC voltage by using the test setup in Figure 2.4.16. The length of the particle was 10 mm.
The ratio of the PDIVs of N2, CO2 and dry air to that of SF6 was below 0.5, and similar to the ratio for BD
voltages under quasi-uniform field (0.43 of dry air) in Table 2.2.4 and under crossing of moving particles (0.45
of dry air) in Table 2.3.4. However, the flashover voltages of N 2, CO2 and dry air had higher values of over
70 % than that in SF6 at AC voltage, which was a similar tendency in the case of dry air at LI voltage in different
test setups, compare Figure 2.4.14 (c) and Figure 2.4.18. More detailed studies are necessary to verify this
property that is different from the BD characteristics initiated by moving particles and fixed particles on HV
conductor. The PD magnitudes in N2, CO2, dry air and SF6 measured by the IEC 60270 method were in a
similar level from 1.1 pC to 1.3 pC.
Figure 2.4.19: PDIVs and FOVs in N 2 , CO 2 , dry air and SF 6 at 0.55 MPa under AC
voltage when 10 mm metallic particles are attached to spacer surface [2.4.9]
Similar surface flashover characteristics caused by metallic particles in N 2, N2/SF6 mixtures and SF6 were
investigated by changing the SF6 content [2.4.10]. Figure 2.4.20 shows the experimental setup using actual
GIS busbar and a view of the spacer on which aluminum wire particles were attached. The diameter and length
of the particle was 0.25 mm and 5 mm, respectively. The gas pressure of N 2, N2/SF6 mixtures and SF6 was
0.5 MPa.
(a) Configuration of actual GIS busbar (b) Positions of attached particles on spacer
Figure 2.4.20: Experimental setup to measure FOVs initiated by metallic particles on spacer at LI
voltage [2.4.10]
65
Figure 2.4.21 shows dependences of surface flashover voltages on SF6 content in N2/SF6 mixtures at positive
and negative LI voltages. All the surface flashovers in N 2/SF6 mixtures and SF6 occurred at the particle position
of No. 1 in Figure 2.4.20 (b), at which the electric field strength along the spacer surface was maximum. In N 2,
the flashovers at positive LI initiated at the same position of No. 1, but the flashovers at negative LI started
from No. 2 and No. 5 in addition to No. 1 at equal voltage levels.
(a) Positive LI (b) Negative LI
Figure 2.4.21: Surface flashover voltages versus SF 6 content in N 2 /SF 6 mixtures at LI voltage [2.4.10]
2.5 CONCLUSION
Chapter 2 provides information about basic breakdown properties of alternative gases for gas-insulated
systems. The main outcome of the given investigations is as follows:
From technical point of view, SF6 gas is the best solution as media in gas-insulated systems, due to its excellent
insulating and switching performance, but with a high GWP which requires high effort for gas handling and
tightness.
Potential substitutes have to fulfill high requirements concerning dielectric insulation, thermal, physico-
chemical and ecological properties as well as arc-quenching capabilities. Dry air, N2 and CO2 and N2/SF6
mixtures are potential substitutes, especially concerning the ecological aspects.
The dielectric breakdown properties in quasi-uniform field were investigated in several different test setups
and electrode configurations. Based on the literature, an evaluation of the test data was done to summarize
the influence of gas pressure, surface area, electrode roughness, field non-uniformity and LI waveform on the
breakdown field strength. Comparisons between the potential gases and SF 6 were drawn, as well as the
relation between LI and AC voltage breakdown strength.
Compared to SF6 gas at the same pressure, the relative breakdown field strength of dry air, N2 and CO2 is in
the range of 29 % up to 45 %, depending on the gas and the gas pressure. For the typical gas pressure range
of gas-insulated systems (0.4 MPa  P  0.7 MPa), the dielectric strength of dry air and CO 2 is in a range of
approximately 40 % compared to SF6, while N2 is of lower dielectric strength (around 33 %).
In most cases, the breakdown voltages are usually lower at negative LI than at positive LI. Drawing the ratio
of the practical relative to the theoretical breakdown field strength for all gases, a decreasing tendency was
found with increasing pressure. For the typical gas pressure range of gas-insulated systems at negative LI
voltages, this ratio for SF6 gas is lower than for dry air, N2, CO2 and N2/SF6 mixtures, which show similar values.
The ratios of N2 at positive LI are, however, further lower than those of SF6 at negative LI. An improvement by
dielectric coatings is possible.
66
The ratio of LI breakdown voltages to AC breakdown voltages in insulation designs of gas-insulated systems
(impulse ratio) is essential to compare the insulation properties of insulating gases and to ensure that an
adequate design margin is given to satisfy specified withstand voltages by the standards. The impulse ratios
of all the gases increase as the gas pressure rises, due to the differences of the gas pressure dependences
of breakdown and withstand voltages between LI and AC voltages. The impulse ratios in dry air, N 2, CO2 and
SF6 are below 1.5 within the typical gas pressure range for practical applications. However, the ratios of
80%N2/20%SF6 mixture are higher than that of SF6. Based on the test voltage requirements from the standards,
the insulation design of gas-insulated systems is basically dominated by lightning impulse voltage for dry air,
N2, CO2 up to 0.7 MPa, as it is also the case for SF 6 gas. The gas-insulated systems using N2 and
80%N2/20%SF6 mixture under high pressure region may be dominated by ACWV, e.g. in N 2 over 1.6 MPa and
in 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture over 0.7 MPa.
The influence of imperfections on the breakdown properties is also of high importance. The behavior of
particles in dry air, N2 and CO2 at AC and LI voltages was investigated deeply. Lift-off, jumping and crossing
of free moving particles occurs at lower AC field strength than in SF 6, especially in N2. While the dielectric
strength of dry air, N2 and CO2 compared to SF6 is 30 % to 40 % under clean quasi-uniform field, the lift-off and
crossing field strength of the gases compared to SF6 have the higher values of about 60 % and 70 % to 80 %,
respectively.
The relation between the AC breakdown voltages with and without metallic particles was in the same range
for dry air, N2, CO2 and SF6 (see Figure 3.5.2).
The AC voltage for crossing particles to the HV conductor was lower than the AC breakdown voltage. The
largest difference was found for SF6, while the difference for N2 was quite small at 0.55 MPa. This means that
in practical applications the detection of PD from free metallic particles in N2 would be difficult within the typical
pressure range, but possible for CO2 and dry air.
With fixed protrusions at lightning impulse voltage, an increasing partial discharge inception voltage was found
for increasing gas pressure (up to 0.5 MPa), but saturating breakdown voltages had to be stated for the specific
test conditions.
The relation of the lightning impulse breakdown voltages with and without protrusion has a strong decreasing
tendency at increasing pressure. This fact leads to an increasing influence of field distortions on the LI
breakdown voltage at increasing gas pressure, but the strongest influence was found for SF 6 gas. Dry air, N2
and CO2 were less sensitive to protrusions than SF6.
Surface flashover properties of insulators in compressed gases are important properties for the design of gas-
insulated systems. Several tests were done to investigate the dielectric performance of gas-insulator interfaces
in different gases, under clean conditions as well as with particle contamination. A majority of the test results
indicated increasing flashover voltages with increasing pressure for dry air, CO 2 and N2/SF6 mixtures. For pure
N2 gas, a saturation was found for higher gas pressures, in some tests also for dry air. Generally, the scatter
of the test results is higher compared to pure gas gaps, especially at higher gas pressures. Some test results
indicated an influence of the sequence of voltage application, probably as a result of charge accumulation on
the insulator surfaces. Gas moisture of a typical range in dry air was of low influence on the flashover voltages.
Particles on insulator surfaces are typical potential imperfections in gas-insulated systems. The behaviour of
particles attached to insulator surfaces were investigated from different authors. In these tests, dry air and
N2/SF6 mixtures had the smallest reduction of breakdown strength, indicating the lowest sensitivity against this
type of failure. For N2 and CO2, the influence was higher. With increasing particle length, the flashover voltages
decreased, but with a lower decreasing rate for dry air compared to SF 6. With increasing pressure, the
flashover voltage increased for dry air remarkably, but had only slight effect on the flashover voltage of N2 and
CO2. The relation of the partial discharge inception voltages of long (10 mm) particles attached to insulator
surfaces, comparing N2, CO2 and dry air to SF6, was similar to the breakdown voltages of gas gaps under
quasi-uniform field, but the flashover voltages of N2, CO2 and dry air had higher values of over 70 % than that
in SF6 at AC voltages, which was a similar tendency in the case of dry air at LI voltages. That means that long
particles on insulator surfaces are better detectable in the potential gases, compared to SF6, before a
breakdown occurs. In this case, the reduction of the flashover voltage is, compared to clean conditions, lower
than in SF6.
67
insulating characteristics for non-standard lightning impulse waveforms (non-standard LIWs) actually
appearing at substations. Breakdown voltage properties of N 2, CO2, and dry air have been obtained for non-
standard LIWs under both quasi-uniform electric fields and non-quasi-uniform electric fields compared with
those of SF6. These results are applicable to examination on the representative overvoltage for setting LIWV
in insulation-coordination procedure. It can be said based on these results that the insulation requirements are
not as severe for non-standard LIWs as those for the standard LIW, since the decay of the field overvoltage is
generally larger.
68
3 PRACTICAL INSULATION AND SMALL CURRENT

INTERRUPTION TECHNIQUES
3.1 IMPROVEMENT OF DIELECTRIC PERFORMANCE

It is well known, that dielectric coated electrodes in SF6-insulated systems improve the dielectric performance.
The coatings have different effects, such as [3.1.1-3.1.3]:
 increasing the breakdown field strength,

 suppressing the area effect of electrodes or
 inhibiting metallic particle lift-off.
In order to satisfy the demand of reducing the amount of SF 6 by partly replacing it with potential gases, it has
to be shown whether the mentioned benefits of coated electrodes work with dry air, N2, CO2 and N2/SF6
mixtures as well. This will be discussed in this section.
Since the coating can be applied either on the high voltage electrode or on the ground electrode, different
effects have to be distinguished. The presented data are mainly based on [3.1.1] and [3.1.2] using real-size
gas-insulated switchgears. As an example, Figure 3.1.1 presents an overview of an experimental setup which
was used to perform electrical breakdown experiments to analyse the influence of different dielectric coatings
in a CO2 gas environment [3.1.1].
Figure 3.1.1: Experimental setup of cylindrical electrode in 72 kV GIS [3.1.1]
Coating the inner conductor can increase the breakdown electric field strength (BDE) by 20 % in high-pressure
CO2 insulation [3.1.1]. Figure 3.1.2 shows the results of experiments in [3.1.1] using negative lightning impulse
voltage for investigating the effect of several different coatings at 1.0 MPa CO2. Every coating increased the
50 % value of the breakdown electric field strength E50% at least by 7 %. It can also be seen, that the value of
the first BDE in comparison to E50% is an important factor when judging different coatings. In this case, Fluorine-
2 (thickness: 400 µm) is expecting to improve BDE in a better way than Fluorine-1 (thickness: 60 µm) does,
since the value of the first BDE is much higher. The values of BDE of TUFRAM® and Epoxy are quite stable
(Figure 3.1.2). In summary, Fluorine-2, Epoxy and TUFRAM® have the highest impact on improving the
dielectric performance of CO2-insulated systems. Since first BDE and E50% are nearly the same for TUFRAM®,
this coating can be identified as the best one. Closer investigations of TUFRAM® show that E50% is increasing
linearly with gas pressure (Figure 3.1.3). It can be seen that the TUFRAM® coating leads to around 20 % to
30 % higher E50% in the range of 0.4 MPa to 1.0 MPa of CO2 insulation.
69
Figure 3.1.2: Comparison of insulation Figure 3.1.3: Gas pressure dependence of

BDE between dielectric coated and bare E 50% of coated (TUFRAM®) and bare
electrodes (CO 2 : 1.0 MPa) [3.1.1] electrodes [3.1.1]
For electrode arrangements without any dielectric coating, it is shown that the breakdown electric field strength
under negative LI stress in N2/SF6 mixtures (including pure N2 and pure SF6) at 0.4 MPa is first decreasing and
then approaching a constant value with an increased electrode area [3.1.2]. From Figure3.1.4, it can be seen
that the area effect of the electrodes in SF6 can be suppressed by an advanced dielectric coating.
Eb / Eth (%)
Figure 3.1.4: E b /E th as a function of effective electrode area S 90% in SF 6 [3.1.2]. The parameter of
the original vertical axis in the reference is modified as in E b /E th .
70
In the case of application of the dielectric coating to the enclosure inner surface, the experimental data in dry
air, N2/SF6 mixtures and SF6 are provided in [3.1.2]. Dielectric coating may also prevent or at least impede
metallic particle lift-off. Due to the coating, the particles will not be charged directly from the electrode. It can
only get electric charges by partial discharges between itself and the coating [3.1.3].
The effect of dielectric coating can be indicated by the value of Elp coated/Elp bare and Ecp coated/Ecp bare [3.1.2]. Its
relation to the gas pressure is shown in Figure 3.1.5.
Figure 3.1.5: Effects of dielectric coating on enclosure inner surface compared with bare enclosure as
a function of gas pressure [3.1.2]. E lp coated , E cp coated and E lp bare , E cp bare indicate particle levitation and
crossing electric field strength on enclosure inner surface for dielectric coated and bare enclosure,
respectively. Also, there are two cases of “without vibration” (static condition for dielectric coated
enclosure) and “with vibration” (under practical impulsive force due to circuit breaker, disconnector
and earthing switch operation for dielectric coated enclosure). A mechanical vibration is not given for
bare enclosure. Note that the parameters of the original vertical axis in the reference are modified as
in E lp coated /E lp bare and E cp coated /E cp bare .
The related electrode configurations and test conditions are summarized in Table 3.1.1. It can be noted and
cited from [3.1.2] as follows.
 “Dielectric coatings to enclosure inner surface can suppress a metallic particle motion such as lift-
off/levitation and crossing to HV electrode compared with bare enclosure for AC and DC voltages.”
 “Particle lift-off/levitation properties in the case of dielectric coated enclosure have basically a gas
pressure dependence based on the partial discharges between a particle and a dielectric layer in the
case without mechanical vibration. The particle lift-off/levitation field strength at dielectric coated
electrode surface is about 2 to 11 times higher than that of bare enclosure depending on the gas
pressure.”
 “With mechanical vibration, the particle lift-off/levitation field strength at dielectric coated enclosure
surface lowers to about 2 to 3.5 times higher than that at bare enclosure. The decrease of the particle
lift-off/levitation field strength would be caused by partial discharges at the edge of wire particle which
is lifted from dielectric coating surface when mechanical vibration is given.”
71
 “The particle crossing field strength at dielectric coated enclosure surface with mechanical vibration is
a little more decreased but still 1.3 to 1.6 times higher than that at bare enclosure.”
 “The effect of dielectric coatings to suppress a particle motion in SF 6 is the same as that in N2/SF6 gas
mixtures when the dielectric performance is identical to that in SF6. The dielectric coating effect can be
seen again in dry air which has lower dielectric strength than that of SF 6.”
 “Regarding applied voltage waveform and polarity, the following tendency can be seen. The dielectric
coating effect on particle lift-off/levitation seems to be higher in AC voltage than DC voltage. Also, the
coating effect in positive DC voltage is a little higher than that in negative DC voltage.”
Table 3.1.1: Electrode configurations and test conditions of the data in Figure 3.1.5 [3.1.2]
Particle Dielectric coating Electrode
Levitation / Practical
Voltage Mark Diameter / Length Gas Thickness configuration *1 Reference
Crossing Shape material Material vibration
(mm) -3
(x 10 mm) (mm)
Plane - Plane
Sphere 2 Steel 40 - 420 FEP 60 / 50, Ooishi
100 / 100 Without
vibration
SF6 Plane - Plane
0.4 / 3 - 6 60 Aoki
220 / 260
Coaxial
Levitation Modified Hama
125 / 340,
phthalate-ester 240 / 1000
Yamasaki
0.2 / 3 - 10
70%N2/30%SF6
Coaxial
80%N2/20%SF6 Hama *2
90%N2/10%SF6
125 / 340
AC Modified Coaxial
0.2 / 3 Dry air Ka
Wire Aluminum Epoxy 125 / 340
With
30 Coaxial
90 / 254,
vibration Kobayashi
SF6 125 / 340,
Hama
Modified Yamasaki
0.2 / 3 - 10 240 / 1000
phthalate-ester
70%N2/30%SF6
Crossing Coaxial
80%N2/20%SF6
125 / 340
Hama *2
90%N2/10%SF6
Modified Coaxial
0.2 / 3 Dry air Ka
Epoxy 125 / 340
Plane - Plane
Sphere 2 Steel 40 FEP Ooishi
100 / 100
DC Without
(Positive) + Levitation
Wire 0.2 / 10 Aluminum
SF6
20 - 40 Epoxy
Coaxial
70 / 500
vibration
Hasegawa
Plane - Plane
Sphere 2 Steel 40 FEP Ooishi
100 / 100 Without
Coaxial vibration
0.2 / 10 20 - 40 Epoxy Hasegawa
70 / 500
DC Levitation SF6
(Negative) Modified Coaxial
Wire 0.2 / 3 Aluminum 30 Shikata
phthalate-ester 240 / 1000
With
Coaxial vibration
0.25 / 3 40 Epoxy 80 / 300, Hasegawa *3
70 / 500
*1: For plane-plane electrode, the electrode diameters of high voltage and ground side are described. In the
case of coaxial electrodes, the inner and outer electrode diameters are shown.
*2: The dielectric performance of three kinds of N2/SF6 mixtures are the same as that of pure SF6 at 0.4 MPa.
*3: Negative DC voltages are applied after a prestress of positive DC voltage as a practical severe condition
of polarity reversal.
Finally, it can be stated that the application of dielectric coatings on high voltage electrodes and on enclosure
inner surface is a very effective measure to improve the dielectric performance of gas-insulated systems that
are using the potential gases of dry air, N2, CO2 and N2/SF6 mixtures.
To conclude this section, Table 3.1.2 summarizes the effect of dielectric coatings in the potential gases and
SF6 in medium pressure range of 0.4 MPa to 0.7 MPa. It can be seen that the breakdown strength under LI
voltage stress of all investigated gases is higher with coated electrodes than with bare electrodes. Under these
circumstances, the coatings improve the breakdown properties in dry air and CO2 by 20 % and 26 %,
respectively. Coatings are also effective for inhibiting particle motion in dry air and N2/SF6 mixtures. Since
72
some data are not available, more investigations have to be carried out. Nevertheless, it is expected that the
dielectric performance of the potential gases will be improved in every case of dielectric coatings.
In summary and as also shown in [3.1.3], dielectric coatings are a promising technique to increase the reliability
of gas-insulated systems not only with SF6, but also with the potential gases.
Table 3.1.2: Effect of dielectric coatings in the potential gases and SF 6 in medium pressure range
(0.4 MPa  P  0.7 MPa) [3.1.1 - 3.1.3]
Inhibition of particle
Breakdown strength at LI
motion at AC
Gas
Crossing electric
Ratio to bare Ratio to SF6 Ratio to theoretical
field strength
U b coated / U b bare U b bare / U b bare SF6 U b coated / U th
E cp coated / E cp bare
N2 1.15 *2 0.30 *1 No data No data
CO2 1.26 *3 0.39 *1 0.87 *4 No data
Dry air 1.20 *2 0.43 *1 No data 1.13 *5
80%N2/20%SF6 No data 0.78 *1 No data 1.30 *5
SF6 1.38 *2 1.00 *1 0.89 *4 1.37 *5
Ub coated: breakdown voltage of dielectric coated electrode under clean condition,

Ub bare: breakdown voltage of bare electrode under clean condition,
Ub bare SF6: breakdown voltage of bare electrode under clean condition in SF6,
Uth: theoretical breakdown voltage,
Ecp coated: crossing electric field strength on the basis of dielectric coated enclosure inner surface,
Ecp bare: crossing electric field strength on the basis of bare enclosure inner surface.
*1: The values of "Ratio to SF6 (Ub/Ub SF6)" in the case of bare electrode in Table 2.2.4.
*2: Refer to CIGRE Technical Brochure No. 571 [3.1.3]: Figures 3.2.37 and 3.2.38 (5 mm
thickness/0.5 MPa) for N2 and dry air, and Table 3.2.7 (10 mm thickness/0.44 MPa) for SF6 in
[3.1.3].
*3: Calculated from Figure 3.1.3: the mean value between 0.4 MPa and 0.7 MPa.
3.2 PARTIAL DISCHARGE DIAGNOSTICS AND MONITORING

3.2.1 Basic partial discharge properties
In this section, the basic characteristics of partial discharge activity in the potential gases of gas-insulated
systems are explained. The PD properties are related to:
(i) N2, CO2, dry air and SF6,
(ii) N2/SF6 mixtures and pure SF6.
Firstly, in part (i), basic PD characteristics in the needle-to-plane electrode configuration in N2, CO2 and dry air
are compared with those in SF6. Secondly, PD properties caused by typical GIS defects, such as protrusions
on HV conductors or on the inner surface of the enclosure and metallic particles on the spacer surface are
presented. Finally, practical PD characteristics of moving metallic particles are described, focusing on the
73
critical condition when the particles reach the HV conductor (just before the breakdown). This information is
used to study the application of alternative dielectric tests with different potential gases (chapter 4).
In part (ii), basic and practical PD characteristics in N2/SF6 mixtures are introduced referring to CIGRE
Technical Brochure No. 260 and selected references, and a comparison to those in SF 6 is made again. In
particular, PD inception voltages (PDIVs), phase resolved PD patterns (PRPDs), PD magnitudes, and UHF
PD spectra are discussed.
3.2.1.1 Properties in N2, CO2, dry air and SF6 at AC voltages

(1) Basic tests to compare PDIV values in different gases at different pressure levels and for typical
defects in GIS
The PDIV values were measured in N2, CO2, dry air and SF6 at different gas pressure levels (0.1 MPa, 0.3 MPa
and 0.5 MPa) for the following typical GIS defects in a test cell [3.2.1].
 Protrusion: needle with radius = 50 µm, gap length = 12 mm

 Moving particle: aluminum ball with diameter = 2 mm, gap length = 12 mm
 Floating electrode: isolated ball with diameter = 20 mm, gap length = 2 mm and 5 mm
The test cell is presented in Figure 3.2.1, and the results of the test are presented in Figure 3.2.2 and Table
3.2.1. The electrical PD measurements were performed using the OMICRON MPD 600 at the centre frequency
fc = 1.6 MHz and at the frequency bandwidth f = 0.3 MHz. The background noise level was about 0.5 pC and
the voltage was increased at 0.5 kV/s.
Protrusion Moving particle Floating electrode
Figure 3.2.1: Test cell with different defects [3.2.1]
Moving particle
(a) Protrusion (b) Moving particle (c) Floating electrode
Figure 3.2.2: PDIV of different defects vs. type of insulating gas and pressure [3.2.1]
74
Table 3.2.1: Summary of PDIV of different defects vs. type of insulating gas and pressure [3.2.1]
Moving
particle
(2) Partial discharges at needle-to-plane electrode system

Properties of PD at non-uniform field in N2, CO2, dry air (79 % of N2 and 21 % of O2) and SF6 were investigated
[3.2.2]. Partial discharge initiation voltages (PDIVs), PD current waveforms and PD-emitted EM waves at the
PDIV level were measured at both polarities of the AC voltage cycle. Similar experiments at DC voltages [B.1,
B.2] are presented in Annex B.
Experimental setup
All of the tests in [3.2.2] were performed at 0.1 MPa in the needle-to-plane electrode configuration set-up
placed in the cylindrical acrylic container (Figure B.1). The diameter and tip curvature of the needle electrode
was 1 mm and 38 m, respectively. Additional tests were done from 0.1 MPa to 0.5 MPa by the almost similar
but slightly different test setup in [3.2.2], i.e. using a slightly different needle electrode and acrylic vessel [3.2.3].
Partial discharge current waveforms and PD-emitted EM waves propagating through the acrylic wall from the
HV electrode were simultaneously measured with a digital Rohde & Schwarz RTO1044, 4 GHz, 20 GS/s
oscilloscope and with different antennas working in the VHF and UHF frequency ranges. Namely, a horn
antenna, “HA” (750 MHz to 5 GHz), a dipole antenna, “DA” (300 MHz), and a mobile antenna, “MA” (50 MHz),
were used and placed outside the container. The output signal was 14 dB amplified with an R&K AA440-0S,
100 MHz to 8 GHz amplifier for the “HA” antenna.
Partial discharge properties

Figure 3.2.3 shows positive and negative PDIVs in each gas normalized by the value of SF 6 [3.2.2]. The bars
in the figure show the theoretical PDIVs obtained according to the streamer theory with reasonable variations
in the ionization index. Positive and negative PDs mostly occurred around the maximum value of the voltage
and at both semi-cycles of the applied voltage. The positive PDIV level was higher than the negative one in
CO2, but this was opposite in the case of N 2 and dry air. The PDIVs in N2, CO2 and dry air were between 25 %
and 45 % lower of those at SF6. The measured values at both polarities show a fairly good agreement for all
of the gases with the theoretical values.
75
Figure 3.2.3: Positive and negative PDIVs of SF 6 , CO 2 , dry air and N 2 at

0.1 MPa normalized by the value of SF 6 [3.2.2]
Figure 3.2.4 shows typical positive and negative PD current waveforms for all of the tested gases. It has to be
noted that the time scale on the x-axis widely differs depending on the gas type. The PD current pulses in SF6
are the sharpest (x-axis scale equal to 5 ns/div) and are much wider in N 2 (x-axis scale at 200 ns/div). Those
in CO2 and in dry air have a middle size steepness (x-axis scale is in the range between 20 ns/div and
40 ns/div).
(a-1) Positive PD of SF (a-2) Negative PD of SF

6 6
(b-1) Positive PD of CO (b-2) Negative PD of CO

2 2
(c-1) Positive PD of dry air (c-2) Negative PD of dry air
(d-1) Positive PD of N (d-2) Negative PD of N

2 2
Figure 3.2.4: Typical PD current waveforms for the gases measured at PDIVs [3.2.2]
In Figure 3.2.5, the charge amount q (Figure 3.2.5 (a)) and the rise time tr (Figure 3.2.5 (b)) of the PD current
waveforms obtained for different gases are shown. The charge amount q is defined as the time-integral of the
waveform and the rise time tr is defined by the time between 10 % and 90 % of the rising part of the waveform.
The q and tr were the highest in N2 and lower for dry air, CO2, and SF6 in descending order in the positive
voltage polarity. In the negative voltage polarity, the values of tr for N2, dry air and CO2 were almost the same
and they were 10 times higher than those in SF6.
76
(a) Charge amount q (b) Rise time t r

Figure 3.2.5: Charge amount and rise time obtained from PD current waveforms
at PDIVs in SF 6 , CO 2 , dry air and N 2 [3.2.2]
PD-emitted EM waves and the relation with the PD currents

As an example, Figure 3.2.6 shows a typical positive PD-emitted EM wave for each gas measured at the PDIV
level with the “HA” and “MA” antennas. The amplitude and the frequency of the EM waves are different in each
of the gases and when measured with different types of antennas. As shown in Figure 3.2.6 (a), a pulse-shape
signal could be clearly detected with the ”HA” antenna in SF6 and CO2, while no signal above background
noise level could be detected in N2 and dry air. An oscillating EM signal could be detected for each gas with
the “MA” antenna, and the signals for N2, dry air and CO2 have relatively larger amplitudes compared to SF6
(Figure 3.2.6 (b)).
(a) Antenna “HA” (b) Antenna “MA”
Figure 3.2.6: Typical positive PD-emitted EM waves with the different antennas
at PDIV in SF 6 , CO 2 , dry air and N 2 [3.2.2]
Figure 3.2.7 shows the comparison of the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratios of EM waves at PDIV level for different
gases and for different antennas. The signal is defined as the peak-to-peak amplitude of the waves. The
polarity effect as well as differences for different gases and antennas were clearly found. The measurements
77
in the VHF frequency range with the “MA” antenna are effective for CO2, dry air and N2, while the “HA” antenna
working in the UHF frequency range is effective for SF6. It was also found that the antennas, “HA” and “DA”
were suitable for CO2, and the “DA” antenna was suitable for the dry air.
(a) Positive PD (b) Negative PD

Figure 3.2.7: Comparison of S/N ratios of EM waves measured by three kinds of antennas
between SF 6 , CO 2 , dry air and N 2 at 0.1 MPa [3.2.2]
The relation between the amplitude of PD-emitted EM waves (peak-to-peak amplitude) measured by different
antennas and the PD current changing rate di/dt at its rising part in SF6, CO2, dry air and N2 are shown in
Figure 3.2.8 (a). Similarly, the relation between the EM wave amplitudes and the PD current (peak values)
ipd peak are shown in Figure 3.2.8 (b). The plot points below the noise level in this figure were obtained by the
current measurements with the oscilloscope. The EM wave amplitudes of the “HA” show a good correlation
with the di/dt of the PD current, while the EM wave amplitudes of the “MA” correlate with ipd peak. No clear
correlation of the EM wave amplitudes of “DA” with either di/dt nor ipd peak could be seen.
(a) EM wave amplitudes by “HA” vs. di/dt (b) EM wave amplitudes by “MA” vs. i pd peak
Figure 3.2.8: Relation between amplitudes of PD -emitted EM waves measured by different antennas
and PD currents in SF 6 , CO 2 , dry air and N 2 at 0.1 MPa [3.2.2]
Additional tests were carried out in CO2 and dry air from 0.1 MPa to 0.5 MPa by the almost similar but a slightly
different test setup in [3.2.2] using an increased tip curvature of the needle electrode of 102 m and a thicker
different acrylic wall vessel [3.2.3]. The detailed experimental setup is referred in Figure B.1 in Annex B.
Figure 3.2.9 shows comparisons of S/N ratios of EM waves in positive and negative polarity measured by three
kinds of antennas between CO2 and dry air at 0.1 MPa, 0.3 MPa and 0.5 MPa. The “signal” is defined as the
peak-to-peak amplitude of the waves again. The similar tendencies with Figure 3.2.7 were basically found in
terms of the difference of gases and antennas even at the higher pressure range. The results at the higher
pressure region showed that the measurements at VHF frequency range with the “MA” antenna were effective
for CO2 and dry air for both positive and negative polarities. The S/N ratios of EM waves became larger as the
gas pressure of CO2 increased from 0.1 MPa at the negative polarity. This fact suggests that the
measurements at “HA” antenna in the UHF frequency range might be effective in CO2 at the high pressure
region. Nevertheless, more detailed studies under all the kind of defects for the gas-insulated systems will be
78
necessary to understand the differences of frequency characteristics of EM waves between the natural-origin
gases (N2, CO2 and dry air) and SF6.
0.1 MPa 0.3 MPa 0.5 MPa
(a) Positive PD
0.1 MPa 0.3 MPa 0.5 MPa
(b) Negative PD
Figure 3.2.9: Comparison of S/N ratios of EM waves measured by three kinds of antennas between
CO 2 and dry air at 0.1 MPa, 0.3 MPa and 0.5 MPa [3.2.3]. (No data in the case of CO 2 at 0.5 MPa in
positive PD)
(3) Partial discharge and breakdown properties in dry air using GIS model with defects
A real GIS model of coaxial dimensions 80 mm/250 mm with defects was used to investigate PD and
breakdown characteristics of dry air at atmospheric pressure (Figure 3.2.10) [3.2.4]. Metallic particles
(aluminum wires with a diameter of 0.25 mm and 3 mm, 5 mm, 10 mm in length) were placed at the conductor
(“protrusion on HV conductor”), on the inner surface of the enclosure and on the spacer surface (“particle on
spacer surface”). Partial discharge characteristics caused by the particles under 50 Hz AC voltage were
measured using both a current pulse measurement method based on IEC 60270 and a UHF method. The UHF
signal was preamplified to 25 dB and measured in the frequency range between 500 MHz and 1 500 MHz.
Figure 3.2.10: Experimental setup using GIS model with coaxial electrode structure and three kinds
of defects inside [3.2.4]
79
Figure 3.2.11 shows the results of PD measurements. For “the protrusion on HV conductor”, the amount of PD
charge was at the inception level of several tens of pC and increased as the applied AC voltage was increased.
When the breakdown occurred (BDV level), the PD charge amount was above 1 000 pC. Similar PD
characteristics were observed for the other two types of defects. It should also be noted that the PD charge
amount for every particle length sharply increased with the increase of the AC applied voltage (Figure 3.2.11
(b)).
* Normalized voltage based on each average breakdown voltage
(a) Protrusion and particle on spacer (b) Protrusion
Figure 3.2.11: Experimental results of PD measurements; (a) protrusion on HV conductor, protrusion

on tank inner surface and particle on spacer surface (particle length: 5 mm), (b) protrusion on HV
conductor (particle length: 2 mm to 5 mm)) [3.2.4]
Figure 3.2.12 shows the PDIV and the BDV levels for protrusions on the HV conductor as a function of particle
length. The shorter the particle, the higher the PDIV values were. The difference between PDIV and BDV could
be sufficiently detected by non-destructive PD measurements in GIS filled with atmospheric air at even a short
protrusion on the HV conductor.
* Normalized voltage based on each average breakdown voltage
Figure 3.2.12: Partial discharge initiation voltage and breakdown voltage

as a function of particle length of protrusion on HV conductor [3.2.4]
Figure 3.2.13 shows the comparison of various UHF PRPD patterns generated by three types of defects in the
GIS model test setup. The classification of the defects is possible in dry air, as UHF PRPD patterns are very
similar to those in SF6. In the considered test setup, the sensitivity of UHF measurements in dry air was much
lower than that in SF6 due to the slow rise time of PD current pulses. This is shown in Figure 3.2.4 and Figures
B.3 to B.5 in Annex B. The lowest detected PD signal of 0.1 pC in SF6 corresponds to roughly 10 pC in dry air
using the same setup. The low S/N ratio in the UHF range in dry air can be explained by the low frequency
80
characteristics of PD pulses in this gas. In such cases, the use of conventional measurements according to
IEC 60270 can be more appropriate.
Figure 3.2.13: Comparison of various UHF PD patterns caused by three kinds of defects in GIS model
[3.2.4]
(4) PD at AC voltages during metallic particle crossing to HV conductor of actual GIS coaxial electrode
system
Test setup
Moving metallic particles on the enclosure inner surface is also one of the typical defects in the actual GIS,
and it may cause breakdown when it reaches the HV conductor. The PD and breakdown properties need to
be properly investigated from a practical point of view [3.2.5, 3.2.6].
Figure 3.2.14 shows a model of the GIS busbar of a coaxial electrode system with a diameter of 125 mm
(conductor) / 330 mm (enclosure) [3.2.6]. An aluminum plate that was either bare or coated with a dielectric
material was inserted on the bottom of the enclosure to facilitate the experiments. The metallic particles used
were aluminum wires with a diameter of 0.2 mm and 3 mm in length. Dry air, N2, CO2 and SF6 were used and
pressurized up to 0.55 MPa. When raising the AC (60 Hz) voltage, some impacts of around 10 G were given
by a plastic hammer to the model busbar from the outside of the enclosure until the metallic particles remained
standing. The test results of V-t characteristics are explained in section 2.3.1 (Figures 2.3.2-2.3.5).
For PD measurements, three particles were placed on the aluminum plate. The AC voltage was raised to the
value at which the particle contacted the high voltage conductor (crossing). The EM waves were detected
when the particle crossing occurred by a PD capacitive UHF coupler whose frequency characteristic was in
the range from 0.1 GHz to 2 GHz. The PD magnitude was measured in parallel with the conventional method
(according to IEC 60270).
81
Only for PD measurement
Figure 3.2.14: Experimental setup for PD measurement [3.2.6]
PD magnitude at particle crossing

Figure 3.2.15 shows examples of the PD magnitude measured in SF6 (coated) and dry air (coated) with the
conventional method. They show the AC voltage waveform when the particle crossing occurred. In this case,
the PD magnitude was 11 pC and the voltage phase at the particle crossing was 319 degrees in SF6. The PD
signals in SF6 were measured only at the particle crossing point, but those in dry air could be detected before
and after the particle crossing. There were few differences in the PD magnitude between the coated and the
bare enclosure for each gas.
(a) SF 6 (b) Dry air
Figure 3.2.15: Oscillograms of PD magnitude by the conventional me thod in SF 6 (a) and dry
air (b) together with AC voltage waveform (dielectric coated enclosure) [3.2.6]
82
PD magnitude and voltage phase characteristic

Figure 3.2.16 shows examples of the PD pulse magnitude in SF 6, CO2, dry air and N2 in relation to the phase
of the applied voltage. Most of the PDs caused by the particle crossing in SF 6 and CO2 are distributed in the
negative semi-cycle of the voltage, however, those in dry air and N2 are in both semi-cycles. In all of the gases,
the highest PD magnitude was measured near the peak of the voltage. The similar characteristics of voltage
phase activity was noted for both of the bare and the coated enclosure. Partial discharge signals could have
been measured when the metallic particles jumped on the bottom of the bare enclosure.
(a) SF 6 (b) CO 2
(c) Dry air (d) N 2
Figure 3.2.16: Voltage phase characteristic of PD magnitude in SF 6 , CO 2 , dry air and N 2 (bare
and dielectric coated enclosure) [3.2.6]
Figure 3.2.17 shows the PD signal magnitudes measured by the conventional method in N2, CO2, dry air and
SF6. The big red marks in the figure are the average values. The maximum PD magnitudes except for those
at the particle crossing were added (indicated as in “before/after crossing”), since the PDs in dry air and N2
were measured by the conventional method before and after the particle crossing, as shown in Figure 3.2.15.
Detection of metallic particles in N2, CO2 and dry air is possible at the same or even at lower voltage level than
in SF6, because the PD signal magnitudes in these gases were equal or higher than that in SF 6. Since the
crossing and breakdown occur nearly at the same time in N2, it would be very difficult to detect a metallic
particle by the PD during the particle crossing. However, the PDs in N 2 could be measured before and after
the particle crossing, and diagnostics to detect metallic particles at lower voltages at which the crossing and
breakdown would not occur may be possible. The average values of the PD magnitude for the bare enclosure
were almost the same as those of the coated enclosure.
83
Figure 3.2.17: PD magnitude in N 2 , CO 2 , dry air and SF 6 (dielectric coated enclosure) [3.2.6]
Electromagnetic wave and its frequency spectrum

Figure 3.2.18 shows an example of EM waves detected by the capacitive coupler and the PD magnitude
measured by the conventional method in SF 6 and in dry air. Figure 3.2.19 shows their calculated frequency
spectrum by a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). The EM wave intensity detected by the capacitive coupler at the
frequency range between 0.5 GHz and 2 GHz is higher in SF 6 than that in dry air, but the PD magnitude
measured by the IEC method is larger in dry air than that in SF6. This trend is the same as in a previous report
[3.2.4]. These facts suggest that detecting at lower frequency bands than UHF would be suitable when dry air
is applied to gas-insulated systems.
Figure 3.2.18: Electromagnetic waves detected by PD capacitive coupler in SF 6 and dry air (dielectric
coated enclosure) [3.2.6]
Figure 3.2.19: Frequency spectrums detected by PD capacitive coupler in

SF 6 and dry air (dielectric coated enclosure) [3.2.6]
84
The similar experimental results are presented in [3.2.5] by using the same test setup as in [3.2.6]. The EM
waves were detected by loop antenna and PD capacitive coupler of which the frequency characteristics were
in the range higher than about 0.4 GHz, when the particle crossing occurred. Figure 3.2.20 shows the
frequency spectrums calculated from the EM waveforms in N 2, CO2 and dry air compared with that of SF6. The
intensities of the spectrums are almost the same at 0.5 GHz in all gases. However, the intensity of the spectrum
at 2 GHz in SF6 is higher than those in N2, CO2 and dry air.
The lower S/N ratio of the PD-emitted EM wave was measured by the UHF method in N2, CO2 and dry air due
to the longer rise time of the PD current pulse from Figures 3.2.17, 3.2.18 and 3.2.19. This tendency is similar
to the results of Figures 3.2.6 to 3.2.9, including Figures B.6 and B.7 of Annex B (except for the case of CO2)
and Figure 3.2.13.
Figure 3.2.20: Frequency spectrums calculated from EM waveforms in

CO 2 , dry air and N 2 compared with that of SF 6 (SF 6 : 15 pC, CO 2 : 21 pC,
dry air: 13 pC, N 2 : 40 pC) [3.2.5]
3.2.1.2 Properties in N2/SF6 mixtures and SF6

As stated in CIGRE Technical Brochure No. 260 [3.2.7], in the case of N2/SF6 mixtures, the same PD detection
methods when using pure SF6 as applied in GIS can be applied: conventional methods based on the IEC
60270 recommendations, acoustic and UHF methods based on the chemical or optical effects of PD processes.
The identification and localization of discharging defects in SF 6 and N2/SF6 mixtures are similar in principle
[3.2.8, 3.2.9].
In N2/SF6 mixtures with a minimum SF6 content of 5 % (in practice 10 % to 20 % SF6 content is used), the
discharge currents of fixed protrusions are quite similar to those of pure SF 6. Discharges at electrodes with
floating potential are usually very severe, and can be easily detected by all methods independent of the gas
mixture. In the case of free particles, the dominant process is charge exchange during the mechanical impact
with the enclosure when the enclosure inner surface is not coated with a dielectric material (bare enclosure).
Voids in solid materials (e.g., epoxy resin spacers) often contain a gas that originates from the casting process
and is independent of the insulation gas. Consequently, the nature of the PD signals is not basically affected.
Therefore, the use of a gas mixture has little influence on the potential for PD detection.
There is no difference in the sensitivity of the UHF measuring technique to defects in pure SF 6 and N2/SF6
mixtures for free moving particles in the case of a bare enclosure. The frequencies present in the spectra are
quite similar for fixed protrusions in the gas mixtures and in pure SF 6, but their amplitudes differ considerably.
Higher signals have been recorded in the gas mixtures. For SF6 content below 10 % in the gas mixtures, the
difference between the PD inception voltage and breakdown voltage may be very small. Although a higher
sensitivity in the mixtures can be observed, the reduced margin to breakdown has to be recognized.
The type of gas and its pressure has no influence on the PD magnitude (pC) obtained using free particles in
the case of a bare enclosure. For fixed protrusions, differences can be observed. Moreover, similar shapes of
the PRPD patterns have been observed using an IEC 60270 measuring circuit and the narrow band UHF
85
method [3.2.10] for moving particles and protrusions at the HV conductor or particles on the surface of
insulators [3.2.11].
Therefore, the common diagnostic systems for defect identification can be applied for N2/SF6 mixtures in the
same manner as for pure SF6. The major advantage is that normally only one reference database for computer-
aided defect identification is necessary.
(1) Comparison of PD Phenomena in N2/SF6 mixtures and pure SF6

Investigations on PD phenomena and breakdown voltages performed in N 2/SF6 mixtures containing 5 % SF6,
10 % SF6 and pure SF6 are presented [3.2.12]. To make this comparison, the influence of the test voltage and
gas pressure was studied for different types of PD sources, such as protrusions and free moving particles. It
is shown that differences can be observed in phase resolved PD patterns, PD magnitude, UHF spectra and
breakdown voltage. In particular, the following aspects were studied:
 effect of gas pressure on the PD inception voltage,

 differences in the phase resolved PD patterns,
 the PD magnitude as a function of the gas pressure,
 differences in the UHF PD spectra.
(2) PD inception voltage

Figure 3.2.21 shows the PD inception voltage for three different defects in the three different gases. In the
case of protrusions, the inception voltage is determined to be the voltage level at which a reasonable stable
PD pulses occur. Note that the enclosure inner surface is not coated by a dielectric material.
■ Pure SF6
▼ 10%SF6 - 90%N2 mixture
● 5%SF6 - 95%N2 mixture
Figure 3.2.21: PD inception voltage for three different defects; (a) 15 mm protrusion fixed to the
HV conductor, (b) 30 mm protrusion fixed to the enclosure, (c) 10 mm aluminum free moving
particle in three different gases [3.2.12]
It is shown that the PD inception voltage increases linearly with the gas pressure. As shown in [3.2.13], the PD
inception voltage Upd depends on the gas pressure according to the following equation (3.2.1):
Upd = K1 (1 + K2 / √𝑃 ) P (3.2.1)
where P is the gas pressure, K1 depends on the GIS geometry and K2 depends on the protrusion geometry.
Under normal situations, K2 <1 means that for gas pressures greater than 1 bar, the equation can be expressed
by the following equation:
Upd = K1 P . (3.2.2)
86
This Equation (3.2.2) clearly shows a linear influence of the gas pressure on the inception voltage. In the case
of a free moving particle, it is rather difficult to define the inception voltage, but three different particle movement
characteristics can be distinguished:
 shuffling particle: a very small contact noise like PD activity is measured and the particle just starts to
move very slowly,
 moving particle: particle starts dancing in a faster way,

 jumping particle: now the particle really starts to jump and sometimes stays airborne for a few cycles.
In Figure 3.2.21 (c), the voltage level (around 125 kV) at which the particle starts to shuffle is shown. As the
inception voltage is equal to the lift-off voltage, which is mainly depending on the particle geometry and field
strength, the applied gas-type and pressure are not expected to have much of an influence in the case of a
bare enclosure.
(3) Phase resolved PD patterns

Figure 3.2.22 shows phase resolved PD patterns, which have been obtained using the UHF detection method.
Therefore, the PD magnitudes are given in µV instead of pC. Although it is not possible to correlate PD
magnitudes in µV directly with PD magnitudes in pC, there is an unknown relation between the two. This means
that an increase in the PD magnitude measured in µV also implies an increase in the PD magnitude if
measured in pC.
Figure 3.2.22: Phase resolved PD patterns for the three investigated defects in three different gases
with similar dielectric strengths. The a pplied test voltage was 1.2U pd for the protrusions and 1.6U pd
for the free moving particle [3.2.12].
To ensure a stable PD process in the case of fixed protrusions, the applied test voltage is 20 % above the
inception voltage. When looking at the patterns measured for a fixed protrusion (either to the conductor or
enclosure), the expected typical corona-like PD pattern can be observed in pure SF6. However, in the gas
mixtures, it is clear that the same protrusion results in completely different patterns. From the patterns, it can
be concluded that the streamer mechanism has been started. Although similar relative voltage levels have
been applied (1.2Upd), the field strength is totally different, which explains the streamer inception. Just as with
87
the inception voltage, the PD patterns for a free moving particle seem to be independent of the gases when
the enclosure inner surface is bare.
From Figure 3.2.22, an increase in the PD magnitude for fixed protrusions can be seen when the SF 6 content
decreases. However, also other aspects such as gas pressure and electric field are of importance now. As
shown in Figure 3.2.21, the inception voltage increases with the gas pressure and is the greatest for 11.5 bar
with a 5 % mixture, then 9.5 bar with a 10 % mixture and then 4.5 bar with pure SF6. This means that although
all patterns are measured 20 % above the inception voltage, the electric field is different.
(4) PD magnitude
To investigate the influence of the gas pressure, the relation between PD magnitude and gas pressure is
shown in Figure 3.2.23. For fixed protrusions, the following can be concluded:
 the PD magnitude increases with the gas pressure,
 especially, at the higher gas pressures, a large difference in PD magnitude can be observed,
 SF6 shows the greatest increase with the gas pressure.
This increase in PD magnitude can be explained by the PD processes (see Figure 3.2.22). At lower gas
pressures, only corona activity around the top of the sine wave has been observed. At higher gas pressures,
there is a transition to streamers, which also results in a greater PD magnitude. Again, the free moving particle
seems to be independent of the gases in the case of the bare enclosure.
▼ Pure SF6
■ 10%SF6 - 90%N2 mixture
● 5%SF6 - 95%N2 mixture
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3.2.23: PD magnitude for three different defects: (a) 15 mm protr usion fixed to the HV
conductor (1.2 U pd ), (b) 30 mm protrusion fixed to the enclosure (1.2 U pd ), (c) 10 mm aluminum free
moving particle (1.6 U pd ) in three different gases [3.2.12]
(5) UHF PD spectra

The relation between PD magnitude and UHF frequency spectrum can be seen in Figure 3.2.24. It is clear that
the energy content of the frequency spectrum increases with increasing PD magnitude for the protrusions.
88
Figure 3.2.24: UHF spectra for the three investigated defects in three different gases with similar
dielectric strengths. The applied test voltage was 1.2 U pd for the protrusions and 1.6U pd for the free
moving particle [3.2.12].
The relation between the frequency spectra and PD magnitude measured in pC is illustrated in Figure 3.2.25.
It shows the influence of the gas pressure on the PD magnitude and the frequency spectra for a protrusion
fixed to the HV conductor with a 5 % SF6 mixture. For easy comparison, the frequency spectra are represented
by the spectrum area between the noise level and the signal as described in [3.2.13]. The PD magnitude and
the area are normalized to the maximum obtained values. Therefore, easy comparison is possible. It can be
seen that both the PD magnitude in pC as well as the energy of the spectrum represented by its area increases
exponentially with increasing gas pressure.
■ PD magnitude
▽ Area of spectrum
Figure 3.2.25: Influence of the gas pressure on the PD magnitude and the area
of the spectrum relative to the maximum value for a protrusion fixed to the HV
conductor [3.2.12]
3.2.2 Differences with SF6
89
Basic PD properties at AC voltages and the applicability of the PD diagnostic method in SF 6 are transversally
compared between the potential gases (N2, CO2, dry air and N2/SF6 mixtures) and SF6 as shown in Table 3.2.2
[3.2.2-3.2.7, 3.2.12, B.2]. The points are summarized as follows.
 The PD current pulse becomes steeper in the order of N2 < dry air  CO2 << SF6, and the current pulse
is steeper in the negative than that in the positive. Accordingly, the rise time of the PD current pulse
has the same tendency as shown in the table.
 In N2 and N2/SF6 mixtures (below 10 %SF6 content), margins from PDIV to BDV and from the particle
crossing voltage to BDV are small in terms of PD measurement for defects compared with the case in
SF6. On the other hand, enough margins exist in CO2 and dry air, and the PD measurement would be
possible in the similar level as that in SF6.
 The conventional method according to IEC 60270 is very applicable to N 2, CO2, dry air and N2/SF6
mixtures. In atmospheric dry air, PD patterns of the UHF method were very similar to those of SF6 and
the similar PD classification methods as applied in SF 6 could be used. In N2/SF6 mixtures, the same
PD detection methods in SF6 gas-insulated systems are applicable, e.g. IEC 60270 method, acoustic
method and UHF method. When applying the UHF method, the PD-emitted EM wave measurements
showed a low S/N ratio in N2, CO2 and dry air due to the longer rise time of the PD current pulse. It
was suggested that the detection of EM waves at lower frequency bands than UHF would be suitable
when N2, CO2 and dry air are applied to gas-insulated systems. Nevertheless, there are not so many
experimental data available, and more studies are needed in this regard.
90
Table 3.2.2: Transversal comparison of basic PD properties and applicability of the PD diagnostic
method in SF 6 between the potential gases and SF 6 [3.2.2-3.2.7, 3.2.12, B.2]
Applicability of diagnostic method

Basic PD properties
in potential gases and SF6
Gases PD Margin before breakdown

Rise time of PD IEC 60270 Defect
magnitude U cp to BDV *2 UHF method
current pulse *1 method classification
PDIV to BDV
(U bp60s /U cp)
0.05 - 0.2 ns Enough Applicable for

(Negative pulse) 2 - 15 pC (Bare enclosure) *2
margin for PD sensitive PD
SF6 2.6
measurement measurement
0.13 - 0.8 ns 2 - 22 pC (Coated enclosure) *2
(Positive pulse)
*2 *3 *1 *2 *3 *4 *5
High S/N
<Mobile particles> ratio for sensitive
Several 10 pC (Bare enclosure) Applicable *3 *5
PD measurement
*5 *1 *3 *5
Not enough
N2/SF6 No data <The others> No data Applicable *3 *5
margin *3
Several pC (Initiation)
to
over 100 pC (Before BD) *5
1.2 - 8 ns Very low S/N

(Negative pulse) ratio
Not enough
N2 3 - 55 pC (Coated enclosure) *2 1.1 Applicable *2 (Lower frequency bands No data
margin *2
10 - 50 ns than UHF suggested)
(Positive pulse) *1 *2
5 - 39 pC (Bare enclosure) *2
0.4 - 2 ns Low S/N
(Negative pulse) 2 - 48 pC (Coated enclosure) *2 ratio
Dry air 1.4 Applicable *2 *4 (Lower frequency bands Applicable *4
3 - 12 ns Several 10 (Initiation) than UHF suggested)
(Positive pulse) to *1 *2 *4
over 1 000 pC (Before BD) *4 Enough
margin *2
0.7 - 4 ns Low S/N

(Negative pulse) ratio
CO2 2 - 30 pC (Coated enclosure) *2 1.4 Applicable *2 (Lower frequency bands No data
0.6 - 4 ns than UHF suggested)
(Positive pulse) *1 *2
Ucp: AC voltage at which a moving metallic particle crosses to HV conductor. Here, 3 mm particles were set on an enclosure
inner surface coated by a dielectric material. At the voltage of Ucp, large PDs are detectable.
Ubp60s: Breakdown voltage initiated by moving particles at 60 s in the V-t characteristics. Here, Ubp60s is especially defined
as breakdown voltages initiated by 3 mm particles and 50 % breakdown probability of Weibull distribution.
*1: References [3.2.2,3.2.3, B.2]: needle-plane electrode; N2, CO2, dry air, SF6/0.1 MPa to 0.2 MPa [3.2.2], CO2, dry
air/0.1 MPa to 0.5 MPa [3.2.3]; horn antenna/750 MHz to 5 GHz, dipole antenna/300 MHz, mobile antenna/50 MHz
[3.2.2, 3.2.3]; horn antenna/750 MHz to 5 GHz [B.2].
*2: References [3.2.5, 3.2.6]: GIS model (coaxial electrode system of 125 mm/330 mm in diameter, inner surface of
enclosure is bare or coated by a dielectric material); particle: 0.2 mm (diameter)/3 mm (length), experiments on moving
particles, N2, CO2, dry air, SF6/0.55 MPa; UHF method bandwidth: 400 MHz to 2 GHz [3.2.5], 100 MHz to 2 GHz [3.2.6].
See Figure 2.3.5 for the value of Ubp60s/Ucp.
*3: Reference [3.2.7]: CIGRE TF D1.03.10, "N2/SF6 mixtures for gas insulated systems", Technical Brochure, No. 260,
2004. The difference between PDIV and BDV is very small for SF 6 content below 10 % in the gas mixtures.
*4: Reference [3.2.4]: GIS model (coaxial electrode with spacer); particle: 0.25 mm (diameter)/2 mm, 3 mm, 5 mm (length);
experiments on protrusion on conductor, protrusion on enclosure inner surface, and particle on spacer; dry air/0.1 MPa;
UHF method bandwidth: 500 MHz to 1.5 GHz.
*5: Reference [3.2.12]: GIS model (coaxial electrode, inner surface of enclosure is bare); particle: 0.2 mm (diameter)/10 mm,
15 mm, 30 mm (length); experiments on protrusion on conductor, protrusion on enclosure inner surface, particle on
spacer, and free particles; 5%-10%N2/95%-90%SF6, SF6 /0.45 MPa to 1.25 MPa.
91
3.3 RECYCLABLE INSULATING MATERIALS

Semi-crystalline polyethylene-terephtalate (PET) presents higher mechanical performance than Polyethylene
(PE), and appears to be a suitable candidate for application in high voltage domain. Some experiences with
this material of limited dimensions with insulating functions inside GIS were already available. Semi-crystalline
PET presents good electrical and thermal capability, is recyclable [3.3.1] and is commercially available as
semi-finished products in suitable sizes. The drawbacks of the epoxy resin, such as poor recyclability,
complexity of molding and shrinkage can be avoided by using PET.
For semi-crystalline thermoplastics, mechanical and electrical properties depend on the internal structure of
the material especially on the ratio between crystalline and amorphous phase. Within the PET family, one pure
semi-crystalline PET was selected and analyzed. Both chemical structure and composition were defined via
selective investigations. Infrared Spectroscopy in the range 500 cm -1 to 1 500 cm-1 was used to confirm that
the selected material is a pure PET, without any additives or fillers. The crystalline structure of the material
was studied by Wide Angle X-ray Scattering (WAXS) and the analysis of the diffractogram shows that the
material is isotropic and that the crystalline ratio is about 36 %. Typical phase transition temperatures were
assessed via Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Thermal Mechanical Analysis (TMA). The glass
transition temperature (Tg) is around 80°C and the melting temperature is about 253 °C.
(1) PET basic properties

Mechanical characteristics as a function of temperature were determined. The mechanical properties, such as
Young modulus, tensile strength were measured under traction according to ISO 527-2 and 4-points bending
strength, according to NFT 51-120-4. The mechanical properties are summarized in Table 3.3.1. The
mechanical properties are stable up to 70 °C, but decrease in the range from 70 °C to 90 °C corresponding to
the glass transition temperature (Tg) range (the medium value of 80 C) as presented in Figure 3.3.1.
Table 3.3.1: Mechanical characteristics of PET [3.3.2]
Property Unit at 23 °C at 65 °C
Tensile strength MPa 85 63

Young modulus MPa 3 200 1 600
0.2 % elastic limit MPa 66 23
4-point bend str. MPa 124 80
Figure 3.3.1: Young modulus evolution versus temperature [3.3.2]

SF6 decomposition and recombination occur during electrical discharge in the switchgear, leading partially to
the creation of corrosive compounds such as SO 2, SOF2, SO2F2 and HF. Therefore, the electrical
characteristics of virgin material and samples aged under SF 6 containing decomposition products were
92
investigated. The main electrical characteristics of PET measured after 1 000 hours ageing were determined
according to the standards and are listed in Table 3.3.2.
Table 3.3.2: Electrical characteristics of PET [3.3.2]
Aged under
Property Unit Virgin material Standards
polluted SF6
Surface resistance  1016 31016 ISO 60093

Transverse resistance cm 51016 41016 ISO 60093
Dielectric constant r - 3.7 3.6 IEC 60250
Dielectric loss factor tan () % 0.3 0.3 IEC 60250
Dielectric strength (3 mm) kV/mm 15 17 IEC 60243
In service, the mechanical and electrical performances have to be secured even with temperatures above Tg.
Figure 3.3.2 shows the breakdown voltage of PET measured in the temperature range between 20 °C and 105
°C, corresponding to the maximum temperature allowed in a GIS in the electrical contact area. On average,
the dielectric strength is above 22 kV/mm over the whole temperature range, showing that for this material the
breakdown strength is not affected by the glass transition temperature, i.e. around 80 °C. This stability of the
breakdown strength versus temperature has already been observed in some polymers [3.3.3], and is extremely
interesting for the considered application. Figure 3.3.3 shows the temperature behaviour of the loss factor and
the relative permittivity of PET samples, which are also not significantly affected by the temperature up to Tg
and then increasing slightly above 80 °C. Below Tg, the dielectric loss factor is less than 0.01 and the
permittivity is 3.7. The increase above Tg is associated to molecular relaxation typical for semi-crystalline
polymers.
30
25
Breakdown field [kV/mm]
20
15
10
5 Breakdown field
[kV/mm]
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature [°C]
Figure 3.3.2: Breakdown voltage of 1 mm PET samples versus temperature [3.3.2]
93
5 0,05
4,8
Relative permittivity 0,04
4,6
Relative permittivity
4,4 Loss factor 0,03
4,2
4 0,02
3,8
0,01
3,6
3,4 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature [°C]
Figure 3.3.3: Relative permittivity and loss factor of 1 mm PET samples versus temperature [3.3.2]
(2) Long term behaviour and ageing

In operation, solid insulating materials are working under mechanical, electrical, thermal and chemical
stresses. Indeed, support insulators must withstand, to mention only a few, the weight of conductors, the forces
applied between poles during short-circuit, electrical stress due to the electric field present between the
different phases and the corrosive attack of SF6 decomposition products.
The long term creep behaviour of the selected PET was investigated under low mechanical stress at different
temperatures, i.e. 65 °C, 85 °C, 105 °C. Figure 3.3.4 shows the creep curves of PET over more than 4 months
at 65 °C. By adjusting typical creep laws used for polymer materials, the long term deformation of PET under
static load can be deduced.
Figure 3.3.4: Creep curves of PET under tensile stress at 65 °C [3.3.2]
In order to assess the long term electrical and thermal characteristics of the material, an accelerated electro-
thermal ageing test was made. As shown in Figure 3.3.5, Rogowski-like samples were aged at 80 °C, 105 °C
and 115 °C under AC field strengths of 9 kVrms/mm and 15 kVrms/mm, respectively for 1 mm and 0.6 mm
thick samples. At the end of the ageing, the samples were submitted to breakdown tests at room temperature
94
in the plane/plane test configuration, and the breakdown data compared to those obtained on virgin samples.
The results are presented in Figure 3.3.6.
Figure 3.3.5: Picture of the samples under electro-thermal ageing [3.3.2]
No significant change of the breakdown strength for the 0.6 mm and 1 mm thick samples after 6 months of
ageing at 15 kVrms/mm or 9 kVrms/mm, respectively, can be observed. It can, therefore, be concluded that
the performed electro-thermal ageing had no significant influence on the breakdown strength of the studied
material. Other dielectric tests like dielectric spectroscopy, partial discharge measurements and space charge
measurements were also performed in order to assess the evolution of the material with time.
Before ageing
30 After ageing @ 105°C during 6 m onths
After ageing @ 115°C during 6 m onths
28 After ageing @ 80°C during 6 m onths
26 23 21,64
23
Breakdown Voltage [kV]
24 22 21,6
22
20 18 18,2
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
15 kV/mm 9 kV/mm 15 kv/mm
(0,6 mm) (1 mm) (1mm)
Ageing field
Figure 3.3.6: Breakdown strength of PET before and after AC

ageing at 9 kVrms/mm and 15 kVrms/mm [3.3.2]
Further tests at real-size insulator samples are reported [3.3.4]. Electrical long-term tests were performed to
determine assured reliability predictions. Twenty rod-shaped samples of commercially available PET were
tested at 400 kV AC voltage (50 Hz) in a test vessel under SF 6 gas atmosphere, as shown in Figures 3.3.7
and 3.3.8. The applied electrodes for the test samples formed an electric field distribution comparable to
service conditions, but with a remarkable higher voltage and field strength of 4.4 kV/mm in the bulk material.
The test samples were exposed to ambient air temperature and sun exposure, ranging from -25 °C up to more
than +50 °C, which is an additional stressing factor. The temperature range is comparable to possible
environmental stresses during service, especially in dead tank breakers and outdoor GIS.
The test voltage was applied for 19 500 hours. During this time, for more than 2 years, no breakdown or
flashover occurred.
95
Figure 3.3.7: PET test sample [3.3.4] Figure 3.3.8: Test setup for electrical
long-term test of PET [3.3.4]
3.4 CURRENT SWITCHING PERFORMANCES BY DISCONNECTORS AND EARTHING

SWITCHES
Current switching performance depending on insulation gas property is important information for the design of
gas-insulated systems. Although the performance for circuit-breaker is discussed in CIGRE SC A3, several
investigations are given, focusing on the use of disconnectors and earthing switches in this section. In section
3.4.1, basic small current switching properties are discussed, and section 3.4.2 gives information about
differences of the properties between the potential gases and SF 6.
3.4.1 Basic small current switching properties

3.4.1.1 Bus-charging current switching
Since there are a lot of strikes and restrikes occurring in a disconnector during bus-charging current switching
operations, aspects like insulation-recovery characteristics of the gap between a moving contact and a fixed
contact, insulation performance between arcings and a grounded tank, as well as static insulation performance
have to be considered in the design of a disconnector. Arcing time related to insulation-recovery characteristic
and ground insulation performance in the presence of an arc are described in more detail below [3.4.1, 3.4.2].
(1) Insulation-recovery characteristics of a gap between contacts and influencing parameters

By comparing arcing times of different gases, relative evaluation of insulation recovery characteristics against
static insulation performance may give an indication whether or not there is a difference of each gas as to
insulation-recovery characteristics. Figure 3.4.1 shows an experimental setup of disconnector models for BDV
measurements consisting of a moving contact, a fixed contact, shields and a tank. The disconnector models,
i.e. Type A and Type B are the same dimensions of a gap length L between the shields, the shield diameter
and the tank diameter. The only difference is the diameters of the moving contact. To investigate the effect of
electric field strength on BDV characteristics, the diameter of the moving contact of Type A is 1.3 times larger
than that of Type B. The minimum guaranteed gas pressure was 0.5 MPa. Fundamental data of N2 and dry air
on bus-charging current switching properties were obtained by using these disconnector models.
96
L L
d d
Φ1.3r
φr
Moving contact Moving contact
Fixed contact Fixed contact
Shield Shield Shield Shield
Tank Tank
(a)Type A (ｂ)Type B
(a) Type A (b) Type B
Figure 3.4.1: Experimental setup of disconnector models [3.4.2]
Figure 3.4.2 shows the results of comparison of BDV characteristics between Type A and Type B in dry air.
Horizontal axis indicates “rate of stroke” of d/L×100 (%) which means gap length between contacts normalized
by the length between the shields, and corresponds to “rate of arc length” in this case. Minimum breakdown
voltages as a function of a “rate of arc length” for Type A are higher than those for Type B, since the maximum
electric field strength on the tip of the moving contact for Type A is lower than that for Type B. Moreover, a
solid line calculated based on the static dielectric strength for each “rate of arc length” for Type A is almost
identical to the minimum breakdown voltages measured.
Breakdown voltage during
400
: Type B
opening (kV)
: Type A
300
Calculation results
200 (Type A)
100
Gas pressure: 0.5MPa
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Rate of arc length （％）
Figure 3.4.2: Relationship between breakdown voltage and rate of arc length during
opening operation for Type A and Type B of disconnector models [3.4.2]
Figure 3.4.3 shows a relationship between breakdown voltage and rate of arc length during an opening motion,
and arcing time in various gases [3.4.3]. The dotted line indicates the envelope curve of minimum breakdown
voltage in dry air, and the solid line is for N2. The BDV of dry air is a little higher than that of N2, and the arcing
time in dry air is slightly lower than that in N2. These tendency can be explained by the differences of the static
AC dielectric strength (see Table 2.2.4). It suggests in the case of N 2 and dry air that insulation recovery
characteristics of bus-charging current switching are proportional to the static AC dielectric strength (see Annex
C.1).
97
(a) BDV vs. rate of arc length (b) Arcing time
Figure 3.4.3: Relationship between breakdown voltage and rate of arc length for Type A during
opening motion (a), and arcing time in SF 6 , dry air and N 2 (b) [3.4.3]
(2) A ground insulation performance in presence of arc

The basic breakdown mechanism during bus-charging current switching in SF6 and N2/SF6 mixtures is
introduced referring to CIGRE Technical Brochure No. 260 [3.4.1]. There it is shown that in typical gas-
insulated systems of electric power equipment with SF6 and N2/SF6 mixtures, the breakdown occurs as a
combined streamer-leader mechanism, and the inception of a leader, i.e. the streamer-leader transition
constitutes the criterion for a breakdown. The leader develops stepwise and branching of the leader may occur.
Flashover to ground during disconnector operation is caused by leader branching during the stepwise leader
propagation whereby an axially directed branch may be diverted radially towards the enclosure when the main
branch arrives at the opposite contact. Since such branching is more probable for long leader channels with
many leader steps, the ground fault phenomenon was found in disconnectors for high voltage operation only.
While in pure SF6 there are only a few straight leader channels with almost no branching, there are multiple
leader channels in N2/SF6 mixtures, which may depart more frequently from the shortest route by many
changes in direction and branching. The more frequent change of direction and branching of the leader in
N2/SF6 mixtures compared with pure SF6 of equal intrinsic dielectric strength is caused by the pressure
dependence of the leader inception and stepwise leader propagation [3.4.1].
The brochure [3.4.1] shows that the performance of bus-charging current switching in N2/SF6 mixtures, which
includes a ground insulation performance with arc, is lower than that in SF 6, even if the dielectric strength of
the N2/SF6 mixtures are equivalent to that of SF6 as shown in Figure 3.4.4.
Since the discharge mechanisms described in [3.4.1] for SF6 and N2/SF6 mixtures hold only for those gases
(and probably some other gases with high electron affinity), much more information is necessary to evaluate
the ground insulation performance of the other potential gases, and to discuss the differences of the insulation
performance transversally between the potential gases and SF 6. In particular, it should be noted that the results
on breakdown performance of gases with high electron affinity must not be transferred to gases with low or
negligible electron affinity since the discharge mechanisms are different.
98
(a) (b)
Figure 3.4.4: Arcs in a disconnector with insulation media of approximately equal intrinsic
dielectric strength; (a) pure SF 6 with 0.40 MPa, 420 kV breakdown voltage between contacts with
41 mm gap length, (b) N 2 /SF 6 mixture with 20 % SF 6 and 0.70 MPa, 375 kV breakdown voltage
between contacts with 31 mm gap length [3.4.1]. The white arrow in this figure (b) indicates a
flashover to ground (the enclosure).
3.4.1.2 Bus-transfer current switching

(1) Basic property of current switching
Figure 3.4.5 shows a hypothesis flow of current interruption for bus-transfer current switching [3.4.3-3.4.8].
After arcing is generated between contacts, voltage in accordance with the electrical circuit condition at the
time of bus-transfer current switching is applied to the arc. If that voltage generated between contacts exceeds
sustainable arcing voltage, after zero point bus-transfer current will flow continuously through the arc. During
opening operation, sustainable arcing voltage which depends on arc length between a moving contact and a
fixed contact will finally exceed the voltage of a bus-transfer current switching. Therefore, if sustainable arcing
voltage exceed the voltage generated by bus-transfer current switching, the arc will be extinguished at next
zero point current. Sustainable arcing voltage is defined here as a minimum arc voltage of being sustainable.
Start arcing
No Does sustainable arcing voltage

exceed bus-transf er voltage?
Yes
Current remaining f lowing Completion of current break
Figure 3.4.5: A hypothesis flow of current interruption for bus-transfer current switching [3.4.3-3.4.8]
Figure 3.4.5 is additionally supported by [3.4.4] where a criterion about arc extinction in a opening operation
of a bus-transfer current switching is presented. It describes the same, but is using slightly different term: The
arc between the contacts is extinguished at current zero if the arc voltage is higher than the circuit defined
instantaneous recovery voltage. This result is based on an experimental setup for bus-transfer current
switching tests conducted with a 420 kV SF6-insulated disconnector. Figure 3.4.6 shows the experimental
results and highlights the criterion.
99
In the case of air-insulated disconnectors (in the atmosphere), the interruption of bus-transfer current switching
is achieved by a sufficient arc voltage [3.4.5, 3.4.6]. During the opening operation, an arc comes into existence
which is enlarged with increasing distance of the contact gap. This leads to a growing arc voltage or arc
resistance. This phenomenon is well known as explained by Mayr model [3.4.5]. The arc length can be
described as a linear function of time by means of the operating speed. For more information, refer to Annex
C.2.
In [3.4.7], an arc model by a modified Mayr model and Cassie model in series was also proposed to simulate
the arc voltage and bus-transfer current switching behaviours in SF6 for a disconnector. The simulation results
indicated that they were identical to the measurement results and the model was effective to understand the
interruption property of the current switching.
Thus, it will be basically important to clarify the characteristics of arcing voltage of each gas as well as the
case of SF6 when discussing bus-transfer current switching properties in the potential gases.
Figure 3.4.6: Averaged arc voltages compared to recovery voltag es at reignition

and extinction. All voltages are given as absolute values and independent of the
switching current [3.4.4].
(2) Practical index of current switching capability and influencing parameters

From the practical viewpoints of bus-transfer current switching, an arcing time of disconnectors is an index of
the current switching capability. The arcing time will be influenced by interruption currents, recovery voltages,
gas pressures of insulating medium, contact speed of disconnectors and so on. In this subsection, these
influencing parameters on the arcing time are introduced referring to literatures. For the information about other
influencing parameters (effect of gas flow, property of arcing voltage), see Annex C.3.
100
Interruption currents
Figures 3.4.7 and 3.4.8 show a circuit, and various waveforms and a moving-contact behavior for bus-transfer
current switching test in dry air [3.4.3, 3.4.8]. In Fig. 3.4.7, a step-down transformer from 3.3 kV to 100 V or
300 V was used to generate electric current of up to 2 500 A. Voltages between contacts were measured by a
probe, and electric current was measured by a current transformer (CT). The average speed of a moving
contact was about 0.13 m/s. In this test circuit, arcing voltage became almost identical to the applied voltage.
The gas pressure was 0.5 MPa.
Figure 3.4.8 shows of voltage and current waveforms, and the moving-contact behavior, "contact stroke". After
the moving contact is separated from the fixed contact, current is being reduced and voltage, which is arcing
voltage, is being increased. Then at the time of current-interruption completion, the voltage between the
contacts becomes almost identical to the output voltage of the transformer.
Inductance Stroke speed : 0.13m/s

3.3kV
100V Inductance Probespeed : 0.13m/s
Stroke
or
3.3kV
(1:100) Disconnector
Contact
Stroke stroke
300V 100V
or
Probe
Current Stroke
300V (1:100) Disconnector
Current
Current interruption
Current interruption
1000Ap/div 1000Ap/div
Dry air
Dry air CT
Voltage of across
isolating distance
Stroke Arc starts Voltage of across
CT isolating distance
Stroke 100Vp/div Arc starts
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Oscilloscope Time （sec）
100Vp/div
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Oscilloscope Time （sec）
Figure 3.4.7: Test circuit [3.4.3, 3.4.8] Figure 3.4.8: Voltage and current waveforms, and
moving-contact behavior for bus-transfer current
switching test in dry air [3.4.3, 3.4.8]
Another test result of bus-transfer current switching in dry air in terms of dependency on interruption current is
shown in Figure 3.4.9 together with the disconnector models [3.4.8]. The test circuit was similar to Figure 3.4.7.
Two types of disconnector models, Type (1) of a plain break (upper figure) and Type (4) of magnets in the tip
of an arcing and a moving contacts (lower figure), were used in the tests. The pressure of dry air was 0.5 MPa,
and the average speed of the moving contact was 0.13 m/s. The current was changed between 600 A and
2 500 A. The tests of 30 times switching operations were conducted for the both types of disconnectors.
The test results showed that the dependences of the currents Ibt on the average arcing time were weak, and
the arcing time increased in proportion to Ibt0.13 for the both types.
101
(a) Disconnector models (b) Test results
Figure 3.4.9: Disconnector models (a), and test results (b) of influence of interruption current on
average arcing time in dry air [3.4.8]. Type (1) (upper): plain break type without magnet, Type (4)
(lower): magnetic field driven type. Applied voltage: 100 V, gas pressure: 0.5 MPa, contact speed:
0.13 m/s.
Figure 3.4.10 shows a similar test result of bus-transfer current switching in dry air including the test setup
[3.4.9]. The applied voltage and the gas pressure of dry air were 300 V and 0.6 MPa, respectively. The speed
of the moving contact was 2 m/s and the permanent magnet was not used in the test of Figure 3.4.10 (b). The
average arcing time was almost independent of the interruption current under 3 kA, and this tendency is similar
to those in Figure 3.4.9.
(a) Test setup (b) Test result
Figure 3.4.10: Test setup for bus-transfer current switching (a), and the test result of relation
between average arcing time and interruption current in dry air (b) [3.4.9]. Applied voltage:
300 V, gas pressure: 0.6 MPa, contact speed: 2 m/s, without magnet in moving contact.
Applied (Recovery) voltage

Figure 3.4.11 shows a relation between average arcing time and recovery (applied) voltage in dry air for bus-
transfer current switching [3.4.9]. The experimental setup was the same as that in Figure 3.4.10 (a). The
interruption current and the gas pressure of dry air were 1 kA and 0.6 MPa, respectively. The moving contact
speed was 2 m/s and the experiments were conducted without a magnet. It was obvious that the average
102
arcing time strongly depends on the recovery voltage between 50 V and 300 V, and increased linearly as the
recovery voltages rose.
Figure 3.4.11: Relation between average arcing time and recovery voltage in dry
air [3.4.9]. Interruption current: 1 kA, gas pressure: 0.6 MPa, contact speed: 2 m/s,
without magnet in moving contact.
Gas pressure
Figure 3.4.12 shows disconnector models and the test results of relation between arcing time and gas pressure
in dry air [3.4.8]. The test circuit was similar to Figure 3.4.7. Type (1) of a plain break (upper figure) and Type (2)
of a magnet in the tip of a moving contact (lower figure) were used in the tests. The pressure of dry air was
0.5 MPa, and the average speed of the moving contact was 0.13 m/s. The gas pressure were changed from
0.2 MPa to 0.5 MPa. The tests of 10 times switching operations were done for the both types of disconnectors.
The average arcing time depended on the gas pressure P, and shortened in proportion to P -0.3 to P -0.5 for the
both types.
(a) Disconnector models (b) Test results
Figure 3.4.12: Disconnector models (a) and test results (b) of relation between arci ng
time and gas pressure in dry air [3.4.8]. Type (1) (upper): plain break type without
magnet, Type (2) (lower): magnetic field driven type. Interruption current: 1 400 A,
applied voltage: 100 V, contact speed: 0.13 m/s.
103
Figure 3.4.13 shows similar test results of average arcing time versus gas pressure in dry air, and a comparison
of the property between in dry air and in SF6 [3.4.9]. Test setup for bus-transfer current switching was the same
as Figure 3.4.10 (a). The interruption currents and applied voltages were 1.8 kA and 300 V, respectively. The
moving contact speed was 2 m/s, and the experiments were conducted with and without a magnet.
Figure 3.4.13: Relation between arcing time and gas pressure in dry air [3.4.9].
Interruption current: 1 kA, applied voltage: 300 V, gas pressure: 0.6 MPa, contact speed:
2 m/s. The gas pressure in the horizontal axis corresponds to gauge values.
From 0.2 MPa to 0.6 MPa, the arcing time decreased as the gas pressure increased in dry air, while the arcing
time was nearly constant and independent of gas pressure in SF 6. The average arcing time in dry air was
about over 5 times of that in SF6 at low pressure of 0.2 MPa, but the arcing time in dry air became close to and
around 1.5 times of that in SF6 at high pressure of 0.6 MPa.
Gas pressure dependences of arcing time during bus-transfer current switching in N2/SF6 mixtures were
reported in [3.4.10]. Figure 3.4.14 shows a 72 kV class disconnector model and test circuit for bus-transfer
current switching tests. The speed of contact separation was 1.5 m/s. The interrupting current was 800 A,
which was produced by the 3.3 kV/300 V transformer and the reactor. That frequency was 60 Hz. The transient
recovery voltage (TRV) was 400 V on peak value. The average of the rate of rise of recovery voltage (rrrV)
was 14.5 V/s, and it was controlled by the parallel 60  resistor. If the disconnector could not interrupt the
current, a backup circuit-breaker interrupted it after 4.5 cycles from the beginning of the current flow.
(a) 72 kV disconnector model (b) Test circuit
Figure 3.4.14: 72 kV class disconnector model and test circuit for bus -transfer current switching in
N 2 /SF 6 mixtures [3.4.10]
104
Figure 3.4.15 shows the relation between average arcing time and total gas pressure of N2/SF6 mixtures under
constant SF6 contents [3.4.10]. In pure SF6, the average arcing time was nearly constant at 8 ms (half cycle)
and independent of gas pressure, which showed the same tendency as the result in Figure 3.4.13.
Figure 3.4.15: Average arcing time versus total gas pressure of N 2 /SF 6
mixtures under constant SF 6 contents [3.4.10]. Interruption current: 800 A,
applied voltage: 400 V, contact speed: 1.5 m/s.
From Figure 3.4.15, it was reported that the average arcing time was almost constant and not so influenced
by the total pressure between 0.4 MPa and 0.75 MPa, but strongly affected by the SF 6 content in N2/SF6
mixtures.
Figure 3.4.16 shows dependence of arcing time on SF6 contents of N2/SF6 mixtures. The four cases of the gas
mixture conditions in Table 4.3.1 were applied, which had the same dielectric performance as pure SF 6 at
0.4 MPa. It should be noted that the arcing time in the case without magnet, which showed bus-transfer current
switching capability in N2/SF6 mixtures, became higher (the capability became worse) as the SF 6 contents
decreased, even if the dielectric strengths of the gas mixtures were identical to pure SF6 at 0.4 MPa.
35
0.75MPa
30 Without magnet
0.63MPa
25 With magnet
Arc time [ms]
20 0.56MPa
15 0.75MPa
0.48MPa
10 0.56MPa
0.4MPa
5
0
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
SF6 content
Figure 3.4.16: Average arcing time versus SF 6 contents of N 2 /SF 6 mixtures under
four cases of gas mixture conditions of the same dielectric performance as pure
SF 6 at 0.4 MPa [3.4.10]. Interruption current: 800 A, applied voltage: 400 V,
contact speed: 1.5 m/s.
Table 3.4.1: Mixture ratio and total gas pressure of N 2 /SF 6 mixtures that
have the same dielectric performance as pure SF 6 of 0.4 MPa [3.4.10]
Case Mixture ratio of SF6/N2 Total gas pressure
105
(1) 10%/90% 0.75 MPa
(2) 20%/80% 0.63 MPa
(3) 30%/70% 0.56 MPa
(4) 50%/50% 0.48 MPa
Moving contact speed

Figure 3.4.17 shows a comparison of arcing time with opening speed of a moving contact in dry air [3.4.8]. The
test circuit was similar to Figure 3.4.7. The pressure of dry air was 0.5 MPa. The interruption current and
applied voltage were 1 400 A and 100 V, respectively. The arcing time was drastically reduced when the
opening speed of the moving contact was fast, but the current interruption stroke of the moving contact was
not improved. This fact means that there were little difference of current interruption capability between the
slow and the fast moving contact except for much amount of contact wear at the slow speed. The current
interruption occurred at nearly the same point of the moving contact stroke regardless of the contact opening
speed.
The literature [3.4.11] reports that dynamic conductance properties of CO2 and SF6 is significantly improved
under a condition of gas flow (5 liter/min), but no big difference of the property was found between N 2 , CO2,
dry air and SF6 under no gas flow (see Annex C.3). Therefore, the interruption performances of bus-transfer
current switching might be improved by applying disconnectors that have a high speed moving contact and
make an effective gas flow around the contacts. Nevertheless, there are few literatures to ensure the above
possibility especially for the potential gases of N 2, CO2, dry air and N2/SF6 mixtures, and more researches
about it are necessary.
100
Average arcing time
80
Type ①
Arcing time (ms)
Gas pressure：0.5MPa
60
40
20
0
0.13m/s 1.5m/s
Figure 3.4.17: Comparison of arcing time with opening speed of moving contact
[3.4.8]. Interruption current: 1 400 A, applied voltage: 100 V, gas pressure: 0.5 MPa.
Type (1): plain break type disconnector model without magnet.
(3) Improvement of bus-transfer current switching performance

In order to improve bus-transfer current switching performance of disconnectors, some methods are proposed.
These are disconnectors with magnetically driven arc methods [3.4.3, 3.4.8-3.4.10] in dry air, N2/SF6 mixtures
and SF6, small puffer methods [3.4.3, 3.4.8, 3.4.12] in dry air and SF6, and a parallel-resistor method (current-
limiting resistor) [3.4.12] in SF6. Regarding the magnetically driven arc method, the effects were experimentally
reported in Figures 3.4.9, 3.4.12 and 3.4.13 in dry air and Figure 3.4.16 in N2/SF6 mixtures. The switching
106
performance of disconnectors were improved by the magnetically driven arc method and the performance in
dry air and in N2/SF6 mixtures were comparable to that in SF6.
3.4.2 Differences with SF6

It is very important to clarify differences with SF 6 by comparison between SF6 and other gases like N2, CO2,
dry air, and N2/SF6 mixtures. First, “bus-charging current switching” is described, and “switching operations
with earthing switches” is also mentioned as well as bus-transfer current switching.
3.4.2.1 Bus-charging current switching

In [3.4.13], a comparison of bus-charging current switching performance between SF6 and N2/SF6 mixtures in
a 245 kV GIS disconnector is presented. The disconnector was opened to a fixed contact distance and a
voltage higher than the breakdown voltage across the gap was applied. At this distance, the voltage was
increased to a determined value, to hold constant for some seconds and breakdowns to the tank were
detected. If no breakdown was observed, the gap distance was increased and the procedure was repeated.
In Figure 3.4.18, the results are presented. It can be seen that breakdown to the tank occurs at higher distances
if pure SF6 is used. An equivalent dielectric withstand between pure SF6 and the gas mixtures does not procure
the same arc behaviour. The reference [3.4.13] reported that the arc behavior was different due to lower
electron affinity of the gas mixture. Comparing the test results to regular bus-charging current switching tests,
it is concluded that a disconnector design feasible for SF6 can be critical when only a gas mixture with similar
dielectric strength is applied.
In [3.4.14], it is mentioned that a bus-charging test according to IEC 62271-102, Annex F (2013) with a
disconnector designed for SF6 was also successful with dry air, including a condition check after the switching
operations. However, no details are given regarding the gas pressure of dry air or the disconnector design.
107
Test in SF6 and N2/SF6

• In SF6 at 0.4 MPa, at
same test voltage ,
breakdown to the tank
occurs for 51 mm gap and
430 kV
• Applied voltage and gap

distance are higher than
the one measured during
capacitive test.
Secured design
with SF6 not with
N2/SF6 SF6 SF6 N2/SF6
80% / 20%
Flash to the tank Flash to the tank
Pressure (MPa) 0.4 0.4 0.7
Gap distance (mm) 41 51 41
Voltage (kV) 420 430 435
Test in N2/SF6 mixture

• In N2/SF6 gas
mixture, breakdown to
the tank occurs for
gap distance and
voltage close to the
value observed during
capacitive tests.
• An equivalent
dielectric withstand
between SF6 and gas
mixture doesn’t
procure the same arc
behavior during
capacitive tests N2/SF6 N2/SF6 N2/SF6 N2/SF6
Design need to 80% / 20% 80% / 20% 90% / 10% 90% / 10%
be modified Flash to the tank Flash to the tank Flash to the tank
Pressure (MPa) 0.7 0.7 0.85 1.05
Gap distance (mm) 31 41 21 41
Voltage (kV) 375 435 343 430
Figure 3.4.18: Comparison of bus-charging performance of a 245 kV GIS disc onnector

with different gas fillings of SF 6 and N 2 /SF 6 mixtures [3.4.13]
As for N2, CO2, dry air, N2/SF6 mixtures and SF6, the basic property and the current switching capability of
each gas to influence bus-charging current switching are summarized in Table 3.4.2. Assuming that insulation-
recovery characteristics of each gas is proportional to the static AC dielectric strength, arcing time of each gas
can be estimated. On the other hand, in order to evaluate a ground insulation performance of each gas, it is
needed to clarify the behavior of branching of leader as described in section 3.4.1.1 (2) and in the table.
Table 3.4.2: Transversal comparison of various gases o n bus-charging current switching
108
Bus-charging current switching
Basic property Current switching capability

Gas
Insulation-recovery Ground insulation
Arcing time Static dielectric
characteristics of gap performance in presence
*1 *2 strength at AC *3
between contacts of arc
Improved by higher
3.2 dielectric strength but lower
N2 0.35 No data
(0.5 MPa)
than SF6 *1 *4
CO2 No data 0.42 No data No data
Improved by higher
2.9 dielectric strength but lower
Dry air 0.43 No data
(0.5 MPa)
than SF6 *1 *4
Lower than SF6, even if the Leader branching from arc

N2/SF6 No data 0.68 dielectric strength are and possibility of breakdown
equivalent to SF6 *5 to enclosure *5 *6
Possibility of leader
SF6 1.0 1.00 No data branching in case of long gap
between contacts *6
*1: This value was derived from one literature.

*2: See Figure 3.4.3 (b) [3.4.3].
*3: See Table 2.2.4 (0.4 MPa  P  0.7 MPa).
*4: See Figure 3.4.2 (influence of electric field at a tip of moving contact) and Figure 3.4.3
(influence of insulating gases).
*5: The brochure [3.4.1] shows that the performance of bus-charging current switching in N2/SF6
mixtures, which includes a ground insulation performance with arc, is lower than that in SF 6,
even if the dielectric strength of the N2/SF6 mixtures are equivalent to that of SF6 (Figure 3.4.4).
*6: See Figure 3.4.18.
3.4.2.2 Bus-transfer current switching

Bus-transfer current switching test results with a disconnector of a 245 kV GIS are presented in [3.4.13]. The
arcing time of 100 CO cycles were compared between a gas filling with 10 bar N2 and a filling of 4.5 bar SF6.
Both tests were successful even with a slightly higher arcing time for 10 bar N2. Detailed numbers are
presented in Figure 3.4.19.
109
Disconnector bus- transfer

current switching
• Current  1600A
Small arcing distance and arcing time
• Voltage: some tens of volts
100 CYCLES Pre arcing Arcing 100 CYCLES Pre arcing Arcing
CO time time CO time time
ms ms ms ms
Mean 12.7 19.9 Mean 9.8 12.2
Max 24.0 54.0 Max 34.3 33.7
Min 2.0 5.0 Min 0.4 1.3
 4.8 10.3  7.4 7.8
Test conditions: 245 kV GIS at 10 bar rel N2 Test conditions : 245 kV GIS at 4.5 bar rel SF6
U=20 V – I=1600 A U=20 V – I=1600 A
Contact speed= 50 mm/s Contact speed= 50 mm/s
The same bus-transfer current switching performance is

obtained without modification of the design contacts, when
SF6 gas is replaced by N2 at a higher filling pressure.
Figure 3.4.19: Comparison of bus-transfer current switching performance of a 245 kV GIS

disconnector between with 10 bar N 2 filling and with 4.5 bar SF 6 filling [3.4.13]
In [3.4.14], a comparison of bus-transfer current switching performance of a disconnector between at 6.5 bar
SF6 and at 9.7 bar clean (dry) air is presented. It is shown that the arcing time of 100 switching operations at
20 V and 1 600 A was in a similar range, independent of the insulation gas as shown in Figure 3.4.20.
Figure 3.4.20: Measured mean arcing time during bus-transfer current switching for SF 6 gas
and clean (dry) air. The black bars indicate the range of arcing time of one test series [3.4.14].
These data in Figures 3.4.19 and 3.4.20 suggest that the same bus-transfer current switching performance
could be obtained without modification of the design contacts, when SF6 gas is simply replaced by N 2 or dry
air at a higher filling pressure.
As for N2, CO2, dry air, N2/SF6 mixtures and SF6, the basic property and influencing parameters of each gas
on bus-transfer current switching performance are summarized in Table 3.4.3.
110
Table 3.4.3 Transversal comparison of various gases on bus -transfer current switching
Bus-transfer current switching
Basic property
Dependence of current switching capability
Gas Improvement of
(arcing time)
Current current switching
Arcing time interruption performance
condition on interruption on applied
on gas pressure
current voltage
4.3
N2 (0.75 MPa) No data No data No data No data No data
*1 *2
CO2 No data No data No data No data No data No data
5.1 (0.2 MPa) Arcing voltage

Almost by magnetically
2.0 (0.4 Mpa) larger than Increased linearly Improved as
Dry air independent driven arc method
1.5 (0.6 MPa) applied voltage *1 *7 increasing *8
*6 *7 *9
*1 *3 *4
3.6 by magnetically
N2/SF6 (0.75 MPa) No data No data No data No data driven arc method
*1 *2 *1 *9
by magnetically
Arcing voltage Almost driven arc method,
1.0
larger than No data independent small puffer
SF6 *2 (0.75 MPa) No data
applied voltage *8 (0.2-0.6 MPa) method and
*3 (0.2, 0.4, 0.6 MPa)
*5 (0.4-0.75 MPa) parallel-resistor
method *10
*1: This value was derived from one literature.

*2: Comparison between N2, 90%N2/10%SF6 mixture and SF6 at 0.75 MPa [3.4.10].
*3: Comparison between dry air and SF6 at 0.2 MPa, 0.4 MPa and 0.6 MPa. See Figure 3.4.13 [3.4.9].
*4: See Figure 3.4.5, Annex C.2 and reference [3.4.5].
*5: See Figures 3.4.5, 3.4.6 and references [3.4.4, 3.4.7].
*6: Almost independent of current from 500 A to 2 500 A in dry air. See Figure 3.4.9 [3.4.8].
*7: Almost independent of current from 1 000 A to 3 000 A in dry air. See Figure 3.4.10 [3.4.9]. Increased
linearly from 50 V to 300 V in dry air. See Figure 3.4.11 [3.4.9].
*8: Experimental result from 0.2 MPa to 0.6 MPa in dry air and SF 6 in Figure 3.4.13 [3.4.9], from 0.2 MPa
to 0.5 MPa in dry air in Figure 3.4.12 [3.4.8], and from 0.4 MPa to 0.75 MPa in SF6 in Figure 3.4.15
[3.4.10].
*9: Improved comparably to the performance in SF6 [3.4.3, 3.4.8-3.4.10]. See Figures 3.4.9, 3.4.12, 3.4.13
and 3.4.16.
*10: See references [3.4.3, 3.4.8-3.4.10, 3.4.12].
The performance of bus-transfer current switching is basically dominated by a sustainable arcing voltage, and
the current interruption occurs when the arcing voltage exceeds the applied voltage during the bus-transfer
current switching. This basic property was verified in air-insulated disconnectors in the atmosphere and in SF6
as described in section 3.4.1.2. Also, the index of bus-transfer current switching performance is the arcing time,
and the influencing parameters in bus-transfer current switching are mainly interruption current, applied voltage
and gas pressure.
The arcing time in dry air and in SF6 was almost independent of the interruption current, but the time in dry air
showed linear increase as the applied voltage increased. Regarding the gas pressure dependence, the arcing
time decreased as the pressure rose up to 0.6 MPa in dry air, although the time was almost constant between
111
0.2 MPa to 0.75 MPa in SF6. Therefore, these gas pressure dependences in dry air and in SF 6 could explain
the result of Figure 3.4.20, that is, the bus-transfer current switching performance in dry air could be simply
improved at a higher filling pressure, and might be comparable to the performance in SF 6.
In the case of N2/SF6 mixtures, specific properties were reported. The arcing time was strongly affected by the
SF6 content, and it became higher as the SF6 contents decreased even though the dielectric strength of the
gas mixtures were kept identical to pure SF6 of 0.4 MPa.
It was reported that the current interruption performances in dry air and N2/SF6 mixtures were improved by
magnetically driven arc method and were comparable to that in SF 6.
3.4.2.3 Switching operations with earthing switches

Only very few material comparing the performance of earthing switches with different insulation gases is
available. In [3.4.14], it is reported that an earthing switch designed for SF6 can also successfully perform
making of short-circuit currents and switching of electrostatic induced currents without any design changes.
However, no details are given regarding the gas pressure of dry air or the disconnector design. In addition, it
is mentioned that switching of electromagnetic induced currents is not possible without any adjustments of the
design. The lower arc quenching performance of dry air needs an adjusted design of the arc contacts to
improve interruption performance of the earthing switch.
3.5 PRACTICAL EVALUATION OF POTENTIAL GASES

This section evaluates the potential gases of dry air, N2, CO2 and N2/SF6 mixtures from the following practical
viewpoints:
 dielectric performance of gas-insulated systems,
 dielectric performance for alternative dielectric tests (routine tests)
 PD diagnostics,
(1) Dielectric performance of gas-insulated systems: sensitivity to metallic particles at LI voltages

Dielectric performance of gas-insulated systems is basically influenced by the properties at LI voltages under
quasi-uniform electric field, because the rated lightning impulse withstand voltage (LIWV) is generally much
severer than the other rated withstand voltages like the rated short-duration power frequency withstand voltage
(ACWV) and the rated switching impulse withstand voltage (SIWV).
The dielectric performance of the systems is sometimes lowered by the existence of a metallic particle, and
the sensitivity to the particle especially at LI voltages is also one of important factors for the performance.
From a practical point view, gases that have high dielectric strength under quasi-uniform electric field and
insensitive property to the particle at LI voltages are preferable to gas-insulated systems.
Figure 3.5.1 shows an example of dielectric strength and sensitivity to metallic particles at LI voltages, referring
to the values at 0.5 MPa in Figures 2.2.22 and 2.2.23 (section 2.2.5), and in Figures 2.3.21 and 2.3.22 (section
2.3.3). Dielectric strength under quasi-uniform field (breakdown voltages without particles) and dielectric
strength against metallic particle (breakdown voltages initiated by particles on spacer and particles on HV
electrode) of the potential gases are normalized by the values of SF6 at 0.5 MPa, respectively. The oblique
112
dotted line of 45 degrees corresponds to dielectric sensitivity against metallic particles comparable to SF6.
Therefore, the data over and below the line are insensitive and sensitive to metallic particles, respectively.
The dielectric strength of dry air, N2 and CO2 under LI voltages is lowered to 0.32 to 0.43 compared to that of
SF6 at 0.5 MPa under quasi-uniform field, but the dielectric strength against metallic particles is 0.46 to 0.66,
and higher than the values under quasi-uniform field. This fact shows that dry air, N2 and CO2 under LI voltages
is less sensitive to metallic particles than SF6 at 0.5 MPa. These gases are applicable to gas-insulated systems
if the low dielectric strengths are compensated by practical methods such as elongating the insulation distance
and improving the dielectric strength as described in section 3.1.
On the other hand, 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture has higher dielectric strength than dry air, N2 and CO2 under LI
voltages, but the gas mixture is more sensitive to metallic particles than SF6, since the dielectric strength under
quasi-uniform field is 0.76, and the dielectric strength against metallic particles is 0.61 to 0.73. Additional
countermeasures against particles will be needed compared to the system using SF6 when the gas mixture is
applied to gas-insulated systems, e.g. more improved design and quality control against particles.
Figure 3.5.1: LI Dielectric strength and sensitivity to metallic particles in dry air, N 2 , CO 2 ,
80%N 2 /20%SF 6 mixtures and SF 6 at 0.5 MPa. Refer to Figures 2.2.22, 2.2.23, and Figures
2.3.21, 2.3.22.
(2) Dielectric performance for alternative dielectric tests: sensitivity to metallic particles at AC voltages
The preferred dielectric performance of the potential gases for the alternative dielectric tests (routine tests) is
different from the performance required for gas-insulated systems. The dielectric performance at AC voltage
is essential, since the soundness of the system shall be verified at AC voltage in routine tests according to IEC
62271-203.
Sufficient dielectric strength under quasi-uniform electric field is desired for the gases applicable to the
alternative tests, and sensitive gases to metallic particles at AC voltages are recommended in this case.
113
Figure 3.5.2 shows the properties at AC voltages [3.5.1] similar to Figure 3.5.1. Dielectric strength at AC
voltages in dry air, N2, CO2 and N2/SF6 mixtures at 0.55 MPa is reduced to about 0.31 to 0.70, however, the
dielectric strength with and without particles is balanced comparably to that of SF 6. In view of the influence of
metallic particles at 0.55 MPa, N2 is slightly more sensitive than SF6, while CO2 and dry air are slightly less
sensitive than SF6. As the gas pressure increases, the N2/SF6 mixtures become more sensitive to metallic
particles, while low pressure dry air is rather insensitive to particles.
From Figure 3.5.2, dry air, N2, CO2 and N2/SF6 mixtures will be applicable to the alternative dielectric tests in
the similar sensitivity level to SF6. If the gas pressure can be raised in the test, the higher pressure gas mixtures
than 0.55 MPa will be more suitable to detect metallic particles, since the high pressure gas mixtures are more
sensitive to particles than the other gases at AC voltages.
Figure 3.5.2: AC dielectric strength and sensitivity to metallic particles in dry air, N 2 , CO 2 ,
80%N 2 /20%SF 6 mixtures and SF 6 at 0.55 MPa [3.5.1]
(3) PD diagnostics: margin between PDIV and BDV initiated by metallic particles
Partial discharge tests are also to be conducted in type tests and routine tests, and enough margin between
PDIV and BDV are preferable for the PD tests.
Figure 3.5.3 shows the normalized margin between PDIV and BDV initiated by 3 mm metallic particles in N2,
CO2, dry air and SF6 under low, medium and high gas pressure ranges. The margin is defined as follows.
Normalized margin between PDIV and BDV = (Ubp - Upd) / Ubp (3.5.1)
Here, Upd and Ubp are 50 % PDIV and 50 % BDV, respectively. The bar graphs in Figure 3.5.3 are the average
of the calculated values referring to the experimental data in chapters 2 and 3. The graphs in N2, CO2, dry air
114
and SF6 are divided into three gas pressure ranges of low (0.1 MPa  P < 0.4 MPa), medium (0.4 MPa  P 
0.7 MPa) and high (0.7 MPa < P).
Nitrogen seems to have few margin between PDIV and BDV compared to SF6, although the number of data in
N2 is not enough. In the case of CO2 and dry air, the normalized margins are smaller than those of SF6, but
the margins will be enough for the PD measurements. The decreasing tendency of the normalized margin can
be seen in CO2, as the gas pressure increases.
Figure 3.5.3: Normalized margin between PDIV (U pd ) and BDV (U bp ) initiated by 3 mm metallic
particles in N 2 , CO 2 , dry air and SF 6 under low, medium and high gas pressure ranges . The
margin is defined by (U bp - U pd )/U bp . The experimental data and the test setups are referred
to: “moving particle”; [2.3.1, 2.3.2]/Figure 2.3.1, “fixed particle/needle-plane electrode”;
[2.3.4, 2.3.5]/ Figures 2.3.6 and 2.3.9, and “fixed particle/coaxial electrode”; [3.2.4]/Figure
3.2.10 (protrusion on HV conductor).
(4) Evaluation of the gases

Table 3.5.1 summarizes the practical dielectric performance (for gas-insulated systems and for alternative
dielectric tests), and PD diagnostics in the potential gases as an example of medium gas pressure range.
Natural-origin gases of dry air, N2 and CO2 have lower dielectric strength than SF 6, but they are applicable to
gas-insulated system, if the low dielectric strengths are figured out, for instance, by elongating insulation
distance and by improving the dielectric strengths by a dielectric coating. The advantage of these gases will
be “insensitive to metallic particles than SF6” at LI voltages compared to the systems using SF6, because gas-
insulated systems are basically dominated by the dielectric performances at LI voltages and especially by
metallic particles.
Gas mixtures of N2/SF6 have higher dielectric strengths at LI voltages than dry air, N2 and CO2 and applicable
to gas-insulated systems. They have, however, a noticeable aspect of “more sensitive to metallic particles than
115
SF6” at LI voltages, and countermeasures against the particles are necessary when applying them to the
systems.
The candidates for the alternative dielectric tests (routine tests) in a factory by using the scaling law could be
dry air, N2, CO2, and N2/SF6 gas mixtures, since one of the preferable dielectric properties under metallic
particles contamination is “similarly sensitive” or “more sensitive” to the particles than SF6 at AC voltages. The
possibility of the alternative dielectric tests will be discussed in detailed in chapter 4.
The PD characteristics are different depending on the gases. N2 has little difference between PDIV and BDV
for PD measurements and this property is noticeable for PD tests in alternative dielectric tests, although dry
air, CO2, and N2/SF6 gas mixtures have enough margin between PDIV and BDV. It was verified that IEC 60270
method is applicable to all the gases. The difference of the appropriate PD diagnostics method for
electromagnetic wave detection between the potential gases and SF6 should be noted. UHF method is useful
for SF6 and N2/SF6 mixtures, while lower frequency bands than UHF would be suitable for dry air, N2 and CO2.
Table 3.5.1: Summary of practical dielectric performance for gas-insulated systems and for
alternative dielectric tests, and PD diagnostics in the potential gases at medium pressure range
Dielectric performance
PD diagnostics
for gas-insulated systems for alternative dielectric tests
Gas
Margin between PDIV Preferable diagnostic
at LI voltages *1 at AC voltages *2
and BDV *3 *4 method *4
Not enough margin

N2
Insensitive to metallic particles compared to SF6 between PDIV and BDV
(preferable to gas-insulated systems) IEC 60270,
Lower frequency bands
CO2 Some measures against the low dielectric strength than UHF for EM wave
are needed to apply to the systems, e.g. elongating detection suggested
Enough margin between
insulation distance, improving dielectric strength. Applicable to alternative dielectric tests in the
PDIV and BDV
(see section 3.1) similar sensitivity to metallic particles
Dry air compared to SF6 (see chapter 4)
Higher dielectric strength than N2, CO2, dry air

(applicable to gas-insulated systems)
Not enough margin
N2/SF6 More improved design and quality control against between PDIV and BDV
metallic particles are necessary than the system *5 IEC 60270,
using SF6 . UHF method for EM wave
(Sensitive to metallic particles compared to SF6) detection
Enough margin between

SF6 SF6 basis SF6 basis
PDIV and BDV
*1: Figure 3.5.1. *2: Figure 3.5.2. *3: Figure 3.5.3 and reference [3.5.2]. *4: Table 3.2.2. *5: The difference
between PDIV and BDV is very small for SF6 content below 10 % in N2/SF6 mixtures.
3.6 RECYCLABILITY
The gases of N2, CO2, dry air and N2/SF6 mixtures are in the focus of potential gases. Considerations of
recycling have to be divided in measures for gases with and without percentage of SF6. The term in “recycling”
includes the processes of recovery, reclaiming, storage, reuse, further treatment and final disposal [3.6.1].
3.6.1 Recyclability of N2, CO2, dry air

Considering natural-origin gases such as N2, CO2 and dry air, no harmful chemical reactions and no harmful
byproducts are expected for typical insulation or small current interruption applications, as reported in [3.6.2].
Accelerated ageing tests were performed with dry air by application of partial discharges (in average 20 pC)
116
from a needle in a small test vessel for 1 200 hours. Even under these worse conditions, only low concentration
of nitrogen oxides (NO x) and no signs of corrosion or acids were found [3.6.2]. Even in the event of arcing in
dry air, no acids occur compared to F-gas containing insulating media [3.6.3]. Moreover, these gases are non-
toxic, non-harmful and safe.
In the case of CO2 circuit-breakers, some byproducts were found, consisting of CuF2, WO2, WO3, Cu0.4W 0.6,
AgF2, and Cu(OH)2･H2O [3.6.4], depending on the conducting and insulating materials applied.
For typical insulation or small current interruption applications, there is no need of recycling these gases used
in equipment, especially in the case of dry air and N 2. They can be released in the atmosphere without any
notable environmental impact [3.6.3]. For CO2 (GWP=1), the need for recovery is under discussion in CIGRE
Working Group B3.45. Recycling cost of the gas does not apply.
3.6.2 Recyclability of N2/SF6 mixtures

Considering N2/SF6 mixtures, these need to be separated into the single gases of N2 and SF6. In this case, N2
can be released in the atmosphere, but SF6 itself has to be recovered.
For separating SF6 from the mixtures, the basic physical principles are: condensation, selective sorption and
diffusion by membrane separation, thermodiffusion or gas centrifuges. For low SF6 concentrations (below 30
%), the separation by condensation is not efficient. In this case, membrane separation and selective sorption
are more suitable. Finally, membrane separation is the most promising and efficient technology for arbitrary
SF6 concentrations [3.6.5].
Membrane separation is a well established gas separation technology. For the separation of SF 6 from nitrogen,
modular membrane systems are now available that can be assembled as mobile separation devices with gas
throughput rates between 1 m3/h and 300 m3/h at arbitrary SF6 concentrations. This process is efficient for 5
% to 95 % of SF6 mixtures and particularly efficient at low SF6 concentrations [3.6.5].
Applying the selective sorption, the technology of pressure swing adsorption (PSA) is based on the molecular
size difference between SF6 and N2. During this process, the gas is adsorbed by a certain material (e.g.
synthetic zeolite) under high pressure, and is detached under low pressure. These processes of adsorption
and detachment are repeated by swinging the pressure cyclically [3.6.6]. Using the molecular sieving effect,
the pore size has to be adapted such that SF 6 (molecular diameter 0.522 nm) is adsorbed and nitrogen
(molecular diameter 0.258 nm) passes through [3.6.1]. Applying SiO2-rich zeolites with a hydrophobic
characteristic, SF6 can be removed from N2/SF6 mixtures down to a level of 10 ppm. Also, even the zeolites
can be regenerated [3.6.7].
3.6.3 Recyclability of PET

Polyethylene-terephtalate (PET) can be recycled after the end of life of the GIS. The life time of the GIS is
estimated to reach more than 40 years of operation. After reaching the end of life of the GIS, the PET support
insulators can be recovered from the apparatus and recycled. The recycling can be done e.g. by glycolysis,
hydrolysis and methanolysis. Today, recycling is mainly done on material losses like cuts and shavings coming
from machining. There are recycling companies that take back the material cuttings from the machining and
produce new PET material after grinding and new extrusion as shown in Figure 3.6.1, but with minor quality.
As recycled PET is not pure enough, it cannot be used as electrical insulation, and recycling process also
degrades its mechanical behavior due to molecular chain cuttings. As an industrial application of recycled PET,
the polyester fibres manufacturing [3.6.9] can be mentioned.
117
Figure 3.6.1: Recycled PET granulates [3.6.8]
Due to this technology, three-phase encapsulated GIS equipped with PET support insulators is recyclable at
a rate of 91 % and have a valorization rate of 99 %. Polyethylene-terephtalate-made insulators count for 5 %
to 8 % of the total mass of the switchgear improving by the same ratio the recyclability rate of the product
[3.6.8].
3.7 APPLICATION EXAMPLES FOR POTENTIAL GAS-INSULATED SYSTEMS

Application examples of the potential gas-insulated systems to equipment are introduced in this section, i.e.
gas-insulated switchgear with vacuum interrupters and dry air insulation, circuit-breaker with vacuum
interrupters and N2 or dry air insulation, and gas-insulated line using N2/SF6 mixtures. More information about
the application examples is referred to Annex D. The example of application of PET to GIS also appears in
this section.
3.7.1 Application of N2, CO2, dry air

This section gives some application examples for gas-insulated systems, designed for N2, CO2 and dry air
insulation. The examples include different types of equipment as gas-insulated switchgear and live tank circuit-
breakers.
The application of compressed air for gas-insulated systems was a technical solution in earlier times. Several
bays of gas-insulated switchgear using compressed natural air have been in service since the 1970s, as for
instance for substation Alblasserdam (the Netherlands). Designed for 170 kV rated AC voltage, 750 kV rated
lightning impulse voltage and a rated current of up to 4 000 A, the operating pressure is in the range of 1.0 MPa
up to 1.8 MPa.
The indoor enclosure of the GIS has shown ageing of the seals only, leading to reduced tightness and gas
losses, due to aged sealing materials and the very high pressure.
Concerning the gaseous insulation, general observation was that the air-insulated GIS did not show signs of
failure or ageing during normal operation.
During recent years, several manufacturers presented new technical solutions and products based on N 2, CO2
and dry air insulation, mainly gas-insulated switchgear with dry air insulation and air-insulated circuit-breakers
with dry air, N2 and CO2 insulation. The switching components consist of either vacuum tubes or CO 2 breaking
principles (Annex D).
An example for gas-insulated switchgear based on dry air insulation is given in Figure 3.7.1 (left). This type of
GIS is designed for a rated AC voltage of up to 145 kV and a rated current of up to 3 150 A [3.7.1].
A further example for dry air insulation is given in Figure 3.7.1 (right), representing a GIS for rated AC voltage
72.5 kV and a rated current of 1 200 A. To improve the dielectric strength, an insulation coating of less than
1 mm in thickness was applied on the conductors [3.7.2].
118
Figure 3.7.1: 145 kV (left) and 72.5 kV (right) dry air insul ated GIS [3.7.1, 3.7.2]
Examples of N2 and dry air gas insulated live-tank breakers, based on vacuum interrupter units, are given in
Figure 3.7.2. The N2 gas-insulated type was designed for 72.5 kV rated AC voltage and a rated lightning
impulse voltage of 325 kV (Figure 3.7.2 (left)). Five breakers of this type were installed in the European Grid
in 2010. No abnormalities have been observed during the test application phase [3.7.3]. In Figure 3.7.2 (right),
an example of a live-tank breaker with dry air insulation for a rated AC voltage of 145 kV and 650 kV rated
lightning impulse voltage is shown [3.7.4].
Due to the alternative insulation, no liquefaction has to be expected also for temperatures down to -50 °C for
all types of equipment.
Figure 3.7.2: Examples of live-tank breakers with N 2 and dry air gaseous insulation;
left: vacuum breaker with N 2 insulation for 72.5 kV (left) [3.7.3],
right: vacuum breaker with dry air insulation for 145 kV (right) [3.7.4]
3.7.2 Application of N2/SF6 mixtures

The current main applications of N2/SF6 mixtures are gas-insulated line (GIL). The GIL is an alternative for
high voltage cables and gives some advantages concerning e.g. high-power transport capability and electro-
magnetic compatibility. Gas-insulated lines are typically installed in open air, in tunnels or directly buried.
The first generation GIL was built from standard GIS components using pure SF 6 as insulated gas and straight
enclosures. About 20 years ago, the second generation of GIL was introduced for managing longer distances
and for reducing the environmental impact of the equipment. Since then, also N2/SF6 mixtures are applied.
The first installation of a GIL with a gas mixture N2/SF6 was done in 2001 in Geneva, Switzerland with a rated
voltage of 220 kV (circuit length 420 m) [3.7.5], as shown in Figure 3.7.3.
119
Figure 3.7.3: The first GIL installation with a gas mixture 80%N 2 /20%SF 6 ; 220 kV GIL
“PALEXPO”, Geneva, Switzerland [3.7.5]
Since then, several further kilometers of gas-insulated lines were installed and in service worldwide. Some
further examples of typical GIL installations are given in Figure 3.7.4.
Figure 3.7.4: Typical 420 kV GIL installations with a gas mixture 80%N 2 /20%SF 6 [3.7.5];
“Hams Hall”, UK, open air and directly buried installation (left), “Kelsterbach”, DE, directly
buried installation (middle), “Limberg”, AT, tunnel/cavern installation (right)
3.7.3 Application of PET

Prototypes of support and partition insulators made of PET were tested successfully in a three-phase
encapsulated GIS with a rated voltage of 72.5 kV. The lower permittivity of PET compared to epoxy resin
simplifies the design of the partition insulators, because the dielectric stress on the surface of the material is
decreased. Therefore, a reduction of the distance between high voltage conductor and enclosure can be
achieved. Indeed, by taking advantage of the PET properties, flat partition insulators instead of the typical
epoxy cone-type insulators could be designed easier. The introduction of flat PET partition insulators made it
possible to reduce the bay dimensions and the amount of SF 6 (Figure 3.7.5).
The good properties of PET were as well demonstrated in long term tests in the factory where higher dielectric
AC stress has been applied on real components for several years.
The first commercially available GIS which made use of PET for partition insulators were introduced in 2003.
More than 4 000 GIS bays have been put in service with a total of around 17 000 bay-years since then. The
material has been implemented mainly in three-phase encapsulated GIS up to 170 kV for partition and support
insulators as well as for other insulating functions. The return of experience is positive [3.7.6].
120
Figure 3.7.5: Three-phase encapsulated 145 kV GIS with PET insulators [3.7.6]
3.8 CONCLUSION
Chapter 3 showed information about practical insulation and small current interruption techniques. The
followings are the main points of each section.
In section 3.1, the effect of dielectric coating in the potential gases and SF6 was introduced and summarized.
It can be seen that the breakdown strength under LI voltage stress of all investigated gases is higher with
coated electrodes than with bare electrodes. The coatings improve the breakdown properties in dry air and
CO2 by 20 % and 26 %, respectively in medium pressure range of 0.4 MPa to 0.7 MPa. The coating is also
effective for inhibiting particle motion in dry air and N 2/SF6 mixtures. More investigations need to be carried
out, since some data are not available, but dielectric coating is a promising technique to increase the reliability
of gas-insulated systems not only with SF6, but also with the potential gases.
Basic partial discharge properties in the potential gases and differences with those of SF6 were discussed in
section 3.2. In N2 and N2/SF6 mixtures (below 10 % SF6 content), margins from PDIV to BDV and from particle
crossing voltage to BDV are small in terms of PD measurements for defects compared with the case in SF6.
However, enough margins exist in CO2 and dry air, and the PD measurement would be possible in the similar
level as that in SF6. The method of IEC 60270 is well applicable to N2, CO2, dry air, and N2/SF6 mixtures. It
was suggested that detection of EM waves at lower frequency bands than UHF would be suitable when N 2,
CO2 and dry air are applied to gas-insulated systems.
In section 3.3, recyclable insulating materials were introduced in terms of the following topics: (1) PET basic
properties, and (2) long term behaviour and ageing. Semi-crystalline thermoplastic PET used as support and
partition insulators in high voltage GIS is an environmentally friendly alternative to thermoset material.
Information about switching properties by disconnectors and earthing switches in the potential gases are
collected and compared with those in SF 6 in section 3.4. Arcing time of the potential gases and SF 6, which is
an index of bus-charging current switching performances, can be estimated from the fact that insulation-
recovery characteristics of each gas is proportional to the static AC dielectric strength. However, the knowledge
of the leader branching behavior is necessary to evaluate the ground insulation performance of each gas. The
performance of bus-transfer current switching is basically dominated by a sustainable arcing voltage, and the
current interruption occurs when the arcing voltage exceeds the applied voltage during the bus-transfer current
switching. The index of bus-transfer current switching performance in the potential gases and SF6 is the arcing
time, and the influencing parameters are mainly interruption current, applied voltage and gas pressure. The
basic property, current switching capability and performance improvement are summarized in the table, but
much more information in this regard is necessary.
In section 3.5, practical evaluation of the potential gases are summarized, referring to the data in chapters 2
and 3. Dry air, N2 and CO2 have lower dielectric strength than SF 6, but applicable to gas-insulated system, if
the low dielectric strengths are figured out. The advantage of these gases will be “insensitive to metallic
121
particles than SF6” at LI voltages compared to the systems using SF 6. At LI voltages, N2/SF6 mixtures have
higher dielectric strengths, but have a noticeable aspect of “more sensitive to metallic particles than SF 6”. The
PD characteristics are different depending on the gases. Nitrogen has little difference between PDIV and BDV
for PD measurements and this property is noticeable for PD tests in alternative dielectric tests, although dry
air, CO2, and N2/SF6 mixtures (above 10 % SF6 content) have enough margin between PDIV and BDV.
Section 3.6 summarizes the aspect of recyclability of the natural-origin gases N2, CO2 and dry air. No harmful
chemical reactions and no harmful byproducts are expected for typical insulation or small current interruption
applications in these gases, giving major advantages concerning gas handling. For typical insulation or small
current interruption applications, there is no need of recycling the gases used in equipment, especially in the
case of dry air and N2. For CO2, this is under discussion in CIGRE WG B3.45. Considering N 2/SF6 mixtures,
they need to be separated into the single gases of N2 and SF6. Nitrogen can be released in the atmosphere,
but SF6 itself has to be recovered. Insulators made of PET can be recycled after the end of life of the GIS,
leading to an improved recycling rate of the GIS. Thanks to this technology, three-phase encapsulated GIS
equipped with PET support insulators is recyclable at a rate of 91 % and have a valorization rate of 99 %.
Polyethylene-terephtalate-made insulators count for 5 % to 8 % of the total mass of the switchgear improving
by the same ratio the recyclability rate of the product.
In section 3.7, application examples for gas-insulated systems, designed for N2, CO2 and dry air insulation,
are given. The examples include different types of equipment as gas-insulated switchgear, live tank circuit-
breakers with vacuum interrupters and N2 or dry air insulation. Further, examples for N2/SF6 gas mixture
application are shown, namely for gas-insulated lines. In addition, an application example for PET insulators
is described.
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4. ALTERNATIVE DIELECTRIC (ROUTINE) TESTS

In order to minimise the use of SF6 during a routine test of electrical equipment, the CIGRE Technical Brochure
(TB) No. 594 [4.1.1] studied alternative tests with non-SF6 gas in a factory. Some routine test items with non-
SF6 gas were proposed, but the dielectric tests on the main circuit and PD measurements were excluded.
The purpose of the study in this chapter 4 is to pursue the possibility of alternative dielectric tests on the main
circuit and PD measurements to minimise SF6 use and to reduce SF6 emissions in a factory (see Annexes
E.1, E.2).
In section 4.1, the recommendation of the TB No. 594 to the relevant IEC standards and the use of SF 6 or
alternative gases for routine tests are summarized, and the objectives and some main ideas of an alternative
dielectric routine test are described. The ideas on the alternative dielectric tests in the WG D1.51 are explained.
In section 4.2, a selection of available gases between the potential gases is done. In section 4.3, a possibility
of alternative dielectric tests, i.e. the conditions to apply the alternative dielectric test, the test process and
expectation effects are shown. The proposed approaches are evaluated and the practical limits are mentioned
in section 4.4. Finally, in section 4.5 the acceptance of the new approach is dealt with, in particular possible
concerns of the users and how these could be overcome.
4.1 BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Despite distinct reduction of SF6 emissions from electrical power equipment, the concerns regarding the
environmental impact still exist further on. This progress was achieved due to extensive efforts to improve SF 6
handling during manufacturing and during service, and to reduce the leakage rate. As known from different
inventories [e. g. 4.1.2, 4.1.3], a considerable amount of emissions is caused during testing in a factory, in
particular during routine testing. Therefore, it could be reasonable to apply alternative gases, in particular
natural-origin gases for factory testing.
With respect to a routine testing given in IEC 62271, three tests are of interest when discussing savings of SF 6
emissions: dielectric power frequency test on the main circuit, measurement of the resistance of the main
circuit and tightness test. Additionally, mechanical operating tests are prescribed for switching equipment, i. e.
for circuit-breakers, disconnectors and earthing switches.
As suggested in the TB No. 594 [4.1.1], the measurement of the resistance of the main circuit can be made in
air, as SF6 does not impact the electric resistance. When performing the tightness routine test, the use of
helium in combination with a helium mass spectrometer is common practice among Original Equipment
Manufacturers. Years of experience show a clear correlation between measurements using helium and SF6.
In consequence, the dielectric power frequency test on the main circuit with alternative gases is of special
interest when aiming at savings of SF6 emissions. The objective of the dielectric test is to confirm that the GIS
assembly is defect free or to detect all defects that lead to PD, and to confirm the voltage withstand capability.
With this regard, Table 4.1.1 shows ideas on alternative dielectric routine tests in a factory [4.1.4-4.1.6].
The insulation of a gas-insulated system consists of the gaseous insulation (gas space), the solid insulation
and the interface between gaseous and solid insulation. Assuming a breakdown voltage ratio of the alternative
gas (dry air, CO2, N2) related to SF6 of about 0.4, the verification of dielectric performance of the gaseous
insulation and insulation of the interface will be possible at a corresponding lower test voltages. However, the
detection of defects in the solid insulation (e.g. voids) needs higher voltages close to the current routine test
voltages, which require SF6 insulation. Therefore, the alternative dielectric test cannot cover the solid
insulation. The soundness of the solid insulation has to be proven by a dielectric test at routine test voltage
level and/or a PD test at PD test voltage (1.2 Ur/√3 or 1.2 Ur) at minimum. In consequence, each insulating
component has to be pre-tested accordingly in the course of the quality assurance process. Therefore, WG
D1.51 can only cover level 1 and level 2. As an example of pre-testing for solid insulation to find out voids, the
latest technique of pulsed x-ray induced partial discharge diagnostics for routine tests is introduced in [4.1.7],
which applies 0.8 MPa dry air as the surrounding insulating gas under reduced test voltages (1.25 times of
IEC PD test voltages).
123
Table 4.1.1: Ideas on alternative dielectric tests (routine tests) in a factory [4.1.4-4.1.6].
The scope of the WG D1.51 is up to Level 2, and Level 3 is out of the scope.
Figure 4.1.1 shows a concept of test level and proved insulation performance in alternative dielectric tests
(routine tests) according to the ideas in Table 4.1.1 [4.1.4-4.1.6]. The coefficient around 0.4 to define the test
voltages of reduced ACWV will be explained in section 4.2.
124
4.2 SELECTION OF GASES FOR ALTERNATIVE DIELECTRIC TESTS

This section studies available gases for alternative dielectric tests by reduced test voltages instead of the rated
test voltages specified in the IEC standards. The study is basically for the routine tests in a factory in order to
minimise SF6 use and to reduce SF6 emissions in a factory. The candidates of the gases are the potential
gases of dry air, N2, CO2 and N2/SF6 mixtures.
4.2.1 Available gases under quasi-uniform field

In this subsection, reduced ACWV and applicable AC voltage are evaluated as the following by using the ratio
of dielectric strength of the potential gases to that of SF6 under quasi-uniform field in Table 2.2.4.
Reduced ACWV = ACWV x (Ub / Ub SF6) (4.2.1)
Applicable AC voltage = LIWV/ (ULI/ UAC peak)SF6 / √2 x (Ub / Ub SF6) (4.2.2)
where Ub is breakdown voltage under clean condition at AC voltages for dry air (Ub dry air), N2 (Ub N2), CO2 (Ub CO2)
and N2/SF6 mixtures (Ub N2/SF6). The value of Ub /Ub SF6 is the dielectric strength ratio to SF6 at AC voltages. The
voltages of ACWV and LIWV are referred to the rated short-duration power-frequency withstand voltage in kV
(RMS value) and the rated lightning impulse withstand voltage in kV (peak value) in IEC 62271-203,
respectively. The value of (ULI/UAC peak)SF6 corresponds to the impulse ratio of 1.41 for SF6 at middle pressure
range (Table 2.2.4).
Figure 4.2.1 shows the reduced ACWV calculated by Equation (4.2.1) at medium gas pressure range (0.4 MPa
 P  0.7 MPa). The operating voltages (1 pu) of the rated voltage from 72.5 kV to 800 kV are plotted by the
black dotted lines with arrows. The reduced ACWV can reach the voltage over 1 pu as the followings: up to
245 kV for N2, up to 420 kV for CO2 and dry air, and up to 800 kV for 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture.
Figure 4.2.1: Reduced ACWV for the potential gases based on IEC 62271-203 at medium gas
pressure range (0.4 MPa  P  0.7 MPa)
125
The applicable AC voltage for the potential gases is evaluated as well by Eq. (4.2.2), and shown in Figure
4.2.2. The applicable voltage that reaches around or over 1 pu is as follows: up to 420 kV for N2, up to 550 kV
for CO2 and up to 800 kV for dry air and 80%N2/20%SF6 mixture.
Figure 4.2.2: Applicable AC voltages for the potential gases based on IEC 62271-203 at
medium gas pressure range (0.4 MPa  P  0.7 MPa)
To verify the soundness of the dielectric performance under clean condition, the following two options are
available for the withstand voltage test (using a scaling law of dielectric strength between the potential gases
and SF6, e.g. dielectric strength ratio to SF6, Ub /Ub SF6):
 option 1; to withstand “Reduced ACWV” (Equation 4.2.1),
 option 2; to withstand “Applicable AC voltage” (Equation 4.2.2).
Figures 4.2.1 and 4.2.2 suggest that highest test voltages can be applied in dry air between the candidates of
the natural-origin gases (dry air, N2, CO2) based on the higher value of Ub /Ub SF6. Dry air will be the most
promising under quasi-uniform field, considering the GWP of the gases. Gas mixtures of N2/SF6 may be
another solution but still have much higher GWP compared with the natural-origin gases.
4.2.2 Available gases under non-uniform field

In this subsection, PDIV and BDV of typical harmful defects in GIS are evaluated by using the basic data in
sections 2.3 and 2.4. The defects studied here are “moving particle”, “protrusion on HV conductor” and “particle
on insulator”. The PDIV and BDV are compared with the “Reduced ACWV”, the “Applicable AC voltage” and
the following “Reduced PD test voltage”.
Reduced PD test voltage = Reduced ACWV x (Maximum value of Rpa) (4.2.3)
where Rpa is defined as the following based on the IEC 62271-203 standard values, and represented in Table
4.2.1.
Rpa = (PD test voltage) / ACWV (4.2.4)
126
The PD test voltages of 1.2 Ur (system without solidly earthed neutral) for 72.5 kV and 145 kV, and 1.2 Ur/√3
(system with solidly earthed neutral) for 245 kV to 800 kV were used in the table, considering the practical
application of GIS. An upper value of around Rpa = 0.6 is selected to calculate the Reduced PD test voltage
from the table and the following. The ratio of PDIV of the potential gases to that of SF6 (e.g. 0.7 to 0.8 for a
particle crossing) is larger than that of BDV without particles (0.35 to 0.43), and higher PD test voltage would
be needed in the potential gases compared with SF6.
Table 4.2.1: R pa value of the rated voltage from 72.5 kV to 800 kV
72.5 kV 145 kV 245 kV 300 kV 420 kV 550 kV 800 kV
0.62 0.63 0.37 0.45 0.45 0.54 0.58
Particle crossing (PD detectable) and crossing breakdown electric field are referred to the data regarding
moving particle in section 2.3. The particle length is 3 mm and the gas pressure is 0.55 MPa. In the case of
calculating the crossing voltage (PDIV) and the crossing BDV, the electric field on the busbar conductor is set
to 20 kV/mm (peak value), when LIWV in IEC 62271-203 is applied to the gas-insulated equipment referring
to [4.2.1].
Figures 4.2.3 and 4.2.4 show particle crossing voltage (PDIV) and the BDV in N2, CO2, dry air and SF6 at the
rated voltage of 72.5 kV and 550 kV, compared with “Reduced PD test voltage”, “Reduced ACWV” and
“Applicable AC voltage” for a bare and a dielectric coated enclosure, respectively.
When applying the “crossing voltage”, 10 pC to several 10 pC can be expected for both a bare and a dielectric
coated enclosure, and the PD measurement for moving particles would be possible at “Reduced PD test
voltage” in CO2 and dry air at 72.5 kV and 550 kV. Also, the crossing BDV is below “Reduced ACWV”, and the
soundness of the system against the particles can be confirmed if it passed “Reduced ACWV” test or
“Applicable AC voltage” test in N2, CO2 and dry air. Note that the particle crossing and the BDV are higher for
a coated enclosure than a bare enclosure, and 3 mm-moving-particle is easier to be found in a bare enclosure
than a coated enclosure.
Figure 4.2.5 shows particle crossing voltages (PDIVs) and the BDVs in dry air at the rated voltage from 72.5 kV
to 800 kV, compared with “Reduced PD test voltage”, “Reduced ACWV” and “Applicable AC voltage” for a
dielectric coated enclosure in the same calculation conditions as the above.
The PD measurement for 3 mm-moving-particle in the case of a coated enclosure would be possible at
“Reduced PD test voltage” in dry air from 72.5 kV to 800 kV. Soundness of the system, i.e. no harmful defect
like 3 mm-moving-particle, can be confirmed if it passed “Reduced ACWV” test or “Applicable AC voltage” test
in dry air up to 800 kV.
127
200 Particle crossing voltage (PD detectable, bare) 1000 Particle crossing voltage (PD detectable, bare)
180 Particle crosssing BDV (bare) 900 Particle crosssing BDV (bare)
ACWV
in IEC 62271-203 ACWV
160 Applicable AC voltage (without particles) 800 Applicable AC voltage (without particles) in IEC 62271-203
AC voltages (kV)
700
AC voltages (kV)
140
PD test voltage
Reduced PD test voltage 600
120 in IEC 62271-203 Reduced
in IEC 62271-203
ACWV
Applicable AC voltage
500 ACWV
100
Reduced PD Reduced PD
80 test voltage 400 test voltage
Crosssing BDV
Crosssing BDV
1 pu
60 300
1 pu
40 200
Crosssing
Crosssing
No data
No data
20 100
0 0
N2
N2 CO2
CO2 Dryair
Dry air SF6
SF6 N2
N2 CO2
CO2 Dryair
Dry air SF6
SF6
Gases Gases
(a) 72.5 kV (b) 550 kV
Figure 4.2.3: Particle crossing voltages (PDIVs) and the BDVs in N 2 , CO 2 , dry air and SF 6 at the rated
voltage of 72.5 kV and 550 kV, compared with Reduced PD test voltage s, Reduced ACWVs and
Applicable AC voltages for a bare enclosure (particle length: 3 mm, gas pressure: 0.55 MPa)
200 Particle crossing voltage (PD detectable, coated) 1000 Particle crossing voltage (PD detectable, coated)
180 Particle crosssing BDV (coated) 900 Particle crosssing BDV (coated)
ACWV
in IEC 62271-203 ACWV
160 Applicable AC voltage (without particles) 800 Applicable AC voltage (without particles) in IEC 62271-203
AC voltages (kV)
AC voltages (kV)
140 700
PD test voltage PD test voltage
120 Reduced in IEC 62271-203 600 in IEC 62271-203
ACWV Reduced
100 500 ACWV
Crosssing BDV
Crosssing BDV
1 pu
60 300
1 pu
40 200
Crosssing
Crosssing
20 100
0 0
N2
N2 CO2
CO2 Dryair
Dry air SF6
SF6 N2
N2 CO2
CO2 Dryair
Dry air SF6
SF6
Gases Gases
(a) 72.5 kV (b) 550 kV
Figure 4.2.4: Particle crossing voltages (PDIVs) and the BDVs in N 2 , CO 2 , dry air and SF 6 at the rated
voltage of 72.5 kV and 550 kV, compared with Reduced PD test voltage s, Reduced ACWVs and
Applicable AC voltages for a dielectric coated enclosure (particle length: 3 mm, gas pressure: 0.55 MPa)
128
Figure 4.2.5: Particle crossing voltages (PDIVs) and the BDVs in dry air at the rated voltage from
72.5 kV to 800 kV, compared with Reduced PD test voltage s, Reduced ACWVs and Applicable AC
voltages for a dielectric coated enclosure (particle length: 3 mm, gas pressure: 0.55 MPa)
The PD initiation and breakdown electric field concerning “protrusion on HV conductor” at AC voltages are
referred to the data using a needle-plane electrode configuration [2.3.4] in section 2.3. The protrusion is
simulated by a particle whose length is 10 mm, and the gas pressure is 0.5 MPa. At the calculation of the PDIV
and the BDV, the electric field on the busbar conductor is set to 20 kV/mm (peak value) again when LIWV is
applied to the gas-insulated equipment [4.2.1].
Figure 4.2.6 shows PDIVs and BDVs initiated by a 10 mm-protrusion on HV conductor in N2, CO2, dry air and
SF6 under 0.5 MPa at the rated voltage of 72.5 kV and 550 kV in comparison with “Reduced PD test voltage”,
“Reduced ACWV” and “Applicable AC voltage”.
200 PD initiation voltage (particle = 10 mm) 1000 PD initiation voltage (particle = 10 mm)
No data
180 Breakdown voltage (particle = 10 mm) 900 Breakdown voltage (particle = 10 mm)
ACWV
Applicable AC voltage (without particles) in IEC 62271-203
Applicable AC voltage (without particles)
ACWV
160 800 in IEC 62271-203
AC voltages (kV)
AC voltages (kV)
140 700
120 Reduced in IEC 62271-203 600 in IEC 62271-203
ACWV Reduced
100 500 ACWV

1 pu
60 300
1 pu
40 200
No data
No data
PDIV
PDIV
BDV
BDV
20 100
0 0
N2
N2 CO2
CO2 Dryair
Dry air SF6
SF6 N2
N2 CO2
CO2 Dryair
Dry air SF6
SF6
Gases Gases
(a) 72.5 kV (b) 550 kV
Figure 4.2.6: PDIVs and BDVs initiated by a protrusion (particle) on HV conductor in N 2 , CO 2 , dry air
and SF 6 at the rated voltage of 72.5 kV and 550 kV, compared with Reduced PD test voltages, Reduced
ACWVs and Applicable AC voltages (particle length: 10 mm, gas pressure: 0.5 MPa)
129
The PD measurement for the protrusion of 10 mm would be possible at “Reduced PD test voltage” in N2, CO2
and dry air. The BDV is below “Reduced ACWV”, and the soundness of the system, i.e. no defect like 10 mm-
protrusion on HV conductor, can be confirmed if it passed “Reduced ACWV” test or “Applicable AC voltage”
test in N2, CO2 and dry air.
A practical evaluation of “protrusion on HV conductor” at AC voltages is done by the data using an actual GIS
busbar in Figure 2.3.19. Figure 4.2.7 shows the PDIV and BDV caused by a 5 mm-protrusion on HV conductor
in dry air of 0.55 MPa at the rated voltage from 72.5 kV to 800 kV, compared with “Reduced PD test voltage”,
“Reduced ACWV” and “Applicable AC voltage”. The protrusion is simulated by a particle whose length is 5 mm
as well as Figure 4.2.6.
The PD measurement for 5 mm-protrusion on HV conductor would be possible at “Reduced PD test voltage”
in dry air from 72.5 kV to 800 kV. The soundness of the system (no defect like the protrusion) can be confirmed
again if it passed “Reduced ACWV” test or “Applicable AC voltage” test in dry air up to 800 kV.
Figure 4.2.7: PDIVs and BDVs initiated by a protrusion (particle) on HV conductor in dry air at the
rated voltage from 72.5 kV to 800 kV, compared with Reduced PD test voltages, Reduced ACWVs and
Applicable AC voltages (particle length: 5 mm, gas pressure: 0.55 MPa)
The PD initiation and breakdown electric field under “particle on insulator” at AC voltages are studied from the
test setup in Figure 2.4.16 using an actual spacer of GIS busbar [2.4.9] in section 2.4. The condition is that a
10 mm particle is attached on the spacer surface where the electric field strength along the spacer surface is
maximum. The gas pressure was 0.55 MPa. In [2.4.9], the PDIVs were detected by EM waves using lower
frequency bands than UHF, because the detection of the PDIV by the method of IEC 60270 was difficult. The
PDIV and BDV was calculated, referring to the Table 2 of [4.2.1] regarding the maximum electric field along
the spacer surface.
Figure 4.2.8 shows PDIVs and BDVs initiated by a particle on insulator in N 2, CO2, dry air and SF6 under
0.55 MPa at 72.5 kV and 550 kV in comparison with “Reduced PD test voltage”, “Reduced ACWV” and
“Applicable AC voltage”.
The PD measurement for 10 mm-particle on insulator at the maximum electric field point would be possible at
“Reduced PD test voltage” in N2, CO2 and dry air. The BDV is below “Reduced ACWV”, and the soundness of
the system, i.e. no defect like 10 mm-particle on insulator at the maximum electric field point, can be confirmed
if it passed “Reduced ACWV” test or “Applicable AC voltage” test in N 2, CO2 and dry air.
130
200 PD initiation voltage (particle = 10 mm) 1000 PD initiation voltage (particle = 10 mm)
180 Breakdown voltage (particle = 10 mm) 900 Breakdown voltage (particle = 10 mm)
ACWV
Applicable AC voltage (without particles) in IEC 62271-203
Applicable AC voltage (without particles)
ACWV
160 800 in IEC 62271-203
AC voltages (kV)
AC voltages (kV)
140 700
120 Reduced in IEC 62271-203
600 in IEC 62271-203
ACWV Reduced
100 500 ACWV
1 pu
60 300
1 pu
40 200
PDIV
PDIV
20 100
BDV
BDV
0 0
N2
N2 CO2
CO2 Dryair
Dry air SF6
SF6 N2
N2 CO2
CO2 Dryair
Dry air SF6
SF6
Gases Gases
(a) 72.5 kV (b) 550 kV
Figure 4.2.8: PDIVs and BDVs initiated by a particle on insulator in N 2 , CO 2 , dry air and SF 6 at the
rated voltage of 72.5 kV and 550 kV, compared with Reduced PD test voltages, Reduced ACWVs and
Applicable AC voltages (particle lengt h: 10 mm, gas pressure: 0.55 MPa)
The PDIVs and BDVs initiated by a particle on insulator in dry air from 72.5 kV to 800 kV are shown in Figure
4.2.9, compared with “Reduced PD test voltage”, “Reduced ACWV” and “Applicable AC voltage”.
The PD measurement for 10 mm-particle on insulator at the maximum electric field point would be possible at
“Reduced PD test voltage” in dry air from 72.5 kV to 800 kV. The soundness of the system (no defect like the
particle on insulator) can be confirmed again if it passed “Reduced ACWV” test or “Applicable AC voltage” test
in dry air up to 800 kV.
Figure 4.2.9: PDIVs and BDVs initiated by a particle on insulator in dry air at the rated voltage from
72.5 kV to 800 kV, compared with Reduced PD test voltages, Reduced A CWVs and Applicable AC
voltages (particle length: 10 mm, gas pressure: 0.55 MPa)
4.2.3 Evaluation of gases
131
Referring to the above studies in sections 4.2.1 and 4.2.2, and the discussions in sections 3.2 and 3.5,
evaluation of the potential gases for alternative dielectric tests (routine tests) in a factory is summarized in
Table 4.2.2. The most promising gas for the alternative dielectric tests will be dry air from the following reasons:
 the lowest GWP (= 0) and non-toxic gas,
 higher “Applicable AC voltage”, e.g. over operating voltage under quasi-uniform field (without defects)
(see section 4.2.1),
 verification of soundness of the system by "Reduced PD test voltage" and "Reduced ACWV" under non-
uniform field (with defects) (see section 4.2.2),
 enough margin (voltage difference) between PDIV and BDV under non-uniform field (with defects) (see
section 3.2),
 balanced AC dielectric strength with and without defects comparably to that of SF6 (see section 3.5),
 the easiest gas handling in a factory.
Table 4.2.2: Evaluation of the potential gases for alternative dielectric test in a factory
Basic property Dielectric test at AC voltage Practical aspect

Gas
Without defects Applicability of scaling
GWP Toxicity With defects Gas handling
(clean condition) law for the test in SF6
--- ++
--- Soundness of the system Gas recovery necessary
+++ Operating voltage will be verified by "Reduced only in case of by-
N2
Non-greenhouse gas applicable up to PD test voltage" and product contamination,
0 420 kV class "Reduced ACWV". caution against choking
Non-toxic, PDIV is close to BDV. gas necessary
choking gas 0
-- AC dielectric strength with +
++ Operating voltage -- and without defects is Gas recovery necessary
CO2
1 applicable up to Soundness of the system reduced but balanced (under discussion in
550 kV class will be verified by "Reduced comparably to that of SF6. WG B3.45)
PD test voltage" and (These gases have
- "Reduced ACWV". similar dielectric +++
+++ +++ Operating voltage Enough margin between sensitivities to a metallic Gas recovery necessary
Dry air
Non-greenhouse gas Non-toxic gas applicable up to PDIV and BDV only in case of by-
particle in SF6)
800 kV class product contamination
-
- Gas recovery including
+ 0
Operating voltage
80%N2/20%SF6 4 560 Non-toxic, No evaluation SF6 separation and
applicable even over
(= 22 800 x 0.2) choking gas special handling
800 kV class
necessary
0 0
0
0 0 Soundness of the system is Gas recovery and
SF6 Non-toxic, 0
22 800 ACWV in IEC 62271-203 verified by PD test and special handling
choking gas
ACWV in IEC 62271-203 necessary
++/+ Advantages o Unchanged (SF6 basis) -/- - Drawbacks
132
4.3 POSSIBILITY OF ALTERNATIVE DIELECTRIC ROUTINE TESTS AND EXPECTED EFFECTS

4.3.1 Proposed test procedure
Depending on the size of GIS and the testing facilities, different testing procedures may be applied. In the
following, testing procedures for
 complete bays,
 shipping units with circuit-breakers,
 other shipping units,
 mixed technology switchgear,
are considered.
4.3.1.1 Testing complete bays

In the voltage range up to 245 kV, the routine test is carried out on complete bays (Figure 4.3.1). Only additional
components which are shipped separately are also tested separately.
1 2 3
Busbar with disconnector & 4 5

1
earthing switch
2 Circuit breaker
3 Current transforemr
4 Feeder disconnector &
earthing switch
5 Make-proof earthing switch
6 Coupling compartment 6
To test setup
Figure 4.3.1: Example for testing of a complete bay
The present main test procedure is shown in Figure 4.3.2. After evacuation, the complete bay is filled with SF6
at the rated pressure. The test voltage is fed in via testing bushing or a completely encapsulated test setup is
used.
SF6
Filling pressure
Air
Ambient pressure
Evacuation
pressure (100 Pa)
Assembly Mechanical Dielectric tests, Gas Dispatch
operation PD tests tightness
Figure 4.3.2: Present routine test procedure with SF 6 when testing complete bays
133
The test procedure starts with the mechanical routine test followed by the dielectric routine test. Finally, the
tightness test is carried out. After testing, the SF 6 filling of the coupling compartment is recovered as far as
possible, and the SF6 pressure of the bays is reduced to slight overpressure (transportation pressure) before
shipping. After installation onsite, SF6 topping up to rated pressure is accomplished.
As the contact travel of the circuit-breaker is strongly affected by the arc quenching medium SF 6 and its
pressure, the mechanical test of the circuit-breaker is carried out with SF6 filling. Furthermore, the dielectric
routine tests have to be performed after the mechanical routine tests, thus the alternative dielectric routine
tests needs a replacement of the SF6 filling of the circuit-breaker compartment by the alternative gas. The
other components of the switchgear like disconnectors and earthing switches can directly be filled with the
alternative gas and can routinely be tested. The gas tightness test can be done by using helium injection. The
conceivable procedure is presented in Figure 4.3.3.
SF6 Dry air He

Filling pressure
SF6
Air
Ambient pressure
Evacuation
pressure (100 Pa)
At least 100 Pa SF6

not recovered
Figure 4.3.3: Alternative dielectric routine test procedure using an

alternative gas when testing complete bays
4.3.1.2 Testing shipping units with circuit-breakers

In the voltage range above 245 kV, the routine tests are mostly performed on shipping units. The key
component of the shipping unit is the circuit-breaker (CB). As far as possible, further components like busbar
disconnectors, line disconnectors, earthing switches, current and voltage transformers, etc. including
connecting components are added (Figure 4.3.4).
12
To test bushing 8 5
or test setup
11
3
4
12 Coupling compartment
Figure 4.3.4: Example for testing a shipping unit with circuit-breaker (CB)
134
The test voltage is fed in via testing bushing or a completely encapsulated test setup is used. The present test
procedure is similar to that shown in Figure 4.3.2. For consideration of an alternative dielectric routine test
without SF6, it has to be taken into account that the mechanical routine test of the circuit-breaker needs a SF6
filling of the CB compartment in any case up to now. That means the CB compartment needs a special
treatment when seeking for an alternative dielectric routine procedure of the shipping unit. Either the SF 6 filling
is replaced by the alternative gas before conducting the dielectric routine tests. In this case, the dielectric
routine test procedure will be the same or similar to that shown in Figure 4.3.3. Whether the mechanical routine
test can also be carried out or not with the alternative gas filling is evaluated in section 4.4.
4.3.1.3 Testing of other shipping units

A lot of GIS components like bus-ducts, bushings and cable sealing ends are assembled to shipping units and
subsequently routine tested (Figure 4.3.5).
1
1 SF6/air bushing
2 Angular module
3 Bus duct
4 Disconnector module
2
3
2 3
To test
setup
4
Figure 4.3.5: Example for testing of other shipping units
The present routine test procedure corresponds to that shown in Figure 4.3.2. If the unit can be shipped as a
closed system, SF6 pressure is reduced after routine testing to slight overpressure, and SF6 is topped up to
rated pressure after installation onsite. Otherwise, the SF6 filling has to be recovered before transportation.
An alternative dielectric routine test using an alternative gas instead of SF 6 could be achieved by means of the
test procedure shown in Figure 4.3.6. The gas tightness test is conducted by means of helium injection as
described before. For transportation, the overpressure will be reduced to slight overpressure or pressure
equalization with atmospheric pressure will be established. Alternatively, the shipping unit can be filled for
transportation with SF6 with a slight overpressure.
Dry air He
Filling pressure
Air Air
Ambient pressure
Evacuation
pressure (100 Pa)
Figure 4.3.6: Alternative dielectric routine test procedure using an

alternative gas when testing other shipping units
135
4.3.1.4 Testing mixed technology switchgear

The present routine test of “mixed technology switchgear (MTS)” is mostly carried out on three-phase or single-
phase units in case of larger dimensions. The test object, i.e. the circuit-breaker as the main component and
the other adapted components can be considered as a combination of “shipping units with CB” and “other
shipping units” (Figure 4.3.7).
1. Circuit-breaker
8
2. Busbar disconnector
3. Earthing switch 8
4. Current transformer
5. Earthing switch
6. Line disconnector 5
7. Line earthing switch 4
8. Bushing
3
7
6
2
shipping unit with CB
other shipping unit

1
Figure 4.3. 7: Example for testing of mixed technology switchgear (MTS) units
Before testing, all compartments are filled with SF6. The test voltage is fed via a test bushing or by the original
bushings. The present test procedure is a kind of combination of the procedures described in section 4.3.1.2
and 4.3.1.3. An alternative test procedure using an alternative gas could be conducted in the similar way as
presented in section 4.3.1.2 and Figure 4.3.3 except for the bushing compartments, where the similar
alternative routine test procedure as given in Figure 4.3.6 could be applied.
For more information about the proposed test procedure, Annex E.2 is to be referred. Present routine tests for
GCB have a different test process in a country like Japan and in a special case for higher voltage class
equipment in Europe. The GCB is to be disassembled after mechanical operation in order to inspect the
contacts and to eliminate metallic particles after the operation for the purpose of enhanced quality control (see
Figure E.7).
4.3.2 Expected effects

4.3.2.1 Testing complete bays
The present routine test procedure causes very small SF6 emissions only. When disconnecting the test object
from the test bushing or the test transformer, the coupling compartment has to be emptied. Assuming a volume
of the coupling compartment of 0.6 m 3 [4.3.1] and depending on the efficiency of the exhausting device, a SF6
emission between 3.5 g and 70 g has to be expected. If an exhausting up to the required minimum vacuum of
20 mbar corresponding to IEC 62271-4 is achieved, the residual SF6 quantity comes to 70 g. If a modern highly
efficient exhausting device is applied, enabling an exhausting down to 1 mbar, the residual SF 6 quantity
amounts to 3.5 g only.
If the alternative test procedure would be applied, replacing the SF6 filling of the circuit-breaker compartment
after the mechanical routine test by the alternative gas, more SF6 emissions would occur. As the volume is
about twice of that of the coupling compartment, an emission rate 2 times higher than with the present
procedure has to be assumed.
136
4.3.2.2 Testing shipping units with circuit-breakers

Routine testing of “shipping units with circuit-breakers” is mostly conducted on single phase units. The present
routine testing as well as the alternative test runs in the same way as the test of “complete bays”. The volume
of the component of the single phase unit which has to be emptied, or the volume of the compartment at which
the SF6 filling of the circuit-breaker has to be replaced, is in the same range as at the three phase units
considered in section 4.3.2.1, and the SF6 emissions are similar. In consequence, no savings of SF6 emissions
can be obtained by dielectric routine testing with alternative gases.
4.3.2.3 Testing of other shipping units

Shipping units not containing circuit-breakers do not need SF6 for mechanical routine test. Therefore, an
alternative dielectric routine test is possible without SF6 handling. The savings in SF6 emissions depend on the
number of units and the volume under consideration, but in any case are considerable.
4.3.2.4 Testing mixed technology switchgear

As far as the test procedure is comparable to that presented in section 4.3.1.2, the effect of an alternative
dielectric test with regard to SF6 emissions is similar as described in section 4.3.2.2. If the bushing
compartments are handled like “other shipping units” and have to be dismounted for transportation and the
SF6 filling has to be emptied, some savings in SF6 emissions can be obtained by an alternative dielectric
routine test. Nevertheless, the replacement of the SF 6 filling of the CB compartment after mechanical routine
testing has to be regarded.
For more information about reduction of SF6 emission by the alternative dielectric routine tests and its practical
evaluation, refer to Annex E.3, in which the advantages (SF 6 emission reduction) and disadvantages of the
alternative tests are discussed.
4.4 PRACTICAL LIMITS OF PROPOSED APPROACH AND POSSIBLE MODIFICATIONS

The aim of dielectric routine testing with alternative gases other than SF 6 is to reduce SF6 emissions. This goal
can be achieved at arrangements not containing circuit-breakers. However, circuit-breakers need SF6 filling
with rated gas density for mechanical routine testing, as the contact travel is strongly affected by the gas
pressure and the physical gas flow properties of SF6 medium. Alternative dielectric testing of the complete test
arrangement would require a replacement of the circuit-breaker SF6 filling after mechanical testing. This
replacement procedure causes considerable SF6 emissions. Therefore, reducing the SF6 pressure to slight
overpressure for transportation after testing and accepting the small emissions when emptying the connecting
compartments is more a reasonable solution for test arrangements containing circuit-breakers.
As the contact travel of the circuit-breaker is the key issue hampering the alternative dielectric routine testing,
a mechanical test, in particular measuring the contact travel curve, using the alternative gas has to be
considered. For this purpose, the correlation between contact travel curve in SF 6 and the alternative gas was
studied by some basic investigations (see Annex E.4).
From the results in Annex E.4, when using compressed air or N2 in an interrupter compartment instead of SF6,
the contact speed would be higher and the damping characteristic insufficient, leading to a stress often higher
than mechanical limits. To achieve similar characteristics to SF 6 from pressure build-up and flow point of view,
2 to 3 times and more pressure compared to SF6 would have to be used. Such pressure is not allowed due to
the pressure vessel regulations and limits in the bursting pressure of the vessel and the burst disks. To
accomplish a sufficient intensive gas flow and to avoid a mechanical overstress, the cleaning process during
the run-in operations could be carried out with an admissibly increased gas pressure and throttled drive.
However, the higher mechanical forces and a different damping behavior are a clear indication against the use
of air or N2 in circuit-breaker compartments during factory routine tests.
Testing arrangements not containing SF6 for arc quenching can be routinely tested with alternative gases. The
mechanical tests and the resistance test of the primary circuit can be carried out in alternative gas atmosphere.
137
The gas tightness test has to be done by helium injection and using a helium mass spectrometer. That makes
the gas tightness test a bit more complicated and costs some more expenditure. However, considerable
savings in SF6 emissions can be achieved.
4.5 ACCEPTANCE OF ALTERNATIVE ROUTINE TESTING

One of the key issues of alternative routine testing is, whether the user will accept this procedure. It does not
agree with any IEC Standard that the routine test, in particular the dielectric routine test, is carried out with an
insulating medium not corresponding to that applied during service. In any case, the user has to be convinced
that alternative dielectric routine testing fulfills its main purpose, which is to demonstrate the integrity of the
manufactured assembly units. As shown in section 4.2, the alternative dielectric routine test is at least as
sensitive as the present routine test. All defects known from practice can be detected by breakdown or by PD.
Sometimes PD sensitivity and PD activity are more pronounced than with SF 6.
As known from service experience, about 25 % of the dielectric failures during service have their origin in
manufacture [4.5.1]. These failures were not detected during routine or onsite testing. Therefore, many efforts
were taken to improve the quality assurance process in the factory. The dielectric routine tests are one of the
most important measures in this process and substantial changes as the alternative dielectric routine test may
affect the reliability of gas-insulated systems. Therefore, it is recommended that in a transition period the
manufacturers observe by statistical considerations, if the failures and the failure rates detected at alternative
routine testing do not differ from that at the former routine testing with SF 6. This measure could help to prove
the consistent quality after introducing alternative testing.
138
5 CONCLUSION
Basic and practical properties in dry air, N2, CO2 and N2/SF6 mixtures (the potential gases) are studied and
compared with those in SF6. In addition, discussions are made in order to apply the results to existing SF6 gas-
insulated systems from technical viewpoints. The conclusions are basically available in each end of the chapter
of this Technical Brochure. The results of the study are applicable to the gas-insulated systems of GIS, GCB,
GIL and MTS. The following items are mainly studied:
 basic and practical properties of the gases (N2, CO2 and N2/SF6 mixtures) for the potential gas-
insulated systems, e.g. insulation (chapters 2 and 3), PD diagnostics and monitoring techniques
(sections 2.3 and 3.2), small current interruption properties by disconnectors and earthing switches
(section 3.4), practical evaluation of the potential gases (section 3.5), recyclability of the potential
gases (section 3.6), and application examples for the potential gas-insulated systems (section 3.7),
 alternative dielectric (routine) tests by using the potential gases (chapter 4) and recyclable insulating
materials (section 3.3) and their recyclability (section 3.6) for the improved SF6 gas-insulated systems.
This Technical Brochure gives useful information for the potential gas-insulated systems using dry air, N2, CO2
and N2/SF6 mixtures, and also indicates the state-of-the-art techniques for the improved SF6 gas-insulated
systems.
139
140
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CHAPTER 2
Section 2.1
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Section 2.2
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[2.2.6] J. Wada, G. Ueta and S. Okabe, “Evaluation of breakdown characteristics of N2 gas for non-standard
lightning impulse waveforms - Method for converting non-standard lightning impulse waveforms into
standard lightning impulse waveforms -”, IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 505-
514, 2013
[2.2.7] G. Ueta, J. Wada and S. Okabe, “Evaluation of breakdown characteristics of CO2 gas for non-
standard lightning impulse waveforms - Method for converting non-standard lightning impulse
waveforms into standard lightning impulse waveforms -”, IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., Vol. 18,
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[2.2.8] J. Wada, G. Ueta and T. Yamada, “Evaluation of breakdown characteristics of dry-air for non-standard
lightning impulse waveforms”, XXI Int’l. Conf. on Gas Discharges and their Applications, Nagoya, pp.
645-648, 2016
[2.2.9] S. Okabe, S. Yuasa, S. Kaneko and G. Ueta, “Evaluation of breakdown characteristics of gas
insulated switchgears for non-standard lightning impulse waveforms - Method for converting non-
standard lightning impulse waveforms into standard lightning impulse waveforms -”, IEEE Trans.
Dielectr. Electr. Insul., Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 42-51, 2009
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2013
[2.2.12] IEC 60071-1 Ed. 8.1: 2011 (b), “Insulation co-ordination - Part 1: Definitions, principles and rules”
[2.2.13] IEC 60071-2: 1996, “Insulation co-ordination, Part 2: Application guide”
571, 2014
142
[2.2.15] K. Juhre and E. Kynast, “High pressure N2, N2/CO2 and CO2 gas insulation in comparison to SF 6 in
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Section 2.3
[2.3.1] T. Yoshida, S. Ka, Y. Shimizu, K. Inami, H. Hama, G. Ueta, J. Wada and S. Okabe, “Metallic particle
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[2.3.13] CIGRE WG C4.306, “Insulation coordination for UHV AC systems”, Technical Brochure, No. 542,
2013
[2.3.14] IEC 60071-1 Ed. 8.1: 2011 (b), “Insulation co-ordination - Part 1: Definitions, principles and rules”
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Section 2.4
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CHAPTER 3
Section 3.1
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571, 2014
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Section 3.2
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XXI Int’l. Conf. on Gas Discharges and their Applications, Nagoya, Paper L3, 2016
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Section 3.3
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CHAPTER 4
Section 4.1
[4.1.1] CIGRE WG B3.30, “Guide to minimise the use of SF6 during routine testing of electrical equipment”,
[4.1.2] ZVEI, AK SF6, SF6 data for 2015 for energy transmission and distribution > 1 kV (Germany)
[4.1.3] SWISSMEM, SF6 balance 2015 (Switzerland)
[4.1.4] C. M. Franck, “Alternative dielectric tests”, 2013 IWD 07
[4.1.5] S. Okabe, H. Hama and C. M. Franck, “Comments on “Alternative Dielectric Tests” by 2013 IWD 07”,
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ANNEX A
[A.1] J. Wada, G. Ueta and S. Okabe, “Evaluation of breakdown characteristics of N2 gas for non-standard
lightning impulse waveforms - Method for converting non-standard lightning impulse waveforms into
standard lightning impulse waveforms -”, IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 505-
514, 2013
[A.2] J. Wada, G. Ueta and S. Okabe, “Evaluation of breakdown characteristics of N2 gas for non-standard
lightning impulse waveforms - Breakdown characteristics in the presence of bias voltages under non-
uniform electric field -”, IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 1369-1379, 2013
[A.3] G. Ueta, J. Wada and S. Okabe, “Evaluation of breakdown characteristics of CO2 gas for non-
standard lightning impulse waveforms - Method for converting non-standard lightning impulse
waveforms into standard lightning impulse waveforms -”, IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., Vol. 18,
No. 5, pp. 1724-1732, 2011
[A.4] J. Wada, G. Ueta and S. Okabe, “Evaluation of breakdown characteristics of CO2 gas for non-
standard lightning impulse waveforms - Breakdown characteristics for double-frequency oscillation
waveforms under non-uniform electric field”, IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., Vol. 21, No. 2, pp.
617-626, 2014
[A.5] J. Wada, G. Ueta and T. Yamada, “Evaluation of breakdown characteristics of dry air for non-standard
lightning impulse waveforms”, XXI Int’l. Conf. on Gas Discharges and their Applications, Nagoya,
Paper L2, 2016
[A.6] S. Okabe, S. Yuasa, S. Kaneko and G. Ueta, “Evaluation of breakdown characteristics of gas
insulated switchgears for non-standard lightning impulse waveforms - method for converting non-
standard lightning impulse waveforms into standard lightning impulse waveforms -”, IEEE Trans.
[A.7] G. Ueta, S. Kaneko and S. Okabe, “Evaluation of breakdown characteristics of gas insulated
switchgears for non-standard lightning impulse waveforms - Breakdown characteristics in the
presence of bias voltages under non-uniform electric field”, IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., Vol.
16, No. 2, pp. 543-551, 2009
[A.8] CIGRE WG C4.302, “Insulation co-ordination related to internal insulation of gas insulated systems
[A.9] CIGRE WG C4.306, “Insulation coordination for UHV AC systems”, Technical Brochure, No. 542,
2013
[A.10] IEC 60071-1 Ed. 8.1: 2011 (b), “Insulation co-ordination - Part 1: Definitions, principles and rules”
[A.11] IEC 60071-2: 1996, “Insulation co-ordination, Part 2: Application guide”
ANNEX B
[B.1] S. Ohtsuka, K. Fukuda and A. Sogabe, “Measurement of PD current waveforms in SF6 gas with a
super high frequency wide band measurement system”, XVIIth Int’l. Sympos. High Voltage Eng. (ISH),
Paper D-074, 2011
[B.2] S. Ohtsuka, K. Fukuda and M. Fukuzaki, “PD current pulse waveforms of environmental friendly
gases measured with SHF_PDPW system and the applicability of the UHF method”, IEEE Int. Conf.
on Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis, Paper G-37, 2012
[B.3] A. J. Reid and M. D. Judd, “High bandwidth measurement of partial discharge pulses in SF 6”, XIVth
Int’l Sympos. High Voltage Eng. (ISH), Paper G-012, 2005
150
[B.4] A. J. Reid, M. D. Judd, B. G. Stewart and R. A. Fouracre, “Partial discharge current pulses in SF 6 and
the effect of superposition of their radiometric measurement”, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., Vol. 39, pp.
4167-4177, 2006
ANNEX C
[C.1] Y. Nawata, T. Harano, S. Ohtsuka, M. Cho, Y. Yaegashi, T. Ueda, E. Fujie and M. Hikita, “High
temperature insulation property study using laser-produced plasma, IEEJ Trans. Power and Energy,
Vol. 125, No. 4, pp. 425-433, 2005 (in Japanese)
[C.2] CIGRE WG 13.11: “Practical applications of arc physics in circuit breakers - Survey of calculation
methods and application guide”, ELECTRA No. 118, pp. 65-79, 1988
[C.3] M. Kizilcay and T. Pniok, “Digital simulations of fault arcs in power systems”, European Transactions
on Electrical Power (ETEP), Vol. 1, No. January/ February, pp. 55-60, 1991
[C.4] K. Ito, Y. Yokomizo and T. Matsumura, "Transient process of conductance in extinction of wall-
stabilized arcs in various gases", IEEJ Annual Conf., Paper No. 6-201, 2001 (in Japanese)
[C.5] K. Horinouchi, Y. Nakayama, K. Kokura, Y. Maeda, H. Sasao and H. Hama, “Interrupting

characteristics of small current using N2/SF6 gas mixtures”, Gaseous Dielectrics IX, pp. 461-466,
2001
[C.6] K. Kamei, H. Ito, D. Yoshida, T. Sawada, S. Kinoshita and H. Sadakuni “Arc behavior of disconnecting
switch in a test circuit of closed loop current interruption”, XV Int’l. Conf. on Gas Discharges and their
Applications, Toulouse, Paper A165, 2004
ANNEX D
[D.1] T. Yoshida, H. Koga, T. Harada, S. Miki, M. Arioka, S. Sato, S. Yoshida, N. Inoue, A. Maruyama and
T. Takeuchi, “Insulation technology in dry air and vacuum for a 72 kV low pressure dry air insulated
switchgear”, IEEJ Trans. Power and Energy, Vol. 128, No. 12, pp. 1439-1444, 2008 (in Japanese)
[D.2] T. Rokunohe, Y. Yagihashi, K. Aoyagi, T. Oomori and F. Endo, “Development of SF6-free 72.5 kV
[D.3] B. Lutz, M. Kuschel and P. Glaubitz, “Future challenges for the grid-integration of environment friendly
gas-insulated substations”, CIGRE SC B3 Colloquium, Paper B3.301, Recife, 2017
[D.4] S. Giere, R. Renz, F. Richter and N. Trapp, “Capacitive current switching capability of 72.5 kV high-
voltage vacuum interrupters”, XXVth International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation
in Vacuum (ISDEIV), pp. 217-220, Tomsk, Russia, 2012
[D.5] CIGRE JWG B3/B1.27, “Factors for investment decision GIL vs. cables for AC transmission”,
[D.6] T. Uchii, Y. Hoshina, H. Kawano, K. Suzuki, T. Nakamoto and M. Toyoda, “Fundamental research on
SF6-free gas insulated switchgear adopting CO 2 gas and its mixutres”, International Symposium on
EcoTopia Science (ISETS07), Nagoya, 2007
[D.7] P. Söderström, J. Lidholm and U. Akesson, “Suitability evaluation of improved high voltage circuit
breaker design with drastically reduced environmental impact”, CIGRE 2012, Paper A3-302
ANNEX E
151
[E.1] CIGRE WG D1.28, “Optimized gas-insulated systems by advanced insulation techniques - Dielectric
571, 2014
[E.2] K. Sasamori, M. Kamei, H. Kajino, H. Hama and T. Shimomura, “Recent progress of MTS
technologies and their application to realize substation optimization”, CIGRE SC A2/A3/B3
Colloquium, Paper PS2-FP0700, Shanghai, 2015
[E.3] T. Egawa, T. Kato, H. Hama, E. Tsutie and H. Hirakawa, “Highly reliable 550 kV GIS for Toyone
switchgear station of Chubu Electric Co.”, Technical report of Mitsubishi Electric Corp., Vol. 66, No.
5, pp. 589-595, 1992 (in Japanese)
[E.4] M. Kawahigashi, M. Fujioka, H. Kajino, D. Yoshida and H. Koyama, “Development of 420 kV gas
insulated switchgear with one-break spring operated gas circuit breaker”, Paper for CIGRE-AORC
Technical Meeting and International Conference on Global Trends in the Development of Power
Transmission & Distribution Systems including Smart Grid, February, 2016
[E.5] CIGRE WG B3.30, “Guide to minimise the use of SF6 during routine testing of electrical equipment”,
[E.6] IEC 62271-4, “High-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Part 4: Handling procedures for sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6) and its mixtures”, 2013
[E.7] U. Riechert, “Interrupter factory acceptance test (FAT) with air: Possibility for interrupter run-in
procedure”, 2017 IWD 42
[E.8] D. Gautschi, “Betriebserfahrungen mit alternativen Isoliergasen in Hochspannungsanlagen (C 4F7N /

CO2)”, GIS Anwenderforum Darmstadt, Darmstadt, October 2017 (in German)
152
ANNEX A: BREAKDOWN PROPERTIES FOR NON-

STANDARD LIGHTNING IMPULSE
A.1 BACKGROUND
Actual surge waveforms are complex due to the equipment composition (such as the location of surge arresters
and the layout of main busbars and branches) and other causes. These waveforms are often steeper and
attenuate more quickly than the standard lightning impulse waveform of 1.2/50 s. To evaluate the rational
insulation design and insulation reliability of GIS, it is important to understand the overvoltage waveforms
actually generated at substations. In this Annex A, waveforms simulating those surge waveforms are called
non-standard lightning impulse waveforms (hereafter, non-standard LIWs) and breakdown voltage properties
of N2 [A.1, A.2], CO2 [A.3, A.4], and dry air [A.5] have been obtained for non-standard LIWs under quasi-
uniform and non-uniform electric fields, compared with those of SF 6 [A.6, A.7]. These results [A.8, A.9] are
applicable to examination on the representative overvoltage for setting LIWV in insulation-coordination
procedure [A.10, A.11].
A.2 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND CONDITIONS

A.2.1 Experimental waveforms
An applied voltage waveform is a key factor, and the following waveforms were used with changing parameters
set to cover the range of the actual non-standard LIWs. These waveforms can be considered universal in terms
of their generation principles.
 Single-frequency oscillation: 0.9 MHz, 2.7 MHz, 5.3 MHz, 20.0 MHz
 Double-frequency oscillation: 4.0 MHz+0.9 MHz, 5.3 MHz+0.9 MHz, 5.3 MHz+1.2 MHz, 20 MHz+0.9 MHz
 Damping time constant  : 0.51 s to 23.3 s
 Polarity: Positive & Negative
 DC bias: Existence (DC bias: +50 kV, +70 kV), Non-existence (* As a reference, standard LIW of 1.4 s
/ 46 s )
Figure A.1 (a) illustrates an example generated waveform of the double-frequency oscillation waveforms of
4.0 MHz + 0.9 MHz. Figure A.1 (b) is an example of the applied voltage waveform in the presence of bias
voltage of +70 kV.
(a) Double-frequency oscillation waveform (b) Single frequency oscillation waveform in

in positive polarity (4.0 MHz + 0.9 MHz, the presence of bias voltage (5.3 MHz,
 =26.7 s by experimental circuit) bias voltage of +70 kV)
153
Figure A.1: Example of generated non-standard LIWs [A.6]
A.2.2 Generation circuit for non-standard lightning impulses

Figure A.2 illustrates a basic experimental circuit used to generate various non-standard LIWs. The test
apparatus is GIS equivalent to an actual 300 kV single-phase one.
For the single-frequency oscillation waveform, inductors of various required values are installed at the position
(3) or (4) in the figure and a high resistor is installed at (1) or (3) to confine the oscillation waves in order to
generate a single-frequency oscillation waveform at the tank end where the test gap is installed. For the double-
frequency oscillation waveform, an inductor is likewise installed at (4) to generate a high-frequency oscillation
and also an inductor is installed at (3) and a capacitor at (2) to generate a low-frequency oscillation. For the
bias voltage experiment, the series gap between locations (3) and (4) is adjusted so that discharge occurs only
at the series gap in order to ensure the DC component remained at the test gap.
Voltage signals from the capacitance voltage divider that performs at up to 1 GHz are transmitted via an optical
transducer (E/O and O/E conversion) and measured by a digital oscilloscope (frequency bands 1 GHz and
5 GS/s). The frequency response of the entire measurement system is 100 MHz.
R1
C
R2
Voltage divider Impulse generator
Test equipment (GIS:300kVunit) Test gap
１２３４
Figure A.2: Basic experimental circuit for generating various non-standard LIWs [A.6]
A.2.3 Experimental conditions

As an basic test electrode, the quasi-uniform electrode is configured as a rod electrode with a hemispheric end
(end diameter of 22.5 mm) and a plane electrode (diameter of 120 mm) opposing each other and an
intermediate gap of 10 mm long (Figure A.3 (a)). The electrodes are made of aluminum and their surfaces are
finished to a roughness of 10 m. This electrode configuration has a field utilization factor (average electric
field strength / maximum electric field strength) of 0.60, within the typical range of those factors in GIS busbar.
Meanwhile, the non-uniform electrode is configured as an aluminum needle electrode with a hemispheric end
(needle end diameter of 1 mm and length of 10 mm) fixed to a rod electrode (diameter of 20 mm and length of
28 mm) and opposed to a plane electrode (diameter of 120 mm) with an intermediate gap 30 mm long (Figure
A.3 (b)). This needle-plane electrode has a field utilization factor of 0.036.
The test gap is installed in GIS terminal tank filled with CO 2, N2 or dry air. The tank gas pressure is set to
0.70 MPa because operation at a relatively high pressure is predicted compared with 0.50 MPa, which is
normally the case for SF6.
154
(a) Quasi-uniform electrode (b) Non-uniform electrode
Figure A.3: Test electrode [A.1, A.2]
A.3 BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE PROPERTIES FOR NON-STANDARD LIGHTNING IMPULSE

WAVEFORMS
(1) Breakdown characteristics for standard lightning impulse waveform (CO2, N2, dry air, SF6)
Figure A.4 shows the V-t characteristics of CO2, N2 and dry air (at 0.70 MPa) for the standard LIW. For
comparison, the result for SF6 (at 0.50 MPa) is described together.
The value of minimum breakdown voltage at standard lightning impulse waveform (LIUmin) of CO2 is 120 kV,
that of N2 135 kV, and that of dry air 129 kV. On the other hand, the LIUmin of SF6 is 217 kV. The insulation
characteristics of CO2, N2 and dry air show lower values (ratio to the LIUmin of SF6; CO2: 55 %, N2: 62 %, dry
air: 59 %) despite a difference in the gas pressure. According to the comparison of time to LIUmin, it is 1.0 s
to 1.6 s for CO2, N2 and dry air, as opposed to 7.6 s for SF6, which suggests that the time required for
discharge formation is considered shorter for CO 2, N2 and dry air than SF6.
(2) Influence of oscillation frequency (CO2, N2)

The insulation characteristics are studied while changing the frequency and keeping the damping time constant
 to similar values. Figure A.5 shows the V-t characteristics under the oscillation frequency of 5.3 MHz and
20.0 MHz with  1.0 s. Almost all the BD plots at 5.3 MHz with  =1.1 s can be observed near the peak
value of each peak. The value of Umin is 130 kV at the 3rd peak of oscillation (0.48 s) for CO2 and 161 kV at
the 1st peak of oscillation (0.13 s) for N2, meaning Umin is lower and the BD time longer for CO2.
As for the BD plots at 20.0 MHz with  =0.51 s, the V-t plots decline sooner than those of the waveform of
5.3 MHz for both CO2 and N2 due to the steep initial rise in voltage. While BDs frequently occur near the peak
values, some BDs can also be observed at the valley of oscillation. These BDs at the valley are considered
attributable to the influence of preceding waveforms.
For CO2 and N2, if the value  was the same, the lower the frequency, the smaller the value of Umin. As with
the results for SF6, this is considered attributable to the fact that the lower the frequency, the longer the high
voltage duration until BD.
155
Figure A.4: Comparison of insulation Figure A.5: Comparison of insulation

characteristics under standard LIW in CO 2 , N 2 characteristics obtained while changing
and dry air at 0.70 MPa and SF 6 at 0.50 MPa frequency and keeping  1.0 s waveforms
[A.1, A.3, A.5]. (In the figure, LIV min =LIU min ) [A.1, A.3]. (In the figure, V min =U min )
(3) Influence of oscillation damping (CO2, N2)
The insulation characteristics are studied while changing the value  and keeping the frequency fixed. Figure
A.6 shows the V-t characteristics under the oscillation frequency of 2.7 MHz with  =23.3 s and  =3.4 s, and
that of 5.3 MHz with  5.0 s and  =1.1 s.
The values of Umin are compared for the oscillation waves of 2.7 MHz. In the case of  =3.4 s, Umin is 134 kV
at the 1st peak of oscillation (0.19 s) for CO2, as opposed to 155 kV at the 2nd peak of oscillation (0.56 s) for
N2. In the case of  =23.3 s, Umin is 133 kV at the 2nd peak of oscillation (0.41 s) for CO2, as opposed to
153 kV at the 1st peak of oscillation (0.17 s) for N2. Consequently, for each insulating gas, even if  is changed,
the value of Umin remains almost the same. This trend is also similar at 5.3 MHz and no significant difference
in the value of Umin associated with the oscillation damping can be observed.
As for the V-t plots, BDs occur at the 2nd peak of oscillation or earlier at 2.7 MHz with  =3.4 s in the case of
N2. However, since the V-t plots show a plot at 156 kV at the 1st peak of oscillation, Umin is considered
substantially determined at the 1st peak.
(4) Comparison of insulation characteristics in presence or absence of bias voltage (CO2)

An examination is made here of any effects that may occur on BD characteristics when an oscillatory waveform
overlaps in the presence of a reverse-polarity bias voltage. Figure A.7 shows the V-t characteristics under the
condition that the bias voltage (+70 kV) is present to compare with the single frequency oscillation waveform
of 2.7 MHz ( =23.3 s). Also, the plot which is made at the instantaneous BDV (or the voltage at which the
BD occurred) is so shown additionally to check for the relation between the BD timing and the oscillatory
waveforms.
In the absence of bias voltage, the BD is found to occur at Umin=133 kV (0.41 s) and at the voltage rising part
time of the second peak of oscillatory waveforms. Moreover, little BD is seen in valleys. With a focus on the
minimum BDV at around the peak value of the first peak, it is supposed that Umin is determined virtually at the
first peak, because the BD occurred at 134 kV which is almost the same as Umin.
156

characteristics obtained while changing  and characteristics obtained under 2.7 MHz
keeping frequency fixed; V-t characteristics of waveforms in the presence of bias voltage at
2.7 MHz,  =23.3 s and  =3.4 s [A.1, A.3]. CO 2 [A.3]. (In the figure, V min =U min )
(In the figure, V min =U min )
(5) Influence of frequency of high-frequency component with double-frequency oscillation waveform

(N2)
Here, attention is focused on the insulation characteristics for the double-frequency oscillation waveforms
when the high-frequency component among oscillation frequencies is changed. Figure A.8 shows the V-t
characteristics for the waveforms of (4.0+0.9) MHz and (5.3+0.9) MHz. When a comparison is made for Umin,
it is 147 kV in 0.66 s for the waveform of (4.0+0.9) MHz, as opposed to 146 kV in 0.45 s for the waveform
of (5.3+0.9) MHz. In other words, even though Umin appears sooner where the frequency component of the
high-frequency component is higher, no difference in Umin is observed.
Subsequently, when attention is focused on the V-t plots, the BD is observed around the peak value of the
high-frequency component for waveforms including either frequency. The Umin value also appears around the
peak value of the low frequency component.
(6) Comparison with insulation characteristics for SF6 (CO2, N2, SF6)
In order to compare the V-t characteristics for non-standard LIWs between CO2, N2 and SF6, each value of the
V-t plots is divided by the LIUmin of the respective gases for normalization. Figure A.9 exhibits a comparison of
the V-t characteristics for 2.7 MHz with  23.0 s.
It is clarified that Umin appears at the 5th peak of oscillation for SF6 while appearing relatively earlier at the 2 nd
peak for CO2 and the 1st peak for N2. The initial rise in the V-t plots for CO2 and N2 is steeper compared with
that for SF6 even for waveforms under other conditions, showing the characteristic of short time to Umin.
The ratio of Umin to LIUmin (Umin /LIUmin) for waveforms of 2.7 MHz to 20.0 MHz ranged from 1.03 to 1.24 for
CO2 and N2, lower than the values of 1.18 to 1.30 for SF6. When compared at the same frequency, since a
formative time lag is shorter for CO2 and N2 than SF6, the value of Umin /LIUmin for CO2 and N2 are considered
to have been smaller.
157

characteristics of double-frequency oscillation characteristics under 2.7 MHz with  23.0 s
waveforms with varying frequencies of high - in CO 2 , N 2 gas and SF 6 [A.1, A.3, A.6]. (In the
frequency component at N 2 [A.1]. (In the figure, V min =U min , LIV min =LIU min )
figure, V min =U min )
(7) Non-uniform electric field (5.3 MHz, Pos. and Neg.) (CO2, N2, SF6)
The test gap is installed in GIS terminal tank filled with CO 2, N2 or dry air. The tank gas pressure is set to
0.70 MPa because operation at a relatively high pressure is predicted compared with 0.50 MPa, which is
normally the case for SF6.
Figure A.10 compares the V-t characteristics of CO2 and N2 for the 5.3 MHz single frequency oscillation
waveform with that of SF6 under both positive and negative polarities. As for the positive characteristics, there
are few discrepancies between the gases. On the other hand, Umin of N2 takes the larger value than the other
gases under the negative polarity. In the case of SF 6, BDV decreases largely in a relatively long time region
and the time to Umin reaches about 4 s.
(8) Characteristics of dry air (2.7 MHz, 5.3 MHz: dry air)
Figure A.11 exhibits the V-t characteristics for the 2.7 MHz and 5.3 MHz single frequency oscillation waveforms
together with the standard lightning impulse waveform. In a similar way to N2 and CO2, BDVs for non-standard
waveforms are higher than that for the standard lightning impulse; Umin (5.3 MHz): 150 kV (1.16 times), Umin
(2.7 MHz): 142 kV (1.10 times).
158
500 250
：N2(Neg）：CO2（Neg）：SF6（Neg) LI
：N2(Pos）：CO2（Pos）：SF6（Pos) Vmin(5.3 MHz, Dry Air): 150 kV, 0.08 µs
5.3MHｚ
（ kV）
400 CO2（Neg） 192ｋV（2.0μs） 200
Breakdown voltage （ kV）
N２（Neg） 262ｋV（2.8μs）
2.7MHz
SF6（Neg） 174ｋV（4.3μs）
Breakdown voltage
300 150
200 100
100 50
CO2（Pos） 103ｋV（0.3μs） N2（Pos） 98ｋV（0.5μs） SF6（Pos） 112ｋV（0.7μs） LIVmin(Dry Air): 129 kV, 1.0 µs
0 Vmin(2.7 MHz, Dry Air): 142 kV, 0.19 µs
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3
Time（ μs）
Time（ μs）
Figure A.10: Insulation characteristics for Figure A.11: Insulation characteristics for
5.3 MHz single frequency oscillation waveform 2.7 MHz and 5.3 MHz single frequency
under non-uniform electric field at N 2 and CO 2 oscillation waveforms for dry air [A.5]. (In the
comparing with SF 6 [A.2, A.4, A.7] figure, V min =U min , LIV min =LIU min )
A.4 COMPREHENSIVE EVALUATION OF NON-STANDARD LIGHTNING IMPULSE

WAVEFORM
A.4.1 Evaluation with time duration
This section examines an approach taken for handling all waveforms comprehensively. Since a relatively large
time delay is observed for CO2, N2 and dry air under the quasi-uniform electric field, a study is conducted in a
similar manner to SF6. The time when BD occurs in the gases can be evaluated by the sum of the formation
time delay required for discharge formation and the statistical time delay attributable to the probability of the
occurrence of discharge.
Figure A.12 presents the calculation method of the duration. Here, a threshold value (Vth in the figure) is set
after normalizing the voltage with respect to the peak value to calculate the period for which the voltage of Vth
or higher is applied (td1 and td2 in Figure A.12). The total sum of the time is the duration td at the Vth level of this
waveform. Generally, where the period for which the voltage of a certain threshold value or higher is applied
is determined as td1, td2,…, and tdn according to the oscillation wave, td is expressed according to Equation
(A.1). The threshold level is set at 90 % considering the correlation of the duration and insulation characteristics
as well as the duration in the V- t plots.
td = td1 + td2 + …+ tdn (n: wave number) (A.1)
Figure A.13 represents the relationship between the duration and the conversion characteristic at a threshold
value of 90 %, with the conversion formulas derived from the approximated curve in this figure shown at
Equations (A.2), (A.3), and (A.4). Using the duration to analyze data, the insulation characteristics are
approximated by a single characteristic line, regardless of the waveform shapes for each gas.
K(CO2) = 0.139 × td -0.18 + 0.90 (A.2)
K(N2) = 0.143 × td -0.18 + 0.90 (A.3)
K(Dry air) = 0.141 × td -0.16 + 0.90 (A.4)
Ref. K(SF6) = 0.323 × td -0.18 + 0.80 (A.5)
Where, td: duration of the voltage that exceeds 90 % (s), K: conversion factor (Umin /LIUmin). Refer to [A.8]
about Equation (A.5).
159
10 Non-standard-LIW (SF6)
Non-standard-LIW (N2)
Vmin / LIVmin-0.9 (p.u.), CO2, N2, DryAir

Standard-LIW (SF6)
Standard-LIW (N2)
Non-standard-LIW (CO2)
Vmin / LIVmin-0.8 (p.u.), SF6

Standard-LIW (CO2)
1 Non-standard-LIW (DryAir)
Standard-LIW (DryAir)
0.1
Conversion ratio, K
* CO2: K(=Vmin/LIVmin) = 0.139 × td-0.18 + 0.90
* N2 : K(=Vmin/LIVmin) = 0.143 × td-0.18 + 0.90
* Dry air : K(=Vmin/LIVmin) = 0.141 × td-0.16 + 0.90
* SF6 : K(=Vmin/LIVmin) = 0.323 × td-0.18 + 0.80
0.01
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
td (µs)
Figure A.12: Calculation method of duration Figure A.13: Relationships between duration and
for non-standard waveform [A.6] conversion characteristics [A.1, A.3, A.5, A.6].
(In the figure, V min =U min , LIV min =LIU min )
A.4.2 Insulation evaluation algorithm

Taking the CO2 case as an example, Figure A.14 shows the insulation evaluation algorithm. As a basic concept,
the overvoltage waveform to be evaluated is initially divided into oscillatory and flat parts, whereupon the ratio
K with respect to the standard LIW is calculated for the oscillatory part through the evaluation of duration
described above, namely Equation (A.1). In the cases of N2 and dry air, Equations (A.3) and (A.4) replace it,
respectively. For the flat part, K is set to 0.95. The equivalent crest values of the standard waveform are
calculated from both the oscillatory and flat parts. Of those, the highest value is set to the insulation evaluation
voltage of the entire waveform because it is assumed to be dominant.
(1) Application of evaluation method to lightning surge waveforms in actual field

Insulation evaluation methods for CO2, N2 and dry air were applied to an example of typical lightning surge
waveforms in the UHV substation to obtain the equivalent crest value of the standard waveform. For the
purpose of comparison, the insulation evaluation method for SF6 is also described.
Figure A.15 shows an example of the analyzed lightning surge waveform in the UHV GIS substation. This
waveform has a pulse part at the wavefront but flattens at the surge arrester protection level voltage at the
wavetail. The crest value (Vpeak in the figure) is 2 617 kV at the pulse part.
Table A.1 summarizes the evaluation results according to the flow in Figure A.14. Following the waveform
evaluation, the post-conversion value for CO2, N2 and dry air are respectively 2 379 kV, 2 358 kV, and 2 379 kV
at the pulse part, which is equivalent to the standard LIW with the peak value reduced by about 10 % from
2 617 kV. The insulation evaluation level for the entire waveform is also determined by this pulse part and is
equivalent to the standard LIW with the entire waveform reduced by about 10 %. The waveform evaluation
result for SF6 is equivalent to the standard LIW reduced by 25 %. In other words, the reduction effect of the
test voltage through the evaluation by converting non-standard LIWs to the equivalent standard LIWs is smaller
for CO2, N2 and dry air than SF6. However, it emerges that an effect of approximately 3 % to 20 % could be
expected even for CO2, N2 and dry air [A.1, A.3].
160
Figure A.14: Algorithm for evaluation of non-standard Figure A.15: Analyzed lightning surge
waveforms (example of CO 2 case) [A.3] waveform in UHV substations [A.6]
Table A.1: Evaluation results of non-standard LIW according to the flow in Figure A.14 for
CO 2 , N 2 and dry air, compared with SF 6 [A.1, A.3, A.5, A.6]
161
162
ANNEX B: PARTIAL DISCHARGE PROPERTIES IN N2, CO2,

DRY AIR AND SF6
B.1 PARTIAL DISCHARGES IN A NEEDLE-TO-PLANE ELECTRODE SYSTEM AT DC VOLTAGES

Partial discharge current waveforms with a needle-to-plane electrode configuration in N2, CO2 and dry air were
investigated and compared with those in SF 6 [B.1, B.2]. The differences in PD current waveforms between
positive and negative corona in each gas were measured by changing the applied voltages. The influence of
the measurement frequency band on the PD current waveforms, and the relation between PD current
waveform and the PD emitted electromagnetic (EM) wave measured with the UHF method were also
discussed.
(1) Test setup

Figure B.1 shows an experimental setup of a super high frequency (SHF) wideband PD current pulse waveform
measurement system (SHF_PDPW system) to precisely measure the waveforms of a PD current pulse in a
gaseous insulation medium in [B.1, B.2]. The configuration of this system is basically the same as the extremely
wide bandwidth (13 GHz) measurement system presented in [B.3, B.4].
The SHF_PDPW system mainly consists of a test cell to generate PDs, a matched low loss transmission line
with a 40 GHz coaxial cable, an attenuator and a high-spec digital oscilloscope. The test cell has a plane to a
specially arranged needle electrode system in an non-metallic casting vessel that was directly attached to a
SMK type connector with a stainless cylinder specially designed as a 50 Ω coaxial line with the needle. The
casing vessel contains pressurised SF6 gas and permits the PD-induced EM wave from the outside of the
vessel to be measured.
Figure B.1: Experimental setup to precisely measure waveform of PD current pulse in

SF 6 gas with super high frequency wide band measurement system [B.1, B.2]
Partial discharges were generated by applying the high voltage to the plane electrode. In this study, the
diameter and the tip curvature of the needle electrode were 1 mm and 38 m, respectively. The gap distance
between the electrodes was 24.7 mm. The needle electrode was specially attached to the SMK type coaxial
cable, and the cable was connected to the digital oscilloscope through a -6 dB Agilent, 8493C-006, dc-
26.5 GHz attenuator. The digital Agilent, DSAX 92504A, 80 GS/s oscilloscope with the frequency bandwidth
of 25 GHz, which permitted pulses with the minimum rise time of 17.5 ps to be measured was used in the
following experiments.
Gases of N2, CO2 and dry air were basically used for PD tests, and the results were compared with SF 6. Figure
B.2 shows positive and negative PDIV levels for the gases tested. The PDIV of SF6 gas was also shown in the
figure as a reference. Amplitudes of the PD-emitted EM waves were measured with a horn antenna
(Schwarzbeck, BBHA9120A, 750 MHz – 5 GHz) placed at a distance of 30 cm away from the needle electrode
163
and amplified with a 45 dB amplifier (R&K, LA150, 1.5 GHz - 6.5 GHz). The PD-emitted EM wave was
simultaneously measured with the PD current pulse waveform.
Figure B.2: Positive and negative PDIV properties of each gas tested [B.2]
(2) Positive and negative PD current waveforms

Figures B.3 (a1) to (c2) show typical examples of positive and negative PD current waveforms ipd for N2, dry
air and CO2, respectively. The time range of the x-axis drastically differed depending on the gases from
10 ns/div in CO2 (c1, c2) to 200 ns/div in N2 (a1, a2). The wave shapes, such as the pulse width and the rise
time of the ipd were differed from the gases. The pulse width and the rise time of N 2 were much larger than
those of dry air and CO2. The polarity difference in the waveforms was clearly found. That is, the waveforms
of the negative PD current pulse were much steeper than those of the positive ones with the exception of CO2.
This polarity difference was found similar in SF6.
Figure B.3: Positive and negative PD current waveforms for N 2 , dry air
and CO 2 measured by SHF_PDPW system (gas pressure: 0.2 MPa, applied
voltage: PDIV in Figure B.2) [B.2]
164
(3) Peak current and charge amount of PD current

The properties of the PD current waveforms with the SHF_PDPW system (frequency bandwidth of 25 GHz)
were compared between N2, CO2, dry air and SF6. Figure B.4 shows relation between peak current ipd peak and
charge amount q calculated as time integral values of PD current pulse waveforms for positive and negative
coronas in each gas. The plotted data of the positive and negative coronas in the figure were measured by
changing the applied voltage value. The peak value ipd peak seemed to be proportional to the charge quantity q,
and the gradient of the ipd peak - q curves were different depending on the gas type and the corona polarity. The
gradient could give an index of the steepness of the PD current waveform. Therefore, the PD current pulse
would become steeper in the order of N2 < CO2  dry air << SF6, and the gradient, i.e. ipd peak at the same q, of
the negative corona, was much larger than that of the positive one. This result agreed with the properties of
PD current pulse waveforms in Figure B.3.
(a) Positive corona (b) Negative corona
Figure B.4: Relation between peak current and charge amount calculated as time integral value
of PD current pulse waveform for positive and negative coronas in each gas ( gas pressure:
0.2 MPa) [B.2]
(4) Rise time of PD current pulse

Figure B.5 shows dependencies of the rise time tr of the PD current pulse on the applied voltage in N 2, CO2,
dry air and SF6. The rise time tr was defined as the time during which the PD current was changed from 10 %
to 90 % of its peak value ipd peak. It was found that the rise time tr for the positive corona was larger than that
for the negative one except for the case of CO 2, which coincides with the results in Figures B.3 and B.4. The
rise times tr of the negative corona in dry air, and the positive corona in CO2 were below 1 ns. On the other
hand, the rise times tr of the coronas in both polarities in N2 and the positive corona in dry air exceeded 1 ns,
even though they were measured by the SHF_PDPW system.
A relatively large tr of the negative corona in CO2 compared with the positive one might be attributed to the
definition of the rise time tr as well as the non-smooth wave shape at the rising part. Accordingly, the definition
of tr and the wave shape at the rising portion of PD current pulse are crucial when discussing the UHF method.
This is the reason why the measured PD-emitted EM wave with the UHF method basically depends on those
properties, especially the current changing rate di/dt at the rising portion, which is very much related to tr and
ipd peak.
165
Figure B.5: Dependence of rise time of PD current pulse on applied

voltage in N 2 , CO 2 , dry air and SF 6 (gas pressure: 0.2 MPa) [B.2]
(5) Simultaneous measurement of PD current waveform and PD emitted EM wave

Figures B.6 (a) and (b) show examples of the simultaneous measurement of PD current waveform and the
PD-emitted EM wave of CO2 and dry air, respectively. The EM waves were measured by a horn antenna with
the frequency characteristics of 750 MHz to 5 GHz with the frequency property of the amplifier at 1.5 GHz to
6.5 GHz, and the measurement system had the performance of 38 dB gain at 1 GHz. As shown in Figure B.6
(b), no PD-emitted EM wave exceeding the noise level could be detected for dry air in this test condition. On
the other hand, the PD-emitted EM waves could be detected for CO2 as shown in Figure B.6 (a). Assuming
that the amplitude of PD-emitted EM waves is to proportional to the current changing rate di/dt, the relation
between the peak-to-peak amplitude of the PD-emitted EM waves and the peak value of PD current pulses
was discussed as follows.
(a) CO 2 (applied voltage: 24 kV) (b) Dry air (applied voltage: 16 kV)
Figure B.6: Examples of simultaneous measurements of the PD current waveform and the PD -
emitted EM wave [B.2]
The hatched areas in Figure B.7 indicate the background noise level which varied with the measurement time.
This means that the EM wave pulse could not be found when the PD signal was in the areas. Compared with
SF6, PD-emitted EM waves for N2 and dry air were difficult to detect due to the small amplitude less or almost
equal in the background noise level, even when the PD current pulse could be detected. This difficulty would
be caused by the larger rise time tr and the smaller current changing rate di/dt of these gases in comparison
with SF6. In these experimental conditions, the PD-emitted EM waves in CO2 could be relatively easier to
detect than those in N2 and dry air.
166
(a) Positive corona (b) Negative corona
Figure B.7: Examples of simultaneous measurements of PD current (peak value) and EM wave
(peak-to-peak amplitude) [B.2]
167
168
ANNEX C: SMALL CURRENT SWITCHING PROPERTIES
C.1 INSULATION RECOVERY VOLTAGE UNDER BUS-CHARGING CURRENT SWITCHING

To investigate fundamental property about insulation-recovery characteristics of various gases of N 2, CO2 and
SF6, experiments using YAG laser with the pulse half-value width of 7 ns was implemented as shown in Figure
C.1 (a) [C.1]. The experimental equipment consists of YAG laser, impulse generator and chamber equipped
with electrodes, and high-temperature gas and vapor located around centre of the gap between the electrodes
are generated by YAG laser. Time chart after laser irradiation is shown in Figure C.1 (b). Breakdown voltage
characteristics are measured by varying the time of applied impulse voltage to estimate the effect of hot gas.
Figure C.2 shows normalized BDV against the time delay from laser irradiation. Minimum values of normalized
BDV of all gases at the time of several tens s are roughly 0.3 [C.1]. From the time of 20 s, that of SF6 shows
characteristics of recovering BDV. On the other hand, that of N2 is showing the recovery from around 80 s.
But it is found that after over 1 ms from stopping heating gas there is no difference between those
characteristics of various gases of dry air, CO 2 and SF6, even if there is the hot gas generated by YAG laser.
Although further investigations are needed, it is thought that there is a high possibility that insulation-recovery
characteristics of each gas after 1 ms from stopping heating gas are proportional to static AC dielectric strength
of itself. Moreover, differential voltage rising rate between contacts is basically according to power frequency
voltage. Therefore, in bus-charging switching, it is believed that the characteristics of arcing time based on the
minimum BDV of various gases such as N2, dry air and SF6 are proportional to the static AC dielectric strength.
(a) Experimental setup (b) Time chart after laser irradiation
Figure C.1: Experimental setup for BDV measurement s and time chart after laser irradiation [C.1]
Figure C.2: Normalized BDV against time delay from laser irradiation [C.1]
169
C.2 PERFORMANCE OF AIR-INSULATED DISCONNECTORS DURING BUS-TRANSFER CURRENT

SWITCHING
Air-insulated disconnectors are normally not fitted with an arc quenching device for bus-transfer current
switching, but the interruption is achieved by a sufficient arc voltage. During opening operation, an arc comes
into existence which is enlarged with increasing distance of the contact gap. This leads to a growing arc voltage
or arc resistance, respectively. The process is simulated by a time depending resistance at which the arc
characteristic is represented by an adequate arc model described by the arc Equation (C.1) [C.2]:
1 𝑑𝑔 1 𝑢∙𝑖
∙ = [ − 1] (C.1)
𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝑇 𝑃0
g: arc conductance, P0: stationary power loss of the arc, i: arc current, u arc voltage, T: arc time constant.
The arc characteristic of an arc burning in air depending on the arc length is given by the Equation (C.2):
𝑢𝑠𝑡 = (𝑢0′ + 𝑅′ ∣ 𝑖 ∣) 𝑙 (C.2)
at which the parameters 𝑢0′ and 𝑅′ are related to the arc length 𝑙. The arc length can be described as a linear
function of time by means of the operating speed. Inserting Equation (C.2) into Equation (C.1) gives Equation
(C.3)
1 𝑑𝑔 1 ∣ 𝑢∣
∙ = [ − 1] (C.3)
𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝑇 (𝑢0′ + 𝑅′ ∣ 𝑖 ∣ 𝑙)
The arc length can be described as a linear function of time by means of the operating speed which is supposed
to be 2 m/s. The arc time constant T cannot be assumed to be constant, but has also to be presented as a
function of time.
Referring to information from literature [C.3], the following parameters are used for the simulation:
𝑢0′ = 6.5 V/cm, 𝑅′ = 2.5 mOhm/cm, T = -0.007/ms t +1.3.

The simulation results are shown in Figure C.3. Figures C.3 (a) and (b) demonstrate how far current and
voltage is affected by the arc.
The current interruption does not take place at maximum of the (recovery) voltage, but more or less in voltage
zero. Thus the voltage jump and transient process are less pronounced. Due to the arc resistance, a strong
attenuation of the transient voltage occurs, as to be seen from Figures C.3 (c1) and (c2).
a) Section A
c1)
b)
c2) Section B
(a) Bus-transfer voltage (b) Bus-transfer current (c) Transient bus-transfer voltage
Figure C.3: Bus-transfer current switching under consideration of arc resistance during switching
process [C.2]
170
The simulation and modeling could be verified by field tests. The measurement of the bus-transfer current was
carried out on high voltage potential by application of a low inductance ohmic divider. The measuring signal
was transmitted by a fiber-optic transmission system. The bus-transfer current was determined from the load
current of the feeder and the current of the bus coupling bay. For measurements of the bus-transfer, the current
transformers belonging to the substation were used, as their transfer characteristic is sufficient for the switching
process under consideration.
The oscillogram in Figure C.4 shows the interruption of the bus-transfer current and the corresponding bus-
transfer voltage. From the bus-transfer voltage, an arcing time of about 60 ms can be taken. The impact of the
arc is to be seen in second last and particularly in the last half cycle causing a strong depression of the current.
Due to this phenomenon, the current interruption does not occur in the voltage maximum, but much earlier, as
already described in the simulation. The voltage at the instant of interruption shows that the recovery voltage
is almost entirely affected by the power-frequency voltage at which the transient voltage is strongly attenuated,
and can be recognized only suggestively.
450 V Section A
V (a)
uT uT200
150
0 0
-150
-200
-450
-400 2.5 ms
(b) 300
(c)
2000
A V
1000 100
iT uT
0
0
-100
-1000
-300 1 ms
-2000
(a) Bus-transfer voltage (b) Bus-transfer current (c) Transient bus-transfer voltage
Figure C.4: Field test on bus-transfer current switching [C.2]
171
C.3 OTHER INFLUENCING PARAMETERS IN BUS-TRANSFER CURRENT SWITCHING

PROPERTIES
(1) Effects of gas flow
To estimate the effect of gas flow, transient process of conductance in extinction of wall-stabilized arcs in
various gases is shown in Figure C.5 [C.4]. Under the condition of no gas flow, there is not much difference
regarding dynamic conductance characteristics of N2, CO2, air and SF6. However, under a condition of gas
flow, the characteristics of CO2 and SF6 are significantly improved.
(a) Gas flow with rate of 5 liters/min (b) No gas flow
Figure C.5: Transient process of conductance in extinction of wall -stabilized arcs in various
gases [C.4]
Figure C.6 shows arcing time of N2/SF6 mixtures when average speed of a moving contact is 1.5 m/s. As for
the arcing time of N2/SF6 mixtures, it becomes shorter as SF6 partial pressure becomes higher, which suggests
that there is a possibility of the effect of gas flow because the properties of only SF 6 are significantly improved
by flowing gas. In other words, current interruption at that time would be dominated by thermal interruption
capacity.
40 40 100%
0% 90%
35 35
10% 80%
Arcing time (ms)
Arcing time (ms)
30 20% 30 70%
25 30% 25 50%
20 50% 20 0%
100%
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
SF6 partial pressure (MPa) N2 partial pressure (MPa)
(a) Arcing time vs. SF 6 partial pressure (b) Arcing time vs. N 2 partial pressure
Figure C.6: Arcing time of N 2 /SF 6 mixtures when average speed of a moving contact is
1.5 m/s [C.5]
172
(2) Property of arcing voltage

Gas pressure dependence of arc voltage per unit length under the constant SF6 content in N2/SF6 mixtures is
introduced in [C.5], and summarized in Figure C.7. The arc voltage per unit length in the gas mixtures for the
constant SF6 content and in pure SF6 tended to increase as the pressure increased, although it dispersed
somewhat at each test case.
Figure C.7: Gas pressure dependence of arc voltage per unit length
under constant SF 6 content in N 2 /SF 6 mixtures [C.5]
In [C.6], arc behavior of a disconnector during bus-transfer current switching was studied in SF6 by using a
145 kV GIS model disconnector. The disconnector was set to have switching speed of 0.25 m/s to 0.92 m/s,
and SF6 gas pressure was 0.4 MPa. The applied voltage was 100 V and interrupting current was from 2 kA to
4 kA at 60 Hz. The rate of rise of recovery voltage (rrrV) was 100 V/s irrespective of the interrupting current.
A typical example of arc voltage and current waveforms obtained at interrupting current of 2 kA and opening
speed of 0.25 m/s is shown in Figure C.8 (a). Figure C.8 (b) shows the potential gradient of the arc voltage
dependence on the peak current, which is obtained by the arc voltage for different currents during the arcing
duration at interrupting current of 2 kA in Figure C.8 (a). This figure shows that the potential gradient of the arc
voltage in SF6 was around 30 V/cm from 1 600 A to 2 500 A.
(a) Example of measured waveforms (b) Potential gradient of the arc voltage
Figure C.8: Example of measured waveforms and potential gradient of arc voltage dependence
on peak current in SF 6 [C.6]
173
174
ANNEX D: APPLICATION EXAMPLES OF POTENTIAL GASES

AND PRESSURE RANGES
D.1 STUDY ITEMS OF WG D1.51 AND GAS PRESSURE RANGES OF POTENTIAL GASES
The potential gases of dry air, N2, CO2 and N2/SF6 mixtures are applied to gas-insulated systems of equipment
as introduced in section 3.7. The knowledge of the applied pressure of the gases is closely related to the main
study items of this WG, for example, some figures and tables are summarized in terms of low, medium and
high pressure ranges in chapter 2.
Figure D.1 shows study items of WG D1.51 and gas pressure ranges related to the application examples in
section 3.7 (including some additional examples). As described in chapter 1, the main study items are:
 insulation, PD diagnostics and monitoring techniques (for GIS, GIL and CB),
 small current interruption properties by disconnectors and earthing switches (for GIS),
 alternative dielectric (routine) tests by using the potential gases (for GIS using SF6).
The pressure ranges are divided into three, i.e. low (0.1 MPa  P < 0.4 MPa), medium (0.4 MPa  P  0.7 MPa)
and high (0.7 MPa < P) pressure. Application examples of the potential gases are GIS with vacuum interrupters
and low [D.1] or medium [D.2, D.3] pressure dry air insulation, circuit-breaker (CB) of live-tank type with
vacuum interrupters and medium-pressure N2 insulation [D.4], GIL using medium- to high-pressure N2/SF6
mixtures [D.5], and CB of dead- [D.6] and live- [D.7] tank type using high-pressure CO2. The study item of
alternative dielectric test of GIS using SF6 (medium pressure) is also indicated in Figure D.1.
*1: Gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) with vacuum interrupters and dry air insulation (72/72.5 kV to 145 kV). *2: Circuit-
breaker (CB) with vacuum interrupters and N2 insulation (72.5 kV). *3: Gas-insulated line (GIL) using N2/SF6 mixtures
(220 kV to 420 kV). *4: CB using CO2 (72 kV to 145 kV). *5: GIS using SF6.
Figure D.1: Study items of WG D1.51 and gas pressure ranges related to application examples of
potential gases to equipment [D.1-D.7]
175
176
ANNEX E: EXAMPLES OF ALTERNATIVE ROUTINE TESTS

USING POTENTIAL GASES
E.1 PRESENT TEST PROCESS USING SF6
Figures E.1 and E.2 show typical examples of internal structure of GIS and MTS [E.1-E.4], and an example of
present manufacturing and testing process (routine tests) for closed pressure systems [E.5], respectively. Here,
the explanation of the dotted compartments of GCB, NDCM and DCM will be done in section E.2. In Figure
E.2, the main routine tests such as mechanical operation, dielectric tests, PD measurements and gas tightness
are described. The switchgears for Figure E.2 consist of the gas compartments of GIS/MTS requiring SF6
topping up during installation, and the gas compartments requiring air evacuation and SF6 filling during
installation. After a series of the routine tests, SF6 is to be recovered down to a little over the atmospheric
pressure (transportation pressure, e.g. around 0.15 MPa) for the compartments that do not need to be
disassembled in a factory when transporting. For the compartments disassembled for transportation, SF6
recovery is mandatory as per IEC 62271-4 [E.6] down to 2 kPa or even better to less than 100 Pa, using state-
of-the-art SF6 handling equipment [E.5].
NDCM DCM DCM

GCB ES Cable
CT DS sealing
VT end
GCB
DCM
Busbar ES
GCB
(a) GIS (internal structure) (b) MTS (internal structure)
Long busbar between Busbar connecting

bushing and GIS each bay of GIS
Bushing
DCM
GCB
Double
busbar
Busbar connecting each

component of GIS
(c) GIS (plane view in substation)
Figure E.1: An example of internal structure of (a) GIS and (b) MTS, and of plane
view in substation of (c) GIS [E.1-E.4]. DS: disconnector switch, ES: earthing switch,
CT: current transformer, VT: voltage transformer. The other compartments except for
GCB and DCM correspond to NDCM in Figure (c).
177
Inspection &
Components General / main
acceptance of SF6 filling
assembly assembly
components parts
Inspection before SF6 recovery

Testing with SF6
Reducing gas pressusre for
dispatch, packing & Mechnical operation, dielectric tests,
transportation*1 or
dispatch PD measurements, gas tightness, etc.
disassembling*2
Alternative dielectric tests & PD

measurements to study in WG D1.51
Figure E.2: An example of present manufacturing and main testing process for closed pressure
systems in a factory. *1: for the gas compartments (GIS/MTS) requiring SF 6 topping up during
installation [E.5]. *2: for the gas compartments requiring air evacuation and SF 6 filling during
installation. In this case, SF 6 is to be recovered as per IEC 62271-4 [E.6] down to 2 kPa or even
better to less than 100 Pa, using state -of-the-art SF 6 handling equipment [E.5].
The following problems should be solved to realize further SF6 emission reduction in a factory.
 How to minimise the use of SF6 during routine testing in a factory?

For example, restriction of SF6 filling/recovering process and tests with SF6, and reduction of SF6
emissions from the inventory in a factory, i.e. SF6 emissions from the inventory of 0.5 %/year.
 How to reduce SF6 emissions that are not recovered?

For instance, SF6 of 100 Pa for the compartments disassembled after the tests.
E.2 ALTERNATIVE TEST PROCESS USING NON-SF6 GASES

Figure E.3 shows an example of manufacturing and alternative testing process without SF6 and applying non-
SF6 gases except for the compartments of GCB and the switchgears that require SF6 for the measurement of
the contact travel curve. The main routine tests such as mechanical operation, dielectric tests on the main
circuit, PD measurements and gas tightness are focused on in the figure. The switchgears are the same as
the case in Figure E.1. For example, dry air as presented in section 4.2 will be applicable to the alternative
tests such as mechanical operation, dielectric tests and PD measurements for Testing No. 1. Helium (He) gas
is recommended for gas tightness test (Testing No. 2), referring to the CIGRE Technical Brochure No. 594
[E.5]. In the final stage of packing and dispatch in a factory, SF6 is to be filled up to a little over the atmospheric
pressure (transportation pressure, e.g. around 0.15 MPa) for the compartments without disassembly. The
compartments disassembled are to be filled with natural-origin gases for transportation (e.g. dry air, N2).
178
Inspection &
Components General / main
acceptance of Air evacuation
assembly assembly
components parts
Inspection before Gas recovery Testing No. 1

dispatch, packing Recoverying He for Testing No. 2 Testing No. 2 Mechnical operation,
for disassembly and transportation Gas tightness test by He dielectric tests,
and dispatch PD measurements, etc.
No need to e.g. using

recover SF6 dry air
Figure E.3: An example of manufacturing and alternative testing process without SF 6 except for
compartments of GCB and switchgears that require SF 6 for measurements of contact travel curve
Figures E.4 to E.6 show, as an example, present routine tests with SF6 and alternative tests using non-SF6
gases for GCB (Figure E.4), NDCM (Figure E.5), and DCM (Figure E.6), respectively. Here, NDCM and DCM
correspond to the following compartments and components of GIS/MTS;
NDCM: non-disassembled compartments for transportation after routine tests except for GCB such as
disconnectors, earthing switches, current transformers and surge arresters,
DCM: disassembled compartments for transportation after routine tests such as bushing, cable sealing end,
gas-insulated busbar of GIS/MTS (e.g. busbars connecting each bay/component, and long busbars
between GIS and bushing, referring to Figure E.1) and GIL.
SF6 SF6 Dry air He

Filling pressure Filling pressure
SF6
Air Air
Ambient pressure Ambient pressure
Evacuation Evacuation
pressure (100 Pa) pressure (100 Pa)
Assembly Mechanical Dielectric tests, Gas Dispatch Assembly Mechanical Dielectric tests, Gas Dispatch
operation PD tests tightness operation PD tests tightness
At least 100 Pa SF6

not recovered
(a) Present routine tests with SF 6 (b) Alternative routine tests by He and dry air
Figure E.4: An example of present and alternative routine testing process for GCB
179
SF6 Dry air He

SF6
Air Air
Figure E.5: An example of present and alternative routine testing process for NDCM such as
disconnectors, earthing switches, current transformers and surge arresters. Mechanical operation is to
be conducted if disconnector and/or earthing switch are included in the compartments.
SF6 Dry air He

At least 100 Pa SF6

not recovered
Air Air Air Air
Figure E.6: An example of present and alternative routine testing process for DCM such as bushing,
cable sealing end, gas-insulated busbar of GIS/MTS (e.g. busbars connecting each bay/component,
and long busbars between GIS and bushing, referring to Figure E.1) and GIL. Mechanical operation is
to be conducted if disconnector and/or earthing switch are included in the compartments.
The followings will be expected for the alternative routine tests from Figures E.4 to E.6.
 No merits of alternative routine tests are found for GCB (Figure E.4) and SF6 emissions increase for the
alternative routine tests, because the density of the SF6 gas has an influence on the mechanical
characteristics of GCB depending on the design, and other gases than SF6 cannot be utilized. To
complete the alternative routine tests by using non-SF6 gases, this problem needs to be solved, i.e. the
study of non-SF6 alternative tests is necessary for switchgears that are currently conducted by SF6 for
the measurement of the contact travel curve.
180
 For non-disassembled compartments (NDCM) such as disconnector, earthing switch, current

transformer, surge arrester, alternative routine tests by using non-SF6 gases (e.g. dry air and He) will
be possible, and this enables to minimise the SF6 use in a factory as shown in Figure E.5. However, so
much SF6 emission reduction will not be expected, since SF6 is to be recovered down to a little over the
atmospheric pressure and SF6 handling loss is little in the present routine tests. It should be noted that
application of alternative gases should be avoided to the equipment with coils in a gas under a high
voltage use like voltage transformers, because the remaining gas after the alternative test may cause a
reduction of the dielectric performance of the coils.
 Reduction of SF6 emissions will be possible for disassembled compartments (DCM) of GIS/MTS/GIL,
e.g. bushing, cable sealing end, gas-insulated busbar (Figure E.6). The effect of SF6 emission reduction
will be more pronounced for MTS and GIL including long gas-insulated busbar of GIS, because MTS
generally has larger gas volume of the bushing compartments than GIS (up to around half of the whole
MTS gas volume), and long-distance GIL/ long gas-insulated busbar of GIS have sometimes huge gas
volume. Nevertheless, the test process will be much more complicated than the present routine tests,
and this will cause a cost increase in the routine tests.
In a country like Japan and in a special case for higher voltage class equipment in Europe, present routine
tests for GCB have a different test process with Figure E.4 (a). The GCB is to be disassembled after the
mechanical operation in order to inspect the contacts and to eliminate metallic particles after the operation for
the purpose of enhanced quality control.
Figures E.7 shows the example of the present routine tests with SF6 and the alternative tests using non-SF6
gases for the GCB of the above case. The alternative routine tests in Figure E.7 (b) is the same as the one in
Figure E.4 (b). In this special case, SF6 emissions for the alternative routine tests is similar to the present one,
and SF6 handling decreases for the alternative routine tests. However, this much more complicated test
process than the present routine tests will also cause a cost increase in the routine tests.
SF6 Dry air He

Filling pressure
SF6
Air
Ambient pressure
Evacuation
pressure (100 Pa)
At least 100 Pa SF6

not recovered
Figure E.7: An example of present and alternative routine testing process for GCB disassembled after
mechanical operation in order to inspect the contacts and to eliminate metallic partic les
181
E.3 REDUCTION OF SF6 EMISSION BY ALTERNATIVE ROUTINE TESTS AND ITS PRACTICAL
EVALUATION
In this section, SF6 emissions in a factory by the alternative routine tests using non-SF6 gases are compared
with those by the present routine tests using SF6, referring to Figures E.4 to E.6 except for the case of Figure
E.7. The advantages (SF6 emission reduction) and disadvantages are also discussed.
In the present routine tests using SF6, weight of SF6 emissions in a factory per each GIS/MTS (WSF6) is roughly
evaluated by the following simple equation, considering some SF6 without recovery as per IEC 62271-4 [E.5]
will be emitted when disassembling the related compartments.
WSF6 = SF6  VDCM  Pemit (kg) (E.1)
SF6 : density of SF6 (kg/m3.MPa)
VDCM : volume of disassembled compartments (DCM) of a GIS/MTS (m3)
Pemit : SF6 pressure without recovery (MPa),
here Pemit = 100 Pa (=10-4 MPa) to 2 kP (= 210-3 MPa)
Weight of SF6 emissions in a factory by the alternative routine tests using non-SF6 gases per each GIS/MTS
(Wnon-SF6) is similarly estimated as follows.
Wnon-SF6 = SF6  VGCB  Pemit (kg) (E.2)
VGCB : volume of disassembled compartments of GCB (m3)
Here, the alternative routine tests have another effect of minimizing SF6 use in a factory, which decreases SF6
storage amount in a factory, is neglected for simplicity.
From the Equations (E.1) and (E.2), SF6 emission reduction in a factory by the alternative routine tests using
non-SF6 gases per each GIS/MTS (Wemit) will be roughly estimated as follows.
Wemit = WSF6 - Wnon-SF6 = SF6  (VDCM - VGCB)  Pemit (kg) (E.3)
Reduction of SF6 emissions in a factory by the alternative routine tests using non-SF6 gases will be as follows.
 The SF6 emission reduction is roughly possible when the volume of disassembled compartments (VDCM)
exceeds that of GCB (VGCB) per each GIS/MTS. The effect of SF6 emission reduction will be expected
for
- GIS with long gas-insulated busbars (disassembled when transporting),
- MTS with a large gas volume of the bushing compartments,
- long-distance GIL.
 However, SF6 emission reduction will not be possible in the case of single-type GCB.
 Another effect of the alternative routine tests is to minimise SF6 use and to decrease SF6 storage in a
factory.
It should be noted that the following practical disadvantages will exist for the alternative routine tests applying
non-SF6 gases even if SF6 emission reduction is expected.
 The test process becomes much more complicated than the present routine tests.
 The tightness test with helium should be applied to detect leakage at an early stage either on
components or on complete assemblies. The limit depends on the physical dimensions of the test object
as it should be placed into a suitable gas tight chamber [E.5].
182
 The above two practical demerits will cause much cost increase of the routine tests compared with the
present routine tests in a factory.
E.4 INVESTIGATIONS ON CONTACT TRAVEL OF CIRCUIT-BREAKER IN SF6 AND ALTERNATIVE

GASES
The first example compares the contact travel of a puffer interrupter filled with SF 6 or compressed air,
respectively (Figure E.8) [E.7]. The following gas filling is considered:
 100 % SF6 (lock out pressure),
 100 % (pressure) air,
 150 % (pressure) air which is close to maximum that can be allowed for burst disks.
2
1 3
Contact speed (a.u.)
1 100 % SF6 (lock out pressure)

2 100 % (pressure) air
3 150 % (pressure) air which is close to maximum
that can be allowed for burst disks
Time (s)
Figure E.8: Contact speed of a puffer interrupter filled with SF 6 or compressed air [E.7]
As air has different properties from SF6, the pressure build-up behavior is different. The pressure created in
the chamber due to the movement of the blast cylinder is lower. Thus the system moves faster and the peak
pressure happens earlier. Also the drop in pressure happens quicker. That leads to different mechanical
behavior as well as flow or flushing behavior.
The mechanical behavior is affected by the different pressure profiles causing a different velocity behavior.
The maximum velocity with the same pressure is slightly higher with air. The reason why the speed is not much
impacted is the hydro-mechanical spring drive, i.e. a hydraulic drive mechanism using a spring as energy
accumulator. This drive automatically limits the speed due to high hydraulic losses. In case of spring drive in
puffer breaker, it would be a bit different. But the slowdown is not assisted with the gas pressure towards the
end of the stroke, resulting in a higher damping pressure in the drive, and therefore higher mechanical forces.
The flow or flushing behavior is of interest with regard to the cleaning process at the run-in operation. Since
the purpose of the run-in operation is to clean the interrupter of possible particles, one should also consider
the flow property difference between the gases namely, what flow property is needed to flush out as many
particles as possible. As an indicative location, the exhaust tube was considered where momentum flow rates
are of importance. For 150 % air, the maximum flow rate is approximately 65 % compared to the SF6 case.
In conclusion, when using compressed air in the interrupter compartment instead of SF 6, the damping pressure
will be higher and often higher than mechanical limits. To avoid this, the cleaning operations during the run-in
process could be carried out with throttled drive. However, the higher mechanical forces and a different
damping behavior are a clear indication against the use of air during factory routine tests.
183
The second example refers to a self-blast breaker (Figure E.9) [E.7].
Contact speed (a.u.) 1 100 % SF6 (lock out pressure)

2 100 % (pressure) air
3 170 % (pressure) air which is close tomaximum
that can be allowed for burst disks
4 280 % (pressure) air as reference
Time (s)
Figure E.9: Contact speed of a self-blast interrupter filled with SF 6 or compressed air [E.7]
The maximum velocity with the same pressure is slightly higher with air, but the slowdown is not assisted with
the gas pressure towards the end of the stroke, and therefore results in higher forces in the linkage and over-
travel. To achieve the same damping behaviour in compressed air, the pressure would have to be increased
to 280 % which is far above the value of 170 % allowed for burst disks. Even at 170 % pressure, a distinctly
different damping characteristic can be seen, causing mechanical overstress.
If the air pressure is increased to the maximum admissible pressure of 170 %, a similar gas flow, which is of
interest for the cleaning process during run-in operation, could be realized. To avoid mechanical overstress,
the run-in process could be carried out with throttled drive.
Similar results were obtained with a self-blast breaker chamber filled with SF6 or N2, respectively [E.8]. Figure
E.10 shows that the contact speed is 47 % and the contact stroke 13 % higher, respectively. Thus the breaker
will block mechanically and most probably destroy itself when filled with N 2 at the same pressure as SF6 [E.8].
13 % higher stroke
47 % higher speed (touching)
Stroke h, speed v [%]
h (SF6)
v (SF6)
h (N2)
V (N2)
Time [ms]
Figure E.10: Contact travel and contact speed of a self -blast interrupter
filled with SF 6 or N 2 [E.8]
Since SF6 has a molar mass of 146 g/mol and N2 of 28 g/mol, the gas mass inside the breaker when using N2
is below 20 % of the SF6 gas mass. Depending on the size of the compression volumes and the gas flow
channels inside the circuit-breaker, the speed is significantly higher if N2 is used. The speed of the breaker is
184
increased, causing a much stronger mechanical stress on the breaking chamber, the drive and the linkage.
Theoretically, this effect could be reduced by application of an overpressure in the vessel disregarding the
limited pressure resistance of the vessel.
185

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DRY AIR, N2, CO2 AND N2/SF6 MIXTURES

Disclaimer notice ISBN : 978-2-85873-432-0

1. Insulation properties of potential gases:

 application criteria of potential gases and candidates,

 breakdown properties in quasi- and non-uniform field,

 breakdown properties of gas-insulator interface.

2. Practical insulation and small current interruption techniques:

 improvement of dielectric performance,

 partial discharge diagnostics and monitoring,

 current switching performance by disconnectors and earthing switches,

 recyclability of potential gases and polyethylene-terephtalate (PET).

3. Alternative dielectric (routine) tests:

 selection of gases for alternative dielectric tests,

 possibility of alternative dielectric routine tests and expected effects,

 practical limits of proposed approach and acceptance of alternative routine testing.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................... 3

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................... 7

2 INSULATION PROPERTIES OF POTENTIAL GASES .............................................................. 13

3 PRACTICAL INSULATION AND SMALL CURRENT INTERRUPTION TECHNIQUES ........... 69

3.8 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................................................................... 121

4. ALTERNATIVE DIELECTRIC (ROUTINE) TESTS ..................................................................................................... 123

5 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................... 139

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................. 141

ANNEX A: BREAKDOWN PROPERTIES FOR NON-STANDARD LIGHTNING IMPULSE ... 153

ANNEX C: SMALL CURRENT SWITCHING PROPERTIES ....................................................... 169

ANNEX D: APPLICATION EXAMPLES OF POTENTIAL GASES AND PRESSURE RANGES175

E.2 ALTERNATIVE TEST PROCESS USING NON-SF6 GASES.............................................................................. 178

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

α Ionization coefficient of gas

 Coefficient of gas pressure dependence of breakdown voltage

 Attachment coefficient of gas

 Standard deviation of Gaussian distribution

E50% Breakdown electric field strength of 50 % probability

ipd Partial discharge current

ipd peak Peak value of partial discharge current

m Shape parameter of Weibull distribution

P Gas pressure (absolute value)

q Charge quantity of partial discharge

Rz Mean surface roughness according to EN ISO 4287

Tg Glass transition temperature of insulator material

tr Rise time of partial discharge current pulse

U0.1% Breakdown voltage of 0.1 % probability in Weibull distribution

U50% Breakdown voltage of 50 % probability

UAC Breakdown voltage at AC voltage

UAC peak Breakdown voltage (crest value) at AC voltage

Ub Breakdown voltage under clean condition (under quasi-uniform field)

Ub dry air Breakdown voltage in dry air under clean condition

Ub N2 Breakdown voltage in N2 under clean condition

Ub CO2 Breakdown voltage in CO2 under clean condition

Ub N2/SF6 Breakdown voltage in N2/SF6 gas mixtures under clean condition

Ub SF6 Breakdown voltage in SF6 under clean condition

Ub bare Breakdown voltage of bare electrode under clean condition

Ub coated Breakdown voltage of coated electrode under clean condition

Ub min Minimum breakdown voltage under clean condition

Ubp Breakdown voltage initiated by metallic particles

Ubp N2 Breakdown voltage initiated by metallic particles in N2

Ubp CO2 Breakdown voltage initiated by metallic particles in CO2

Ubp SF6 Breakdown voltage initiated by metallic particles in SF6