caie-as-level-psychology-9990-four-psychological-approaches-63daaa332a33a953847630d5-361

ZNOTES.
ORG
UPDATED TO 2024-2026 SYLLABUS
CAIE AS LEVEL
PSYCHOLOGY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE FOUR PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES SYLLABUS
Prepared for Baysan Amir for personal use only.
CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY
The EEG detects and records tiny electrical charges

associated with nerve and muscle activity.
1. Biological Approach In REM sleep, EEG is relatively low voltage/amplitude
and high frequency.
In nREM sleep, EEG has either high voltage/amplitude
1.1. Introduction
and slow (low frequency) waves or frequent ‘sleep
Main assumptions of the biological approach: spindles’, short-lived high voltage, high-frequency
Behaviour, cognition and emotions can be explained in waves.
terms of the working of the brain and the effect of
Aims
hormones, genetics and evolution.
Overall aim: To investigate dreaming objectively by
Similarities and differences between people can be
looking for the relationship between eye movements
understood regarding biological factors and their
in sleep and the dreamer’s recall.
interaction with other factors.
Specific aims:
To test whether dream recall differs between REM
1.2. Dement and Kleitman (Sleep and and nREM sleep.
To investigate whether there is a positive
Dreams)
correlation between subjective estimates of dream
duration and the length of REM period.
Title: The Relation of Eye Movements During Sleep to
To test whether eye movement patterns are
Dream Activity: An Objective Method for the Study of
related to dream content. (Whether these patterns
Dreaming
represent the visual experience of dream content
Year: 1957
or whether they are simply random movements
Psychology being investigated:
arising from the activation of the CNS)
Our body follows two types of sleep: REM (rapid eye
movement) sleep and nREM (non-rapid eye
Procedure
movement) sleep. Research Method: Laboratory Experiment,
nREM can be divided into 4 sleep stages.
Observations, Self-reports and correlation
In REM sleep, our eyes move rapidly under the lids. Experimental design: Repeated Measures Design
REM sleep is known as paradoxical sleep. It resembles
Three approaches were used to test the three specific
wakefulness as our eyes move; we often experience
aims. (scroll above to find the three aims)
vivid (bizarre) thoughts in dreams, and our brains are
Sample: seven adult males and two adult females. Five
active. However, it is different from wakefulness as it
of them were studied intensively, while the data
is difficult to wake up; we are relatively insensitive to
gathered from the other four were minimal to confirm
stimuli and paralyzed.
the results.
Ultradian rhythms- Basic Rest-Activity cycles that
Sampling technique: Opportunity sampling
occur almost every 90 minutes and are responsible
Participants studied in detail spent between 6-17
for the different stages of sleep we experience. nights with 50-77 awakenings. The four others spent
Dreams- Vivid and generally visual sequences of only one or two nights with 4-10 awakenings.
imagery that occur during sleep in the REM stage. Participants were identified by their initials to maintain
Background confidentiality.
Aserinsky and Kleitman’s (1955) study observed Participants reported to the lab a little before their
periods of rapid, conjugate eye movements during usual bedtime.
sleep and found a high incidence of dream recall in
They were instructed to eat normally but to abstain
awakening participants and a low incidence when from alcoholic or caffeine-containing beverages on
awakened at other times.
the day of the experiment.
Sleep and dreaming are hard to investigate because Participants were fitted with electrodes on their scalps
the participant is necessarily asleep, and so cannot and around their eyes.
communicate with the researcher. Even when awake, Once they were in bed in a quiet, dark room, the wires
only self-report data can be obtained about dream were gathered into a “ponytail” to allow freedom of
content, which alone may be invalid as it is subjective. movement.
The electroencephalograph (EEG) monitors the
The EEG ran continuously to monitor the participant's
electrical activity of the brain. sleep stages and to inform the researchers when they
The electrooculogram (EOG) allowed the electrical should be woken up.
recording of eye movement patterns, their presence Participants were woken by a doorbell that was loud
or absence, and their size and direction (vertical or enough to rouse them from any sleep stage.
horizontal). The doorbell rang at various times during the night,
and the participants indicated whether they had been
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dreaming and described their dreams in a voice Yes, dream recall significantly differs. In 79.6% of the REM
recorder. awakenings (152/191) participants could recall a dream,
Analysis of dream narrative: This was only considered whereas in only 6.9% of nREM awakenings (11/160),
a dream if a coherent, fairly detailed description of the participants could recall their dreams.
content existed. Vague, fragmentary impressions Therefore, participants are likelier to describe dreams
were not scored as dreams. when woken from REM than nREM frequently.
METHOD DESIGN Results for Question 2: Is there a positive correlation between

Participants were woken subjective dream duration estimate and the length of the
either from REM or nREM Natural experiment in a REM period before waking?
sleep, but were not told laboratory setting Participants had 88% accuracy in estimating they were
which stage they were in. woken up after 5 minutes of dreaming.
They confirmed whether Participants had 78% accuracy in estimating they were
Aim they had a dream and if so, IV: REM or nREM sleep woken up after 15 minutes of dreaming.
1 reported the content into a stage The correlation between the two variables was positive,
recorder. within the range of 0.4 to 0.71, as the r values showed a
DV: whether the significant correlation.
participants reported a
dream, and if so, the Results for Question 3: Are eye movement patterns related to
details dream content?
Participants were woken The data was used in both Eye movements, as recorded on EEG, were related to
following 5 or 15 minutes experimental and dreams' visual content.
of REM sleep. correlational designs. With only vertical (climbing up a ladder and looking down)
They were asked if they Experimental analysis: IV - or only horizontal (watching two people throwing
thought they had been waking after 5 or 15 tomatoes at each other) eye movements were rare, with
Aim dreaming for 5 or 15 minutes of REM sleep. DV - only 3 dreams and 1 dream, respectively.
2 minutes. participant’s choice 10 dreams were reported to have little to no eye
Correlational analysis: two movement (watching something in the distance)
Their dream narrative was variables were the 21 dreams had mixed movements (talking to a group of
recorded, and the number participant’s time estimate people)
of words was counted. and number of words in the Conclusions
dream narrative
Participants were woken Dreams are experienced in REM but not NREM sleep.
after exhibiting a single Natural experiment in a Dreaming is more likely at night's end, as the REM stages
eye-movement pattern for laboratory setting. are longer.
longer than a minute.
Strengths
IV: eye-movement pattern
Aim type (mainly horizontal, High internal validity - definition of dream clearly
3 This was measured using mainly vertical, vertical & operationalized, demand characteristics minimized by not
electrodes and an EOG. horizontal, little or none) telling participants about their EEG patterns, laboratory
This could not be experiment with limited effect of uncontrolled variables.
manipulated. High reliability - EEG shows quantitative data and is not
The dream content was DV: report of dream affected by the experimenter’s subjective view;
recorded. content quantitative and qualitative data are collected.
Weakness’s
Results
Low generalisability: only 9 participants may not
General Results
represent the dream frequency of the general population.
Uninterrupted dream stages lasted for a range of 3 to 50 Low ecological validity: People used to caffeinated drinks
minutes with an estimate average of 20 minutes. could experience changes in sleep and dream patterns
Dream Stages are usually longer later in the night. due to lack of those drinks; sleeping in a laboratory
Dream stages had irregular bursts of 2-100 rapid eye connected to electrodes could be uncomfortable.
movements.
Ethics
Results for Question 1: Does dream recall differ in REM and
nREM stages of sleep?
Deception: Participant WD was misled about whether he Female and male primates have differences in hormones,
was woken in the NREM or REM stage. just like humans.
Issues and Debates Aims

Application: EEG, which is used to detect dreaming, has
To investigate whether toy preference in monkeys is
useful applications for assessing people with sleep and
similar to those in children to test for a biological
dream issues (for example- insomnia and nightmares)
explanation for sex differences in toy choice.
The EEG can be used to monitor the different stages of
Procedure
sleep individuals with insomnia (trouble falling asleep or Research method: A field experiment
not sleeping enough) face and see patterns in their dream
Experimental design: Independent Measures Design
stages (example- shorted REM sleep stages)- this helps
Independent Variable (IV): Gender, Monkey’s rank on
get a better understanding of the problem they are facing
social hierarchy
and according come up with a solution.
Dependent Variable (DV): Frequency and duration of
Parasomnias is a sleeping disorder involving unusual
play with each toy type
behavior and dreams. EEG monitoring can be used to
Sample: 21 males and 61 female rhesus monkeys
observe REM sleep stages for this disorder as well to
living in natal groups at the Yerkes primate research
understand how the unusaul dreams are related to sleep
station in the USA.
stages and dream sleep.
Sampling technique: Opportunity sampling
Nature versus Nurture: Mainly focuses on nature, making The natal group was housed in a 25*25-meter outdoor
obtaining evidence through EEG possible.
area with admission into a temperature-controlled
indoor area.
1.3. Hassett et al. (Monkey Toy
Preferences) Procedure
toys were divided into two categories based on their

Title: Sex differences in rhesus monkey toy preferences
properties: 'wheeled toys', which matched with toys
parallel those of children
typically for boys, and 'plush toys' to match girl toys.
Year: 2008
Six-wheeled toys- wagon, truck, car, shopping cart
Seven Plush toys- teddy bear, Koala hand puppet
There is a difference in male and female brain
For every group formed from the natal group, 7 trials
structure and hormones,, resulting in sex differences.
occurred, all lasting for 25 minutes.
Socialization is the method of learning behaviours that
The rhesus monkeys were observed using two video
are socially accepted. These behaviours differ for the
cameras.
two genders.
For each of the 7 trials, all monkeys were initially indoors
It has been difficult to determine if differences in
while one plush toy and one wheeled toy were placed 10
behaviour between females and males are more due
metres apart in the outdoor area.
to biological factors or social differences due to
Each video camera was focused on one of the toys, with
socialization.
the positions of wheeled and plush toys being
Gender stereotype- bias of assigning particular traits
counterbalanced between right and left locations.
to a particular gender, for example- assigning
After the 25-minute trial, the toys were removed, and two
aggression as a male-typed trait.
observers analyzed the videotape to achieve a consensus
Play- Childhood behaviours are usually done for fun,
that resulted in high inter-observer reliability.
which may or may not involve social interaction and
Specific behavioural categories were formed after
objects called ‘toys’.
watching the animal interact with toys.
The exact time of each activity was also recorded, along
Background
with the frequency of each behaviour.
A few behavioural categories include extended touch,
Infants are exposed to hormones during the prenatal
sitting on the toy, dragging, carrying in hand, turning the
stages of gestation, which impacts top preferences in
children. entire toy, and sniffing.
For data analysis, each monkey's behaviour was
A few females have experienced a genetic condition
which increases male hormones during foetal converted into an average frequency and duration.
development- these girls are seen to prefer more ‘male’ '-
type toys in comparison to other girls.
Results
Primates are similar to humans genetically and,
Females did not have a preference for plush toys over
therefore, can be used as a model to show if gender
wheeled toys.
differences in behaviour are due to biological or social
Females interacted with plush toys more than males did.
factors.
Male monkeys prefer 'masculine' wheeled toys for needed due to potential pre-existing individual
'feminine' plush toys. differences that could affect results.
Rank on social hierarchy was positively correlated to the Aims:
total frequency of interactions. Use the MBSR course to compare grey matter
When compared to data from Berenbaum and Hines concentration in specific brain areas and the whole
(1992), it was seen that rhesus monkeys and children both brain before and after the course (pre and post-
showed higher preference marks in males than females. stages)
Strengths *MBSR- Meditation-Based Stress Reduction
High internal validity: use of animals to eliminate the Procedure:
effect of socialization and another confounding Research Method: Laboratory Experient with
variable, behavioural categories were accurately longitudinal design
defined, counterbalancing of wheeled toy and plush Experimental Design: Independent Measures Design
toy position. Independent Variable: Exposure to an eight-week
High standardisation: The observation process was mindfulness-based intervention, the MBSR course
the same for all monkeys, with a standard length of Dependent Variable: Change in the grey matter
25-minute sessions. assessed using MRI scans and Response on
Weaknesses questionnaires to measure five mindfulness scales
Methodological differences: Differences in the (before and after intervention)
children and rhesus monkeys were compared; the Sample:
toys offered were chosen for object properties rather Experimental Group
than female or male-typed toys, and children were 16 participants- 6 Males and 10 Females
assessed using different toys and only measuring the Mean age- 38 years
duration of play, not frequency. There were 18 participants in the experimental group,
Issues and Debates but 2 males withdrew due to discomfort.
Application: Help cause awareness regarding gender- Control Group
neutral socialization. This would minimize the divide 17 participants- 7 Males and 10 Females
between males and females early in childhood. Mean age- 39 years
Individual versus Situational: illustrates a role of The control group participants had the same eligibility
biology that supports the individual side of the debate; criteria as the experimental group for admission into
however, exposure to gender stereotyping in society the mindfulness course.
counts for a situational explanation. Common points for both groups:
Nature versus Nurture: sex differences due to Participants for this study were recruited from
biological aspects of brain structure and hormones individuals already enrolled in 4 MBSR courses at the
count for nature, but socialization in society is mainly University of Massachusetts
due to nurture. Overall Age Range- 25 to 55 years
All participants were physically and psychologically
1.4. Hölzel et al. (Mindfulness and Brain healthy
All participants were not on any medication
Scans) All participants had limited experience with meditation
classes
Title: Mindfulness practice to increase regional brain grey They all had the same educational level
matter density Incentive of discounted MBRS course fee was given to
Year: 2011 all
Psychology being investigated: Sampling technique: Opportunity Sampling
Mindfulness- State achieved through meditation that aims Both groups completed the FFMQ (Five Facet
to increase awareness of the present-moment Mindfulness Questionnaire) with 39 questions and five
experience. subscales.
Localization of function- Particular brain areas are The 5 subscales had statements that measured
responsible for different activities. observing, describing, acting with awareness, non-
Background: judging of inner experience, and non-reactivity to
Mindfulness involves cognitive processes and sensory inner experience.
experiences that impact brain function. Each statement had to be answered on a five-point
Early studies used EEG, but now MRI provides more Likert-type scale, and the scores were added.
detailed information by measuring brain structures Some questions were reverse scored, and from each
and changes in grey and white matter. group, 14 participants gave usable data at both time
Comparative studies suggest differences in brain grey points.
matter between individuals practising mindfulness MRI brain scans of both group participants were taken
meditation and those who don’t. However, caution is at two-time points.
For the experimental group: two weeks before MBSR and variables such as mood, attentiveness, and health,
two weeks after MBRS course (average gap of 56 days) among others, that could influence mindfulness.
For the control group: The two scans were taken with an High amounts of standardisation: for instance, a fixed
average gap of 66 days between them. number of exercises to be performed and fixed total
The data from MRI scans was utilized in two ways: duration- make the study highly replicable, raising
1. To analyze the regions of interest- Hippocampus reliability.
and Bilateral insulae
2. To analyze the whole brain to explore other areas Weaknesses:
affected by the mindfulness course. Lack of generalisability of the sample as they were all
Lastly, participants reported the time they spent over 8 similar due to already being enrolled in MBSR courses
weeks’ time on formal homework and the three assigned and having the same level of education.
exercises (Body scans, yoga and sitting meditation) The unknowns regarding the accuracy of the MRI and
the lack of objectivity in the interpretations of the data
Results produced decrease the internal validity.
No significant correlation between time spent on body The lack of correlation between grey matter and time
scans, yoga and sitting meditation spent on mindfulness exercise homework shows that
Participants in the MBSR group significantly increased the exercises did not directly cause brain changes,
mindfulness scores on the 3 subscales (acting with which also decreases internal validity.
awareness, observing and non-judging) between pre Issues and Debates:
and post-testing Application to everyday life: Provides a method to help
Specific areas of interest: people with temporoparietal junction (TPJ)
In the specific area of interest- Left Hippocampus impairment, and the two areas of the cerebellum
there were positive changes in grey area where grey matter changes were observed can be
concentration for the MBSR group between the pre used for emotion regulation and healthy psychological
and post-stages functioning.
In the specific area of interest- the Left Hippocampus, Nature versus Nurture: The biological aspects are
there were no changes in a grey area concentration highly determined by the processes of nature.
for the control group between pre and post-stages. However, the study showed that nurture through
No correlation between grey matter in specific areas MBRS can affect those structures and processes.
and the amount of homework or changes in FFMQ
scores
Whole-brain analysis: 2. Cognitive Approach
Four clusters of the brain showed a significant
increase in grey matter concentration for the MBSR 2.1. Introduction
group between the pre and post-stages
These four clusters showed a significant increase in Main assumptions of the cognitive approach:
grey matter concentration for the control group behaviour and emotions can be explained in terms of
relative to other brain area the role of cognitive processes such as attention,
(The four clusters were Posterior cingulate cortex, left language, thinking and memory
temporoparietal junction and two parts of the cerebellum) similarities and differences between people can be
No correlation between other parts of the brain and understood in terms of individual patterns of cognition
the amount of homework or changes in FFMQ scores
Conclusions: 2.2. Andrade (Doodling)

The concentration of grey matter increases in regions
in the hippocampus, posterior cingulate cortex (PPC), Title: What Does Doodling Do?
left temporoparietal junction (TJP) and cerebellum in Year: 2010
those who practice an 8-week mindfulness-based Psychology being investigated:
stress reduction course (MBSR) People have been known to daydream frequently
Ethical Issues: when presented with something boring.
Risk of not protecting participants from harm by not Background
assisting control group participants until at least eight Before this study, it was unknown whether doodling
weeks impairs attention processes by removing resources
Strengths: from the primary attention task or aids concentration
The increased external validity of findings derived towards the primary task, additionally maintaining
from longitudinal studies stems from the extended arousal.
duration, which helps stabilize fluctuating participant It is common in research on attention to pose the
participants with dual tasks to monitor performance
and then see which cognitive processes are needed to Participants listened to the tape for 2.5 minutes and
complete these tasks. wrote down the information as directed.
Aim As soon as the recording finished, the researcher
To test whether doodling aided information collected the sheets and talked to the participant for a
processing when performing a tedious task. minute.
Procedure This conversation included a debriefing and an
Research Method: Laboratory Experiment apology for misleading them about the memory test.
Experimental Design: Independent Groups The participants were asked if they suspected a
IV: Doodling or Non-doodling (Control) Group memory test.
DV: Mean correct recall, false alarms and memory Half the participants recalled the names of people,
scores then places and the other half the places, then names.
Sample: 40 members of the MRC Applied Psychology (Counterbalancing)
Unit participant panel at the University of Plymouth Results
(UK). They were aged 18-55 and paid for participating. Participants in the doodling group shaded a mean of
Participants were assigned randomly to the control 36.3 shapes (range 3-110). One participant did not
(20 - 18 females and 2 males) or doodling (20 - 17 doodle and was replaced
females and 3 males) group. None of the participants in the control group doodled.
Sampling Technique: Opportunity Sampling (they had 3 participants in the doodling group and 4 in the
volunteered for a different study and were then control group suspected a memory test. However,
recruited immediately after participating in that none of them claimed they actively tried to remember
unrelated study) the information for the test.
The researcher recorded a mock telephone message If a response indicated a plausible mishearing, it was
using a cassette recorder. scored as correct.
A somewhat monotonous voice was used. New names not similar to the ones given, names of
It was 2.5 minutes long, with an average speaking rate people who could not attend, or responses such as
of 227 words per minute “sister”, which are relational words, were scored as
The recording was being played at a comfortable false alarms.
volume for the participant to listen to. MONITORING PERFORMANCE SCORE = number of
The script included the names of 8 people who would correct names - number of false alarms
be attending a party alongside the names of 3 people 15 Participants in the doodling group and 9
and 1 cat who would not attend. 8 place names were Participants in the control group scored the maximum
also mentioned. score.
Participants were recruited after finishing an Monitoring performance was significantly higher in
unrelated experiment for another researcher and the doodling condition (mean = 7.7; SD = 0.6)
asked if they would mind spending another 5 minutes compared with the control condition (mean = 6.9; SD =
helping with research. 1.3)
The intention was to enhance the boredom of the task Each participant generated a name score and a place
by testing people who were already thinking about score. The monitoring and recall phases had to be the
going home. same if a plausible mishearing was presented.
The participants were randomly assigned to the two Those in doodling condition recalled a mean of 7.5
conditions (doodling or control) pieces of correct information compared to the control
Participants were tested individually in a quiet and group (5.8).
visually dull room. Monitored names were recalled more than places.
They were asked to note down the names of all people The recall was significantly better for those in doodling
attending the party and nothing else. They were also condition
told they did not need to remember anything. Memory scores were entered into a 2 (doodling,
Participants in the control condition were given a piece control) and 2 (names, places) mixed measures
of lined paper and a pencil. ANOVA, which confirmed that the monitored names
Participants in the doodling group were given a piece were recalled better than the incidental places.
of A4 paper with alternating rows of 10 squares and Removing data from participants who had suspected a
circles, 1 cm in diameter, with a 4.5 cm margin on the test were removed from the analysis, there was still a
left-hand side where they could write any target significant difference (p=0.01)
information. Conclusions
The doodling group was asked to shade the shapes Participants who performed a shape-shading task
They were told that “it does not matter how neatly or concentrated better on a mock telephone message
quickly you do this - it is just something to help relieve than those who listened with no concurrent task.
the boredom.” It is unclear whether doodling led to better recall
because doodlers noticed more of the target
information (better attention) or whether it aided It appears that they have difficulty understanding
memory recall by encouraging deeper processing of other people's beliefs, attitudes, and emotions.
the message (better memory). Background
Ethical Issues In 1997, the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” test was
Deception about the memory test developed to assess the theory of mind. This
Debriefing appeared to discriminate between adults with
Lack of protection from harm- were given an Asperger syndrome (AS) or high-functioning autistic
unforeseen test on place names, which can cause (HFA) adults and control adults.
distress if they cannot remember the places. The two former groups scored significantly worse.
Strengths However, the researchers were not happy with
Standardized procedure - easy to replicate for elements of the original study and wanted to
reliability “upgrade” their measures to make it better.
Many controls - more confident about the causal Aims
relationship To test a group of adults with AS or HFA on the revised
Weaknesses version of the eyes test. This was to check if the
Low Generalisability: The sample was from a deficits in this group found in the original study could
volunteer participant panel. Therefore, they may be be replicated.
qualitatively different, and the results may not reflect To test if, in a sample of normal adults, an inverse
the population. (negative) correlation would be found between
Participant Variables might have affected the findings performance on the (revised) Eyes Test and the
Low mundane realism Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ).
Low ecological validity To test whether females scored better on the Eyes
It lacks any measure of daydreaming. A replication Test than males.
that included thought probes during the telephone Procedure
message or retrospective self-report of daydreaming Research Method: Natural Experiment (as the IV is
would test whether the effect of doodling on memory naturally occurring) and Questionnaire
occurred via effects on daydreaming. Experimental Design: Independent Groups
Future neuroimaging studies could test the hypothesis IV: Four groups of participants (naturally occurring)
that doodling selectively reduces cortical activation DV: Score on Eyes Test and Autism Spectrum Quotient
associated with daydreaming Sample: Group 1: 15 male adults with AS or HFA.
Issues and Debates Recruited via adverts in the UK National Autistic
Application: Useful for students while revising or in Society Magazine or equivalent support groups. They
class and improves learning by simultaneously using spanned an equivalent range of socioeconomic
visuospatial and auditory tasks, leading to better classes and educational levels, as seen in group 2.
information processing. Group 2: 122 normal adults drawn from the adult
Individual and Situational Explanation: This study community and educational classes in Exeter or from
supports both. Individual - participants may have used public library users in Cambridge. They had a broad
a similar strategy before or have a personality type range of occupations and educational levels.
that requires stimulation when processing Group 3: 103 normal adult students (53 male; 50
information. female) studying for undergraduate degrees at
Situational: the process of doodling could have caused Cambridge University (71 in sciences, 32 in other
the improvement in recall. subjects). This group is not representative of the
general population and can be considered to have a
2.3. Baron-Cohen et al. (Eyes Test) high IQ.
Group 4: Randomly selected 14 adults from the
Title: The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test Revised general population who were matched for their IQ with
Version: A Study with Normal Adults and Adults with group 1.
Asperger Syndrome or High-functioning Autism Initially, the first two authors of this study chose the
Year: 2001 “correct” word and the “foil”.
Psychology being investigated: They were then piloted on 8 judges (4 m 4 f)
The main idea of the eye test was to investigate the For the correct word and its foil to be used, 5 out of 8
theory of mind. had to agree with the choice.
This is the ability to attribute mental states to oneself No more than 2 judges should pick the foil
or another person, which is how we make sense of or Participants tested individually in a quiet room in
predict another person’s behaviour. Cambridge or Exeter.
The notion is that many autistic individuals do not Participants in the AS/HFA group were asked to judge
understand that other people have their plans, the gender of each eye pair additionally.
thoughts, and points of view.
Groups 1, 3 and 4 completed a questionnaire to Topic Original problems New design elements
measure their AQ. In this version, only
Participants were asked to read through the glossary complex mental
and ask if they were unsure of any word. They were states were used to
also reassured that they could refer to the glossary There were both
make the task much
anytime. basic and complex
more challenging,
Sampling Technique: Opportunity and Volunteer mental states, and so
and in this way,
Sampling contained some
Mental state increasing the
items that were easy
likelihood of
Topic Original problems New design elements and which therefore
obtaining a greater
Forced choice risked producing
range of
between two ceiling effects.
performance in a
responses meant
Forced choice random sample of
that only a narrow adults.
remained, but four
range of 17-25
response options Some pairs of eyes
correct responses
remained. could be solved They were excluded
out of 25 would be
Ease of solving easily by looking at in the revised
statistically above
the gaze direction of version.
chance.
the face.
This meant that the
Choice More female eye An equal number was
range of scores for There were 36 pairs
pairs than males. used.
which the test could of eyes used, giving a
reveal individual range of 13-36 This allowed a control
Gender
differences is only 9, correct responses. condition - judging
which is too narrow. the gender from the
eyes.
This meant that
individual differences Increased the level of
Target word and foil
could be examined difficulty by ensuring
were always
better in terms of Ease of that the foil words
semantic opposite
statistics. guessing had the same
making it too easy to
emotional valance as
When the first guess.
the target word.
version was given to
parents of children There may have A glossary with all
with AS, they scored been comprehension terms was included,
Ease of
below the general problems that might which was available
comprehension
population. However, have contributed to for the P’s to use at
they scored at a an individual’s score. all times.
similar level with the
AS or HFA adults Results
even though they did Group 1 performed significantly worse on eyes test
not have the than the other groups.
Example Females scored higher than males on the eyes test,
condition.
This highlights that although this result wasn’t very significant.
the test has a too Group 1 scored higher on AQ test than group 3 and 4
narrow range of participants.
scores to distinguish No correlation between Eyes Test score and IQ
between someone Negative correlation between Eyes Test and AQ
Conclusion
with the “lesser
Revised eyes test was successful in being a more
variant” or the
sensitive test for social intelligence of adults. AQ test
“broader phenotype”
and Eyes Test showed a significant negative
and someone with
correlation as hypothesized showing that both can be
the condition itself.
used as tests for severity of autistic traits.
Strengths
High internal validity due to changes made to the Eyes
test- 4 options, equal female and male eye pairs
shown, glossary provided to all participants.
Standardized procedure- images all of same size, 1. Children will be as good as adults at identifying
black and white, 4 options with three foils cartoon faces in a target present line-up
Weakness 2. Children will be worse than adults in rejecting cartoon
Low ecological validity: in real life setting, eyes are not faces in a target-absent line-up
static and body language hints can help guess the 3. Children will be worse than adults in identifying human
emotional state of people. faces in a target present line-up
Low generalizability- only 15 males used in ASD group 4. Children will be worse than adults at rejecting human
so not generalizable to females with ASD. In student faces in a target-absent line-up
comparison group, all students were from a highly Procedure
selective university (Cambridge university) which is Research Method: Laboratory Experiment
not representative of intellect of all regular students. Experimental Design: Independent measures (children
Ethics: if they were not able to guess the emotions, it versus adults), Repeated measures (target present
might cause distress or embarrassment leading to low versus target-absent and cartoon versus human)
self-esteem and psychological harm. IV: Age (children versus adults), Line-up type (target
Issues and Debates present versus target absent), Familiarity of target
Application: Plan support lessons or therapy for (cartoon versus human)
students or people with AS/HFA DV: Whether the correct face was selected in the
Reductionist: doesn’t take into account the full picture target-present lineup, whether an empty silhouette
of understanding emotions was chosen in the target-absent lineup.
Sample:
2.4. Pozzulo et al. (Line-Ups) Children group- 59 children (21 females and 38 males)
between the ages of 4-7 recruited from pre-
Title: The Culprit in target-absent Lineups: Understanding kindergarten and kindergarten classes of three
Young Children’s False Positive Responding private schools in Eastern Ontario, Canada. Mean age
Year: 2011 of 4.98 years
Psychology being investigated: Adult group- 53 adult participants (36 females and 17
Memories can be distorted by other information males) between the ages of 17-30 were recruited
known as ‘Post-event information’ that we are exposed from the Introductory Psychology Participant Pool at
to during and after the encoding stage of information Eastern Ontario University. Mean age of 20.54 years
processing. Sampling Technique: Opportunity Sampling
Post-event information can produce ‘False Memories’, 4 Video Clips, one photo-array per clip
pieces considered accurate but result from additional HUMAN: 2 Video Clips, 6 secs each
untrue details. 1. Man, putting on a coat
How reliable are children at giving eyewitness 2. Woman brushing hair Two human 'targets'
testimony as required by the law? were photographed wearing different clothes.
False positive response- Giving an Four foils are made per target, similar in hair,
affirmative(positive) but incorrect answer to a facial features and colour. Photographs are
question. cropped until the neck.
Background CARTOON: 2 Video Clips, 6 secs each
Loftus and Palmer 1974 used a classical experiment to 3. Dora interacting with the audience.
prove that words used in a question (post-event 4. Go! Diego! Go! Putting on safety gloves Two
information) can impact participants’ speed estimates cartoon 'targets' and four foils were picked per
of a vehicle seen in a video. target from the internet, similar in hair, facial
Pozzolu and Lindsay in 1997 concluded that children features and colour. Photographs are cropped
are less likely to say until the neck. Positions of targets were
‘I don’t know’ even though they know they were randomized, and all photos were black and
allowed to. white. In all four lineups, the position of the
Child witnesses were more likely to make incorrect target or its matching foil was
decisions when shown a lineup due to perceived counterbalanced. Videos and photo arrays
forced choice, perception of authority figures, and were presented on a 13-inch laptop screen.
pressure to make a choice. Each child and adult was tested individually and shown
Aims the first video
Investigate whether social factors affect child Instructed to pay attention because they would be
witnesses more than adult witnesses. asked some questions and offered some pictures
To explore the impact of social versus cognitive after watching the video
factors in children’s performance as child witnesses Following each of the four videos, all participants were
Hypothesis asked their first free recall filler question, ‘What did
the cartoon character/person look like?’
For adult participants: The second question asked was, Individual versus situational: This study supports a
‘Do you remember anything about the cartoon situational explanation due to the impact of social
character/person? factors like authority.
For child participants: The second question asked was Children as participants: Practical changes were made
a non-specific probing question: ‘Do you remember to the procedure to ensure children could easily
anything else?’ access tasks. Consent was gained in a child-friendly
If children did not respond to the first free recall way.
question, they were asked, ‘Do you remember
anything from the video?’ and the researchers
recorded replies. 3. Learning Approach
After each filler task, child participants were told to
look at a photo array, point to the cartoon/person 3.1. Introduction
photo if they see it, and point to the black silhouette
box if the cartoon/person is not there. Main assumptions of the learning approach:
Similar instructions were given for adults, but they conditioning helps to explain changes in behaviour
indicated their responses on a matching sheet. social learning helps to explain changes in behaviour.
This procedure was repeated for all four videos.
Results
Responses to cartoons were generally more accurate 3.2. Bandura et al. (Aggression)
than responses to human targets.
Title: Transmission of Aggression Through Imitation of
Children have similar accuracy as adults in identifying
Aggressive Models.
cartoon faces
Year: 1961
Children are significantly less accurate than adults
when rejecting cartoon faces.
Social Learning Theory: social behaviour is learned
primarily by observing and imitating others. It is
when identifying human faces.
“learning by proxy”. The Four components to it are:
Attention: Observers must pay attention to the
when rejecting human faces.
behaviour of the model. The model must have some
Conclusions
feature that attracts the observer.
Any errors in the target-absent lineup for cartoons
Retention: Observers must store the behaviour in their
result from social factors, not cognitive factors.
long-term memory so that the information can be
For children, social factors play a more significant part
used again (when the observer wants to imitate the
in decision-making in target-absent line-ups than in
behaviour).
target-present ones.
Reproduction: Observers must feel capable of
Ethical Issues
imitating the retained, observed behaviour.
Deception regarding aim
Motivation: Observers who experience vicarious
Otherwise, it was a very ethical study as informed
reinforcement are more likely to imitate the
consent was taken, children had the right to withdraw,
behaviour. This is when the model has been rewarded
no psychological or physical harm was caused, and
for performing the observed behaviour. Vicarious
confidentiality was maintained.
punishment can also happen: the role model is
Strengths
punished for the observed behaviour, so is less likely
High standardization along with controls
to imitate it.
Use of objective quantitative data enabling the use of
Background
statistical analysis
Learning behaviour by imitating others is called
High internal validity due to minimal information given
observational learning.
to participants regarding aim- lower demand
Several studies have demonstrated that children are
characteristics
influenced by witnessing adult behaviour in the same
Weaknesses
situation and in the presence of the adult who
Low ecological validity and mundane realism because
modelled the behaviour.
the line-up was not accurate and lacked the emotional
This study is concerned with learning gender-specific
experience of a genuine police line-up
behaviours.
Order effects are due to repeated measures of seeing
Aims
all four videos and answering the same questions.
Overall aim: To investigate observational learning of
This can lead to demand characteristics.
aggression.
Issues and Debates
Specific aims:
Application to everyday life: Improve reliability of child
To see whether children would reproduce aggressive
witness information
behaviour when the model was absent.
To look for gender differences in the learning of materials provided for the model to play with and then
aggression. left.
Procedure In the non-aggressive condition, the model assembled
Research Method: Laboratory experiment and the tinker toys quietly, subduedly, ignoring the Bobo
Observations doll.
Experimental Design: Independent groups, Matched In the aggressive condition, the model began
pairs design assembling the tinker toys, but after a minute, he
IV: (1) behaviour of the model – aggressive or non- turned to the Bobo and played with it.
aggressive (2) sex of the model (3) sex of the child The model punched the Bobo, sat on it and punched it
DV: amount of behaviour observed in 8 categories repeatedly, hit it with a mallet on the head and
Sample: 72 participants: 36 boys and 36 girls from aggressively kicked it about in the room.
Stanford University Nursery School. Their ages ranged The model also included verbal aggression such as,
from 37 months to 69 months, with a mean age of 52 “sock him in the nose,” “Pow,” “throw him in the air”,
months. 2 adults, a male and a female, served as the and two non-aggressive comments: “he keeps coming
role models in the experiment. One female back for more” and “he sure is a tough fella”.
experimenter conducted the study for all 72 This lasted for about 10 minutes.
participants. Aggression Arousal
Sampling Technique: Opportunity Sampling This was included for two reasons: (1) observation of
Participants were divided into eight experimental aggressive behaviour exhibited by others tends to
groups, six children each, and one control group of 24 reduce the probability of aggression on the part of the
participants who watched no model. observer and (2) to instigate or annoy the children.
Children in each condition were matched for their The participants were taken to a different room with
levels of physical aggression, verbal aggression, some very attractive toys.
aggression towards inanimate objects and aggressive The attractive toys included a fire engine, a
inhibition. locomotive, a jet fighter plane, a cable car, a colourful
The experimenter and a nursery teacher rated fifty- spinning top, a doll set complete with a wardrobe, a
one participants independently on a four-five-point doll carriage, and a baby crib.
scale. A very good agreement of 0.89 was achieved.; They were allowed to play with them for 2 minutes
before the experimenter stopped them and said that
Experimental Sex of Sex of Type of they were reserved for other children.
Groups Child Model Behaviour Testing for Delayed Imitation
1 Male Male AGGRESSIVE Children were taken into the experimental room,
2 Female Female AGGRESSIVE which contained a variety of toys, including aggressive
and non-aggressive toys.
3 Male Female AGGRESSIVE
The aggressive toys were a 3-foot tall inflatable Bobo
4 Female Male AGGRESSIVE
doll, a mallet and peg board, two dart guns and a
NON- tether ball with a face painted on it, which hung from
5 Male Male
AGGRESSIVE the ceiling.
NON- The non-aggressive toys included a tea set, crayons
6 Female Female
AGGRESSIVE and colouring paper, a ball, two dolls, three bears,
NON- cars, trucks, and plastic farm animals.
7 Male Female The toys were placed fixedly.
AGGRESSIVE
Children were observed playing for the next 20
NON-
8 Female Male minutes.
AGGRESSIVE
Two more observers (the models) watched the child
play and had an inter-rater reliability of 0.90
Modelling the Behaviour
Three types of aggression were recorded: (1) imitative
Each child was brought individually to a playroom by
aggression (physical and verbal), (2) non-imitative
the experimenter. She then invited the model, who
aggression, and (3) partially imitative aggression.
was outside the room.
The experimenter took the child to one corner of the Results
room, which was their play area. She demonstrated There was a significant difference in levels of imitative
how the child could design a picture with potato prints aggression between the group that witnessed
and the stickers provided. aggressive behaviour and the other two groups.
The experimenter then escorted the model to the There was a significant difference in levels of imitative
room's opposite corner, which contained a small table physical and verbal aggression.
and chair, a tinker toy set, a mallet and a 5-foot Significantly more non-aggressive play was recorded
inflated Bobo doll. She explained that these were the in the non-aggressive model condition.
Children who had witnessed an aggressive model Primary Positive reinforcers- a reward that fulfils basic
were significantly more aggressive themselves. needs, food, and shelter.
Overall, very little difference was present between Secondary Positive Reinforcement (SPR) training
aggression in the control group and the non- involves using reinforcers like sound markers and
aggressive modelling condition. primary positive reinforcers like food.
Boys were significantly more likely to imitate male- Shaping- Giving rewards only for movements or
aggressive models. behaviors closest to the desired behavior.
Boys were significantly more physically aggressive Behavior chaining- When different behaviors learned
than girls. Girls were slightly more verbally are chained together in a sequence and performed.
aggressive. Background
Conclusions Mahouts' traditional method of training elephants
Witnessing aggression in a model can be enough to relies on punishment, which uses pain or fear to shape
produce aggression by an observer. behaviour.
Children selectively imitate gender-specific Therefore, in 2011, the Nepalese government
behaviours. introduced annual Tuberculosis testing of captive
Ethical Issues elephants to reduce transmission, and researchers
Children were exposed to aggressive behaviour and were encouraged to develop new training methods
were not protected. based on positive reinforcement (like the one used by
Informed consent was taken from the nursery teacher. Fagen et al.)
Strengths Particularly, research by Desmond and Laule, 1991
The study has high levels of standardisation and, showed that positive reinforcement methods have
hence, a higher reliability. been shown to improve the psychological well-being of
The study has many controls, and this increases its elephants.
validity. SPR has been used successfully with several animal
There was a high inter-observer/ inter-rater reliability. species, including pandas, primates and antelopes.
Low risk of demand characteristics. Aim
Using a matched pairs design reduced the effects of To investigate if free-contact traditionally trained
the participant variable. elephants can participate in a trunk wash through training
The use of quantitative data allows for easier using positive reinforcement.
statistical analyses. Method
Weaknesses Research method- Controlled Observation (Structured
The study lacks ecological validity and mundane Observation)
realism. Sample: 4 female juvenile elephants aged 5-7 and 1
Issues and Debates adult female elephant estimated to be around 50.
Application to Everyday Life: can be helpful in Common characteristics of the sample: all docile, not
advertising agencies. currently pregnant, their mahout was willing to
Individual and Situational Explanation: This study participate, traditionally trained and no previous
supports the situational side of the debate as the experience with SPR training.
situation that the children found themselves in caused Behavioral checklist
the imitated aggressive behaviour.
Nature versus Nurture: this supports the nurture side Behavior Description
of the debate as the environment they found Distal end of trunk onto trainers
Trunk Here
themselves in caused the imitated aggressive outstretched palm.
behaviour. Trunk held upwards either in a loose curl or
The use of children who are less susceptible to Trunk Up
dorsal aspect of the tip of the trunk.
demand characteristics could become more
Bucket Trunk gently placed inside a bucket.
aggressive after this study.
Elephant gives strong, distinct exhale
Blow
through the trunk.
3.3. Fagen et al. (Elephant Learning)
Elephant holds the trunk still with the trunk
Steady
held in the position previously requested.
Title: Positive reinforcement training for a trunk wash in
Nepal’s working elephants: demonstrating alternatives to
Procedure
traditional elephant training techniques
Year: 2014 Elephants trained in the morning (7.30 to 10 am) and
evening (4 to 7 pm)
Sessions were never more than two days apart.
Operant conditioning- Learning through the
consequences of our actions. Behavior that is To complete the trunk wash, elephants had to complete
the 5 behaviors stated above.
rewarded is more likely to be repeated.
Elephants were trained using- Capturing, Luring, Shaping Number of sessions to pass average session time
Elephant
and Secondary Reinforcers trunk wash (minutes)
Capturing- Encouraged to perform usual natural 1 25 10.29
behaviors using a reward.
2 30 12.42
Luring- Encouraging unusual behaviors through careful
and strategic positioning of reward. 3 35 13.27
Shaping- Gradually, rewarding elephants only for 4 35 11.11
behaviors which are the most accurate and closest to the
expected behavior. \
Secondary Reinforcers- Teaching elephants to associate Strengths
the sound of a whistle (secondary reinforcer) with arrival
of chopped banana (primary reinforcer/reward) Use of behavioral checklist with detailed exact descriptions
Trainers introduced one syllabus verbal cues during the which increases reliability.
training process to prompt the success of learning of all 5 Done is a naturalistic setting causing ecological validity to be
behaviors. high.
Cues had no definition in English or Nepali as researchers
Weakness
didn’t want the mahouts to think elephants understood
Small sample size- nor generalizable
human language (a common local myth).
Measurement of elephant’s performance was subjective.
Behavioral chaining used to get the elephants to learn all
Ethics
the 5 behaviors in order, following the verbal cue.
Low physical or psychological harm
Started by teaching 2 of the behaviors in order and
Issues and Debate
respectively giving the reward. overtime, more behaviors
Application to everyday life- Improves captive animal
were added to the chain to complete all 5 behaviors.
welfare to improve health of elephants and reduce TB in
Syringe introduced once all trunk wash behaviors are
humans. Fagen’s technique can be easily replicated to
learnt as an aversive stimulus that the elephants might
teach behaviors through positive reinforcement.
find unpleasant once all trunk wash behaviors are learnt.
Individual versus Situational- the 5 elephants have
The elephants were rewarded in step 1(Trunk here) until
individual differences in the speed at which they learnt the
they gradually were happy with the syringe touching their
trunk wash.
trunk., in a process called desensitization.
counter conditioning used to teach elephants to associate
the syringe with arrival to chopped banana. 3.4. Saavedra and Silverman (Button
overtime, syringe went from aversive stimulus to Phobia)
conditioned stimulus.
Trainer then encouraged elephant to accept syringe being Title: Case Study: Disgust and a Specific Phobia of
inside the trunk so that fluid droplets can be injected Buttons.
inside. Year: 2002
the fluid was gradually injected from 1 to 15 ml till the Psychology being investigated:
complete 60ml. Evaluative learning is a form of classical conditioning
The measured variable of- minutes of training, number of in which a person comes to perceive or “evaluate” a
cues made by trainer and success rate of each behavior previously neutral object negatively.
and sequence. It does not depend on the individual expecting or being
Elephants were graded on their ability to complete the aware of the association between the neutral object
sequence of behaviors, with 80 percent being the passing and the negative outcome.
grade. An individual may negatively evaluate a specific object
Individual behaviors scored with 90 percent as the or event without anticipating the threat of an objective
passing grade. contaminant.
If a sequence failed, they were tested for a shorted This elicits a feeling of disgust rather than fear.
sequence. Background
Results Phobia: a persistent and unreasonable fear of an
4 juvenile elephants learned full trunk wash in 25-35 object. The fear is disproportionate to the danger
sessions. posed and leads to avoidance of the object.
Session duration ranged from 10-13 minutes with an Fear: an unpleasant emotion caused by an organism’s
average of 2 minutes. defensive response to an imminent threat
Elephant 5 (the oldest elephant) never tested for the Disgust: a feeling of revulsion or disapproval aroused
full trunk wash as she failed to learn the full sequence. by something unpleasant or offensive.
Success rate of individual behaviors increased from The role of disgust within phobias has received very
39% in session 10 to 89.3% in session 35. little attention.
Disgust could interact with the fear of a phobic

stimulus produces, to increase avoidance of that
stimulus.
Disgust has been hypothesized as a concurrent
emotion that, in interaction with fear, may result in
increased avoidance behaviour.
Aims
To investigate the cause of button phobia in a child.
To attempt to treat a child’s phobia via targeting both
disgust and fear responses.
Procedure
Research Method: Case Study, Observations and
Questionnaires
Quantitative data: Distress ratings and Severity
ratings
Disgust Imagery and Cognitions
Qualitative data: Questions about why the boy found
After the behavioural exposure, it was planned to have
buttons disgusting
7 sessions looking into the boy’s disgusted imagery
Sample: A 9-year-old Hispanic American boy who was and cognitions with a view of helping him to change
part of the Child Anxiety and Phobia Program at
these over time.
Florida International University. He came with an
Further probing revealed that the boy found buttons
avoidance of buttons.
disgusting upon contact with his body.
Sampling Technique: Opportunity Sampling
He also expressed that buttons emitted unpleasant
The boy and the mother gave informed consent to
odours.
participate in the assessment and intervention
These seven sessions involved exploring the vicarious
procedures. Written content was also provided to
things about buttons he found disgusting with the boy
publish this study.
and using specific cognitive strategies.
The boy met the DSM-IV criteria for a specific phobia
He was prompted to imagine buttons falling on him,
of buttons.
express how they looked, felt, and smelled, and
The phobia began when the boy was 5 years old in
elaborate on how these imagery exposures made him
kindergarten, during an art project involving buttons.
feel.
The boy ran out of buttons, so he was asked to come
Although the boy indicated that buttons were
to the front of the class and take them. His hand
“disgusting and gross”, even with intense probing, it
slipped when he reached the bowl, and the buttons fell was difficult for him to describe What about buttons
on him. He described this experience as distressful.
rendered them disgusting and gross.
The duration of the phobia was 4 years.
He did not express significant stressors or events that Results
could be related to the phobia’s onset during this By session 4, the boy had successfully completed all
period. in-vivo exposure tasks up to those with the highest
Behavioural Exposures distress ratings.
The child was treated with an exposure-based Even though he could handle more and more buttons,
treatment programme that tackled cognitions and his distress rating increased dramatically from
behaviour. sessions 2 to 3 and 3 to 4.
The treatment involved the use of contingency In session 4, the boy’s subjective ratings that had been
management. The mother provided positive 6 or 7 before the treatment were now higher.
reinforcement if the boy successfully completed the This phenomenon was consistent with evaluative
gradual exposure to buttons. learning.
Treatment sessions lasted about 30 minutes with the Disgust-related imagery exposures and cognitions
boy alone and 20 minutes with the boy and his mother. appeared to be successful in reducing the boy’s
Before the first session, the boy devised a disgust and subjective ratings of distress.
fear hierarchy using distress ratings on a 9-point scale In the imagery sessions, he had to imagine hundreds
(from 0-8) via a feelings thermometer, as shown in of buttons falling on him; before the cognitive
Table 1. restructuring, he rated the experience as 8. This
The most difficult were small, clear plastic buttons. decreased to 5 midway through the session and
He had 4 sessions of behavioural exposure to buttons ended up as 3.
using this hierarchy. In a session where he had to imagine hugging his
mother while she was wearing a shirt with many
buttons, the distress ratings went from 7 to 4 to 3.
He was followed up 6 and 12 months after treatment, This case study focused on one person only; hence,
and he no longer met the specific phobia of buttons detailed data was collected.
Conclusions The study was conducted in a therapeutic setting and
Disgust plays a key role in the development and hence had ecological validity.
maintenance of a phobia but a mixture of behavioural Weaknesses
exposure and cognitive restructuring helped to The study lacks mundane realism.
eliminate the feelings of disgust. This case study used only one participant; hence, it
Ethical Issues has a low generalisability.
The participant was severely distressed, and The ratings are subjective, and this lowers reliability.
protection was provided. Issues and Debates
Informed consent was taken from the mother and the Application to Everyday Life: For treating other
boy. phobias
Strengths Nature versus Nurture: The process of acquiring the
Qualitative and quantitative data were both acquired phobia relates to nurture.
in this study.
CAIE AS LEVEL
Psychology
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UPDATED TO 2024-2026 SYLLABUS

The EEG detects and records tiny electrical charges

METHOD DESIGN Results for Question 2: Is there a positive correlation between

Issues and Debates Aims

toys were divided into two categories based on their

Conclusions: 2.2. Andrade (Doodling)

Disgust could interact with the fear of a phobic

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