Passionate Mind: Essays in Honor of

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Barry David [ed.]

Passionate Mind
Essays in Honor of John M. Rist

ACADEMIA
 Barry David [ed.]

Passionate Mind
Essays in Honor of John M. Rist

ACADEMIA

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 The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the
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David, Barry
Passionate Mind
Essays in Honor of John M. Rist
Barry David (ed.)
414 pp.
Includes bibliographic references.
ISBN 978-3-89665-857-9 (Print)
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Acknowledgements

Many persons, institutions and organizations have made this volume’s

publication possible. To begin with, exceptional gratitude is offered to each
of Passionate Mind’s contributors not only for their entries but also for their
great patience and co-operation in overcoming a number of challenges en-
countered along the way. Concerning these matters, I am especially appre-
ciative for the help I received from Dr. Edward Halper. Special thanks is
also directed to those institutions, organizations and individuals that have
facilitated this volume by their generous financial support. In this regard,
gratitude is expressed not only to those mentioned above but also to the
Department of Classics at the University of Toronto (particularly to Dr.
Jonathan Burgess), the Centre for Medieval Studies at the University of
Toronto (especially to Dr. Isabelle Cochelin) and anonymous donors. Fi-
nally, considerable thanks is extended to the publishing team at Nomos,
Academia/Verlag, in particular to Dr. Steffen Burk and Ms. Alexandra
Beutelmann, for their immense help in bringing this volume to fruition,
and to some anonymous readers for their insightful comments at an earlier
juncture in this project’s development.

7
Passionate Mind’s Contributors (listed in alphabetical order):

1.) Luigi Alici:

Via Mazzini 11,
I-63844, Grottazzolina (FM),
Italy.
luigi.alici@unimc.it
Luigi Alici earned his Ph.D. (Philosophy) in 1973 at the University of Peru-
gia where he subsequently served as Research Fellow (1973–1980), Perma-
nent Researcher (1980–1988), and Associate Professor of Moral Philosophy
(1988–1995) in the Faculty of Philosophy and Human Sciences. In 1995, he
was appointed Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Macera-
ta, Department of Humanistic Studies. His research activity arises from a
re-reading of St. Augustine’s thought in conjunction with contemporary
philosophical issues. In this respect, his scholarly work focuses on the rela-
tionship between interiority and intentionality, and communication and
action, paying increasing attention, from the perspective of morality, to
topics like the connection between personal identity, relationality, reci-
procity, and affective bonds.

2.) Giovanni Catapano:

Via Achille Grandi 8,
I-33170, Pordenone (PN),
Italy.
giovanni.catapano@unipd.it
Giovanni Catapano is Associate Professor of Medieval Philosophy at the
University of Padua. His research focuses especially on Augustine, and he
has authored the following books: L'idea di filosofia in Agostino, Guida bibli-
ografica (Il Poligrafo, 2000); Il concetto di filosofia nei primi scritti di Agostino,
Analisi dei passi metafilosofici dal Contra Academicos al De uera religione
(Institutum Patristicum Augustinianum, 2001)—which was awarded the
Prize of the Pontifical Academies in 2005; and Agostino (Carocci, 2010). Dr.

9
Passionate Mind’s Contributors (listed in alphabetical order)

Catapano has also translated into Italian and commented on Plotinus' trea-
tise On Virtues (Pisa University Press, 2006), with a foreword by John Rist.

3.) Barry David:

Ave Maria University,
5050 Ave Maria Boulevard,
Ave Maria, Florida, 34142–9505,
USA.
Barry.david@avemaria.edu
Barry David is Associate Professor of Philosophy and Chair Emeritus of the
Philosophy Department at Ave Maria University. He has written several ar-
ticles on medieval philosophy, ranging from Augustine to Aquinas, and on
related topics in ethics and metaphysics. Dr. David is co-editor of Aquinas
the Augustinian (2007) and author of Pursuing and Praising God; Augustine’s
Confessions (2019). He received his Ph.D. from the University of Toronto
(2000); his dissertation supervisor was John Rist.

4.) John Dillon:

Katounia, Thormanby Road,
Baily, Howth,
Dublin, D13YD71,
Ireland.
DILLONJ@tcd.ie
Born 15 Sept. 1939, in Madison Wisc. (USA), he was educated at Oxford
(B.A., M.A.), and the University of California at Berkeley (Ph.D., The Frag-
ments of Iamblichus’ Commentary on the Timaeus of Plato). He was on the
faculty of the Department of Classics at UC Berkeley, 1969–80 (Chair of
Department 1977–80); and was Regius Professor of Greek at Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin, 1980–2006. Dr. Dillon’s main focus of research is Plato and
the Platonic tradition. His chief works are The Middle Platonists, 1977 (2nd
edn. 1996); Iamblichus, De Anima (with John Finamore), 2000; Alcinous: The
Handbook of Platonism (1993); The Heirs of Plato (2003); and three volumes
of collected essays.

10
 Passionate Mind’s Contributors (listed in alphabetical order)

5.) Lloyd Gerson:

77 Quaker Village Drive,
Usbridge, Ontario,
L9P 1A3,
Canada.
lloyd.gerson@utoronto.ca
Lloyd Gerson is Professor of Philosophy at the University of Toronto and a
Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. He is the author of many books,
articles, and reviews, mainly on ancient philosophy. Dr. Gerson’s most re-
cent work is Plotinus: The Enneads, edited by Lloyd P. Gerson, with transla-
tions by George Boys-Stones, John M. Dillon, Lloyd P. Gerson, R.A.H.
King, Andrew Smith, and James Wilberding.

6.) Edward Halper:

126 Henderson Ave.,
Athens, GA 30605,
USA.
ehalper@uga.edu
Edward C. Halper is Distinguished Research Professor and Josiah Meigs
Distinguished Teaching Professor at the University of Georgia. Much of
his work is on Aristotle, particularly the Metaphysics, but he has also writ-
ten on Plato and in a wide variety of other areas. Dr. Halper counts himself
extremely fortunate to have worked on Plato with John Rist at the Univer-
sity of Toronto. He is also President of the International Plato Society.

7.) Miles Hollingworth:

Villa Miralago,
Via G. Finali 31,
Valsolda (Como), I-22010,
Italy.
miles.hollingworth@gmail.com
Miles Hollingworth (Ph.D., Durham), an independent scholar living in
Northern Italy, is the author of: The Pilgrim City (Bloomsbury, 2010); Saint
Augustine of Hippo: An Intellectual Biography (Oxford University Press,
2013); Inventing Socrates (Bloomsbury, 2015); and Ludwig Wittgenstein (Ox-
ford University Press, 2018). Additionally, he is the founder and editor of

11
Passionate Mind’s Contributors (listed in alphabetical order)

the international book series, Reading Augustine (Bloomsbury, 2017—) and

co-editor of The Edinburgh Companion to Political Realism (Edinburgh Uni-
versity Press, 2018). Dr. Hollingworth is also a winner of the Jerwood
Award for Non-Fiction from the Royal Society of Literature and of the
Elizabeth Longford Scholarship from the Society of Authors. He has also
been shortlisted for the Gladstone History Book Prize.

8.) Brad Inwood:

223 Canner St.,
New Haven, CT, 06511,
USA.
brad.inwood@yale.edu
Brad Inwood did his B.A. (1974) in Classics at Brock University and his
Ph.D. (1981), under the supervision of John Rist, at the University of
Toronto. He taught at the University of Toronto from 1982 to 2015 and,
since then, has taught ancient philosophy at Yale University as the William
Lampson Professor of Philosophy and Classics. He has written extensively
on ancient philosophy, especially Stoicism (with a focus on Seneca), but
with forays into the Presocratics (especially Empedocles) and the Aris-
totelian tradition. In 1994, Dr. Inwood was elected to the Royal Society of
Canada; and in 2007, he was appointed University Professor at the Univer-
sity of Toronto. He has been a Fellow of the National Humanities Centre
in North Carolina (1995–6) and of the Centre for Advanced Study in the
Behavioural Sciences at Stanford (2004–5); and was the Malcolm Bowie
Distinguished Visitor at Christ’s College, Cambridge (2008).

9.) Arthur Madigan, S.J.:

St. Mary's Hall, Boston College,
140 Commonwealth Avenue,
Chestnut Hill, MA, 02467,
USA.
arthur.madigan@bc.edu
Arthur Madigan, S.J. is the Albert J. Fitzgibbons Professor of Philosophy in
Boston College. He received his Ph.D. in philosophy from the University
of Toronto and his Master of Divinity degree from Regis College, Toronto,
both in 1979. He has been teaching at Boston College since 1979. In 1985–

12
 Passionate Mind’s Contributors (listed in alphabetical order)

6 he was a Junior Fellow in the Institute for Hellenic Studies, Washington,

D.C.; in 1996–7 he was Miller Professor of Classics in John Carroll Univer-
sity; and in 1999–2000 he was Wade Professor in Marquette University. Dr.
Madigan has published translations of Alexander of Aphrodisias on Aristo-
tle, Metaphysics Beta and Gamma, and a translation and commentary on
Metaphysics Beta in the Clarendon Aristotle Series. He pursues interests in
ancient Western philosophy (especially Aristotle), the interaction of an-
cient philosophy with early Christianity, and ethics in the Aristotelian tra-
dition.

10.) John C. McCarthy:

407 Schuyler Road/Silver Spring,
MD, 20910,
USA.
mccartjc@cua.edu
John C. McCarthy is Dean Emeritus of the School of Philosophy at The
Catholic University of America, where he holds the rank of Associate Pro-
fessor. He is also editor of the Review of Metaphysics. Dr. McCarthy’s publi-
cations include considerations of the Baconian and Cartesian origins of
modern philosophy, of the relation between human reason and Christian
faith, of reductionism in modern natural science, and of Husserlian phe-
nomenology.

11.) Denis O’Brien:

Château du Chalange,
Le Chalange, 61390,France.
plotinus@wanadoo.fr
After fifteen years in Cambridge, as a Scholar of Trinity College and a Fel-
low of Gonville and Caius College, Denis O’Brien joined the Centre Na-
tional de la Recherche Scientifique (Paris). He is the Honorary President of
the Centre for the Study of the Platonic Tradition, founded by John Dillon
at Trinity College, Dublin. His extensive publications, in both English and
French, range from the Presocratics to Plato and to Plotinus.

13
Passionate Mind’s Contributors (listed in alphabetical order)

12.) Thomas M. Osborne Jr.:

5603 Portal Dr.,
Houston, TX, 77096,
USA.
osborntm@stthom.edu
Thomas M. Osborne, Jr. is Professor of Philosophy, Chair Emeritus of the
Department of Philosophy, and a member of the Center for Thomistic Stud-
ies, at the University of St. Thomas (Houston). He has written (i) many arti-
cles on medieval and late-scholastic philosophy and on other topics; and
(ii) Love of Self and Love of God in Thirteenth-Century Ethics (2005) and Hu-
man Action in Thomas Aquinas, John Duns Scotus, and William of Ockham
(2014).

13.) Enrico Peroli:

Via R. Amalasunta 8,
I-63900, Fermo,
Italy.
e.peroli@tin.it
Enrico Peroli (Ph.D. Università Cattolica, Milano) is Professor of Moral
Philosophy at the University “G. D’Annunzio” di Chieti-Pescara. He has a
wide range of publications, including Il platonismo e l’antropologia filosofica
di Gregorio di Nissa (Vita e Pensiero, 1993), La trasparenza dell’io e l’abisso
dell’anima. Sul rapporto tra platonismo e cristianesimo (Morcelliana, 2013),
Dio, uomo e mondo. La tradizione etico-metafisica del platonismo (Vita e Pen-
siero, 2003), the award winning, Essere persona (Morcelliana, 2006), and Per-
sona e comunità. L’etica di G.W. Fichte, (Morcelliana, 2014). Dr. Peroli is cur-
rently editing a new Italian translation of the works of Nicholas of Cusa;
the first volume appeared in 2015.

14.) John M. Rist:

14 St Luke’s Street,
Cambridge, CB4 3DA,
England.
Johnmrist@yahoo.co.uk
For biographical information, see his c.v. in this Festschrift.

14
 Passionate Mind’s Contributors (listed in alphabetical order)

15.) Msgr. Robert Sokolowski:

2737 Devonshire Place NW, Apt 114,
Washington, DC, 20008,
USA.
sokolowski@cua.edu
Msgr. Sokolowski is a native of New Britain, Connecticut. He was ordained
a priest for the Archdiocese of Hartford in 1961. He obtained his Ph.D. in
Philosophy at the Catholic University of Leuven in 1963, and since then
has taught at the School of Philosophy at The Catholic University of Amer-
ica, where he is the Elizabeth Breckenridge Caldwell Professor of Philoso-
phy. He has been a Visiting Professor at the Graduate Faculty of the New
School University, The University of Texas at Austin, Villanova University,
and Yale University. Dr. Sokolowski has taught and written in phe-
nomenology, with a special interest in Husserl; on Aristotle; and on issues
dealing with Christian faith and theology and their relation to human un-
derstanding.

16.) Ronald K. Tacelli, SJ:

St Mary's Hall–Boston College,
140 Commonwealth Avenue,
Chestnut Hill, MA, 02467,
USA.
ronald.tacelli@bc.edu
Ronald K. Tacelli, SJ, received his B.A. (English and Philosophy) from
Boston College (1969); his M.A. and Ph.D. (Philosophy: Greek minor)
from the University of Toronto (1980); and his M. Div. and Th. M. from
the Weston School of Theology (1983). Since 1984, he has taught philoso-
phy at Boston College, focusing on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, the phi-
losophy of religion, and philosophical psychology. Dr. Tacelli has pub-
lished a number of articles on ethics, metaphysics, and the philosophy of
religion, and he is co-author (with Peter Kreeft) of the best-selling Hand-
book of Christian Apologetics. He has edited for publication a selection of pa-
pers on H.W.B. Joseph, completed a translation of Ontologie by Béla Weiss-
mahr (to be published by Notre Dame University Press as Ontology: The
Unity and Diversity of All Things in Being), and is also translating Kant’s
Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals (for Norton). Dr. Tacelli is current-

15
Passionate Mind’s Contributors (listed in alphabetical order)

ly working on a book-length study of Kant’s moral and religious thought,

as well as a thoroughly updated and revised edition of the Handbook.

16
Passionate Mind: Essays In Honor Of John M. Rist

“καὶ ἔστιν ἐκείνη μὲν ἡ θέα νοῦ ἔμφρονος, αὕτη δὲ νοῦς ἐρῶν, ὅταν
ἄφρων γένηται μεθυσθεὶς τοῦ νέκταρος· τότε ἐρῶν γίνεται ἁπλωθεὶς εἰς
εὐπάθειαν τῷ κόρῳ· καὶ ἔστιν αὐτῷ μεθύειν βέλτιον ἢ σεμνοτέρῳ εἶναι
τοιαύτης μέθης” (Plotinus, Ennead 6.7.35, 23–7).
“And that first one is the contemplation of Intellect in its right mind,
and the other is Intellect in love [i.e. passionate Mind], when it goes
out of its mind “drunk with the nectar”; then it falls in love, simplified
into happiness by having its fill; and it is better for it to be drunk with
a drunkenness like this than to be more respectably sober.”1
This epigraph, taken from Ennead 6.7, provides the title of this volume of
essays, presented to Professor John M. Rist as a Festschrift in honor of his
exemplary service to academia. Plotinus’s words are fitting because they
evoke the passionate search for truth that Rist, as a ‘nous eron,’ has dis-
played in his extraordinary scholarship and teaching over the course of his
distinguished career. Those who have worked and studied with him have
had the pleasure of experiencing and being inspired by that passionate
mind at first hand.
The essays presented here reflect key aspects of Rist’s interests in An-
cient Philosophy, Patristics and Biblical Criticism, and Ethics. Therefore,
after reading John McCarthy’s warm and inviting introduction, viz. “John
M. Rist, in Lieu of an Introduction,” enjoying Rist’s own entertaining and
informative account of animal academicum, viz. “On the Trail of Animal
Academicum (1956–2013),” and perusing his extraordinary curriculum vitae,
we meet the volume’s essays that specifically engage Rist’s monumental
work as a scholar in the aforementioned fields. I now introduce those con-
tributions in their order of appearance.
Denis O’Brien’s astute (and self-edited) “To Be and Not To Be in Plato’s
Sophist,” considers a topic and text that he and Rist had once studied at
Trinity College, Cambridge where they were ‘supervised’ by F.H. Sand-
bach, with W.K.C. Guthrie, at the time Laurence Professor of Ancient Phi-
losophy, and D.L. Page (later Sir Denys Page) Regius Professor of Greek. In

1 Ennead 6.7.35, 23–7, translated by A.H. Armstrong, in Plotinus, Ennead VI.6–9

(Loeb Classical Library, 1988), 197 (slightly emended).

17
Passionate Mind: Essays In Honor Of John M. Rist

his essay, O’Brien’s inspiration and foil is F.M. Cornford, first holder of the
Laurence Chair. While his stimulus is Cornford’s dictum, shared by both
Sandbach and Guthrie, that ‘accurate translation depends on interpreting
an ancient philosopher’s philosophical and linguistic presuppositions,’ his
foil is Cornford’s translation and interpretation of the Sophist [Sph.] (from
Plato’s Theory of Knowledge, The ‘Theatatus’ and the ‘Sophist’ of Plato, translat-
ed with a running commentary [Keegan Paul et alii, 1935]). O’Brien had
studied Cornford’s volume in the 1950’s but had been dissatisfied with it
(n. 40). As he now explains, Cornford’s translation and commentary con-
tradict, in one key respect, Cornford’s fundamental methodology.
In particular, O’Brien argues that the distinction drawn in Sph. between
‘to be and not to be’ is properly understood by employing what Cornford
recommended rather than by following what Cornford did. On this basis,
O’Brien claims, the interpreter can overcome the pitfalls in Cornford’s
translation and commentary that constantly fail to match the meaning of
the Greek text. According to O’Brien, Parmenides, in his opening state-
ment of the Ways of research, “the only ones that can be thought of” (fr. 2),
introduces is and is not as the two terms of a contradiction. Careful study
of Sph. shows that Plato avoids the contradiction by opposing is, the ex-
pression of a predicate complete in itself, to is not, a copulative use of the
verb, implying that what is, because it participates in being, ‘is not,’ in so far
as it ‘is other than’ the being in which it participates. By persistently cast-
ing Plato’s theory in terms of ‘existence’ and ‘non-existence,’ Cornford’s
commentary and translation of Sph. feed into the text of the dialogue the
very contradiction Plato had tried to avoid. Cornford’s interpretation of
the dialogue is shown, therefore, to be untethered, explaining why
O’Brien’s initial study, over sixty years ago, of Cornford’s volume proved so
perplexing. O’Brien’s present essay, taking its cue from Cornford’s advice,
rather than from his practice, grounds its philological analysis on an accu-
rate understanding of Plato’s philosophical presuppositions, the joint ap-
proach, at once philological and philosophical, helping to make clear Pla-
to’s purpose and bringing precision to scholarly study of one of Plato’s
more difficult dialogues. Although O’Brien’s contribution is long, it is (i)
likely ‘ground-breaking,’ (ii) an immensely erudite tribute to Rist’s philo-
sophical method (which O’Brien obviously shares) and (iii) warm-hearted
(like every entry in this volume).
Arthur Madigan’s insightful "Aristotle's Handling of endoxa in Nico-
machean Ethics 9.4 and Eudemian Ethics 7.6," considers Aristotle’s dialectic,
in terms of its approach towards endoxa, i.e. concerning common opinion
or respected truth-claims, in the aforementioned texts. Madigan intends to
show that, from beginning to end, the Stagirite employs endoxa to know

18
 Passionate Mind: Essays In Honor Of John M. Rist

the truth of reality and therefore assesses (for truth) the endoxa themselves.
Hence, Aristotle’s treatment of endoxa is not for the sake of justifying
them, i.e. they “are not simply accepted and allowed to speak for them-
selves (ibid.),” but to pursue the truth of being. This is shown by the fact
that—contrary to the divergent views of G.E.L. Owen, M. Nussbaum, J.
Barnes and T. Irwin—Aristotle employs endoxa to attain truth in different
ways.
Aristotle’s profound subtlety, Madigan argues, is manifest in two closely
related manners, made evident by comparing select endoxa in Nicomachean
Ethics (NE) 9.4 with others in Eudemian Ethics (EE) 7.6. First, Aristotle tests
his endoxa according to the criteria of the phenomena he aims to explain.
Second, the Stagirite employs endoxa in service to either (i) the nature of
the question he endeavors to answer or (ii) certain already tested starting-
points and insights into reality stated in propositional form. Aristotle’s
handling of endoxa, therefore, shows that his approach towards reality is
properly philosophical because it is receptive to ‘what is.’ As such, the Sta-
girite is not trying to make reality fit into his endoxa or into any uncritical-
ly assumed general theories. Rather, he ensures that his theories, and there-
fore the endoxa he employs, conform to and consequently help to explain
reality. Hence, Madigan argues that Aristotle’s usage of endoxa is not about
hypostasizing abstracts (something, of course, that Aristotle famously as-
serts, in Metaphysics 1.9, concerning Plato’s doctrine of Forms). Instead,
Aristotle employs endoxa towards knowing the truth of reality. By this,
Madigan agrees with Rist (The Mind of Aristotle [MA] [University of Toron-
to Press, 1989]) concerning the character of Aristotle’s philosophical
method.
Brad Inwood’s perceptive “What kind of Stoic are you? The case of Mar-
cus Aurelius,” agrees with Rist’s claim2 that Marcus’s philosophical ap-
proach and doctrine are unusual. Instead of maintaining that Marcus is in
the grips of an eclecticism that takes him outside the bounds of Stoicism,
Inwood holds that Marcus is better understood as a unique character with-
in the Stoic context. This is not only in terms of Marcus’s handling of tradi-
tional Stoic teaching—which Marcus, Inwood suggests, might at some
points be taking through the filter of Seneca’s doctrine—but, more impor-
tantly, in terms of his endeavor to make philosophical sense of “the first-
person perspective” he explored and manifested in his philosophical diary.
For this reason, Marcus seems to embrace the view that man consists not

2 J. Rist, “Are you a Stoic? The Case of Marcus Aurelius,” in Jewish and Christian Self-
Definition, (edd.) B. Meyer and E. Sanders (Fortress Press, 1982), 23–45.

19
Passionate Mind: Essays In Honor Of John M. Rist

only in (i) the psychic pneuma and (ii) flesh-and-bones body, but also in
something that appears indeterminate (perhaps even immaterial), whereby
human actions are produced by some uniquely human power. So Marcus
seems ‘un-Stoic’ at times because his Stoicism aims to come to grips with
the traditional Stoic problem of determinism by drawing on a fresh aware-
ness of the phenomenon of psychological inwardness. Put differently, Mar-
cus’s properly philosophical interest in this intellectual challenge requires
him to add something novel to his Stoicism. Marcus’s teaching on the
mind, though it may have some features in common with certain aspects
of Platonism, developed out of his attempts to deal philosophically with
the characteristically Stoic problem of determinism.
Inwood, therefore, attempts to modify Rist’s thesis concerning Marcus.
While Marcus is innovative and unusual, he is neither a dissatisfied nor an
incoherent Stoic philosopher, a devotee of a philosophical religion rather
than a genuine philosopher. Rather, he is a philosopher whose pursuit of
truth motivates him to explain a new phenomenon by assimilating some-
thing original into his Stoicism. In a friendly manner, Inwood claims,
then, that Marcus’s Stoicism (like Stoicism in general) is more elastic and
vibrant than Rist acknowledges.
In his fascinating "Plutarch, Plotinus and the Zoroastrian Concept of
the Fravashi,” John Dillon shares the intriguing possibility that Plutarch
and Plotinus might have developed their teaching on an undescended part
of the human being not only from Plato (Timaeus 90a ff.)—whose doc-
trine, Dillon believes, could have been influenced by Persian Zoroastrian-
ism (part I)—and from Aristotle (De Anima 3.5) but also from the Zoroas-
trian notion of the fravashi, i.e. of a “separable higher soul also to be re-
garded as a kind of guardian daemon” (ibid.). Dillon supports his claim by
considering the similarities between the Zoroastrian teaching on the
fravashi, to the extent he knows of it, with accounts of the undescended
soul in Plutarch, the Corpus Hermeticum and Plotinus. In particular, Dillon
judges that Plotinus’s somewhat perplexing teaching that the undescended
soul is both ‘a part of us’ and ‘distinct from us’ corresponds well with the
Zoroastrian teaching of fravashi as both a “superior soul and presiding de-
mon” (conclusion).
Concerning this volume, Dillon’s thesis might be combined with In-
wood’s account of Marcus Aurelius’s philosophical teaching to show that
Marcus’s pursuit of truth belongs to his Stoicism, even though it represents
a departure from Stoic materialism towards some kind of Platonic meta-
physics. Additionally, Dillon’s thesis could be fruitfully considered in con-
junction with the accounts of nous found in essays by Gerson and by Peroli
for while these scholars claim that Neoplatonic philosophers identify nous

20
 Passionate Mind: Essays In Honor Of John M. Rist

with man and divinity above, Dillon identifies nous with man and daemon.
In this respect, Dillon’s study implies, with Peroli’s account of Gregory of
Nyssa’s Christian Platonism, that man requires divine mediation to attain
enduring happiness.
Lloyd Gerson’s perspicacious “Virtue with and Without Philosophy in
Plato and Plotinus,” firmly supports Rist’s general claims (Eros and Psyche
[EP] [University of Toronto Press, 1964], and Plotinus [P] [Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1967] et al.) concerning Plato’s and Plotinus’s philosophical
importance and encourages focus on Plotinus. Beginning with Plato’s
teaching on the importance of philosophy, Gerson subordinates Plato’s
teaching, in one way, to Aristotle (who is viewed as an intermediate devel-
oper of Plato’s teaching on mind) but, most importantly, to Plotinus to
show how the latter “enriches” (section 1) Plato’s teaching on the impor-
tance of philosophy. Gerson agrees with Rist’s claim (Real Ethics [RE]
[Cambridge University Press, 2001] et al.) that ethics is properly joined
with metaphysics (this is found in Plato’s and in Plotinus’s teaching on the
Good, and perhaps implicitly in Aristotle). However, unlike Rist, Gerson
makes the point that moral virtue is only required for the embodied self—
it has no ultimate place in the afterlife since it is no longer needed. Section
1 argues, therefore, that Plato maintains the practice of philosophy is re-
quired to achieve “the highest grade” in virtue. Section 2 maintains that Pla-
to claims transformation from an “empirical” to an “ideal self” is effected
through explicit conformity to the Good. Finally, in section 3, Gerson con-
cludes that Plotinus gives a superior account of these teachings in his En-
neads. How so? At bottom, it is because Plotinus (using as material cause
various teachings found in Plato and in Aristotle) maintains, in a unique
manner, that the virtuous person identifies “himself with his intellect.” In
other words, philosophical activity (equated with the pursuit of moral
virtue) is needed since attainment of the true self, the proper object of
philosophical transformation, consists in identifying oneself with one’s un-
descended intellect—understood to have an unmediated (i.e. independent
of sense-experience and sense-images) access to truth, i.e. to The One/The
Good/divinity above.
Hence, Gerson (partly agreeing with Rist’s interpretation [MA] of Aris-
totle’s late account of mind/nous) maintains that moral virtue (and conse-
quently virtue with philosophy) is essentially intermediate. It is necessary
so long as we are embodied, i.e. in this life and trying to attain the true self
(which could conceivably entail some need for purification in the after-
life). Yet moral virtue, and consequently philosophical activity in the man-
ner of this world, is not required once that metaphysical state is attained in
the afterlife. Therefore, since the ‘true’ self is intellect (nous), which has an

21
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others distinguished themselves more fortunately in this conflict,
from which they issued conquerors, having caused a horrible
carnage amongst the savages. None, however, displayed more
bravery than a mulatto, from Pindamonhangaba, called Manuel
Rodriguez, and, vulgarly, Manduassu, Manuel the Great, in
consequence of his immense stature, strength, and courage. This
gigantic man, who commanded his own canoe, in which he was
accompanied by his wife, of the same colour, and various slaves,
being attacked by two Indian war canoes, defended himself with
such valour and dexterity that neither were able to board him; at one
time he discharged a musket, which his wife successively loaded for
him, at another he wielded a vara, (a long pole for impelling the
canoe,) the strokes of which were fatal to all those who came within
his reach. On his arrival at Cuiaba he was presented with the
commission of a captain.
In the same year a road was opened to the territory of Goyaz, (so
called from the Goya Indians,) from whence upwards of fifteen
hundred persons departed, with horses and numerous troops of
mules, besides those who descended by the river St. Lourenço,
attracted by the announcement of gold which had been found in
Matto Grosso, from whence, in fact, eighty arrobas of that metal
were despatched the same year to St. Paulo in eight canoes of war,
each furnished with sixteen chosen men, and commanded by
Lieutenant-General Manuel Rodrigues de Carvalho, who conducted
them in security, and put an Indian division to flight which attacked
them at the entrance of the Pantanos. With this intelligence almost
the whole population of Cuiaba left that town for the newly-
discovered mines of Matto Grosso, (Large Woods.) Five hundred
oitavas were paid for negroes, and they were cheap, from the gain
which they afforded.
In 1740 the Indians were again beaten, at the embouchure of the
Tacoary, by the fleet from St. Paulo, commanded by Jeronimo
Gonsalves, (an Hituan,) who arrived at Matto Grosso with a great
number of lances, or spears, that belonged to the Indians who
perished in the combat, he having himself lost four canoes laden
with merchandise and slaves. After his arrival some domestic Bororo
Indians brought intelligence that the Spanish Jesuits had established
themselves near the heads of the Paraguay, reducing into aldeias
the Guaraparez tribe.
It being well known that this step was not taken for want of
Indians to convert in the vicinity of their own missions, the
Portuguese counselled them to retire peaceably, which advice was
disregarded. The inconstancy, however, of the catechumens obliged
the catechists to retrace their steps to the aldeias of the province of
St. Cruz de la Sierra, before measures were taken for their
expulsion.
In the year 1742 Manuel de Lima descended, with five Indians,
three mulattoes, and a negro, in a canoe, by the Guapore, Madeira,
and Amazons, to the city of Para.
At the same period that Manuel de Lima descended the Madeira,
one Joaquim Ferreira, with other traders, advanced up the Mamore
to the mission of Exaltaçao. The same persons, or others with a
similar intention, returning the following year, found the mission of St.
Rosa newly erected upon the eastern margin of the Guapore, almost
in front of the outlet by which they had entered to St. Miguel the
preceding year. The jesuitical curate determining to impede their
navigation of the river, it was conjectured that, for the better effecting
this project, he shortly afterwards removed the mission of St. Miguel
also to the same side, and founded that of St. Simao further to the
north. It notwithstanding appears that the people of Matto Grosso did
not desist from the navigation of this river.[22]
In 1743 the combined Indians observing certain signals at the
mouths of the Tocoary of a fleet having passed forward, they
proceeded up in pursuit of it as far as the reducto of Sappe, in the
vicinity of the town of Cuiaba, where they killed some fishermen.
A series of such calamities produced a resolution of the ouvidor,
Joam Gonsalves, in a junta with the senate and the principal persons
of the town, to endeavour to obviate hostilities, through the medium
of a firm friendship with the Guaycuru Indians, they not being
considered so inveterate against the Portuguese, whose
maledictions fell upon the Payagoa tribe, attributing to them alone all
the injuries they had sustained. With this intention, a squadron of six
canoes of war and six of transport, was sent, under the command of
Captain Antonio de Medeiros, with a considerable quantity of articles
most esteemed by the Indians, equally for the purpose of making
presents as to exchange for horses. Having arrived at an island in
front of a post occupied by the Guaycurus, the commandant sent an
Indian, versed in their language, with two white soldiers, to the chief
of the party, soliciting him to come to the island, as he was desirous
to make him some presents, and to enter into a negotiation. On the
following day the Indian captain presented himself, with a numerous
band of men and women, upon the beach nearest to the island, and
with the three deputies sent two of his to Medeiros requesting him to
come and parley on land, the two Indians to remain as hostages
upon the island. Medeiros immediately proceeded to the other side
with a considerable part of his force, and an assortment of various
articles, with which he complimented the captain and his relations.
He then proposed the projected negotiation, which was to effect a
cessation of hostilities with the Payagoas, and to barter horses for
European merchandise; to all which the Indian promptly assented.
On the following day a large party of Portuguese passed to the
other side, in order to traffic with the Indians, without any kind of
arms, imprudently confiding in the apparent demonstrations of
sincerity which they had evinced; when, about nine o’clock, those
who had remained with Medeiros in the squadron perceived a tumult
amongst the savages, which convinced them that their comrades
were lost. They immediately fired upon them, when the traitors
instantly fled, fifty Christians remaining dead upon the field. This
disaster terminated all hopes of a friendly negotiation.
In 1744 the Indians were routed by the Paulista fleet, without the
Christians sustaining more loss than one negro, from the wound of a
lance. Notwithstanding the disaster which the savages experienced
on this occasion, they boldly advanced up the Paraguay the same
year, as far as the passage from Cuiaba to Matto Grosso; and,
disembarking at an early hour near the establishment of Joam
d’Oliveira, set fire to his house, and killed several people.
 On the 24th of September, in this year, at mid-day, in clear
weather, a subterraneous noise was heard, and the earth
immediately quaked, continuing to experience various tremulous
agitations, which produced considerable alarm in all places of Matto
Grosso and Cuiaba. At this period, a drought already prevailed,
which lasted till 1749. All the woods were parched up, and no longer
exhibited any foliage; the atmosphere was now only the vehicle of
smoke; all living creatures suffered from famine and other calamities;
and death stalked in universal triumph.
The earthquake, which, in October two years afterwards, 1746,
agitated the territory of Peru, and destroyed the city of Lima, its
capital, was here very sensibly felt; filling every living creature with
sudden dread, but unattended with worse consequences.
Before the conclusion of this same year, the Captain Joao de
Souza, descended the Arinos, Tapajoz, and the Amazons, to Para,
and returned the following year by the Madeira, with European
merchandise; after his arrival, other dealers departed by the same
route, which has been frequented to this day, in spite of the great
difficulties to which this prolonged voyage has hitherto been subject.
Two years had almost elapsed, before the rains had reanimated
the face of the country, given verdure to the foliage of the unbounded
woods, renovated the springs, arrested the ravages of death, and
facilitated journeys by land; when, about the beginning of January,
1751, a numerous fleet arrived at Cuiaba, accompanied by Don
Antonio Rolin de Moura, as governor of the new province, a Juiz de
Fora, (Theotonio de Sylva Gusmao,) two Jesuits, and a troop of
dragoons. At the end of this year, the governor proceeded to the
mines of Matto Grosso, with the intention of promoting the navigation
discovered by Manuel de Lima to Gram Para, and to compel the
retrocession of the Spanish Jesuits established on the right margin
of the Guapore. D. Antonio Rolin, commanded to found a town in the
situation best adapted for the effectuating those projects, selected
for its site a place called Pouzoalegre, founded and named it on the
19th of March, 1752; and, on the 25th of November, by order of the
bishop of Rio de Janeiro, the hermitage of St. Anna was converted
into its mother church.
 With the opening of the roads to Bahia and Rio de Janeiro, and
with the new navigation of Gram Para, that of Camapuan began to
be less frequented. The miners who were interested in proceeding to
St. Paulo by this fatal way never accomplished it, except with a
considerable number of canoes, equipped with chosen men, and
armed with the best instruments of defence; and occasionally
accompanied by canoes of war to a certain situation in the river
Tocoary, where they waited for the Paulista fleet to protect them
through the passage of the Pantanos.
Subsequent to the separation, already mentioned, of the two
nations, one of the most disastrous hostilities which the Portuguese
experienced from the Guaycurus was in May, 1775, when they
proceeded up the Paraguay, in twenty canoes, nearly to Villa Maria,
where they assassinated sixteen persons, and carried off many
others prisoners.
The foundation of the prezidio, or garrison, of Nova Coimbra, in
the same year, upon the western margin of the Paraguay, ought to
have been, according to the order of General L. d’Alburquerque,
forty leagues further to the south, at the place called Fecho dos
Morros, where it would have contributed to the protection of the
navigators of St. Paulo. The author of the Guaycurus, (written in this
prezidio by one of its governors,) says, that he could but partially
embarrass the passage of the Indians, or prevent the flight of
deserters; and that its founder had committed an error, from whence
resulted the entrance of the Spaniards into the dominions of his
faithful Majesty, where they founded Villa Real, St. Carlos, and St.
Joze.
The last hostility which the Portuguese sustained from the
Guaycurus, was the atrocious assassination of fifty soldiers in a plain
fronting Nova Coimbra, in January, 1781, at the time they were
bartering some articles with the barbarians who had been there twice
before with demonstrations of friendship.
The prezidio of Nova Coimbra was besieged in September, 1801,
by the Spaniards, who proceeded from the city of Assumption with
four escunas and twenty canoes. It was the first time that the thunder
of contending artillery had been heard in the centre of South
America, and from which the Guaycuru and Payagoa warriors
formed an idea of the European mode of warfare. The
commencement of hostilities produced the following correspondence
between the Spanish and Portuguese commandants:—
“I had the honour, last evening, to contest the fire of the fort under
the command of your Honour; and having ascertained that the force
with which I am about to attack it is much superior to that of your
Honour, which cannot fail to reduce it to the ultimate state of
misfortune; and as the vassals of his Catholic Majesty know how to
respect the laws of humanity, an opportunity is offered, and your
Honour is required to surrender the fort to the arms of the King my
master; on the contrary the cannon and the sword will decide the
fate of Coimbra, and its unfortunate garrison will suffer all the
extremities of war, from which calamity it will see itself delivered, if
your Honour complies with my proposal. Furnish me with your
decision categorically, in the course of one hour. On board of the
Escuna, Nossa Senhora do Carmo, 17th of September, 1801.
“Don Lazaro da Ribera.”

“Coimbra, 17th September, 1801.

“I have the honour to reply categorically to your Excellency, that
the inequality of force always was a stimulus which greatly animated
the Portuguese not to forsake their posts, and to defend themselves
to the two extremities, either of repelling the enemy, or burying
themselves below the ruins of forts confided to them. In this
resolution are all the individuals of this prezidio, who have the
distinguished honour of seeing in front of it the exalted person of
your Excellency, whom God preserve.
“Ricardo Franco d’Almeida.”
 The assailants withdrew with some loss, after being nine days
ineffectually attempting to carry the fort.
This province, which lies between the parallel of 7° where it joins
that of Para, and 24° 30′ of south latitude where it borders upon that
of Paranna, occupies a territory of nearly eleven hundred miles from
north to south, with almost eight hundred at its greatest width, being
more extensive than ancient Germany.
On its western limits it has the Spanish possessions, from which
it is separated by the rivers Guapore, Jauru, and Paraguay, and on
the eastern the river Paranna, which divides it from the province of
St. Paulo, and the Araguaya, which separates it from that of Goyaz.
It comprises nearly four climates, entering twenty leagues into the
temperate zone. A country so extensive necessarily admits of a
considerable variety in every point of view in which it can be
regarded. Nature itself has partitioned it into three grand districts, or
comarcas, of which two are divided into six smaller ones, and their
limits (also natural) will become, perhaps, on some future day, those
appropriated for the formation of the same number of ouvidorias,
when the accumulation of its population may render such a measure
desirable.
The southern district is denominated Camapuania.
Matto Grosso, on the west.
The central district comprises Cuiaba, central.
Bororonia, on the east.
Juruenna, on the west.
The northern district comprises Arinos, central.
Tappiraquia, on the east.

District of Camapuania.

The rivers Tocoary, Cochim, Camapuan, and Pardo, the origin of

which approximating, the three first flowing westward and the last
eastward, separate the district of Camapuania into north and south,
the northern limits of which is a chain of mountains, that in the
latitude of about 13° extend themselves from east to west, and from
whence emanate the Paraguay and its first branches to the
southward, and those which form the Tapajos and the Zingu to the
northward.
This district, which derives its name from the river Camapuan, is
bounded on the west by the river Paraguay; on the south by the
Chichuhi and Igurey; on the east by the Paranna; and comprises a
tract of territory of upwards of three hundred and fifty miles square. It
is a country almost universally flat, and has its woods chiefly in the
vicinity of the rivers. It consists principally either of catingas (not
adapted to agriculture) or plains, and is irrigated by a great number
of rivers, the most considerable of which originate in a range of land
from north to south, of very trifling elevation, and denominated the
serra Amambuhi, dividing the canton into east and west. A vast
portion of the western part is annually submerged by the inundations
of the Paraguay, which in some parts covers more than seventy
miles of plain.
Mineralogy.—Gold, calcareous stone, granite, variety of argils,
diamonds, and other precious stones.
Phytology.—The vegetable on which the cochineal breeds, and
the shrub which produces matte, are very common in various
situations; a diversity of palm trees, caju-nut trees, four sorts of
excellent guabiroba fruit, three of the uvaspiriticas, the fruit similar to
a grape, and the plant to the strawberry. The Paraguaynians make
various beverages of it.
Rivers.—The Tocoary, Pardo, Mondego, Igatimy, Correntes,
Ippanne Guaçu, Miamaya, Ivinheima, and the Negro, are the
principal.
The river Pardo, (Grey,) so called from the colour of its waters, is
formed by the Sanguexuga and the Vermelho. The latter, of a green
colour, partaking of the hue of its bed, is small, and flows from the
north. The Sanguexuga, (the Leach,) so called from passing near a
lake where they are excellent, originates a few miles to the south-
west of the Camapuan, and is navigable for the space of five or six
leagues. Its water is crystalline and excellent as far as the
confluence with the former. The Pardo is considerable, and so rapid
that canoes advance against its stream by the use of the vara with
great labour; water falls and currents increasing more and more from
its centre upwards, which render the navigation more tedious than
any other river which the Cuiabanos navigate, who consume almost
two months in proceeding up to the situation where the navigation of
only two hundred and eighty miles terminates, computing by water.
Its course is winding towards the south-east, through delightful plains
at the commencement, where the navigator passes the white deer,
anta, tamandua, wild hog, wolf, fox, emu ostrich, seriema, partridge,
&c. which invite him to the diversion of shooting.
These plains continue to the falls of Caiuru Guaçu and Caiuru
Mirim, which are situated about the middle of the extent of this river,
with an interval of three miles one from the other. From this situation
downwards, both margins are clothed with woods, abounding more
in honey than fruits, and only one small fall or current is met with,
called Capoeiras, eighteen miles below that of Caiuru Mirim.
The principal falls of this river are the Caiuru Guaçu, Tijuco,
Tacoaral, Tamandua, Curao, which is the largest of the whole, and
near fifty palms in height, Ballo, Lage Grande, Lage Pequena, Banco
Grande, Banco Pequena. In passing these, the canoes are
conveyed by land;—Caiuru Mirim, Banquinho, Cirga Comprida,
Empirucu, Mangaval, Cirga do Campo, Manuel Rodrigues, Sucuri,
Embirucu Mirim, another called Embirucu, Paredao, Furado,
Formigueiro, Pedras d’Amolar, Vermelho, Tocoarapaia, past all
which canoes are dragged by a warp, with but half a cargo, and
double the number of people. There are others passed with full
cargoes, the canoes being impelled by a greater or less number of
men.
Upon the banks of the Pardo, two sorts of the palm are seen,
which are not met with near any of the other rivers of the Cuiabana
navigation. One called guacuman, slender and six or seven feet in
height, of which a good bait for fish is made; the other, denominated
brutiz, is high and thick with leaves seven feet long. The Indians, and
also the ancient certanistas, made of its fruit a wine, very similar to
that of the red grape in colour and taste.
 The principal rivers which enlarge the Pardo are the Anhanduhi
Guaçu, Anhanduhi Mirim, and Sucuri; they join it by the right margin.
The last and smallest disembogues fifty miles below the Vermelho.
The first, rising in the centre of the province, discharges itself into the
Pardo, seventy miles above its embouchure. The Anhanduhi Mirim
enters it forty miles below the Sucuri. Fifteen miles above the mouth
of the Vermelho, is the port of Sanguexuga on the left margin of the
river of the same name, where the canoes, which proceed up the
river Pardo, are unloaded and conducted in carretas, (a sort of cart
with four wheels, drawn by six or seven bullocks,) across an isthmus
of near ten miles in width, through plains and woods to the port of
Camapuan, on the left bank of the small river of that name, which
originates near the first, in the skirts of the serro of Sacco. From
hence, the navigation is only with half a cargo, and accomplished
with prodigious labour (in consequence of the shoals and stones of
which this river is full) to the Cochim, where the goods are deposited
in ranchos, and well guarded, until the remainder of the cargoes are
fetched. Forty miles are reckoned from the port to the mouth of this
river, traversing woods deficient in fruits and game.
The river Cochim, which originates in the vicinity of the
Sanguexuga, runs violently between sides, formed of steep and
frightful rocks, which in some places are narrowed to four or five
fathoms; in other parts it passes through extensive woods, affording
little fruit, but abounding in game, where two sorts of palm trees, in
great quantities, are observed, the one called guacuriz, the other
bocayuvas. The principal of twenty-two falls, which interrupt the
navigation of this river, are, Mangaval, five leagues below the mouth
of the Camapuan; Pedra Branca, near thirty miles below the
preceding; and Vare, all requiring double the number of persons to
pass; Culapada, Furnas, Canellas d’Andre Alvez, Avanhandavussu,
and Avanhandavu Mirim, two miles distant from each other; P. Luiz
Antonio, which is very perilous; Jiquitaya; and Cachoeira da Ilha,
which is three miles above the confluence of this river with the
Tocoary. The principal streams which enlarge the Cochim are the
Inferno, (Infernal River,) Sellada, and the Jauru, entering by the right
margin; the Furado, Orelha d’Anta, Joam Bicudo, and the Tocoary
Mirim, by the left. The latter enters near the embouchure of the
Cochim.
The Tocoary has its heads near the boundary of Cayaponia,
much to the north of Camapuan. When it receives the Cochim, it is
already considerable, and near this confluence there is a large fall of
its name, where the canoes are relieved of half the cargo, in order to
pass it without danger. A little lower there is another small one,
denominated Belliago, the last of this river, (the ordinary width of
which is here about sixty fathoms,) and also the last of one hundred
and thirteen, which navigators encounter from Port Feliz to Cuiaba.
The greater part of its course is through campinhas, with little wood,
describing continual and short turnings, which give it an appearance
to the navigator of his always being enclosed within a lake. It
abounds in fish; but its waters are impregnated with a fine sand.
Amongst other islands, which it forms, is that of Passaros, (or Birds,)
so called on account of the infinite number that breed in it, and with
which its trees are always laden: it discharges into the Paraguay,
through many channels, which form a great number of islands,
generally submerged during the floods of either river. These islands
are denominated Pantanos, where, amongst other rare birds, is seen
a beautiful one called anhupocas. It is the size of the inhuma, having
also, like it, a horn upon the head, and spurs to the wings; it sings
from midnight till day. Wild geese are exceedingly numerous, and for
their exclusive sustenance nature here produces a prodigious
quantity of wild rice, and of so large a size that no other bird can
swallow it. Amongst other remarkable trees, on the margins of this
river, the most esteemed is a species of palm tree, thicker round the
trunk than the arms of a man can compass; its nuts, which are the
size of an ostrich’s egg, supply the aliment of the Indian.
The river Mondego, otherwise Embotateu, originally Aranbahi, is
considerable, and navigable nearly to its origin, which is a short
distance from that of the Anhanduhi Guaçu, and runs into the
Paraguay eighteen miles below the Tocoary. The largest of its
tributaries, which enter by the right margin, is now called the river
Verde. The last confluent of the Mondego, by the southern bank, is
the small river Zezere, which rises near the inconsiderable serra of
St. Barbara.
The Ivinbeima, which enters the Paranna by three mouths, flows
from the interior of the province, whither it affords navigation; and
receives by the left the Jaguary, a river little inferior to it.
The Negro, which is considerable, and would appear to be the
Sambambaya of the first certanistas, runs into the Paranna twenty
miles above the northern mouth of the Ivinheima.
The Miamaya, or Miamay, which is considered to be the river
formerly called Amambahy, is large, and enters the Paranna forty
miles below the southern arm of the Ivinheima.
The Igatimy, to which is given one hundred and fifty miles of
extent, is navigable very near to its source in the serra Amambahy.
Eighty miles in a direct line from its embouchure is the passage of
the Guaycurus, where the river is shallow. Twenty miles lower it
receives on the left the small river Bogas; and thirty-five miles
further, on the same side, the Escopil, which is little inferior, and
flows from the same serra.
The name of this fine confluence is Forquilha. It is an
advantageous point for the establishment of a colony. From hence to
the Paranna, the distance is about thirty-five miles, with only two
falls. Ten miles above this point, the first of twenty-one falls is
encountered, all of them compressed within the space of ten miles;
from these cataracts upwards, the river has no interruption to a little
above the Guaycuru ford, already mentioned. The course is winding,
the lateral lands low, and covered with impervious woods.
The Correntes, which appears to be the same that the Spaniards
called Rio Branco, (White River,) is considerable, and enters the
Paraguay fifty miles below the Fecho dos Morros, (closing of Rocks.)
The Ipanne Guaçu, after having watered an uninhabited territory,
falls into the Paraguay one hundred miles below the Correntes.
At no great distance from the Igatimy are the heads of two small
rivers called (the northern) Iguaray Assu, and (the southern) Iguaray
Mirim, which after uniting, join the Chichuhi, a river that discharges
itself into the Paraguay, in the latitude of 24° 12′. Neither the treaty of
limits agreed upon in 1751 or 1777, mention this river, or any other
as the divisionary line; but from the principal origin of the Igurey, the
ninth article of the latter treaty, says, that the boundary is to continue
in “a direct line, by the highest land, to the principal head of the
nearest river which enters the Paraguay;” and the Chichuhi appears
to answer best this adjustment. This river is also called Jejuhy,
formed, it is said, by the Grande and Pequena Jejuhy, which after
their junction receives on the left the Coruguaty.
Nearly fifteen miles to the south of the Igatimy, the river Igurey
falls into the Paranna, which has formed the limits on that side,
between the crowns of Spain and Portugal, since the year 1777.
Zoology.—There are antas of all colours, wolves, white deer,
with all other species of quadrupeds known in the other provinces.
The middle of the northern part of this province is called, in the
journals or diaries of the certanistas, Vaccaria, (or Cattle Plains,) in
consequence of the cattle that were here dispersed when the
Paulistas expelled the inhabitants of the city Xerez, and of five
neighbouring small aldeias, which formed a small province, of which
the said city was the head. The remainder of these animals, almost
extinct from the devastations of the wild beast and the hunter, were
augmented in 1797, by those which the Guaycurus carried off, when
they plundered the Spanish plains of the town of Coruguaty; and
also by such as escaped from the Coruguatynos, who pursued (to
the number of upwards of fifteen hundred) the barbarian pillagers.
Various savage nations have dominion in this country; the
Guaycuru is the most distinguished. At the present day they are
divided into three bodies; one of which, without any alliance with
other nations, live along the western margin of the Paraguay,
subdivided into various hordes: the most southern are called Linguas
by the neighbouring Spaniards; and when they infest the aldeias of
the province of St. Cruz de la Sierra, are there known by the name
Xiriquanos; others have the appellation of Cambaz. Those who
possess the eastern vicinity of the same river, constitute the other
two bodies; the southern are allied with the Spaniards, the northern
with the Portuguese. The Fecho dos Morros, or an approximating
situation, is the separating line. No difference is remarked of origin,
idiom, and usages, amongst these three portions of Indians,
otherwise declared enemies to each other. The allies of the
Portuguese, extending from the Mondego southward, are divided
into seven hordes, or large aldeias, generally friends to each other,
and without the least difference in any respect. Chagoteo,
Pacachodeo, Adioeo, Atiadeo, Oleo, Laudeo, and Cadioeo, are the
names by which they are distinguished. In none of these aldeias,
which would be better designated as large towns, are there any
acknowledged superior to the rest. Each horde is composed of three
classes of persons; the first, are a species of noblesse, entitled
captains, and whose wives and daughters have the distinction of
donas; the second, are denominated soldiers, or men whose military
obedience descends from father to son; and the third, captives or
slaves, comprising the prisoners of war and their descendants.
There are but a few of the first in each aldeia, the second are very
numerous, and the third exceed many times the number of the
others taken conjointly. The captains and soldiers have an
intermixed origin, and their title of gentility is joage. The slaves are of
various nations, acquired in war, never undertaken with any other
object, than for the augmentation of prisoners, in the number of
which consists the degree of nobility, or distinction of the captains.
These irruptions are exterminatory, taking away the lives of the elder
people and the liberty of the younger. Such youthful captives soon
forget their idiom and customs, and adopt those of the Guaycurus,
and never abscond, as their masters do not occupy them in any
thing. It is reputed highly degrading for a senhor, or lord, to contract
marriage with his slave; the son treats with contempt the mother who
bore him by a slave.
The Guaycurus are of medium stature, well made, healthy,
robust, and appear formed to the most painful and laborious
undertakings. They eat many times in the day, very slowly, and their
provisions are generally over-dressed, and cooked without any
attention to cleanliness. They never suffer from indigestion. They are
most particular in the diet which they use on occasions of their
unfrequent indispositions. The scurvy never makes its appearance,
and sudden deaths are never known. Bodily defects are exceedingly
rare; blind persons sometimes are seen, but none are ever bald.
Their teeth are almost universally irregular, in consequence of not
extracting the first teeth of the youth when they change them, an
omission arising from the tenderness with which they are treated; but
they commonly retain them till death, although black enough, from
the prodigious quantity of tobacco which they use. The women
always carry a piece between the under lip and gums. They paint the
body with the dye of the urucu and jenipapo, in which operation
much symmetry is preserved. The youth have no certain usage in
the disposal of their lank hair; the aged shave their heads similar to
the lay Franciscans.
The women likewise shave their heads around, and clip the hair,
leaving it three inches in length at the top. Their physiognomy is
broad, and presents nothing agreeable in consequence of the dye
which they introduce into the skin with thorns, forming lines, that
commence at the roots of the hair, and terminate at the eyelids or the
cheeks, and in some instances at the chin, where they give it the
appearance of a chess board, an ash colour being so indelibly fixed,
that it continues through life. They are usually wrapped up in a large
cotton cloth, from the neck to the feet, striped with various colours;
the more ostentatious ornament themselves with shells, the mother-
pearl appearing outwards; some have upon them the figure of their
horses, well drawn in black and white. Below this dress they wear a
very wide girdle, called an ayulate; without which a girl from her birth
is never seen. Ornamental strings of silver, in necklaces and
bracelets for the arms and legs, and a plate of the same metal at the
breast, are generally displayed, for the manufacture of which, a
stone anvil and hammer are used. In former times, these ornaments
consisted of wood, such as are yet seen amongst some of the poor.
Early in life they become meagre, and their skins, as well as
those of the men at an advanced age, are remarkably wrinkled.
The men have no other clothing than a narrow girdle, or cinta of
dyed cotton, which they tie round the middle of the body; and after
they have had communication with the Europeans, they cover them
with beads of divers colours, forming different devices. They
ornament the head, arms, and legs, with plumes, or feathers, of
various colours. They have the under lip perforated, and a cylinder of
wood, almost as thick as a writing pen, and three inches long,
introduced, the richer class wearing them of silver; and in their ears,
half moons of the same metal. The men are diligent in hunting,
fishing, gathering honey and wild fruits, and in the manufacture of
arms and canoes, which they call noatek. The women spin,
manufacture clothes, and cintas, or girdles of cotton; and make
cords, mats, &c. Both sexes occupy themselves equally in culinary
affairs.
They breed all the species of domestic European birds and
quadrupeds introduced into the country, and some peculiar to this
continent, with great attention and care, in consequence of which the
whole are particularly tame.
Agriculture is held in contempt by them; and meat is their only
aliment, which renders their stock of animals not over abundant, with
the exception of horses, which they never eat. They change the
colour of a green parrot into yellow, by stripping off the plumage, and
applying the dye of the urucu, to its unfeathered skin.
From their custom of incessant riding on horseback, their legs are
crooked. They do not use the saddle or stirrups, nor any substitute
for them, and their bridles consist of cords. They break their horses
in water, in order that the rider may not be dismounted, or that his fall
may be less sensibly felt.
Their war-horses are not used for any other purpose, nor do they
ever sell them. The women are mounted on horseback between
bundles of dried grass upon a cloth which serves at the same time
for a housing.
The Guaycurus are dreaded and respected by the surrounding
nations, in consequence of the advantage they have in cavalry in
their cruel wars, and the arms which they use, consisting of a club,
or staff, of four to five spans in length, and an inch in diameter; a
lance, somewhat thicker, and twelve feet long; a trassado, or large
knife, and the bow and arrow. They are equipped with all those arms,
when they proceed upon their war-horses, in the following manner.
They encircle themselves with a cord, between which and the body,
the club is introduced on the right side, the trassado on the left; with
the left hand they govern the horse, and with the right wield the
lance, which they do not use when they carry the bow and arrow.
They also use the laço in their hunting excursions.
A year does not elapse without their undertaking campaigns
against, and making prisoners of the Guatos, Cayapos, Bororos,
Xiquitos, Chamococos, (the two last are of the province of St. Cruz
de la Sierra,) Guaxis, who dwell about the heads of the Aranhahy,
Coroas, Caiavabas, Guannas, and other tribes. The Guannas are
the most numerous, and amongst them alone is remarked the
cultivation of some hortulans and cotton trees.
They content themselves with one wife; but the law is free to both
parties to effect a separation, and contract a new alliance, when one
is disgusted with the other; such separations, however, are very rare.
The ceremony of marriage consists in a plentiful banquet,
accompanied with a rude dance.
They have a general cemetery, which is a large open structure
covered with mats, where each family has a part staked off for its
use. Above the sepulchres of the men are deposited their bows,
arrows, and other arms. Those of distinguished warriors are decked
with ornaments. Rich young females are decorated as if for the bridal
day. They have no religion; and, in place of doctors or surgeons,
there are certain persons denominated Unigenitos, who are
pretended diviners and superstitious imposters, absolutely destitute
of that knowledge of medicine or cure of diseases, which belongs to
other savages less distinguished. They cure their patients by
smoking or sucking the part affected, and expectorating into a grave;
they do not prescribe any beverages.
They believe in a creator of all, but to whom they pay no kind of
homage, nor have recourse upon any urgent occasions; and also an
inferior spirit, endowed with the knowledge of futurity, whom they
denominate Nanigogigo. They admit the immortality of the soul; but it
would appear, they have no idea of future recompenses being
proportioned to the conduct of life; they imagine that the souls of the
captains and unigenitos are in a state of enjoyment after death, and
that those of the people wander about the cemetery.
The unigenitos acquire most credit by their pretended familiarity
with the Nanigogigo, for which the people consider them privileged.
The macauhan is a bird which produces much auguration amongst
the Guaycurus, when its notes are unintelligible to them; upon such
occasions the subsequent night is a season of inconvenience and
labour to the unigenitos, who occupy themselves alternately in
lamentable singings, or in imitating the notes of various birds,
shaking at the same time a calabash with little stones in it, and in
calling upon the Nanigogigo to interpret the mysterious song of the
bird. They practise the same artifice when they pretend to know
whether an invalid will die or recover, and if good or ill success will
attend an ensuing war.
It is considered a beauty amongst these people to have no hair
upon the eyebrows, being particularly careful to extract it on its
appearing.
Their language abounds with words and phrases of soft and easy
pronunciation. The women explain themselves at times differently to
the men; for instance, in the expression of “Farewell, I am going,” the
latter say “sara gigo oipilo,”—the women, “sara gigo ioy.”
There is nothing more remarkable amongst the Guaycurus than
the inhuman practice of the mothers in destroying the embryo on
discovering their pregnancy, until they arrive at the age of thirty. The
reason of this custom is to avoid the inconveniences annexed to the
birth and rearing of their offspring.
The streets of their villages or towns are straight and wide, the
houses are covered with mats of bulrushes, disposed horizontally in
dry weather, and slopingly in wet weather. Many have two and three
mats, one above the other, with more or less interval, as much for
the exclusion of the rain as for the diminution of the heat. They sleep
on the ground upon hides, and cover themselves with the cloths that
the women spread over the two bundles of grass between which
they ride on horseback.
 None of their dwelling places are permanent. They are always
near some river or lake, and continue whilst there are game, fish,
fruits, and pasturage for the cattle. On experiencing any want, in a
moment the town disappears, and the plains, previously covered
with thousands of animals, are deserted. The marches of these
caravans are grand and interesting. On arriving at their destined
place, another town rises almost in a moment, and the surrounding
campos, where scarcely a few deer pastured, are on a sudden
covered with numerous horses, oxen, and flocks of sheep.
They manufacture an inebriating drink with honey and water,
called chicha; and to the rum of the Portuguese they give the name
of nodak.
Some express themselves tolerably in the Portuguese language,
and have made transitions to the towns or establishments of the
province, since they received the protection and subjected
themselves to the Faithful Crown, in virtue of which, the following
patent, previously alluded to, was granted to them.
“Joam d’Albuquerque de Mello Pereyra e Caceres, of his
Majesty’s council, chevalier of the order of St. John of Malta,
governor and captain-general of the capitanias of Matto Grosso and
Cuiaba, &c. maketh known to all those to whom this my letter patent
may come, that the nation of Indian Guaycurus, or Cavalleiros,
having solemnly contracted perpetual peace and friendship with the
Portuguese, for a term judicially done, in which the two chiefs, Joam
Queyma de Albuquerque and Paulo Joaquim Joze Ferreyra, in the
name of their nation, subject themselves and promise a strict
obedience to the laws of his Majesty, in order to be from this day
hence forward recognised as vassals of the same sovereign; I
command and order all magistrates of justice and war,
commandants, and all persons of the dominions of his Faithful
Majesty, to recognise, treat with, and aid them, with all the
demonstrations of friends. And, for the confirmation of the above, I
have ordered the present Letter Patent to be passed to them, with
my signature, and sealed with the signet of my arms, in this capital of
Villa Bella, on the 30th July, 1791.”
 The following words will partly show the difference between the
Guaycuru language and the general lingua.
GEN. LINGUA. GUAYCURU.
Sun Araci A’liga
Pannay (used by the men only)
Moon Jaci
Epannay (women)
White Tinga Lapaca
Black Una Nabidre
Great Guassu Elodo
Brother Enduva Nixo
Salt Juki Juki
Ema
Ostrich Apacanigo
Guaripe
Crocodile Jacare Nioxe
Horse Cavaru Apolicano
Pig Taycu Nigda
Dog Jaguara Niknik
Wolf Guara Tiglicon
Cat Bracaya Perixene
Man Apuaba Hulegre
Demon, or Evil Spirit Anhanga Nanigogigo
Diviner Page Unigenito
The territory through which the Igatimy, Escopil, and Miammaya
flow is inhabited by the Cahans, (people of the wood,) so
denominated from their always living within the precincts of woods,
in consequence of their dread of the Guaycurus, who alone proceed
along the plains and open country, to facilitate the march of their
horses.
The Cabans live in aldeias: not more than thirty years ago they
had fifteen of those villages. They paint themselves with the dye of
the urucu, perforate the under lip, and insert a cylinder of resin,
transparent as crystal, secured by a small wooden pin at the upper
extremity. The bow and arrow are their arms, made with instruments
of flint and the sharpened teeth of the boar. They cultivate the cotton
tree, the wool of which they spin and weave by a method peculiar to
themselves. Their vesture consists of a sort of ponche, in the form of
a sack, made of a piece of cotton cloth of good width, doubled and
sewed in part at the corners, with an opening to introduce the head