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C ON TE NTS
p a r t I W H AT I S A R C H A E O L O G Y ?
c h a p t e r 1
The Science of Archaeology 1
What Is Archaeology? 3
Archaeology and Anthropology 5
Archaeology and the Other Sciences 8
The Basic Goals of Archaeology 8
The Branches of Archaeology 9
Prehistoric Archaeology 9
Historical Archaeology 10
H IG H L IG H T 1 .1 The Archaeology of Enslaved
Africans in the New World 11
Classical Archaeology 13
Maritime Archaeology 13
H IG H L IG H T 1 .2 The Mary Rose 14
Public Archaeology 15
H IG H L IG H T 1 .3 An Ancient Boat Comes to Life 16
Key Concepts in Archaeology 18
The Archaeological Record 18
Cultural Deposition, Stratigraphy, and Dating 18
Archaeological Cultures 20
Archaeology as Science 21
The Structure of Scientific Knowledge 22
The Scientific Method 23
vii
viii Contents
Research Design 25
Pseudoscience 25
Frauds 26
Archaeology and Prehistory 27
The Importance of Archaeology 27
Chapter Summary 29
Key Concepts 30
Suggested Readings 30
c h a p t e r 2
Background of Archaeology 31
Ancient Archaeology 35
Antiquarians 35
The Discovery of a Prehistoric Past 36
Classical Civilizations 37
H IG H L IG H T 2.1 The Buried Cities Below Vesuvius 39
The Emergence of Professional
Archaeology 41
A Historical Approach 41
Unilinear Cultural Evolution 41
Diffusion as an Early Explanatory Model 43
Improving Field Methods 43
Developing the Outline of World
Prehistory 46
Prehistory of the Americas 46
H IG H L IG H T 2.2 The Moundbuilders 47
Prehistory of Sub-Saharan Africa 48
Prehistory of Asia and Oceania 48
Political Influences in the History of
Archaeology 49
Colonialism 49
H IG H L IG H T 2.3 Great Zimbabwe 50
Nationalism 51
General Biases 51
Chapter Summary 52
Key Concepts 53
Suggested Readings 53
Contents ix
c h a p t e r 3
The Development of Contemporary Archaeology 54
Archaeology After World War II 57
The Rise of Scientific Archaeology 59
Research Design in Archaeology 60
Middle-Range Theory 60
H IG H L IG H T 3 .1 Ethnoarchaeology Among the Aka
of Central Africa 63
p a r t II O B TA I N I N G I N F O R M AT I O N
A B O U T T H E PA S T
c h a p t e r 4
The Archaeological Record 79
Archaeological Sites 83
x Contents
Types of Sites 85
H IG H L IG H T 4.1 Ancient Footprints at Laetoli 86
Site Deposits 87
H IG H L IG H T 4.2 Tell es-Safi: Goliath’s Hometown 88
Archaeological Evidence 90
Artifacts 90
Ecofacts 91
Features 92
Architecture 93
H IG H L IG H T 4.3 How Were the Egyptian Pyramids Built? 95
Human Remains 95
Site Formation and Transformation 96
Geology and Hydrology 97
Taphonomy 98
Bioturbation 99
Human Agency 100
Preservation 100
Preservation Conditions 101
Preservation and the Environment 101
Recognizing and Recovering Evidence 103
Ongoing Impacts on the Archaeological Record 105
H IG H L IG H T 4.4 The Looting of Angkor Wat 106
Chapter Summary 107
Key Concepts 108
Suggested Readings 108
c h a p t e r 5
Conducting Fieldwork 109
Finding Sites 111
Accidental Discoveries 113
Project-Related Discoveries 113
H IG H L IG H T 5.1 The Discovery of Lascaux 114
Conducting Archaeological Surveys 114
Background Studies 116
Remote Sensing Techniques for Finding Sites 116
Sampling 117
H IG H L IG H T 5.2 Ubar: The Atlantis of the Sands 118
Recording Sites 120
Contents xi
c h a p t e r 6
Classification and Analysis of Artifacts 137
Classification and Typology 140
Attributes 140
Temporal Types 141
Assemblage Types 141
Classifying Types of Artifacts 142
Stone 142
Ceramics 145
Metal 147
Glass 148
Shell and Bone 149
Perishables 149
H IG H L IG H T 6 .1 Historical Material Culture: A View
from the Chinatown in Riverside, California 150
c h a p t e r 7
Determining Time 158
What Is So Important About Time? 160
Older or Younger? Relative Dating in
Archaeology 160
Stratigraphy and Superposition 162
Index Fossils and Biostratigraphy 162
Temporal Types 163
Seriation 163
H IG H L IG H T 7.1 Seriation in Ancient Greek Coins 165
Fluorine, Uranium, and Nitrogen (FUN) Dating 165
Real Time: Chronometric Dating 166
Cross-Dating and Dendrochronology 167
Radiometric Techniques 168
H IG H L IG H T 7.2 Dating the Shroud of Turin 174
Archaeomagnetism 177
Obsidian Dating 177
Chapter Summary 178
Key Concepts 179
Suggested Readings 179
c h a p t e r 8
Bioarchaeology: Human Remains 180
What is Bioarchaeology? 184
Ethics and Politics 184
Initial Treatment of the Body 185
Purposeful Mummification 185
H IG H L IG H T 8.1 The Roman Mummies of Tell El-Hibeh 187
Final Treatment of the Body 188
Inhumation 188
H IG H L IG H T 8.2 The Ice Princess 190
Cremation 191
Specially Treated Remains 191
Contents xiii
p a r t III I N T E R P R E T I N G T H E PA S T
c h a p t e r 9
Environment and Adaptation 215
The Environment 217
H IG H L IG H T 9 .1 Easter Island’s Ecological Disaster 220
Environmental Archaeology 221
Reconstructing Past Landforms 221
Reconstructing Past Plants and Animals 222
Reconstructing Past Climate 223
xiv Contents
c h a p t e r 10
Understanding Past Settlement and Subsistence 239
Where Did People Live? Past Settlement
Systems 240
Settlement Archaeology 242
Understanding Site Components 245
Analyzing Populations 247
Catchment Analysis 248
The Interplay Between Settlement and
Subsistence 248
H IG H L IG H T 10.1 The Impacts of Agriculture and
Urbanization on Health and Nutrition 252
How Did People Make a Living?
Subsistence 254
The Four Primary Subsistence Systems 254
Archaeological Evidence of Subsistence 255
H IG H L IG H T 10.2 Diet and Cuisine at Lake Cahuilla 259
Subsistence Technology and Organization 260
Recovery and Identification of Ecofactual
Evidence 261
Quantifying Ecofactual Remains 262
Chapter Summary 265
Key Concepts 266
Suggested Readings 266
Contents xv
c h a p t e r 11
Interpreting Past Cultural Systems 268
How Can Archaeology Answer Anthropological
Questions? 271
Social Archaeology 271
Cognitive Archaeology 272
Interpreting Past Social Structures 275
Kinship 275
Social Stratification 276
The Archaeology of Gender 277
H IG H L IG H T 1 1.1 Sex and Gender in Central European
Burials 280
The Archaeology of Ethnicity 281
Interpreting Past Political Organization 283
Four Types of Political Organization 283
Some Theories of the Origin of States 287
H IG H L IG H T 1 1.2 The Terra-Cotta Army 288
Interpreting Past Belief Systems 289
Religious Organization and Expression 289
Cosmology, Philosophy, and Oral Tradition 291
H IG H L IG H T 1 1.3 Archaeoastronomy 292
Iconography, Art, and Expression 294
H IG H L IG H T 1 1.4 Art and Archaeology in Africa 295
Remembering the Individual 297
Chapter Summary 299
Key Concepts 300
Suggested Readings 301
c h a p t e r 12
Understanding Culture Change 302
The Archaeology of Change 304
Systems Theory 307
Evolutionary Approaches 307
Invention and Diffusion 308
xvi Contents
p a r t II PUBLIC ARCHAEOLOGY
C h a p t e r 13
Cultural Resource Management 329
The Impact of Population Growth and Development on
the Archaeological Record 333
The Field of Cultural Resource Management 333
Antiquities Legislation in the United States 334
The National Historic Preservation Act 334
Compliance Archaeology 337
The Archaeological Resources Protection Act 340
The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation
Act 341
Antiquities Legislation Around the World 342
Site Preservation and Restoration 343
H IG H L IG H T 13.1 Preserving Abu Simbel 344
The Role of Public Education in Archaeological
Preservation 345
Contents xvii
C h a p t e r 14
Archaeology in Today’s World 355
Archaeology Today 360
Archaeology and Politics 360
Who Owns the Past? 361
H IG H L IG H T 1 4.1 Indians and Archaeologists in the
United States 363
Learning From the Past: Applying Archaeology to
Contemporary Problems 364
H IG H L IG H T 1 4.2 The Ancient Maya and the Rain Forest 366
Archaeology and Information Technology 368
Archaeology, Mass Media, and Public Perception 369
So What? The Significance of Archaeology 369
Chapter Summary 370
Suggested Readings 371
Glossary372
References380
Photo Credits 403
Index404
TO TH E INSTRUC TOR
The primary objective in writing this text was to provide an introduction to the broad
and fascinating world of archaeology from the scientific perspective. Like all research-
ers, I have a bias in my approach to the study of the past. I view and interpret the
past from the perspective of empirical science. Although some archaeologists believe
that there are many pasts, I believe that there is only one empirical past. There is no
question that different people in the past had varying beliefs, views, and agendas, and
I believe that each of these perspectives was real. This makes the past very complex
but still empirical. I acknowledge and value the perspectives of other approaches and
believe that they, too, can be incorporated into the empirical science of archaeology.
I include their important contributions to archaeology in the book.
In the text, I discuss not only the theoretical aspects of archaeology but also prac-
tical applications of what is learned about the past, as well as ways in which that infor-
mation can be used to improve the present. Archaeology is in a unique position to
illuminate how past people faced the challenges of their times and environments and
how they adapted—or why they did not. The archaeological record contains a vast
storehouse of valuable knowledge and skills, and we should discover and learn from it.
In writing this textbook and providing examples, I drew on my own broad expe-
rience as an archaeologist who has worked in government, private industry, and aca-
demia. Although my topical experience is broad, my geographic experience is focused
on western North America. To expand the geographic coverage, I included examples
of the work of a number of my colleagues. Thus, readers have the benefit of the expe-
riences of researchers from around the world and a wide range of archaeological sites
across the globe.
Any textbook is a work in progress, and with the dynamic discipline of archae-
ology this is especially true. I have used a combination of new information and input
from students, colleagues, and other reviewers asked specifically to evaluate the previ-
ous editions of this text to make changes to this edition that I feel make it more user-
friendly and an overall better resource for students.
xix
xx To t h e I n s t r u c to r
The text is organized into four major sections. In Part I, “What Is Archaeology?,”
I define the field, discuss the nature of scientific inquiry, and provide a history of the
discipline. My goal is to provide students with a basic understanding of what archae-
ology is and how it operates. In Part II, “Obtaining Information About the Past,” the
fundamental concepts and methods in archaeology: sites, artifacts, ecofacts, remote
sensing, excavation, and so on are defined and discussed. Included are discussions
of how archaeologists obtain and classify information and how they control for time
through the available dating methods. Part III, “Interpreting the Past,” covers how
archaeologists analyze information to formulate and test models of what happened
in the past. This is probably the most difficult aspect of archaeology, for both students
and professionals. It is one thing to find and describe a broken pot, but it is another to
really understand the cultural system in which that pot and its maker operated. This
remains the challenge.
Part IV, “Public Archaeology,” describes the field of cultural resource management
and the laws and regulations that deal with archaeology, both in the United States and
around the world. This is an important aspect of the field because much of the actual
work done in archaeology is in response to development and preservation. Archae-
ology is not immune to politics, and there are many issues that face the field today,
including the role of native peoples in the interpretation of their own heritage. Finally,
the ways that archaeology can contribute to many contemporary issues, from envi-
ronmental problems to law enforcement, are discussed. Archaeology is truly a holistic
science.
Special Features
CHAPTER-O PENING OUTLINE Each chapter begins with an outline of the material
covered in the chapter and a compelling story of a real archaeological adventure that
expresses the main theme of the chapter.
HIGHLIGHTS Each chapter contains between two and four Highlights—accounts of fas-
cinating topics or sites related to specific sections of text. The Highlights focus on
historical, classical, and prehistoric archaeology from diverse archaeological regions
highlighT 1.1
The Archaeology of enslaved Africans in the new World
North America
Asia
Between about 1500 and the late 1800s, millions What history cannot tell us about these people, 5 6
The Science of
of people were kidnapped from Africa and trans- archaeology can. Since about 1970, historical archae- 11 7 Europe
ported in crowded ships to the new World, where ologists have become interested in learning about 9 2
those who survived the voyage were sold into slav- the life of slaves, including where and under what 10 Atlantic Ocean
3
ery. (Slavery was abolished in the United States in conditions they lived, what they were given to eat,
Archaeology
1863, persisted until later in some other countries, how they may have supplemented that diet, how 8
Central
Pacific Ocean
Africa
and, amazingly, is still practiced in some places.) they interacted with their owners, and many other America 4
once in the new World, they were sold, lived, had questions for which there are few documents (otto l o c at i o N
Pacific Ocean M a P: Sites Mentioned in Chapter 1
families, and died. in many cases, they continued 1984; Singleton 1995; Thomas 1998; heath 1999; 1 Indian Ocean
to practice many aspects of the cultures they had ferguson 2004). The African American community South America Australia
brought with them and so retained much of their also is interested in the answers to these questions so
THE MOCHE WERE farmers and fishers who cultural heritage. The casual observer would expect that they can reconstruct their history and heritage.
that, during the historical period, records would Many of these archaeological investigations have New Zealand
lived along the north coast of Peru between North America
exist detailing the lives of these people. Although been conducted in the eastern United States. Slav- Asia
about 1,900 and 1,200 years ago. They were chapter outline many records do exist regarding the transport and ery was abolished in the northern states in the early l o c at i o N M5 a P6 : Sites Mentioned in Chapter 1
sale of slaves, very few records of their daily lives 1800s but persisted in the southern states until the 1 ■ Moche, 7 ■ Porto delle conche,
superb artisans, working with metals (copper, What Is Archaeology? sipán, Peru
11 7 Europe
Pisa, italy
Archaeology and Anthropology exist, and those that do are incomplete and biased. end of the American civil War. one of the better- 9 2
gold, and silver), stone, and textiles. Their Archaeology and the Other As a result, we know very little about how this large known slave-period sites in the northern United 210■ Minoan civilization,
Atlantic Ocean
8 ■ Palenque,
3
Sciences segment of the population lived. States is the African cemetery in new york city. crete chiapas, Mexico
pottery (Donnan 1976, 1990) was sometimes The Basic Goals of Archaeology
in 1991, during the construction of a federal 3North 8
■ cleopatra’s Palace, 9 ■ shroud of turin, Pacific Ocean
AmericaCentral
The Branches of Archaeology alexandria,
America egypt
Africa
turin, italy Asia
decorated with scenes of elaborately dressed Prehistoric Archaeology
courthouse in lower Manhattan, a portion of an 4
5 6
Historical Archaeology eighteenth-century cemetery was discovered (han- 4
Pacific Ocean
■ Port royal, 10 ■ Pecos Pueblo, Pecos,
people engaged in some activities. Eventually, sen and Mcgowan 1998). The cemetery, shown as Jamaica 1 11 7 EuropeNew Mexico
HIGHLIGHT 1.1 The South America 9
Indian Ocean
2 Australia
a series of scenes was linked together to Archaeology of Enslaved “negroes Burying ground” on eighteenth-century 5
10
■ Mary Rose site, 11 ■ New york slave cemetery,
Africans in the New World maps of new york city, was located on a small plot Portsmouth, englandAtlantic Ocean New
3 york city, New york
identify a major chronicle, called the Sacrifice Classical Archaeology of land then outside the city limits and was used 6 ■ sutton
8 hoo, Pacific Ocean
Maritime Archaeology New Zealand
Ceremony. The characters were unearthly, their from the early 1700s to about 1790. it is estimated Central
Woodbridge, england
4
Africa
HIGHLIGHT 1.2 The Mary Rose America
that between 15,000 and 20,000 people were bur-
dress and decoration fantastically elaborate, HIGHLIGHT 1.3 An Ancient
ied there. The area was eventually built over and Pacific Ocean
Boat Comes to Life 1 ■ Moche, 1 7 ■ Porto delleIndianconche,
Ocean
and the activities astounding. Four major Public Archaeology the cemetery was forgotten. After rediscovery of sipán, Peru South America
Pisa, italy Australia
Key Concepts in Archaeology the site in 1991, construction was halted, and work
“priests” were identified: Warrior Priest, Bird The Archaeological Record to document and evaluate the site was undertaken.
2 ■ Minoan civilization, 8 ■ Palenque,
crete chiapas, Mexico
Cultural Deposition, excavations in the footprint of the courthouse
Priest, Priestess, and an unnamed priest. The Stratigraphy, and Dating 3 ■ cleopatra’s Palace, 9 ■ shroud of turin,
New Zealand
have revealed more than 400 individuals. Most of
four are shown decapitating and mutilating Archaeological Cultures alexandria, egypt turin, italy
the interments were enslaved Africans, but other
Archaeology as Science
14 Port royal, 10 Pecos Pueblo, Pecos,
■ ■
segments of the population, including the poor and Moche, 7 Porto delle conche,
war captives, and then drinking their blood The Structure of Scientific ■
Jamaica
■
New Mexico
Knowledge sipán, Peru Pisa, italy
from a cup. The entire story and imagery were The Scientific Method 25
■
■ Mary Rose
Minoan site,
civilization, 118 ■
■ New york slave cemetery,
Palenque,
Research Design Portsmouth, england
crete New yorkMexico
chiapas, city, New york
interpreted as depictions of the Moche gods Pseudoscience
The rediscovery of the “negroes Burying ground”
36 sutton hoo,Palace,
■
Frauds greatly interested new yorkers, historians, and ■ cleopatra’s 9 ■ shroud of turin,
conducting supernatural activities, part of members of the African American community. Woodbridge,
alexandria, england
egypt turin, italy
Archaeology and Prehistory
it is believed the cemetery originally contained
Moche art and mythology. The Importance of Archaeology
between 15,000
10,000 and 20,000 people, sometimes
4 ■ Port royal, 10 ■ Pecos Pueblo, Pecos,
Jamaica New Mexico
buried three deep.
5 ■ Mary Rose site, 11 ■ New york slave cemetery,
Portsmouth, england New york city, New york
6 ■ sutton hoo,
Woodbridge, england
To t h e I n s t r u c to r xxi
around the world. At the end of each Highlight are questions to stimulate students’
independent thinking.
LOCATION MAPS Within each chapter is a map showing the location of regions and sites
discussed in that chapter.
CHAPTER-E NDING PEDAGOGY Each chapter ends with a summary, a list of key con-
cepts, and an annotated list of suggested readings.
GLOSSARY AND INDEX The glossary at the back of the book provides definitions of the
key terms. The comprehensive index allows readers to locate concepts and archaeolog-
ical localities throughout the text.
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I wish to acknowledge and thank my coauthor of the first three
editions of this book, Dr. Robert M. Yohe II, for his contributions. His insight and
experience made the book a much better and well-rounded work. I also gratefully
acknowledge the other contributors to this edition and the specific contributions they
made. Their additions to the Highlights feature and field reports enrich the introduc-
tion to archaeology. In addition to providing varied examples of archaeologists in
action, the Highlights and first-person accounts give students exposure to geographic
and cultural diversity.
California.”
■ 8.2: “The Roman Mummies of Tell El-Hibeh.”
I also appreciate the time and effort expended by the many reviewers of this book;
their input has been very valuable. These colleagues include Anna Agbe-Davies of
DePaul University, Mary C. Beaudry of Boston University, Karen Olsen Bruhns of
San Francisco State University, Dr. Gary W. Burbridge of Grand Rapids Community
College, Jeffrey H. Collins of Oglethorpe University, Pamela J. Ford of Mt. San Jacinto
College, Robert E. Fry of Purdue University, Robert G. Goodby of Franklin Pierce Col-
lege, Donn Grenda of the University of Redlands, Christopher Matthews of Hofstra
University, Randall H. McGuire of SUNY Binghamton, Ann Morton of Finger Lakes
Community College, Dr. Gordon C. Pollard of Plattsburgh State University, Scott E.
Simmons of University of North Carolina-Wilmington, Amber VanDerwarker of the
University of California-Santa Barbara, Mary R. Vermillion of Saint Louis University,
Cameron B. Wesson of University of Illinois-Chicago, Nancy Marie White of Univer-
sity of South Florida, Rick Woodward of Bossier Parish Community College, and a
number of others who preferred to remain anonymous. The latest round of reviewers
helped me to develop and craft this fifth edition.
In addition, I very much appreciate the comments and contributions of a number
of my other colleagues on portions of the text, including Paul G. Chace, Jim Chatters,
Nick Clapp, G. Dicken Everson, Jill K. Gardner, Brian E. Hemphill, Henry C. Koerper,
Lori Lawson, Thomas E. Levy, Suzi Neitzel, Tom Origer, Richard H. Osborne, Bob
Palmer, Max Pavesic, Fran Rogers, Sandy Rogers, Mike Sage, Philip Silverman, Marc
Sternberg, Shelley Stone, Karen K. Swope, R. E. Taylor, Miriam Vivian, Linda Wells,
Philip J. Wilke, Jim Woods, and Diana Yupe. I would not have been able to conduct the
requisite research without the help of the libraries at CSU Bakersfield and the Univer-
sity of San Diego. This was critical to this project.
TO TH E STUD E NT
CHAPTER-O PENING OUTLINE Each chapter begins with an outline of the material cov-
ered in the chapter.
LOCATION MAPS Within each chapter is a map showing the location of regions and sites
discussed in that chapter.
CHAPTER-E NDING PEDAGOGY Each chapter ends with a summary, a list of key con-
cepts, and an annotated list of suggested readings.
GLOSSARY AND INDEX The glossary at the back of the book provides definitions of the
key terms. Terms that appear in the glossary are in boldface in the text. Italics are used
to emphasize other terms or concepts. The comprehensive index allows you to locate
concepts and archaeological localities throughout the text.
xxiii
xxiv To t h e S t u d e n t
W H AT I S A R C H A E O L O G Y ?
t I
c h a p t e r
The Science of
Archaeology
THE MOCHE WERE farmers and fishers who
lived along the north coast of Peru between
about 1,900 and 1,200 years ago. They were chapter outline
13. La cronologia del trattato è definita dai nomi dei consoli (L. Giunio Bruto
e M. Orazio) dell’anno, che Polibio lesse nel trattato medesimo, e non
v’è un solo argomento che possa far dubitare della sua autenticità.
Questo documento s’ingrana perfettamente nella storia primitiva di
Cartagine e di Roma repubblicana. Polibio inoltre lo cita per visione
diretta del testo originale che dovette faticosamente interpretare; ed in
questa esposizione dei rapporti diplomatici romano-cartaginese, egli è
troppo preciso e circostanziato, perchè si abbia a dubitare di errore
alcuno. Tuttavia i critici tedeschi contemporanei, e al loro seguito taluno
dei più recenti studiosi italiani di storia antica hanno dubitato del
documento e della sua cronologia; altro esempio di quella mania di
revocare in dubbio, a furia di argomentazioni logiche, i fatti meglio
accertati, che è propria di tanta parte nella critica storica tedesca o
tedeschizzante dell’Europa contemporanea. Cfr. le assennate
osservazioni di A. Pirro, Il primo trattato fra Roma e Cartagine (in
Annali della R. Scuola normale superiore di Pisa, 1892).
15. Che l’elezione dei tribuni della plebe spettasse in origine ai comizi curiati
è esplicitamente e indubbiamente affermato da Cic., Pro Corn., fr. 24,
ed.; Dionys. Hal., 6, 89; 9, 41.
17. La cronologia del 390 è quella della tradizione romana; l’altra del 387-86
è data da Polibio, I, 6 e da Diod., 14, 110 sg. V’è tuttavia una terza
cronologia, secondo cui quell’invasione sarebbe seguìta un anno prima,
nel 388-87; cfr. Dionys. Hal., I, 74.
19. Sulla cronologia di queste tre colonie, cfr. Vell. Pat., I, 14.