What if…..

?
Dr Uday Dokras

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 Introduction
TAMIL INFLUENCE ON ANGKOR

INTRODUCTION
How did Tamil Kingdoms influence Angkor Wat, the
world's biggest religious structure?
There are legends and there are historical evidence.Lets look at the legends. One legend
mentions a handsome South Indian prince traveling to Cambodia, marrying a beautiful
Cambodian princess and becoming king of Cambodia. Another legend says that a Brahmin by
name, Kauninya, from India sailed to kingdom of Funan in Cambodia around 1st century. He
defeated the ruler of Funan, a princess by name Soma of the Naga dynasty, then married her
and became the king of Funan. The last of the legend is another Brahmin by the same name
reached Cambodia around 5th century and was elected as king of Funan. The historical fact
though is that Khmer kingdom whose capital was around Angkor Wat was founded in 802 by
Jayavarman II. This kingdom was ruled by many dynasty till around 1431 when the story
goes that Angkor was abandoned by Khmer due to constant threats from Thailand (Siam) and
moved their capital south to Phnomh Penh.
The cultural and commercial interactions between South India and Cambodia dates back to a
few centuries before Christ. During those times a major maritime highway linking India,
China, South East Asia, Sri Lanka, Africa and Rome. Spices and gemstones from SE Asia
reached east coast of India (Andhra and Tamil Nadu), from where they were shipped to the
Red Sea ports of AFrica and from there sent to Rome. Archealogists have discovered ancient
Roman coins, ceramics, etc in the Thai-Cambodian region. It is suspected the
Mahabalipuram, Arikamedu, Kaveripattinam are major ports in Inda trading with Cambodia.
South Indian influence on Cambodian art and culture was prolific during the rule of Pallavas
(3rd - 9th AD) and Cholas (9-13th AD) in South India. Among the Pallava kings, it is very
well known that the title Varman was honorific and so was borrowed by the Cambodian
kings. You will find almost all of them having the suffic 'Varman' starting with
Bhadravarman in 4th AD. He happened to be a scholar and well versed in Vedas and author
of several inscription in Sanskrit.
The Grantha called Pallava Grantha script traveled to Cambodia from Pallava. Some of the
birudas (titles) of Pallava kings including Mahendravarman I appear to be in the Khmer
language. Nandivarman Pallavamalla, one of the later pallava rulers, is believed to have lived
in Cambodia before he travelled to Kanchi and then ascended Pallava throne.
Pallavas contributed the cult of Ashtabhuja Vishnu (eight-armed Vishnu) to Cambodia. This
cult originated around Mathura region in North India, spread to Nagarjunakonda (Andhra)
and from there to south to Kanchipuram. You will find this form of diety enshrined in many
temples in and around Kanchi especially at Ashtabhuja Perumal Temple. You will find a
similar eight armed Vishnu huge monolithic figure in Angkor Wat. During our visit we were
told that this was the main diety in the sanctum of Angkor Wat uppermost tier of the temple.
After Buddhism was embraced this diety was moved out to the entrance where it still stands.
It is said that this statue is identical to the one in Ashtabhuja Perumal temple of Kanchi.
Another parallel is the ubiquotous presence of depiction of the hindu mythology of churning
of cosmic ocean by the gods and demons. An Angkor you will find this depiction every
where including Bayon and Angkor Wat. You will see the entrace to many temples having

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this. In India you will hardly see this mythology depicted in any of the temples except at
Virupaksha temple at Pattadakkal in Karnataka.
One uncommon feature is the depiction of an incident in Mahabharata war. The bas-relief of
this war shows Bishma lying on the bed of arrows. Such representation of Bishma is
uncommon in South Indian art.
Architecture of Temples of Angkor !
There are many features in the architecture of Angkor Wat that are common with Pallava and
Chola temples. Like the Vaikunta Perumal Temple (Kanchi) and the Sundara Varada Perumal
Temple (Uttaramerur) of Pallavas, the Angkor Wat consists of three levels or tiers. Each of
the upper tiers slightly smaller than the one below it giving the structure the look of a
pyramid. LIke Chola Brhaidsvara temple of Thanjavur, Angkor Wat too was conceived to
represent the sacred mount Meru in the Himalayas. Damodar Pandita, A Brahmin scholar
from Madhyadesa (Karnataka-Orissa region) in India was the chief priest of Suryavarman II,
the builder of the Angkor Wat. It is said that the temple was built as per the guidelines
provided by the Indian priest.
Relationship between kings of South India and Cambodia !
The friendly relationship between the Chola kings and Cambodia is attested by a significant
but little-known incident. When Kulottunga I, the Chola Kings, was constructing or enlarging
the famous Shiva Temple at Chidambaram (tamil Nadu), Suryavarman II, the king of
Cambodia and builder of Angkor Wat, offered to send a block of stone as a gift for the new
construction. Kulottunga gratefully accepted the unusual gift, installed it in the temple and
engraved an inscription informing that the stone was from Cambodia.
At beautiful temple of Banteay Srei, 30 km from Angkor Wat, one of the most intricately
carved temple, one can see a small frail female figure that has been identified as Karaikal
Ammaiar, the well-known Tamil saint.

Why ancient south Indian rulers never expanded their territory in north India?

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 I
Ancient Tamilans

Pre-historic-period

Possible evidence indicating the earliest presence of Tamil people in modern day Tamil Nadu
are the megalitic urn burials, dating from around 1500 BCE and onwards, which have been
discovered at various locations in Tamil Nadu, notably in Adichanallur in Tirunelveli District
which conform to the descriptions of funerals in classical Tamil literature.
Various legends became prevalent after the 10th century CE regarding the antiquity of the
Tamil people. According to Iraiyanar Agapporul, a 10th/11th century annotation on the
Sangam literature, the Tamil country extended southwards beyond the natural boundaries of
the Indian peninsula comprising 49 ancient nadus (divisions). The land was supposed to have
been destroyed by a deluge. The Sangam legends also added to the antiquity of the Tamil
people by claiming tens of thousands of years of continuous literary activity during
three Sangams.

Classical period
From around the 3rd century BCE onwards, three royal dynasties—the Cholas, the Cheras
and the Pandyas—rose to dominate the ancient Tamil country. Each of these dynasties had its
own realm within the Tamil-speaking region. Classical literature and inscriptions also
describe a number of Velirs, or minor chieftains, who collectively ruled over large parts of
central Tamil Nadu.Wars between the kings and the chieftains were frequent, as were
conflicts with ancient Sri Lanka. These wars appear to have been fought to assert hegemony
and demand tribute, rather than to subjugate and annex those territories. The kings and
chieftains were patrons of the arts, and a significant volume of literature exists from this
period. The literature shows that many of the cultural practices that are considered peculiarly
Tamil date back to the classical period.

Agriculture was important during this period, and there is evidence that irrigation networks
were built as early as 2nd century AD.Internal and external trade flourished, and evidence
exists of significant contact with Ancient Rome.Large quantities of Roman coins and signs of
the presence of Roman traders have been discovered at Karur and Arikamedu. There is also
evidence that at least two embassies were sent to the Roman Emperor Augustus by Pandya

4
kings.Potsherds with Tamil writing have also been found in excavations on the Red Sea,
suggesting the presence of Tamil merchants there. An anonymous 1st century traveler’s
account written in Greek, Periplus Maris Erytraei, describes the ports of the Pandya and
Chera kingdoms in Damirica and their commercial activity in great detail. Periplus also
indicates that the chief exports of the ancient Tamils were pepper, malabathrum, pearls,
ivory, silk, spikenard, diamonds, sapphires, and tortoiseshell.
The classical period ended around the 4th century AD with invasions by the Kalabhra,
referred to as the kalappirar in Tamil literature and inscriptions. These invaders are described
as evil kings and barbarians coming from lands to the north of the Tamil country. This period,
commonly referred to as the Dark Age of the Tamil country, ended with the rise of the
Pallava dynasty. According to Clarence Maloney, during the classical period Tamils also
settled the Maldive Islands.

Imperial and post-imperial periods

Megalithic burial urns or jar found in Pomparippu, North Western, Sri Lanka dated to at least
five to two centuries before Common Era. These are similar to Megalithic burial jars found in
South India and the Deccan during similar time frame.

Although the Pallava records can be traced from the 2nd century AD, they did not rise
to prominence as an imperial dynasty until the 6th century. The dynasty does not
appear to have been Tamil in origin, although they rapidly adopted the local culture
and the Tamil language. The Pallavas sought to model themselves after great northern
dynasties such as the Mauryas and Guptas. They therefore transformed the institution of the
kingship into an imperial one, and sought to bring vast amounts of territory under their direct
rule. The Pallavas were followers of Hinduism, though for a short while one of their kings
embraced Jainism and later converted to Hinduism. The Bhakti movement in Hinduism was
founded by Tamil saints at this time, and rose along with the growing influence of Jainism
and Buddhism. The Pallavas pioneered the building of large, ornate temples in-stone which
formed the basis of the Dravidian temple architecture.

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The Pallava dynasty was overthrown in the 9th century by the resurgent Cholas. The Cholas
become dominant in the 10th century and established an empire covering most of southern
India and Sri Lanka. The empire had strong trading links with China and Southeast Asia. The
Cholas’ navy conquered the South Asian kingdom of Sri Vijaya in Sumatra and continued as
far as Thailand and Burma. Chola power declined in the 12th and 13th centuries, and the
Pandya dynasty enjoyed a brief period of resurgence thereafter during the rule of Sundara
Pandya.However, repeated Muslim invasions from the 15th century onwards placed a huge
strain on the empire’s resources, and the dynasty came to an end in the 16th century.
The western Tamil lands became increasingly politically distinct from the rest of the Tamil
lands after the Chola and Pandya empires lost control over them in the
13th century.They developed their own distinct language and literature, which increasingly
grew apart from Tamil, evolving into the modern Malayalam language by the 15th century.

There is little scholarly consensus over the presence of the Tamil people in Sri Lanka,
prior to the medieval Chola period (c. 10th century AD). One theory states that there was not
an organized Tamil presence in Sri Lanka until the invasions from what is now South India in
the 10th century AD; another theory contends that Tamil people were the original inhabitants
of the island. Yet according to another theory cultural diffusion, rather than migration of
people, spread the Sinhalese and Tamil languages from peninsular India into an existing
Mesolithic population, centuries before the Christian era.
However according to Tamil tradition in Sri Lanka, they believe that they are lineal
descendants of the aboriginal Naga and Yaksha people of Sri Lanka. The “Nakar” used the
cobra totem known as “Nakam” in the Tamil language, which is still part of the Hindu Tamil
tradition in Sri Lanka today as a subordinate deity

Pre-historic period
The indigenous Veddhas of Sri Lanka are ethinically related to tribal people of South India.
Settlements of people culturally similar to those of present-day Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu in
modern India were excavated at megalithic burial sites at Pomparippu on the west coast and
in Kathiraveli on the east coast of the island, villages established between the 5th century BC
and 2nd century AD. Cultural similarities in burial practices in South India and Sri Lanka
were dated by archeologists to 10th century BC. However, Indian history and archaeology
have pushed the date back to 15th century BC, and in Sri Lanka, there is radiometric evidence
from Anuradhapura that the non-Brahmi symbol-bearing black and red ware occur at least
around 9th or 10th century BC.

Historic period

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Grey pottery with engravings, Arikamedu, 1st century CE./ South Indian type Black and Red
ware potsherds found in Sri Lanka and dated to 1st to 2nd century CE. Displayed at the
National Museum of Colombo, Sri Lanka.

In writing from the 2nd century BC have been found in excavations in north of the island in
Poonagari, bearing several inscriptions including a clan name – vela, a name related
to velir from ancient Tamil country.Tamil Brahmi inscribed potsherds have also been
excavated in the south of the island in Tissamaharama. There is epigraphic evidence of
people identifying themselves as Damelas or Damedas (the Prakrit word for Tamil people) in
Anuradhapura, the capital city of Rajarata, and other areas of Sri Lanka as early as the 2nd
century BC. Historical records establish that Tamil kingdoms in modern India were closely
involved in the island’s affairs from about the 2nd century BC. In Mahavamsa, a historical
poem, ethnic Tamil adventurers such as Elara invaded the island around 145 BC. Tamil
soldiers from what is now South India were brought to Anuradhapura between the 7th and
11th centuries AD in such large numbers that local chiefs and kings trying to establish
legitimacy came to rely on them. By the 8th century AD there were Tamil villages
collectively known as Demel-kaballa (Tamil allotment), Demelat-valademin (Tamil villages),
and Demel-gam-bim (Tamil villages and lands).

Mayans – Named after Tamil God?

While there are research papers state Mayans hold much similarities with Tamils.
Researchers are stating Mayans were Tamils who took their voyage from present day Sri
Lanka. The Tamil Name of Sri Lanka is Ilangai or Eelam.
But how did the name Mayans came into existence? There is a reference of Sri Lanka in
Ramayan of Hinduism where Sri Lanka was built by Mayans. There were four Gods in
ancient Tamil Society – They were Indhiran (God of this place), Varunan ( God of Rain),
Mayon ( God of Wealth and Well being) and Seyon ( Murugan–God of Wars).
Mayans were merchants lived per the words of Tamil society – Thirai Kadal oodiyum
Thiravaiyam Thedu (Cross the sea to collect the wealth).
Mayans were the first colonizers of the world. While the Hindu and Indian Mindset in ancient
India were against the sea travel – Tamil society believed in sea travel. Tamils were good at
building ships (may be inherited from their ancestor Siva).
There were lots of Oceanic dangers occurred in Tamil history including the latest Tsunami of
India and Sri Lanka.
Mayon was a god in Tamil Society. Present day Hinduism adapted the Mayon and
transformed Mayon or merged the image of Mayon with an existing God of
Aryan World.The present day name of Mayon is Vishnu in Hinduism.
The people who worshiped Mayon might have been called as Mayans or Mayons. The Hindu
God Vishnu or Tamil God Mayon is god of well being and wealth.
Mayans were in search of wealth like the East India of Company of United Kingdom. The
names of places in Mayan settled areas resemble the name of Lanka or Ilankai ( I is silent
again here).Mayans worshiped Wealth and went in seek of wealth.

Medieval period
In the 9th and 10th centuries AD, Pandya and Chola incursions into Sri Lanka culminated in
the Chola annexation of the island, which lasted until the latter half of the 11th
century CE.The decline of Chola power in Sri Lanka was followed by the restoration of the
Polonnaruwa monarchy in the late 11th century AD.In 1215, following Pandya invasions, the
Tamil-dominant Arya Chakaravarthi dynasty established an independent Jaffna kingdom on
the Jaffna peninsula and parts of northern Sri Lanka. The Arya Chakaravarthi expansion into

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the south was halted by Alagakkonara, a man descended from a family of merchants from
Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu. He was the chief minister of the Sinhalese king Parakramabahu
V (1344–59 AD). Vira Alakeshwara, a descendant of Alagakkonara, later became king of the
Sinhalese, but he was overthrown by the Ming admiral Cheng Ho in 1409 AD. The Arya
Chakaravarthi dynasty ruled over large parts of northeast Sri Lanka until the Portuguese
conquest of the Jaffna Kingdom in 1619 AD. The coastal areas of the island were taken over
by the Dutch and then became part of the British Empire in 1796 AD. The English sailor
Robert Knox described walking into the island’s Tamil country in the publication An
Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon, annotating some kingdoms within it on a map in
1681 CE. Upon arrival of European powers from the 17th century CE, the Tamils’ separate
nation was described in their areas of habitation in the northeast of the island.
The caste structure of the majority Sinhalese has also accommodated Hindu immigrants from
South India since the 13th century AD. This led to the emergence of three new Sinhalese
caste groups: the Salagama, the Durava and the Karava. The Hindu migration and
assimilation continued until the 18th century AD.
https://oldtamilans.wordpress.com/2012/09/16/ancient-tamilans/

We have seen in history that many North Indian dynasties (Mauryas, Guptas, khaljis,
Tughluks, and Mughals) have controlled the southern part of India. whereas no South Indian
dynasty has effectively controlled and ruled the north India for a reasonable period of time.

This is because of,

Advantages of North Indian dynasties.

1. The political base and their capital cities like Pataliputra, kannuj, Delhi and Agra
are based on the rich Indo Gangetic Doab. The Indo Gangetic Doab has one of the
most fertile Alluvial lands on the surface of the earth.
2. The rich soil aided with perennial rivers provide a strong agricultural surplus which
led to a emergence of strong economic base for the North Indian dynasties.
3. The agricultural surplus and economic prosperity had led to the growth of
population.
4. The above factors provided a base for the rising of a huge army, which could be
used for the expansion of the kingdom.
5. The core administrative area of these dynasties consists of a simple geography
(mainly plains). It was very easy for the rulers to control this area and consolidate
their position.
6. These empires are well protected by the Himalayas in the North, thick forest in the
east, Vindhyas in south and Hindukush mountains in the west. The only danger
they faced of foreign invasion is through the mountain passes of the Hindukush
mountains.
Disadvantages of the southern kingdoms,

1. The South Indian kingdoms existed mainly in the river valleys of Tungabhatra,
Krishna, Vaigai and Cauvery.
2. The agricultural base and the economic base is not so vast as compared to the North
Indian dynasties.
3. The geographical terrain of the south India is characterised by numerous mountains
and plateaus, which were responsible for emergence of many small dynasties.
4. Due to this geographical factor it was difficult for any ruler to consolidate his
position. Most of the rulers spent their time in consolidation than expansion.

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Inspite of all these disadvantages, we have some South Indian dynasties which established
fairly large empires.

 Imperial cholas
 Vijayanagar empire
 Marathas
1. Among them, the cholas stand unique. The cholas not only controlled and ruled the
south India, they had annexed parts of north India under Rajendra chola.
2. The cholas are the only dynasty in Indian history to have annexed territories outside
Indian subcontinent. The cholas had annexed Srilanka, Laccadives, Maldives, parts
of Malaysia and Indonesia.
3. It is to be noted that while the North Indian dynasties wasted their time and
economy on needless war, the south focussed its limited resources on cultural
activities. Almost all the great architectural remains belong to the dynasties of
south.
 There are numerous temples all over the south like (Thanjavur, Madurai,
Kanchipuram, Mamallapuram, Belur, Halibedu, Somnathpur, Vijayanagar, Badami,
caves of Ajanta and Ellora, etc. the list is huge).
 We have examples of such temples in the north, but they are few and less numerous
compared to their economic and dynastic potential. (Khajuraho, Konark,
Bhubhaneshwar etc.)

“Chola dynasty is not over rated”

This the their Flag :

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The Chola dynasty was one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of southern India. The
earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE left
by Ashoka, of the Maurya Empire. As one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, the
dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until the 13th century CE.

The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River, but they ruled a
significantly larger area at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century till the
beginning of the 13th century. The whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united and held
as one state for a period of two centuries and more.

Who Founded Chola Dynasty :

The history of the Cholas falls into four periods: the Early Cholas of the Sangam literature, the
interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the Imperial medieval Cholas

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under Vijayalaya (c. 848), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, and finally the Later Chola dynasty of
Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the 11th century.

So these are the basic Introduction to the Chola Dynasty.

1. Their Art : The period of the imperial Cholas (c. 850 CE - 1250 CE) was an age of
continuous improvement and refinement of Dravidian art and architecture. They
utilised their prodigious wealth earned through their extensive conquests in building
long-lasting stone temples and exquisite bronze sculptures.
2. Architecture : The chola temples were built during chola rule.The Cholas built their
temple in traditions way of the Pallava dynasty, who were themselves influenced by
the Amaravati school of architecture. The Chola artists and artisans further drew their
influences from other contemporary art and architectural schools and elevated the
Dravidian temple design to greater heights.

3. Warfare : They had amazing Army and Navy

4. Navy : They had the strongest navy you can understand it by seeing the Chola Dynasty map.

in one of their poem they mentioned ocean are lakes for them. So in those olden days without any
tech or shipping equips like modern days these men were able to travel so long and extend their
conquer and trading routs. “The Chola dynasty was one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the
history of southern India.”Not only in southern India, we can say southern Asia. Not only did this
South Indian kingdom “ expand “ beyond South India, it also conquered the then heart of North
India “ Kannauj” and also defeated every northern rival totally dominating northern India.

They were the Rashtrakutas.

This map is rather conservative and doesn't include most of Kerela Tamilnadu and Ceylon which
were later defeated or vassalised.
During the reign of Govinda III, Indra III and Krishna III, their power and influence existed from
the Himalayan region to Rameshwar. Govinda III, is eulogized is one inscription as, having
horses which drank the icy water of the Himalayas and his war elephant tasted the sacred water
of Ganga. His invincible armies overran the territories from Cape Comorin to Kanouj and from
Banaras to Broach.

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Rashtrakuta domination wasn't short lived either. Infact this staggering domination went on for
more than 2 centuries. There were only two powers who challenged Rashtrakuta supremacy in
North . They were the Gujara prathiharas and the palas. Both were defeated by their southern
rival and subsequently lost control of Kannauj and major trade routes.

Cholas did conquer territories outside of India in Indian Ocean upto South China Sea . Their great
king Rajendran 1 won territories of island of Pegu in Myanmar , Phan rang in Vietnam , isthmus
kra in Thailand, kedah in Malaysia , Sumatra in Indonesia and Cebu in Philippines. Besides he
conquered srilanka, Maldives and Bangladesh. He won territories in south and east India. He
ruled over 36 lakh square kilometres which is more than Indian union.

Herman kulke a German historian notes in his book from“ Nagapattinam to swarnadweepa “ the
motivation for the conquest was the desire to perform Digvijaya by Rajendra across the
oceans.Spencer an American historian points out in his book “ chola conquest “ the motivation of
plunder of small and medium kingdoms stretching across Indian Ocean and extending upo South
China Sea.Tansen Sen a Chinese American historian mentions in his research paper “ Military
campaigns of Rajendra chola” amassing huge wealth through hegemonic oceanic trade activities.
But all agree that “ Rajendra did conquer huge territories in Indian Ocean and South China Sea “

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“ Sherja malayu” a Malaysian folklore suggests Rajendras grandson established the nation of
Singapore.For more information the readers are advised to refer to my book “ The untold legacy
of Rajendra chola”.

In 1025, Chola ruler Rajendra I sent an ambitious campaign (combined army and navy) against
the kingdom of Shrivijaya in the Southern Malay peninsula (present-day Malaysia and Singapore)
and Sumatra (present-day Indonesia). The campaign was a remarkable success, and ended with
the Chola controlling a number of strategic places along the Straits of Malacca, but not much
territory inland.

This was not an attempt for an overseas empire. The cause of the war was most likely a need to
protect commercial interests. There was a lucrative trade between India and China in the 10th
Century that had to pass through the Straits of Malacca (between the Malay Peninsula and
Sumatra). Shrivijaya figured it would be in their own interest if the trade from China terminated
in Shrivijaya, and their own ships took over from there, thus cutting out the Indian ships (which
the Chola probably had a big interest in).

This is also inline with the aggressive moves the Cholas would make to take over the trade with
West Asian kingdoms. Rajaraja fought to bring the Malabar coast under his control and
conquered the Maldives, while Rajendra took that forward by attacking Sri Lanka (and destroying
their capital Anuradhapura).

Rajendra's south-east Asian campaign seems to have kept the straits safe for Indian shipping long
after his death. The Chola Kulottonga I would send an embassy of 72 merchants to China in
1077. But there was never a follow-up campaign to gain territory. The Cholas were kept busy by
their many enemies on the mainland and in Sri Lanka - the Pandyas, the Cheras, the Chalukyas
and later the Hoysalas and Kakatiyas.

So the Cholas had enough influence in south-east Asia that they could control commerce (which
was a pretty big deal) but they did not really hold any territory there.

Cholas initially had friendly and trade relations with the kingdom of Srivijaya, which is said to
have originated in Indonesia (dunno if it was called Jambudweepa, I could be wrong here), and
controlled the area between both the Indo-Malay Peninsula till what is known as Irian Jaya near
Papua New Guinea on the east, and till the Burma-Thailand areas then called Swarnadweepa.
Before the Cholas, the Pallavas and some kingdoms from Andhra or Orissa also had their sphere
of influence on these areas and Hinduism had spread in what is modern Cambodia (called
Kamboja), Vietnam-Laos (then called Champa), before advent of Buddhism in the 11th to 13th
centuries followed by Islam. The Kingdom of Srivijaya, the Kamboja royalty of My Son, the
Varman dynasty (name similar to kings of the Pallavas whose names and titles ended with
Varman, like Mahendravarman, Narasimhavarman etc.) all had trade and cordial relations with
the Cholas, but during the time of Rajendra Chola and possibly also his son Rajadhiraja Chola the
relations had deteriorated and the Cholas sent an army to re-establish their control or influence on
those areas. Then during the period 1070–1200 or even a little beyond, starting with the reign of
Kulottunga Cholan I, there was a cessation of hostilities and once again cordial relations and
exchanges in trade took place between the Cholas and kingdoms of the far-east till south of Japan
and Korea. Certainly on Islands like the Andamans, Maldives in additions to the nations
mentioned above, there was both Chola influence and control of territories lasting for more than
150 years or so, beginning from 1020 AD till about 1200/1220 AD.

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14
 Chapter 2
Indian influences as the most important
in Cambodia's early history
The economy of Cambodia currently follows an open market system (market
economy) and has seen rapid economic progress in the last decade. Cambodia
had a GDP of $24.57 billion in 2018. Per capita income, although rapidly
increasing, is low compared with most neighboring countries. Cambodia's two
largest industries are textiles and tourism, while agricultural activities remain
the main source of income for many Cambodians living in rural areas. The
service sector is heavily concentrated on trading activities and catering-related
services. Recently, Cambodia has reported that oil and natural gas reserves
have been found off-shore

In 2019, 2.28 bn international tourists traveled to other countries

worldwide. The U.S. also enjoyed a handsome 166.01 m foreign visitors,

15
resulting in around $233.46 bn in revenue and 1st place in the global
rankings. Cambodia recorded a total of 7 m tourists in 2019, ranking 59th
in the world in absolute terms.

That smaller countries regularly perform lower in a comparison of the

absolute number of guests, is obvious. By putting the tourist numbers in
relation to the population of Cambodia, the result is much more comparable
picture: With 0.40 tourists per resident, Cambodia ranked 110th in the
world. In Southeast Asia, it ranked 6th. Cambodia generated around 5.31
bn US Dollar in the tourism sector alone. This corresponds to 21.00 percent
of its the gross domestic product and approximately 4 percent of all
international tourism receipts in Southeast Asia.

Year Numberof tourists Receipts

2019 6.61 m 5.31 bn $

2018 6.20 m 4.83 bn $

2017 5.60 m 4.02 bn $

2016 5.01 m 3.52 bn $

Tourism in Cambodia is one of the most important sectors in Cambodia's

economy. In 2013, tourism arrivals increased by 17.5 percent year on year,
with business travelers increasing 47 percent.

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Year Tourism arrivals Change

2018 6,201,077 10.7%

2017 5,602,157 11.7%

2016 5,011,712 4.95%

2015 4,775,231 6.1%

2014 4,502,775 7.0%

2013 4,210,165 17.5%

2012 3,584,307 24.4%

Tourists at Angkor Wat.

Ranking of international visitor arrivals.

2011 2,881,862 14.9%

2010 2,508,289 16.0%

2009 2,161,577 1.7%

Hindu Culture: By the early

2008 2,125,465 1.5% centuries of the common era, most of
the principalities of Southeast Asia
had effectively absorbed defining
2007 2,015,128 18.5% aspects of Hindu culture, religion and
administration. The notion of divine
god-kingship was introduced by the
2006 1,700,041 19.6% concept of Harihara, Sanskrit and
other Indian epigraphic systems were
declared official, like those of the
south Indian Pallava
2005 1,421,615 34.7%
dynasty and Chalukya dynasty.
These Indianized Kingdoms, a term
coined by George Cœdès in his
2004 1,055,202 50.5%

17
work Histoire ancienne des états hindouisés d'Extrême-Orient, were
characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative
stability.
Greater India, or the Indian cultural sphere, is an area composed of many
countries and regions in South and Southeast Asia that were historically
influenced by Indian culture, which itself formed from the various distinct
indigenous cultures of these regions. Specifically Southeast Asian influence on
early India had lasting impacts on the formation of Hinduism and Indian
mythology. Hinduism itself formed from various distinct folk religions, which
merged during the Vedic period and following periods. The term Greater
India as a reference to the Indian cultural sphere was popularised by a network
of Bengali scholars in the 1920s. It is an umbrella term encompassing
the Indian subcontinent, and surrounding countries which are culturally linked
through a diverse cultural cline. These countries have been transformed to
varying degrees by the acceptance and induction of cultural and institutional
elements from each other. Since around 500 BCE, Asia's expanding land
and maritime trade had resulted in prolonged socio-economic and cultural
stimulation and diffusion of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs into the region's
cosmology, in particular in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. In Central Asia,
transmission of ideas were predominantly of a religious nature. The spread of
Islam significantly altered the course of the history of Greater India.
Cambodia, country on the Indochinese mainland of Southeast Asia.
Cambodia is largely a land of plains and great rivers and lies amid
important overland and river trade routes linking China to India and
Southeast Asia.

Indian influences were the most important in Cambodia's early history

during the first centuries ce, when Chinese and Indian pilgrims and traders
stopped along the coasts of present-day Cambodia and Vietnam and
exchanged silks and metals for spices, aromatic wood, ivory, and gold.

Cambodia has been blessed with a variety of mineral resources that have
the potential to contribute significantly to the economy. Some of the most
critical minerals in Cambodia include iron ore, copper, and gold. Most of
Cambodia's mineral resources are yet to be adequately exploited due to
several factors.
Southeast Asia was in the Indian sphere of cultural influence from 290
BCE to the 15th century CE, when Hindu-Buddhist influences were
incorporated into local political systems. Kingdoms in the southeast coast of

18
the Indian Subcontinent had established trade, cultural and political
relations with Southeast Asian kingdoms
in Burma, Thailand, Indonesia, Malay
Peninsula, Philippines, Cambodia and Champa. This led to
the Indianisation and Sanskritisation of Southeast Asia within
the Indosphere, Southeast Asian polities were the Indianised Hindu-
Buddhist Mandala (polities, city states and confederacies).
Unlike the other kingdoms which existed on the Indian subcontinent,
the Pallava Empire which ruled the southeastern coast of the Indian
peninsula did not impose cultural restrictions on people who wished to
cross the sea. The Chola empire, which executed the South-East Asian
campaign of Rajendra Chola I and the Chola invasion of Srivijaya,
profoundly impacted Southeast Asia. This impact led to more exchanges
with Southeast Asia on the sea routes. Whereas Buddhism thrived and
became the main religion in many countries of Southeast Asia, it became a
minority religion in India.
The peoples of maritime Southeast Asia — present-
day Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines -are thought to have migrated
southward from South China sometime between 2500 and 1500 BC. The
influence of the civilization which existed on the Indian Subcontinent
gradually became predominant among them, and it also became
predominant among the peoples which lived on the Southeast Asian
mainland.
Southern Indian traders, adventurers, teachers and priests continued to be
the dominating influences in Southeast Asia until about 1500 CE. Hinduism
and Buddhism both spread to these states from India and for many
centuries, they existed there with mutual toleration. Eventually the states of
the mainland mainly became Buddhist.
The key drivers of the Indianisation of Southeast Asia were Indian
maritime trade especially the Spice trade, the emissaries of Ashoka,
the Buddhist missions of Emperor Ashoka - the Great,
Indian Navy; The first clear mention of a navy occurs in the mythological
epic the Mahabharata. Historically, however, the first attested attempt to
organise a navy in India, as described by Megasthenes (c. 350—290 BCE), is
attributed to Chandragupta Maurya (reign 322—298 BCE. The Mauryan
empire (322–185 BCE) navy continued till the times of
emperor Ashoka (reign 273—32 BCE), who used it to send massive
diplomatic missions to Greece, Syria, Egypt, Cyrene, Macedonia and Epirus.
Following nomadic interference in Siberia—one of the sources for India's
bullion—India diverted its attention to the Malay peninsula, which became
its new source for gold and was soon exposed to the world via a series of
maritime trade routes. The period under the Mauryan empire also witnessed
various other regions of the world engage increasingly in the Indian Ocean
maritime voyages.
Buddhist missions

19
In the Sri Lankan tradition, Moggaliputta-Tissa – who is patronised by
Ashoka – sends out nine Buddhist missions to spread Buddhism in the
"border areas" in c. 250 BCE. This tradition does not credit Ashoka directly
with sending these missions. Each mission comprises five monks, and is
headed by an elder. To Sri Lanka, he sent his own son Mahinda,
accompanied by four other Theras – Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and
Bhaddasala.[5] Next, with Moggaliputta-Tissa's help, Ashoka sent Buddhist
missionaries to distant regions such as Kashmir, Gandhara, Himalayas, the
land of the Yonas (Greeks), Maharashtra, Suvannabhumi, and Sri Lanka.
Early Common Era—High Middle Ages

Chola territories during Rajendra Chola I, c. 1030 CE.//Model of

a Chola (200—848 CE) ship's hull, built by the ASI, based on a wreck 19
miles off the coast of Poombuhar, displayed in a Museum in Tirunelveli.
During this era, Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of
Southeast Asia came to be associated with economic activity and
commerce as patrons entrusted large funds which would later be used to
benefit local economy by estate management, craftsmanship and promotion
of trading activities. Buddhism, in particular, travelled alongside the
maritime trade, promoting coinage, art and literacy.
1. Trade from India: In Java and Borneo, the introduction of Indian
culture created a demand for aromatics, and trading posts here later
served Chinese and Arab markets. The Periplus Maris Erythraei names
several Indian ports from where large ships sailed in an easterly
direction to Chryse. Products from the Maluku Islands that were
shipped across the ports of Arabia to the Near East passed through
the ports of India and Sri Lanka. After reaching either the Indian or
the Sri Lankan ports, products were sometimes shipped to East
Africa, where they were used for a variety of purposes including burial
rites.

20
2. Maritime history of Odisha, known as Kalinga in ancient times,
started before 350 BC according to early sources. The people of this
region of eastern India along the coast of the Bay of Bengal sailed up
and down the Indian coast, and travelled to Indo China and
throughout Maritime Southeast Asia, introducing elements of their
culture to the people with whom they traded. The 6th
century Manjusrimulakalpa mentions the Bay of Bengal as
'Kalingodra' and historically the Bay of Bengal has been called
'Kalinga Sagara' (both Kalingodra and Kalinga Sagara mean Kalinga
Sea), indicating the importance of Kalinga in the maritime trade. The
old traditions are still celebrated in the annual Bali Jatra, or Boita-
Bandana festival held for five days in October / November.
3. The Chola dynasty (200—1279) reached the peak of its influence
and power during the medieval period. [19] Emperors Rajaraja Chola
I (reigned 985-1014) and Rajendra Chola I (reigned 1012-1044)
extended the Chola kingdom beyond the traditional limits. At its peak,
the Chola Empire stretched from the island of Sri Lanka in the south
to the Godavari basin in the north. The kingdoms along the east coast
of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty. Chola
navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya and Srivijaya was the largest
empire in Maritime Southeast Asia. Goods and ideas from India began
to play a major role in the "Indianization" of the wider world from this
period.
4. Desinganadu- Quilon or Kollam in Kerala coast, once called
Desinganadu, has had a high commercial reputation since the days of
the Phoenicians and Romans. Fed by the Chinese trade, it was
mentioned by Ibn Battuta in the 14th century as one of the five Indian
ports he had seen in the course of his travels during twenty-four
years. The Kollam Port become operational in AD.825. opened
Desinganadu's rulers were used to exchange the embassies with
Chinese rulers and there was flourishing Chinese settlement
at Quilon. The Indian commercial connection with Southeast
Asia proved vital to the merchants of Arabia and Persia between the
7th and 8th centuries CE.
5. The kingdoms of Vijaynagara and Kalinga established footholds in
Malaya, Sumatra and Western Java
6. The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity,
extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast
Asia. Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had
developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. The Cholas,
being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of
peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures. The Tang
dynasty (618–907) of China, the Srivijaya empire in Maritime
Southeast Asia under the Sailendras, and
the Abbasid caliphate at Baghdad were the main trading partners.
7. During the reign of Pandya Parantaka Nedumjadaiyan (765–790),
the Chera dynasty were a close ally of the Pallavas. Pallavamalla
Nadivarman defeated the Pandya Varaguna with the help of a Chera
king. Cultural contacts between the Pallava court and the Chera

21
 country were common. Indian spice exports find mention in the works
of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850), al-Ghafiqi (1150 CE), Ishak bin Imaran
(907) and Al Kalkashandi (14th century). Chinese
traveler Xuanzang mentions the town of Puri where "merchants
depart for distant countries."

Angkor Wat

8. Funan: The first of these Hinduised states to achieve widespread

importance was the Kingdom of Funan founded in the 1st century
CE in what is now Cambodia — according to legend, after the
marriage of a merchant Brahmin Kaundinya I with
princess Soma who was the daughter of the chieftain of the
local Nāga clan. These local inhabitants were Khmer people. Funan
flourished for some 500 years. It carried on a prosperous trade with
India and China, and its engineers developed an extensive canal
system. An elite practised statecraft, art and science, based on Indian
culture. Vassal kingdoms spread to southern Vietnam in the east and
to the Malay Peninsula in the west.
9. Chenla and Angkor
In late 6th century CE, dynastic struggles caused the collapse of the Funan
empire.It was succeeded by another Hindu-Khmer state, Chenla, which
lasted until the 9th century. Then a Khmer king, Jayavarman II (about 800-
850) established a capital at Angkor in central Cambodia. He founded a cult
which identified the king with the Hindu God Shiva – one of the triad of
Hindu gods, Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, Shiva the god
symbolising destruction and reproduction. The Angkor Empire flourished
from the 9th to the early 13th century. It reached the peak of its fame under
Jayavarman VII at the end of the 12th century, when its conquests extended
into Thailand in the west (where it had conquered the Mon kingdom of
Dwaravati) and into Champa in the east. Its most celebrated memorial is the
great temple of Angkor Wat, built early in the 12th century. This
summarises the position on the South East Asian mainland until about the
12th century. Meanwhile, from about the 6th century, and until the 14th
century, there was a series of great maritime empires based on the

22
Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java. In early days these Indians came
mostly from the ancient kingdom of Kalinga, on the southeastern coast of
India. Indians in Indonesia are still known as "Klings", derived from Kalinga.
Indianised early kingdoms
A. Funan kingdom
The first indigenous kingdom to emerge in Indochina was referred to
in Chinese histories as the Kingdom of Funan and encompassed an
area of modern Cambodia, and the coasts of southern Vietnam and
southern Thailand since the 1st century CE. Funan was
an Indianised kingdom, that had incorporated central aspects of
Indian institutions, religion, statecraft, administration, culture,
epigraphy, writing and architecture and engaged in profitable Indian
Ocean trade.
B. Champa kingdom
By the 2nd century CE, Austronesian settlers had established an
Indianised kingdom known as Champa along modern central
Vietnam. The Cham people established the first settlements near
modern Champasak in Laos. Funan expanded and incorporated
the Champasak region by the sixth century CE, when it was replaced
by its successor polity Chenla. Chenla occupied large areas of
modern-day Laos as it accounts for the earliest kingdom on Laotian
soil.
C. Chenla kingdom
The capital of early Chenla was Shrestapura which was located in the
vicinity of Champasak and the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Wat
Phu. Wat Phu is a vast temple complex in southern Laos which
combined natural surroundings with ornate sandstone structures,
which were maintained and embellished by the Chenla peoples until
900 CE, and were subsequently rediscovered and embellished by
the Khmer in the 10th century. By the 8th century CE Chenla had
divided into “Land Chenla” located in Laos, and “Water Chenla”
founded by Mahendravarman near Sambor Prei Kuk in Cambodia.
Land Chenla was known to the Chinese as “Po Lou” or “Wen Dan” and
dispatched a trade mission to the Tang Dynasty court in 717 CE.
Water Chenla, would come under repeated attack from Champa,
the Medang sea kingdoms in Indonesia based in Java, and finally
pirates. From the instability the Khmer emerged.
D. Khmer kingdom
Under the king Jayavarman II the Khmer Empire began to take shape
in the 9th century CE.
E. Dvaravati city state kingdoms
In the area which is modern northern and central Laos, and
northeast Thailand the Mon people established their own kingdoms

23
 during the 8th century CE, outside the reach of the
contracting Chenla kingdoms. By the 6th century in the Chao Phraya
River Valley, Mon peoples had coalesced to create the Dvaravati
kingdoms. In the 8th century CE, Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) was
the strongest of these early city states, and controlled trade
throughout the middle Mekong region. The city states were loosely
bound politically, but were culturally similar and
introduced Therevada Buddhism from Sri Lankan missionaries
throughout the region

The French protectorate of Cambodia French: Protectorat français du

Cambodge) refers to the Kingdom of Cambodia when it was a
French protectorate within French Indochina, a collection of Southeast
Asian protectorates within the French Colonial Empire. The protectorate was
established in 1863 when the Cambodian King Norodom requested the
establishment of a French protectorate over his country,
meanwhile Siam (modern Thailand) renounced suzerainty over Cambodia
and officially recognised the French protectorate on Cambodia.

Cambodia was integrated into the French Indochina union in 1887 along
with the French colonies and protectorates
in Vietnam (Cochinchina, Annam and Tonkin). In 1946, Cambodia was
granted self-rule within the French Union and had its protectorate status
abolished in 1949. Cambodia later gained its independence and the
independence day was celebrated on 9 November 1953.

Poor and sometimes unstable administration in the early years of French

rule in Cambodia meant infrastructure and urbanisation grew at a much
lesser rate than in Vietnam and traditional social structures in villages still
remained.
During the 19th century, the kingdom of Cambodia had been reduced to a
vassal state of the Kingdom of Siam (Rattanakosin rule) which had annexed
its western provinces, including Angkor while growing influence from the
Vietnamese Nguyễn dynasty threatened the eastern portion of the country.
After the French establishment of a colony in Cochinchina (present-day
southern Vietnam) in 1862, King Norodom of Cambodia requested a French
protectorate over his kingdom. At the time, Pierre-Paul de La Grandière,
colonial governor of Cochinchina, was carrying out plans to expand French
rule over the whole of Vietnam and viewed Cambodia as a buffer between
French possessions in Vietnam and Siam.
On 11 August 1863, Norodom signed a treaty acknowledging a French
protectorate over his kingdom. Under the treaty, the Cambodian
monarchy was allowed to remain, but power was largely vested in a resident
general to be housed in Phnom Penh. France was also to be in charge of
Cambodia's foreign and trade relations as well as provide military protection.

24
Siam later recognised the protectorate after France ceded the Cambodian
province of Battambang and recognised Thai control of Angkor.

Colonial Rule of France: The seat of the Governor-General for the whole of
French Indochina was based in Saigon until the capital moved to Hanoi in
1902. Cambodia, being a constituent protectorate of French Indochina, was
governed by the Résident Supérieur (Resident-General) for Cambodia, who
was directly appointed by the Ministry of Marine and Colonies in Paris. The
Resident-General was in turn assisted by Residents, or local governors, who
were posted in all the provincial centres, such
as, Battambang, Pursat, Odong, and Siem Reap. Phnom Penh, the capital,
was under the direct administration of the Resident-General.
Revolt of 1885–1887

The first decades of French rule in Cambodia included numerous reforms

into Cambodian politics, such as the reduction of the monarch's power and
abolition of slavery. In 1884, the governor of Cochinchina, Charles Antoine
François Thomson, attempted to overthrow the monarch and establish full
French control over Cambodia by sending a small force to the royal palace in
Phnom Penh. The movement was only slightly successful as the governor-
general of French Indochina prevented full colonisation due to possible
conflicts with Cambodians and the monarch's power was reduced to that of
a figurehead.

In 1885, Si Votha, half brother of Norodom and contender for the throne, led
a rebellion to dispose of the French-backed Norodom after coming back from
exile in Siam. Gathering support from opposers of Norodom and the French,
Si Votha led a rebellion that was primarily concentrated in the jungles of
Cambodia and the city of Kampot where Oknha Kralahom "Kong" led the
resistance. French forces later aided Norodom to defeat Si Votha under
agreements that the Cambodian population be disarmed and acknowledge
the resident-general as the highest power in the protectorate. [5] Oknha
Kralahom "Kong" was called back to Phnom Penh to discuss peace with King
Norodom and the French officials, but was taken captive by the French army
and subsequently killed, officially putting an end to the rebellion.
Administrative reorganisation

25
King Sisowath greeting French officials in 1911//King Norodom, the monarch who
initiated overtures to France to make Cambodia its protectorate in 1863 to escape
Siamese pressure
In 1896, France and the British Empire signed an accord recognizing each
other's sphere of influence over Indochina, especially over Siam. Under this
accord, Siam had to cede the province of Battambang back to the now
French-controlled Cambodia. The accord acknowledged French control over
Vietnam (including the colony of Cochinchina and the protectorates of
Annam and Tonkin), Cambodia, as well as Laos, which was added in 1893
following French victory in the Franco-Siamese War and French influence
over eastern Siam. The French government also later placed new
administrative posts in the colony and began to develop it economically
while introducing French culture and language to locals as part of an
assimilation program.
In 1897, the ruling Resident-General complained to Paris that the current
king of Cambodia, King Norodom was no longer fit to rule and asked for
permission to assume the king's powers to collect taxes, issue decrees, and
even appoint royal officials and choose crown princes. From that time,
Norodom and the future kings of Cambodia were figureheads and merely
were patrons of the Buddhist religion in Cambodia, though they were still
viewed as god-kings by the peasant population. All other power was in the
hands of the Resident-General and the colonial bureaucracy. This
bureaucracy was formed mostly of French officials, and the only Asians
freely permitted to participate in government were ethnic Vietnamese, who
were viewed as the dominant Asians in the Indochinese Union.
In 1904, King Norodom died and rather than pass the throne on to
Norodom's sons, the French passed the succession to Norodom's
brother Sisowath, whose branch of the royal family was more submissive
and less nationalistic to French rule than Norodom's. Likewise, Norodom
was viewed as responsible for the constant Cambodian revolts against
French rule. Another reason was that Norodom's favourite son, who he
wanted to succeed him as king, Prince Yukanthor, had, on one of his trips
to Europe, stirred up public opinion about French colonial brutalities in
occupied Cambodia.

26
France later tightened its control over Cambodia while expanding the
protectorate's territory in 1902 and 1904 through treaties with Siam, which
added Preah Vihear Province and Champasak Province to Cambodia and
gave France full control over the Bassac River respectively. Prior to
Cambodia's historical claim over Stung Treng Province, in 1904 an exchange
occurred wherein Cambodia ceded Champasak and obtained Stung
Treng from French Laos. Later territorial disputes between France and Siam
over Battambang and Siem Reap Provinces led to the accidental French
annexation of Trat Province in 1904.
Both France and Siam agreed to do a territorial exchange based on the
Franco-Siamese treaty of 1907. From this, the French gained the provinces
of Battambang and Siem Reap, originally Cambodian territory until the
latter part of the 18th century. The acquirement of these provinces would be
the last phase of French territorial expansion in Indochina as Siam would
later co-operate with the British in the region, who feared uncontrolled
French expansion and control of Siam would upset the balance of powers in
Indochina.
Originally serving as a buffer territory for France between its more
important Vietnamese colonies and Siam, Cambodia was not initially seen
as an economically important area. The colonial government's budget
originally relied largely on tax collections in Cambodia as its main source of
revenue, and Cambodians paid the highest taxes per capita among the
French colonies in Indochina. Poor and sometimes unstable administration
in the early years of French rule in Cambodia meant infrastructure and
urbanisation grew at a much lesser rate than in Vietnam and traditional
social structures in villages still remained.
However, as French rule consolidated after the Franco-Siamese War,
development slowly began in Cambodia, where rice and pepper crops
allowed for the economy to grow. To foster exports, modern agricultural
methods were introduced, particularly by colonial entrepreneurs who had
been granted land concessions in the Battambang province (West).
As the French automobile industry grew, rubber plantations like the ones
already in Cochinchina and Annam were built and run by French investors.
Economic diversification continued throughout the 1920s, when corn and
cotton crops were also grown. Despite economic expansion and investment,
Cambodians still continued to pay high taxes and in 1916, protests broke
out demanding for tax cuts.
Infrastructure and public works were also developed under French rule, and
roads and railroads were constructed in Cambodian territory. Most notably,
a railway connected Phnom Penh with Battambang on the Thai border.
Industry was later developed but was primarily designed to process raw
materials for local use or for export. As in nearby British Burma and British
Malaya, foreigners dominated the work force of the economy due to French
discrimination against the Cambodians from holding important economic
positions. Many Vietnamese were recruited to work on rubber plantations
and later immigrants played key roles in the colonial economy as fisherman

27
and businessmen. Chinese Cambodians continued to be largely involved in
commerce but higher positions were given to the French.
Unlike in Vietnam, Cambodian nationalism remained relatively quiet
during much of French rule mostly due to lesser education influence, which
helped literacy rates remain low and prevented nationalist movements like
those taking place in Vietnam. However, among the French-educated
Cambodian elite, the Western ideas of democracy and self-rule as well as
French restoration of monuments such as Angkor Wat created a sense of
pride and awareness of Cambodia's once powerful status in the past.
In education, there was also growing resentment among Cambodian
students of the minority Vietnamese holding a more favoured status. In
1936, Son Ngoc Than and Pach Choeun began publishing Nagaravatta
(Notre cité) as a French language anti-colonial and at times, anti-Vietnamese
newspaper. Minor independence movements, especially the Khmer Issarak,
began to develop in 1940 among Cambodians in Thailand, who feared that
their actions would have led to punishment if they had operated in their
homeland.
Following its independence from France in 1953, the Cambodian state has
undergone five periods of political, social, and economic transformation:

1. Kingdom of Cambodia (1953-1970)

2. Khmer Republic (1970–1975)
3. Democratic Kampuchea (1975-1982, ousted in 1979); became Coalition
Government of Democratic Kampuchea in exile (1982-1993)
4. People's Republic of Kampuchea (1979-1989), later renamed The State of
Cambodia (1989–1992)
5. Kingdom of Cambodia (1993–present)

oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo

28
 Chapter 3
International travels of GOD SHIVA-Beyond the
Indian subcontinent

During the millennium from 1500 to 500 BCE, people who called themselves Aryans (from the word
for "noble" in Sanskrit, the major language of ancient India) came to dominate northern India
politically and culturally. They created a body of sacred works, epics, hymns, philosophical treatises,
and ritual texts called the Vedas, which serve as the primary source of information about this era. The
traditional view is that the Aryans came into India from the north using the superior military
technology of chariots and bronze weaponry, and conquered the indigenous tribal population. (This is
why, in the twentieth century, the Nazis glorified the Aryans as a superior race and claimed links with
them.) Although archaeological evidence for the Aryan invasion is slim, this is the story told in the

29
Vedas—the oldest of the Hindu religious texts—which present their leaders as heroic figures, aided
by priests and warriors.
The Aryans recognized a number of gods and goddesses, who could be approached through the
ceremonies of priests called Brahmins. These rituals might allow a person to achieve union with the
ultimate unchanging reality that is the source of the universe, called brahman. Originally this was
seen as possible only for men who were Brahmins and lived an ascetic life focused on purity rather
than pleasure, but in the third century BCE this idea began to widen. The brahmanic religion
developed into what was later called Hinduism, a diverse set of practices and beliefs in which
individual worshippers could show their devotion to the gods directly, without using priests as
intermediaries. Personal gods could be honored through saying prayers, singing hymns, dancing,
presenting offerings, and making pilgrimages to holy sites, and also by living an honorable life in
one's own situation.

The spread of Hinduism

The Aryans established small kingdoms in northern India, and priests supported the expanding power
of rulers, who in return confirmed the superior status of the priests. The Persians and the Greeks under
Alexander conquered parts of northwest India, but at times Indian rulers also created larger empires,
some of which favored Buddhism and some Hinduism.
Religious and social practices associated with Hinduism spread into Nepal and Sri Lanka, where they
blended with local religious and social systems. They also spread into Southeast Asia, carried across
the Indian Ocean by merchants and sailors on ships. After about 100 CE, Indian priests and officials
travelled to Southeast Asia as well, where they married into powerful families and were appointed as
advisers by rulers attempting to build up their authority on the Indian model. In these Indianized
kingdoms of Southeast Asia, imported traditions fused with local ones. Some groups understood
themselves to be members of specific Indian castes, especially lineages within the Kshatriyas warrior
caste. Huge stone temples were built to Hindu deities, but rituals also continued to indigenous gods
and spirits, who retained their power over the rice harvest, daily life, and cosmic order. Other than
among South Asian migrants, the impact of caste was limited, and locally-created social hierarchies
remained the most important.

In more recent times, South Asian migrants have taken Hinduism around the world, though it has not
spread widely to people from other areas. Today there are about a billion Hindus, about 95 percent of
whom live in India.

30
Angkor Wat temple complex in Cambodia, the largest Hindu religious structure in the world, dedicated to SHIVA or
VISHNU was built as a Hindu temple by the rulers of the Khmer Empire in the twelfth century. When the rulers
became Buddhist, it was gradually transformed into a Buddhist holy site.

Siva ( शिव, 'The Auspicious One'), also known as Mahadeva -. 'The Great God' is one of the principal
deities of Hinduism. Lord Siva is said to be the deity of death and time. In Sanskrit language, kālá means time.
He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hinduism.
Lord Siva has pre-Vedic tribal roots, and the figure of Siva as we know him today is an amalgamation of
various older non-Vedic and Vedic deities, including the Rigvedic storm god Rudra who may also have non-
Vedic origins, into a single major deity.
Shiva is known as "The Destroyer" within the Trimurti, the triple deity of supreme divinity that
includes Brahma and Vishnu. In the Shaivite tradition, Shiva is the Supreme Lord who creates, protects and
transforms the universe. In the Shakta tradition, the Goddess, or Devi, is described as one of the supreme, yet
Shiva is revered along with Vishnu and Brahma. A goddess is stated to be the energy and creative power
(Shakti) of each, with Parvati (Sati) the equal complementary partner of Shiva. He is one of the five equivalent
deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism.
Shiva is the primal Atman (Self) of the universe. There are many both benevolent and fearsome depictions of
Shiva. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives an ascetic life on Mount Kailash as
well as a householder with wife Parvati and his two children, Ganesha and Kartikeya. In his fierce aspects, he is
often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva, regarded as the patron god
of yoga, meditation and arts.
The iconographical attributes of Shiva are the serpent around his neck, the adorning crescent moon, the holy
river Ganga flowing from his matted hair, the third eye on his forehead (the eye that turns everything in front of
it into ashes when opened), the trishula or trident, as his weapon, and the damaru drum. He is usually
worshipped in the aniconic form of lingam. Shiva is a pan-Hindu deity, revered widely by Hindus
in India, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Indonesia (especially in Java and Bali).
The Sanskrit word "śiva" (Devanagari: शिव, also transliterated as shiva) means, states Monier Monier-Williams,
"auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, friendly". The roots of śiva in folk etymology
are śī which means "in whom all things lie, pervasiveness" and va which means "embodiment of grace".

31
The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda (approximately 1700–1100 BC), as an epithet for
several Rigvedic deities, including Rudra. The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and
"the auspicious one", this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The
term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity
who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver".
Sharva, sharabha presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root śarv-, which means "to injure" or "to
kill", interprets the name to connote "one who can kill the forces of darkness".
The Sanskrit word śaiva means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of
the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect. It is used as an adjective to characterize certain
beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.
The Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One", and "the One who is not
affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas)".
Shiva is known by many names such as Viswanatha (lord of the universe), Mahadeva, Mahandeo, [
Mahasu, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra (chief of the gods),
Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha (lord of the three realms), and Ghrneshwar (lord of compassion). The
highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva ("Great god"; mahā "Great"
and deva "god"),Maheśvara ("Great Lord"; mahā "great" and īśvara "lord"), and Parameśvara ("Supreme
Lord").
Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity.
[52]
There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, devotional hymns (stotras) listing many
names of Shiva.[53] The version appearing in Book 13 (Anuśāsanaparvan) of the Mahabharata provides one such
list.[54] Shiva also has Dasha-Sahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa. The Shri Rudram
Chamakam, also known as the Śatarudriya, is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.
History of Shaivism

Assimilation of traditions-Roots of Hinduism

The Shiva-related tradition is a major part of Hinduism, found all over the Indian subcontinent, such as
India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia, such as Bali, Indonesia. Shiva has pre-Vedic tribal roots, having
"his origins in primitive tribes, signs and symbols." The figure of Shiva as we know him today is an
amalgamation of various older deities into a single figure, due to the process of Sanskritization and the
emergence of the Hindu synthesis in post-Vedic times.How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity
is not well documented, a challenge to trace and has attracted much speculation. According to Vijay Nath:
Vishnu and Siva [...] began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds. The latter were either
taken to represent the multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and
appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped. [...] Siva became identified with countless
local cults by the sheer suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity, e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara,
Chandesvara."
An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra, where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity
of farming and herding castes. The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri.
Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself, [61] in which case he is worshipped in the form of a
lingam. Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with Surya and Karttikeya.

Vedic elements
According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the
contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran. was "a syncretic
mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",which according to Beckwith borrowed
"distinctive religious beliefs and practices"from the Bactria–Margiana Culture. At least 383 non-Indo-European
words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma.
Rudra

32
Three-headed Shiva, Gandhara, 2nd century AD

Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra and both Shiva and Rudra are
viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures. The two names are used synonymously. Rudra, a Rigvedic
deity with fearsome powers, was the god of the roaring storm. He is usually portrayed in accordance with the
element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity. In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the Rudras", a
group of storm gods
Flood notes that Rudra is an ambiguous god, peripheral in the Vedic pantheon, possibly indicating
the destructive and constructive powers, the terrific and the gentle, as the ultimate recycler and rejuvenator of all
existence.
The Vedic texts do not mention bull or any animal as the transport vehicle (vahana) of Rudra or other deities.
However, post-Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas state the Nandi bull, the Indian zebu, in
particular, as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva, thereby unmistakably linking them as same.
Agni

Rudra and Agni have a close relationship. The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature
was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual transformation into Rudra-Shiva. The identification
of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta, an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is
also called Rudra." The interconnections between the two deities are complex fire myth of Rudra-Śiva plays on
the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.
In the Śatarudrīya, some epithets of Rudra, such as Sasipañjara ("Of golden red hue as of flame")
and Tivaṣīmati ("Flaming bright"), suggest a fusing of the two deities. Agni is said to be a bull, and Lord Shiva
possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are
mentioned. In medieval sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a
special feature
Indra

According to Wendy Doniger, the Saivite fertility myths and some of the phallic characteristics of Shiva are
inherited from Indra Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains,
rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, the transgression of established mores, the Aum sound,
the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3,[ 6.45.17, and 8.93.3Indra, like
Shiva, is likened to a bull. In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with
their warlike exploits as is Indra.
Indra himself was adopted by the Vedic Aryans from the Bactria–Margiana Culture. According to Anthony,

33
Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the adopted god
Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a
quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug (perhaps
derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait
of the Old Indic speakers.
The texts and artwork of Jainism show Indra as a dancer, although not identical generally resembling the
dancing Shiva artwork found in Hinduism, particularly in their respective mudras. For example, in the Jain
caves at Ellora, extensive carvings show dancing Indra next to the images of Tirthankaras in a manner similar to
Shiva Nataraja. The similarities in the dance iconography suggests that there may be a link between ancient
Indra and Shiva
Spread of Shaivic thought BEYOND BORDERS
Indian scholars wrote about the Dwipantara or Jawa Dwipa Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra around 200 BC.
"Yawadvipa" is mentioned in India's earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Rama's army dispatched his
men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita. It was hence referred to by the Sanskrit name "yāvaka dvīpa"
(dvīpa = island). Southeast Asia was frequented by traders from eastern India, particularly Kalinga, as well as from
the kingdoms of South India. The Indianised Tarumanagara kingdom was established in West Java around 400s,
produced among the earliest inscriptions in Indonesian history. There was a marked Buddhist influence starting about
425 in the region. Around the 6th century, Kalingga Indianized kingdom was established on the northern coast
of Central Java. The kingdom name was derived from Kalinga east coast of India. These Southeast Asian seafaring
peoples engaged in extensive trade with India and China. Which attracted the attention of
the Mongols, Chinese and Japanese, as well as Islamic traders, who reached the Aceh area of Sumatra in the 12th
century.
Examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout the Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy of
the Chola dynasty. For example, the great temple complex at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibit a number of similarities
with the South Indian architecture.
According to the Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu, the rulers of the Malacca sultanate claimed to be descendants of
the kings of the Chola Empire.Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia today as many princes there have names ending
with Cholan or Chulan, one such being Raja Chulan, the Raja of Perak. The Chola school of art also spread to
Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia.
Some scholars have pointed out that the legends of Ikshvaku and Sumati may have their origin in the Southeast-Asian
myth of the birth of humanity from a bitter gourd. The legend of Sumati, the wife of King Sagar, tells that she
produced offspring with the aid of a bitter gourd.
Hinduism in Southeast Asia had a profound impact on the region's cultural development and its history. As the Indic
scripts were introduced from India, people of Southeast Asia entered the historical period by producing their earliest
inscriptions around the 1st to 5th century CE. [2] Today, Hindus in Southeast Asia are mainly Overseas
Indians and Balinese. There are also Javanese (also other minorities of Indonesia) and Cham minority in Cambodia
and southern Vietnam who practices Hinduism.
Hindu civilization, which itself formed from various distinct cultures and peoples, including also early Southeast
Asian, specifically Mon Khmer influence, was adopted and assimilated into the indigenous social construct and
statehood of Southeast Asian regional polity. Through the formation of Indianized kingdoms, small indigenous
polities led by petty chieftain were transformed into major kingdoms and empires led by
a maharaja with statecraft akin to India. It gave birth to the former Champa civilisation in southern parts of Central
Vietnam, Funan in Cambodia, the Khmer Empire in Indochina, Langkasuka Kingdom and Old Kedah in the Malay
Peninsula, the Sriwijayan kingdom on Sumatra, the Medang Kingdom, Singhasari and the Majapahit Empire based
in Java, Bali and parts of the Philippine archipelago. The civilisation of India influenced the languages, scripts, written
tradition, literatures, calendars, beliefs system and artistic aspects of these peoples and nations. [5] A reason for the
acceptance of Indian culture and religious traditions in Southeast Asia was because Indian culture already some
striking similarities to indigenous cultures of Southeast Asia, which can be explained by earlier Southeast Asian
(specifically Austroasiatic, such as early Munda and Mon Khmer groups) and Himalayan (Tibetic) cultural and
linguistic influence on local Indian peoples. Several scholars, such as Professor Przyluski, Jules Bloch, and Lévi,
among others, concluded that there is a significant cultural, linguistic, and political Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic)
influence on early Indian culture and traditions. India is seen a melting pot of western, eastern and indigenous
traditions.
The monist Shiva literature posit absolute oneness, that is Shiva is within every man and woman, Shiva is within
every living being, Shiva is present everywhere in the world including all non-living being, and there is no
spiritual difference between life, matter, man and Shiva. The various dualistic and monist Shiva-related ideas
were welcomed in medieval southeast Asia, inspiring numerous Shiva-related temples, artwork and texts in

34
Indonesia, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia, with syncretic integration of local pre-
existing theologies.

Lingodbhava is a Shaiva sectarian icon where Shiva is depicted rising from the Lingam (an infinite fiery pillar) that narrates how Shiva is the foremost
of the Trimurti; Brahma on the left and Vishnu on the right are depicted bowing to Shiva in the centre.
Shaivism

Shaivism is one of the four major sects of Hinduism, the others being Vaishnavism, Shaktism and the Smarta
Tradition. Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that
Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is. He is not only the
creator in Shaivism, but he is also the creation that results from him, he is everything and everywhere. Shiva is
the primal Self, the pure consciousness and Absolute Reality in the Shaiva traditions

Vaishnavism
The Vaishnava (Vishnu-oriented) literature acknowledges and discusses Shiva. Like Shaiva literature that
presents Shiva as supreme, the Vaishnava literature presents Vishnu as supreme. However, both traditions are
pluralistic and revere both Shiva and Vishnu (along with Devi), their texts do not show exclusivism, and
Vaishnava texts such as the Bhagavata Purana while praising Krishna as the Ultimate Reality, also present
Shiva and Shakti as a personalized form an equivalent to the same Ultimate Reality. The texts of Shaivism
tradition similarly praise Vishnu. The Skanda Purana, for example, states:
Vishnu is no one but Shiva, and he who is called Shiva is but identical with Vishnu.

— Skanda Purana, 1.8.20–21

Mythologies of both traditions include legends about who is superior, about Shiva paying homage to Vishnu,
and Vishnu paying homage to Shiva. However, in texts and artwork of either tradition, the mutual salutes are
symbolism for complementarity. The Mahabharata declares the unchanging Ultimate Reality (Brahman) to be
identical to Shiva and to Vishnu,] that Vishnu is the highest manifestation of Shiva, and Shiva is the highest
manifestation of Vishnu.

Trimurti
The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction
are personified by the forms of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and Shiva the destroyer
or transformer. These three deities have been called "the Hindu triad" [ or the "Great Trinity" However, the
ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism feature many triads of gods and goddesses, some of which do not
include Shiva

35
Shiva with Parvati. Shiva is depicted three-eyed, the Ganges flowing through his matted hair, wearing ornaments of serpents and a skull garland,
covered in ashes, and seated on a tiger skin.// A seated Shiva holds an axe and deer in his hands.//
KHMER TRIMURTI (THE GODS BRAHMA, VISHNU AND SHIVA) style of Banteay Srei, 10th century,

Third eye: Shiva is often depicted with a third eye, with which he burned Desire (Kāma) to ashes, called
"Tryambakam" (Sanskrit: त्र्यम्बकम् ), which occurs in many scriptural sources.[202] In classical Sanskrit, the
word ambaka denotes "an eye", and in the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is
sometimes translated as "having three eyes". However, in Vedic Sanskrit, the word ambā or ambikā means
"mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "three mothers". These three

36
mother-goddesses who are collectively called the Ambikās. Other related translations have been based on the
idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were
shared with the goddess Ambikā.

 Crescent moon: Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon. The
epithet Candraśekhara (Sanskrit: चन्द्रशेखर "Having the moon as his crest" – candra = "moon"; śekhara =
"crest, crown") refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic
feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva. The
origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the
Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored, and in later literature, Soma and Rudra came to be
identified with one another, as were Soma and the moon.
 Ashes: Shiva iconography shows his body covered with ashes (bhasma, vibhuti). The ashes represent a
reminder that all of material existence is impermanent, comes to an end becoming ash, and the pursuit of
eternal Self and spiritual liberation is important.
 Matted hair: Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets Jaṭin, "the one with matted hair",[218] and
Kapardin, "endowed with matted hair"[219] or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda)
fashion".[220] A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or, more generally, hair that
is shaggy or curly.
 Blue throat: The epithet Nīlakaṇtha (Sanskrit नीलकण्ठ; nīla = "blue", kaṇtha = "throat"). Since Shiva drank
the Halahala poison churned up from the Samudra Manthan to eliminate its destructive capacity. Shocked
by his act, Parvati squeezed his neck and stopped it in his neck to prevent it from spreading all over the
universe, supposed to be in Shiva's stomach. However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of
his neck to blue. This attribute indicates that one can become Lord Shiva by swallowing the worldly
poisons in terms of abuses and insults with equanimity while blessing those who give them.
 Meditating yogi: his iconography often shows him in a Yoga pose, meditating, sometimes on a symbolic
Himalayan Mount Kailasha as the Lord of Yoga.
 Sacred Ganga: The epithet Gangadhara, "Bearer of the river Ganga" (Ganges). The Ganga flows from the
matted hair of Shiva. The Gaṅgā (Ganga), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her
abode in Shiva's hair.
 Tiger skin: Shiva is often shown seated upon a tiger skin
 Serpents: Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.
 Trident: Shiva typically carries a trident called TrishulaThe trident is a weapon or a symbol in different
Hindu texts. As a symbol, the Trishul represents Shiva's three aspects of "creator, preserver and
destroyer",or alternatively it represents the equilibrium of three Gunas of "sattva, rajas and tamas".
 Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a damaru. This is one of the attributes of Shiva
in his famous dancing representation[236] known as Nataraja. A specific hand gesture (mudra)
called ḍamaru-hasta (Sanskrit for "ḍamaru-hand") is used to hold the drum.[237] This drum is particularly
used as an emblem by members of the Kāpālika sect.
 Axe (Parashu) and Deer are held in Shiva's hands in Odisha & south Indian icons
 Rosary beads: he is garlanded with or carries a string of rosary beads in his right hand, typically made
of Rudraksha. This symbolises grace, mendicant life and meditation.
 Nandī: Nandī, (Sanskrit: नन्दिन् (nandin)), is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva's mount. Shiva's
association with cattle is reflected in his name Paśupati, or Pashupati (Sanskrit: पपति), translated by
Sharma as "lord of cattle and by Kramrisch as "lord of animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an
epithet of Rudra.
 Mount Kailāsa: Mount Kailash in the Himalayas is his traditional abode.[214][246] In Hindu mythology,
Mount Kailāsa is conceived as resembling a Linga, representing the center of the universe.[247]
 Gaṇa: The Gaṇas are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailash. They are often referred to as the bhutaganas,
or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally benign, except when their lord is transgressed
against, they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee. His son Ganesha was
chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title gaṇa-īśa or gaṇa-pati, "lord of the gaṇas"
 Varanasi: Varanasi (Benares) is considered to be the city specially loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest
places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.

FORMS

37
Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox whose attributes include opposing theme The ambivalent nature of this
deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.

Destroyer and Benefactor

Shiva is represented in his many aspects Left: Bhairava icon of the fierce form of Shiva, from 17th/18th century Nepal;
Right: Shiva as a meditating yogi in Rishikesh./Shiva Lingam with tripundra.

Why Lingam everywhere in Khmer Empire?

These three divinities—Vishnu, Shiva, and the Goddess—represent the three main deities worshipped
in Hindu practice. Those who worship Vishnu are Vaishnava, those who worship Shiva are Shaiva,
and those who worship the Goddess are Shakta (from Shakti, or “power,” the feminine force the
Goddess is said to possess). Brahma is not often the object of worship. Other deities have gained in
popularity, such as Ganesha (the son of Shiva and Parvati) and Hanuman (the monkey god who aided
Rama, an avatara, or “incarnation,” of Vishnu, in the Ramayana). It is important to note that although
there are many deities represented in the Hindu pantheon, worshippers generally consider their own
deity to be central and all-powerful; other deities are subservient to him or her. In addition, all are
often seen to be manifestations of one central force in the universe. Many Hindus today (as in the
past) therefore see themselves as believing in a single divine presence that takes form in endlessly
diverse ways.

Temples acted as both religious and social centers in the dynamic urban hubs of the regional
kingdoms established in the wake of Gupta power (after 500 C.E.) As regional kings and princes
gained power, they often sought legitimacy by granting Brahmins large areas from which to collect
taxes to finance temple development. Temples provided homes for the central deity, and the images
enshrined within represented the deity and in many cases embodied it. Puja, or “worship,” of the
deity, carried out in the home as well in as the temple, became the central focus of religious practice,
representing a full transition away from sacrifice as the primary form of practice. Puja remains a
central practice in temples all over Hindu South Asia and its diaspora. Home-based rituals have
continued to be important; in some contexts, more so than public and congregational forms of
worship.

1. Shaivism preceded Vaishnavism by 2 millenium as per recent historical proofs, that’s a very strong
reason.
2. The aborgines of India followed Shaivism which would have influenced them more.
3. The coastal traders who had very strong relationship with all South Eastern countries from
Tamilnadu ports were following Shaivism.
Lingam

38
The Linga Purana states, "Shiva is signless, without color, taste, smell, that is beyond word or touch,
without quality, motionless and changelessThe source of the universe is the signless, and all of the
universe is the manifested Linga, a union of unchanging Principles and the ever changing nature.
The Linga Purana and Siva Gita texts builds on this foundation. Linga, states Alain Daniélou, means
sign. It is an important concept in Hindu texts, wherein Linga is a manifested sign and nature of
someone or something. It accompanies the concept of Brahman, which as invisible signless and
existent Principle, is formless or linga-less
Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, he is also represented in aniconic form of a
lingam. These are depicted in various designs. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded
column in the centre of a lipped, disk-shaped object, the yoni, symbolism for the goddess Shakti.
[311]
In Shiva temples, the linga is typically present in its sanctum sanctorum and is the focus of votary
offerings such as milk, water, flower petals, fruit, fresh leaves, and rice. According to Monier
Williams and Yudit Greenberg, linga literally means 'mark, sign or emblem', and also refers to a
"mark or sign from which the existence of something else can be reliably inferred". It implies the
regenerative divine energy innate in nature, symbolized by Shiva.
According to Sivananda Saraswati, Siva Lingam speaks unmistakable language of silence: "I am one
without a second, I am formless" Siva Lingam is only the outward symbol of formless being, Lord
Siva, who is eternal, ever-pure, immortal essence of this vast universe, who is your innermost Self or
Atman, and who is identical with the Supreme Brahman, states Sivananda Saraswati.
Some scholars, such as Wendy Doniger and Rohit Dasgupta, view linga as merely a phallic
symbol, although this interpretation is criticized by others, including Swami Vivekananda, Sivananda
Saraswati, Stella Kramrisch. Swami Agehananda Bharati, S. N. Balagangadhara, and others
According to Moriz Winternitz, the linga in the Shiva tradition is "only a symbol of the productive
and creative principle of nature as embodied in Shiva", and it has no historical trace in any obscene
phallic cult. According to Sivananda Saraswati, westerners who are curiously passionate and have
impure understanding or intelligence, incorrectly assume Siva Linga as a phallus or sex organ.Later
on, Sivananda Saraswati mentions that, this is not only a serious mistake, but also a grave blunder
The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva-Veda Samhitâ sung in
praise of the Yupa-Stambha, the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the
beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place
of the eternal Brahman. Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames,
the Soma plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to
the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding
on the bull of the Shiva, the Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga. In the text Linga
Purana, the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great
Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.
The oldest known archaeological linga as an icon of Shiva is the Gudimallam lingam from 3rd-
century BCE. In Shaivism pilgrimage tradition, twelve major temples of Shiva are called Jyotirlinga,
which means "linga of light", and these are located across India.
Five faces- Pañcānana

39
Shiva sculpture, Dieng Plateau in Java, Indonesia//The 10th century five headed Shiva,
Sadashiva, Cambodia.
Five is a sacred number for Shiva. One of his most important mantras has five syllables (namaḥ
śivāya)
Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the pañcabrahman. As forms of God, each of
these have their own names and distinct iconography
 Sadyojāta
 Vāmadeva
 Aghora
 Tatpuruṣa
 Īsāna
These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five
elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action. Doctrinal
differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in
details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.The overall meaning of these
associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:
Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material
cause of all that exists.
According to the Pañcabrahma Upanishad:
One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the
eternal verity of Śiva is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31)
Avatars

Puranic scriptures contain occasional references to "ansh" – literally 'portion, or avatars of Shiva', but
the idea of Shiva avatars is not universally accepted in Saivism. The Linga Purana mentions twenty-
eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars, however such mention is unusual and the
avatars of Shiva is relatively rare in Shaivism compared to the well emphasized concept of Vishnu
avatars in Vaishnavism. Some Vaishnava literature reverentially link Shiva to characters in its
mythologies. For example, in the Hanuman Chalisa, Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of
Shiva. The Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana claim sage Durvasa to be a portion of
Shiva. Some medieval era writers have called the Advaita Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara an
incarnation of Shiva.

40
Indonesia

In Indonesian Shaivism the popular name for Shiva has been Batara Guru, which is derived from
Sanskrit Bhattāraka which means "noble lord". He is conceptualized as a kind spiritual teacher, the
first of all Gurus in Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the Indian
subcontinent. However, the Batara Guru has more aspects than the Indian Shiva, as the Indonesian
Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him. Batara Guru's wife in Southeast Asia is the same
Hindu deity Durga, who has been popular since ancient times, and she too has a complex character
with benevolent and fierce manifestations, each visualized with different names such as Uma, Sri,
Kali and others. In contrast to Hindu religious texts, whether Vedas or Puranas, in Javanese puppetry
(wayang) books, Batara Guru is the king of the gods who regulates and creates the world system. In
the classic book that is used as a reference for the puppeteers, it is said that Sanghyang Manikmaya or
Batara Guru was created from a sparkling light by Sang Hyang Tunggal, along with the blackish light
which is the origin of Ismaya. Shiva has been called Sadāśiva, Paramasiva, Mahādeva in benevolent
forms, and Kāla, Bhairava, Mahākāla in his fierce forms.
The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivite traditions found in
the Indian subcontinent. However, among the texts that have survived into the contemporary era, the
more common are of those of Shaiva Siddhanta (locally also called Siwa Siddhanta, Sridanta).
During the pre-Islamic period on the island of Java, Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very
close and allied religions, though not identical religions. The medieval-era Indonesian literature
equates Buddha with Siwa (Shiva) and Janardana (Vishnu). This tradition continues in predominantly
Hindu Bali Indonesia in the modern era, where Buddha is considered the younger brother of Shiva.
Central Asia

The worship of Shiva became popular in Central Asia through the influence of the Hephthalite
Empire and Kushan Empire. Shaivism was also popular in Sogdia and the Kingdom of Yutian as
found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan. In this depiction, Shiva is
portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread (Yajnopavita). He is clad in tiger skin while his
attendants are wearing Sogdian dress. A panel from Dandan Oilik shows Shiva in His Trimurti form
with Shakti kneeling on her right thigh. Another site in the Taklamakan Desert depicts him with four
legs, seated cross-legged on a cushioned seat supported by two bulls. It is also noted that
the Zoroastrian wind god Vayu-Vata took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva.
Sikhism

The Japuji Sahib of the Guru Granth Sahib says: "The Guru is Shiva, the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma;
the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi." In the same chapter, it also says: "Shiva speaks, and the Siddhas
listen." In Dasam Granth, Guru Gobind Singh has mentioned two avatars of Rudra: Dattatreya Avatar
and Parasnath Avatar.
Buddhism-Tantric Buddhism-Mahakala, c. 1500 CE Tibetan Thangka.

Shiva is mentioned in the Buddhist Tantras and worshipped as the fierce

deity Mahākāla in Vajrayana, Chinese Esoteric, and Tibetan Buddhism. In the cosmologies of
Buddhist Tantras, Shiva is depicted as passive, with Shakti being his active counterpart: Shiva
as Prajña and Shakti as Upāya.
Chinese Buddhism

In China and Taiwan, Shiva, better known there as Maheśvara is considered one of the Twenty
Devas ( Èrshí Zhūtiān) or the Twenty-Four Devas ( Èrshísì zhūtiān) who are a group
of dharmapalas that manifest to protect the Buddhist dharma. Statues of him are often enshrined in
the Mahavira Halls of Chinese Buddhist temples along with the other devas. In addition, he is also

41
regarded as one of thirty-three manifestations of Avalokitesvara in the Lotus Sutra.
In Mahayana Buddhist cosmology, Maheśvara resides in Akaniṣṭha, highest of the Śuddhāvāsa ("Pure
Abodes") wherein Anāgāmi ("Non-returners") who are already on the path to Arhathood and who will
attain enlightenment are born.
Japanese Buddhism

Daikokuten, one of the Seven Lucky Gods in Japan, is considered to be evolved from Shiva. The god
enjoys an exalted position as a household deity in Japan and is worshipped as the god of wealth and
fortune. The name is the Japanese equivalent of Mahākāla, the Buddhist name for Shiva.
Shiva has been merged with Buddhist deities in East Asian Buddhism

Daikokuten is a Shiva-Ōkuninushi fusion deity in Japan / / Statue of Shiva depicted as a Chinese

Buddhist deva on Mount Putuo Guanyin Dharma Realm in Zhejiang, China//Acala is a fierce
Shiva adaptation in both China and Japan

Lingodbhava (emergence of the Linga) is the story of the origin of the Shiva lingam. It is also an
iconic representation of Lord Shiva. The Shiva lingam is his aniconic representation. The story of
Lingodbhava is mentioned in many Puranas including the Linga Purana, Shiva
Purana, Kurma Purana, Vamana Purana, Skanda Purana, Brahmanda Purana, and Vayu Purana with

42
slight variations. This is also the story of the birth of Lord Shiva. The Lingodbhava Story in the
Linga Purana (1.17.6):

At the end of the Kalpa (a period of 4.32 billion years), there was only a single vast sheet of water.
Lord Brahma saw Lord Vishnu having a yogic sleep on the bed of Shesha (a serpent deity of Hindus).
He woke him up with the blow of his hand and asked him who he was. Lord Vishnu told him that he
was the creator, sustainer, and destroyer of the world. It infuriated him because he believed he was the
creator, sustainer, and destroyer of the world. Then they got into an argument about who was superior.
The argument turned into a furious fight, and then suddenly a Jyotirlinga, a huge infinite pillar of
light, appeared in front of them. It had thousands of clusters of flames. Also, it had no beginning,
middle, or end. It was the source of the universe. They were deluded by it. They forgot their fight and
decided to test it. Lord Brahma assumed a form of a swan and went upwards. Lord Vishnu took the
form of a wild boar and went downwards.

They both traveled for one thousand years but could not find the end of the lingam. Therefore, they returned to
where they started. They bowed to the lingam and wondered what it was. Then a loud sound “Om” came out of
the column, and the letters “अ” “ऊ,” and “म” (“a,” “u,” and “m”) appeared on the lingam. Above those
letters, they saw Lord Shiva along with the goddess Uma. Lord Shiva told them that they both were
born out of him, but they had forgotten about that. The day this incident happened is celebrated
as Mahashivaratri (the Great Night of Lord Shiva) by Hindus

Cambodia

Statue of Buddha at Angkor Wat converted from statue of Visnu.// Angkor Wat, in Cambodia, is one of the hundreds of ancient Hindu temples in

Southeast Asia.

Cambodia was first influenced by Hinduism during the beginning of the Kingdom of Funan.
Hinduism was one of the Khmer Empire's official religions. Angkor Wat, the largest temple complex
in the world (now Buddhist) was once a Hindu temple. The main religion adhered to in Khmer
kingdom was Hinduism, followed by Buddhism in popularity. Initially, the kingdom followed
Hinduism as the main state religion. Vishnu and Shiva were the most revered deities worshipped in
Khmer Hindu temples. Temples such as Angkor Wat are actually known as Preah Pisnulok (Vara

43
Vishnuloka in Sanskrit) or the realm of Vishnu, to honour the posthumous King Suryavarman II as
Vishnu. Hindu ceremonies and rituals performed by Brahmins (Hindu priests), typically only
remained among the ruling elites of the king's family, nobles, and the ruling class .
The Khmer Empire has developed a complex society where sophisticated culture, art, and architecture
flourish. The Khmer king and his officials were in charge of irrigation management and water
distribution, which consisted of an intricate series of hydraulics infrastructure, such as canals, moats,
and massive reservoirs called barays. Society was arranged in a hierarchy reflecting the Hindu caste
system, where the commoners — rice farmers and fishermen — formed the large majority of the
population. The kshatriyas — royalty, nobles, warlords, soldiers, and warriors — formed a governing
elite and authorities. Other social classes included brahmins (priests), traders, artisans such as
carpenters and stonemasons, potters, metalworkers, goldsmiths, and textile weavers, while on the
lowest social level are slaves. The extensive irrigation projects provided rice surpluses that could
support a large population. The state religion was Hinduism but influenced by the cult of Devaraja,
elevating the Khmer kings as possessing the divine quality of living gods on earth, attributed to the
incarnation of Vishnu or Shiva. In politics, this status was viewed as the divine justification of a
king's rule. The cult enabled the Khmer kings to embark on massive architectural projects,
constructing majestic monuments such as Angkor Wat and Bayon to celebrate the king's divine rule
on earth.
The empire's official religions included Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism until Theravada
Buddhism prevailed, even among the lower classes, after its introduction from Sri Lanka in the 13th
century. Since then, Hinduism slowly declined in Cambodia, and finally being replaced by
Theravadan Buddhist as the major faith in the kingdom. Despite this, Hindu rituals continue to play an
important role in the kingdom. Like in neighboring Thailand, the ceremony of coronation is
conducted mostly by royal brahmins, during wh ich the sovereign swears in front of the idols of gods Vishnu
and Shiva to maintain the ancient national traditions.

Hinduism in Indonesia

44
The main three towers of the 9th century Prambanan Trimurti temple complex, the largest Hindu temple site in
Indonesia.

Hindu influences reached the Indonesian Archipelago as early as first century. In 4th-century, the kingdom
of Kutai in East Kalimantan, Tarumanagara in West Java, and Holing (Kalingga) in Central Java, were
among the early Hindu states established in the region. The notable ancient Indonesian Hindu kingdoms
are Medang i Bhumi Mataram (famous for the construction of the majestic 9th-
century Trimurti Prambanan temple) followed by Kediri, Singhasari and the 14th-century Majapahit, the last
and largest among Hindu-Buddhist Javanese empires. Today in Indonesia, Hinduism is practised by 1.7%
of the total population. Hindus constitute 83.29% of the population of Bali and 5.75% of the population of
Central Kalimantan, as of the 2010 census. However, between the 4th century to 15th century, Hinduism
and Buddhism was adhered by the majority of the population, along with native
indigenous animism and dynamism beliefs that venerated natural and ancestral spirits. By 15th to 16th-
century Islam had supplanted Hinduism and Buddhism as the majority religion in the Indonesian
archipelago. The influence of Hinduism has profoundly left its marks on the culture of Bali, Java, and
Sumatra. Bali has become the last remnant of once Hindu dominated region.

45
A Hindu Balinese family after puja in Bratan temple./ A dance performance by Balinese Hindus. Many of these dances
are rituals reflecting mythical or spiritual stories from Hindu Epics and other literature

The Hindu civilisations have left their marks on Indonesian culture. The
epics Mahabharata and Ramayana, became enduring traditions among Indonesian art forms,
expressed in wayang shadow puppet and dance performances. Many Indonesian names are Sanskrit-
based, and Bahasa Indonesia contains loads of loanwords of Sanskrit origin. The vehicle of
Vishnu, Garuda, was adopted as both national emblem Garuda Pancasila and flag carrier national
airline named Garuda Indonesia.
Today, the Indonesian government has recognised Hinduism as one of the country's six officially
sanctioned religions, along with Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Buddhism
and Confucianism.
The Hindu communities in Java tend to be concentrated around built temples (pura) or around
archaeological temple sites (candi) which are being reclaimed as places of Hindu worship. An
important Hindu temple in eastern Java is Pura Mandaragiri Sumeru Agung, located on the slope
of Mt. Semeru, Java's highest mountain. Another Hindu temple, built on a site with minor
archaeological remnants attributed to the Kingdom of Blambangan, the last Hindu polity on Java, and
Pura Loka Moksa Jayabaya (in the village of Menang near Kediri), where the Hindu king and
prophet Jayabaya is said to have achieved spiritual liberation (moksa). Another site is the new Pura
Pucak Raung in East Java, which is mentioned in Balinese literature as the place from
where Maharishi Markandeya took Hinduism to Bali in the 14th century.
An example of resurgence around major archaeological remains of ancient Hindu temple sites was
observed in Trowulan near Mojokerto, the capital of the legendary Hindu empire Majapahit. A local
Hindu movement is struggling to gain control of a newly excavated temple building which they wish
to see restored as a site of active Hindu worship. The temple is to be dedicated to Gajah Mada, the
man attributed with transforming the small Hindu kingdom of Majapahit into an empire. Although
there has been a more pronounced history of resistance to Islamization in East Java,
Laos

Ancient Laos used to be a part of Hindu Khmer Empire. The Wat Phou is one of the last influences of
that period. The Laotian adaptation of the Ramayana is called Phra Lak Phra Lam.
Hinduism in Malaysia

46
Most Malaysian Hindus are settled in western parts of Peninsular Malaysia. Indian Hindus and
Buddhists began arriving in Malaysia during the ancient and medieval era. A large number of Hindus
from South India were brought to Malaysia by British colonial empire during the 19th and 20th
century, as indentured labourers to work on coffee and sugarcane plantations and tin mining; later
they were deployed in large numbers, along with Chinese Buddhists, on rubber plantations. The
British kangani system of recruitment, designed to reduce labour turnover and enhance labour
stability, encouraged Hindu workers to recruit friends and family from India to work in British
operations in Malaysia. The kangani system brought numerous Tamil Hindus into Malaysia by early
1900s. By 1950s, about 12.8% of Malaysian population professed to be a Hindu.

47
Hinduism in Myanmar

The first document found in the Philippines, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription (c. 900), shows
Hindu influences in the Philippines./A Hindu procession in Yangon, Myanmar
Most Hindus in Myanmar are Burmese Indians. In modern Myanmar, most Hindus are found in the
urban centres of Yangon and Mandalay. Ancient Hindu temples are present in other parts of Burma,
such as the 11th century Nathlaung Kyaung Temple dedicated to Vishnu in Bagan. Hinduism in
Myanmar has also been influenced by Buddhism with many Hindu temples in Myanmar housing
statues of the Buddha.
Thagyamin is worshipped whose origins are in the Hindu god Indra. Burmese literature has also been
enriched by Hinduism, including the Burmese adaptation of the Ramayana, called Yama Zatdaw.
Many Hindu gods are likewise worshipped by many Burmese people, such as Saraswati (known as
Thuyathadi in Burmese), the goddess of knowledge, who is often worshipped before examinations;
Shiva is called Paramizwa; Vishnu is called Withano, and others. Many of these ideas are part of
thirty-seven Nat or deities found in Burmese culture.[
Philippines

Before the arrival of an Arab trader to Sulu Island in 1450 and Ferdinand Magellan, who sailed in
behalf of Spain in 1521, the chiefs of many Philippine islands were called Rajas, and the script was
derived from Brahmi. Karma, a Hindu concept is understood as part of the traditional view of the
universe by many Philippine peoples, and have counterparts such as kalma in the Pampangan
language, and Gabâ in Visayan languages. The vocabulary in all Philippine languages reflect Hindu
influences.
There are smaller number of followers of Hinduism today at 0.1% of the Philippine population.
Today, there is a "Hindu Temple" (attended mostly by Sindhīs) on Mahatma Gandhi Street and a
"Khalsa Diwan Indian Sikh Temple" (attended mostly by Sikhs) on United Nations Avenue. Both are
in Manila city's Paco-Pandacan area, the traditional Indian enclave, and are about 15 minutes walk
away from each other. As per estimate there are 22 gurudwāras all over the Philippines today,
although most of the adherents are Indians, Sri Lankans and Nepalese. There are various Hare
Krishna groups in the country that are gaining in popularity.

Shiva in Vedas: -The Rig Veda is the oldest of the Vedas and all the other Vedas are based upon it .It
consists of a thousand hymns of different seers, each hymn averaging around ten verses. Vedas
declares that "ekam satah vipra bahuda vadanti" which means God is one but his names are
several qualities wise, hence Vedas worshiped many super natural Powers like Agni,Vayu surya
chandrama, indra, aadityas, Ashwins and Maruts etc. Then there is Rudra who with these supernatural
powers create storm or havoc whenever there is disorder in these supernatural powers since he is

48
beyond these supernatural powers and emerges to destroy the darkness and disorder. Hence Rudra is
seen as the Ruler of the world in Vedas. In Rig Veda there is in praise of the Rudra as the Supreme
power which protect them from evil as depicted in the following Rudram:

Namasthe Rudhra manyava Uthotha Ishave Nama

Namsthosthu Dhanvane Bahubyam Uthathe Nama. 1.1

(Ishave: Ruler of the World)

Meaning: Salutations to your Ire, Rudra and also salutations to your arrow..
Salutations to your bow and also to your both arms.

Yatha ishu siva thamaa shivam babuva the dhanu,

Shivaa sharavyaa yaa thava thaya no rudhra mrudaya. 1.2

Meaning: Bless us with happiness our Lord,

with that arrow of thine, which is holy,
with that bow of thine, which is begetter of good,
with that quiver of thine, which is sweet

(Begetter of good: Auspicious)

Pramuncha dhanvana sthava mubhayo rarthaniyorjyam,

Yascha the hastha ishawa paraa thaa bhagavo vapa. 1.10

Meaning: Please untie the string connecting the ends of your bow, Oh God
Please put away arrows in your hand in thine quiver.

Namasthe asthvayudhaa yanaathathathaya dhrushnave,

Ubhabhyamutha the namo bahubhyam thava dhanvane. 1.14

Meaning: My salutations to thine strong weapons which are about to strike,

My salutations to your both hands and bow,

In the same hymen than RUDRA is seen as calm and peaceful ever in his basic form (swaroop).

49
Yaa the shivaa thanu raghoraa papakasini,
Thaya nasthanuva shantha maya gireesam thaabhi chakashihi.

Meaning: Oh Rudra, who showers happiness on us from the Mount,

with your aspect which is peaceful,
which is giver of good always,
and that, which is bereft of sin,
And which is the road to salvation,
And which takes us to taller heights,
Reveal to us the principle of the soul.

(Gireesam: He resides in mountain or on the higher level.)

(shantha : Peaceful which is obviously not his Rodra swaroop )

A verse from the Rig Veda (RV2.33.9) calls Rudra"The Lord or Sovereign of the Universe"(īśānādasya
bhuvanasya):

Sthirebhiraṅghaiḥ pururūpa ughro babhruḥ śukrebhiḥ pipiśehiraṇyaiḥ

īśānādasya bhuvanasya bhūrerna vā u yoṣad rudrādasuryam (RV 2.33.9)

Another verse (Yajurveda 16.46) locates Rudra in the heart of the gods, showing that he is the inner Self of
all, even the gods.

devănăm hridayebhyo namo ( देवानां हृदयभ्यो नमो ।)

Meaning: Salutations to him who is in heart of the gods.

(That is the verse where Rudra is described as the inner self of all the gods, the
soul………………………………………………………………………………. That soul is Shiva)

Adhyavoo chadhadhi vakthaa pradhamo daiwyo bhishak,

Ahimscha sarvaan jambayanth sarvaschaa yathu dhaanya. 1.6

Meaning: He who is first among everything,

He who is Godliness in Gods,
He who is the doctor curing the sins,
He who praises good deeds of devotees,
Asou yo avasarpathi neela greevo vilohitha,
Uthainam gopaa adrusannath drushan udhaharya,
Uthainam viswaa bhoothani sa drushto mrudayathi na. 1,8

50
( first among everything : source of all)

Meaning: He who has the blue neck,

Is the one who rises as the copper colured sun.
Even lowly cowherds see this Rudhra who comes as sun,
Even the maids who carry water from rivers see him thus,
And even all the animals of the world see him thus.
Let this Rudra who is seen in the form of sun,
Grant us all happiness.
(Blue neck : Neelkantha, Thousands of eyes : Veerupaksha )

Vedas tells that Rudra dwells in every devas inner self of all.

Yaa the hethir meedushtama hasthe bhabhoova the dhanu,

Thayaa asman viswathasthava mayakshamya paribbuja. 1.13

Meaning: He who is greatest among those who fulfill wishes of devotees,

with those weapons that you have and the bow in your hand.
Which do not cause infirmity to any one.

The Maha mrityunjaya Mantra "Great death-conquering mantra"), also called the Tryambakam Mantra, is a
verse of the Rigveda (RV7.59.12). It is addressed to Tryambaka "the three-eyed one", Lord with three eyes
and three worlds.

Two of the Great mantras of Rig Vedas are Gayatri mantra and Maha Mrintunjaya mantra.

Therefore Rudra is Shiva who has many names like (begetter of good- Auspicious), (Gireesam: He resides in
mountain or on the higher level Kailash pati.)(shantha : Peaceful which is obviously not his Rodra
swaroop ;Shankar ), ( first among everything : source of all Adi Dev),( Salutations to him who is in heart of the
gods: Sarvaatma the soul of everyone), (Blue neck : Neelkantha, Thousands of eyes : Veerupaksha ) ( fulfill
wishes of devotees ,Ashutosh ) all these names depicts the all auspicious supreme personality the source of all
and resides on higher level or mountain who is therefore Shiva basically and also furious Rudra for Sinners.

Tantra is the mathematics of the cosmos. It is almost as old as the Vedas. Since beginning of most of things
like Art, Language, Sound, light,Power are associated with lord Shiva because he is the source of everything as
he is Adi dev , Tantra is also said to have come from Lord Shiva.

Tantra is as old as Vedas and first word found in the Atherveda in section 10.7.42 . the Smritis and epics of
Hinduism (and Jainism), the term means "doctrine, rule, theory, method, technique or chapter. Nature represents
everything to be in order that made human to think about the mathematics of the nature and universe or celestial
world.Tantra is followed in Buddhism ,Bonn and Jainism too with root of Shaivism or basic of Tantra.

But later many version of tantra came followed their personnel deities and interest and got contaminated.

History of Lord Shiva is no time bond. We have till now found his seal as pasupathi nath but the philosophy of
Shiva can be very very old.

Shivlingam too is time less it may have started from the first time Human when thought of supreme power and
just started worshiping a formless image God.

Pashupatinath seal, Mohenjodaro C- 2900BC-1900BC

A seal discovered during excavation of the Mohenjodaro archaeological site in the Indus Valley (2900BC-
1900BC) has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "yogi" or "Shiva" figure. This "Pashupati" (Lord
of Animals, Sanskrit paśupati) seal shows a seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals. Some
observers describe the figure as sitting in a traditional cross-legged yoga pose with its hands resting on its knees.
Hindu sees Shiva as timeless above than everything his stories are from Vedas to puran to other holi
books .Many scholars have written so much about him and still have to find more about him.

51
Kailash Temple left and to right Meenakshi Temple

There are many temples which are among the oldest structures in the world they stood at that times when many
civilizations were still learning to live a civilized life.The inspirations they may have originated from thousand
more years or decades.

ई न सर्वविद्यानामीश्वरः सर्वभूतानां ब्रह्मादिपति ब्रह्मणोऽधिपतिर्।

ब्रह्मा शिवो मे अस्तु स एव सदाशिव ओम्॥

Ruler of all knowledge, Master of all beings,

Commander of all study and devotion,
That God Auspicious to me, Be He just so, the Ever-Auspicious Om.

Shiva himself is the Knowledge……you cant bound him to time space history or scripts. He is beyond every
thing what we see only what he wants to show to jeevatmas which have limitations.

52
 IV
Relationship of the Srivijaya empire with the Tamil Chola empire
The Chola dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire of southern India and one of the
longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the
Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE during the reign of Ashoka of
the Maurya Empire. As one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, along with
the Chera and Pandya, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territories until the 13th
century CE. The Chola Empire was at its peak under the Medieval Cholas in the mid-9th
century CE. Dr Uday Dokras’ articles and Books on Srivijay Empire.
1. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342815787_Buddhism_in_the_Srivijaya_Empire
2. https://pdfcoffee.com/the-mandalas-of-the-srichakra-7-th-book-in-mandala-series-pdf-
free.html
3. https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/63279669/hindu-tempel-of-india-and-cambodia
4. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348915911_The_MYSTERIOUS_Srivijaya_Empire
5. https://www.academia.edu/85825605/
Mysterious_Knowledge_Centre_of_SriVijayapura_of_the_Srivijaya_Empire_Part_II
6. https://www.academia.edu/45293503/Srijijay_the_Kingdom_of_the_Winds_booK

The Chola dynasty was one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of southern India.
The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century
BCE left by Ashoka, of the Maurya Empire. As one of the Three Crowned
Kings of Tamilakam, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until the 13th
century CE.

The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River, but they ruled a
significantly larger area at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century till
the beginning of the 13th century. The whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united
and held as one state for a period of two centuries and more.

Cholas did conquer territories outside of India in Indian Ocean upto South China Sea . Their
great king Rajendran 1 won territories of island of Pegu in Myanmar, Phan rang in Vietnam ,
isthmus kra in Thailand, kedah in Malaysia , Sumatra in Indonesia and Cebu in Philippines.
Besides he conquered srilanka, Maldives and Bangladesh. He won territories in south and
east India. He ruled over 36 lakh square kilometres which is more than Indian union.Herman
kulke a German historian notes in his book from “ Nagapattinam to swarnadweepa “ the
motivation for the conquest was the desire to perform Digvijaya by Rajendra across the
oceans.Spencer an American historian points out in his book “ chola conquest “ the
motivation of plunder of small and medium kingdoms stretching across Indian Ocean and
extending upo South China Sea.Tansen Sen a Chinese American historian mentions in his
research paper “ Military campaigns of Rajendra chola” amassing huge wealth through
hegemonic oceanic trade activities.

But all agree that “ Rajendra did conquer huge territories in Indian Ocean and South China
Sea ““ Sherja malayu” a Malaysian folklore suggests Rajendras grandson established the
nation of Singapore.For more information the readers are advised to refer the above books
along with Udai Dokras “ The untold legacy of Rajendra chola”. Not only did this South

53
Indian kingdom “ expand “ beyond South India, it also conquered the then heart of North
India “ Kannauj” and also defeated every northern rival totally dominating northern India.

Not only did this South Indian kingdom “ expand “ beyond South India, it also conquered
the then heart of North India “ Kannauj” and also defeated every northern rival totally
dominating northern India.

They were the Rashtrakutas.

This map is rather conservative and doesn't include most of Kerela Tamilnadu and Ceylon
which were later defeated or vassalised.
During the reign of Govinda III, Indra III and Krishna III, their power and influence existed
from the Himalayan region to Rameshwar. Govinda III, is eulogized is one inscription as,
having horses which drank the icy water of the Himalayas and his war elephant tasted the
sacred water of Ganga. His invincible armies overran the territories from Cape Comorin to
Kanouj and from Banaras to Broach.

Rashtrakuta domination wasn't short lived either. Infact this staggering domination went on
for more than 2 centuries. There were only two powers who challenged Rashtrakuta
supremacy in North . They were the Gujara prathiharas and the palas. Both were defeated by
their southern rival and subsequently lost control of Kannauj and major trade routes.So this is

54
one of the stories of a southern empire dominating northern India for centuries.They met their
doom at the hands of their arch nemesis - the medieval Pandiyan Dynasty.

Medieval Cholas and Pandiyas had always been adversaries. But, what culminated in the
utter destruction of Chola empire was a costly mistake by Kulothunga Chola III. He
destroyed the centuries old coronation hall of Pandiyas during his campaign against them in
1205, this was the greatest humiliation Pandiyas had ever met. He later gave back their
kingdom to them, however the humiliation was just too much to bear for the Pandiyas and
this sowed seeds of revenge.

Though Kulothunga was an able conquerer, his later half of the reign was mired with revolts
from every corner. His empire shrunk.The Pandiyas had been waiting for an opportunity like
this.In 1216, Maravarman Sundara Pandian I, brother of Jatavarman Kulashekara
Pandian I (who had been humiliated by the Cholas) ascended the throne.He was determined
to wreak vengeance on the Chola power. In a very short span of two years, he managed to
rise a huge army and invaded the Chola kingdom.

Excerpts from, “Later Chola temples”

“The prasasti of Maravarman Sundara Pandya gives a graphic description of the invasion.
Determined to exterminate the seal of the Tiger (the Chola emblem) from the land of the
Kaveri and establish in its place the seal of the Fish (the Pandyan emblem)”, heading a force
comprising turbulent elephants and spirited horses, he razed to the ground the Chola
citadels of Tanjavur and Uraiyur and destroyed the Chola authority altogether.

The inscription says that he bloodied the quiet waters of the lakes and rivers in the Chola
country, destroyed halls and forts, towers and dance halls, buildings and palaces, and
looted the treasuries and caused a river of tears to flow from the eyes of the queens of the
opposing kings, ploughed the enemy territory with plough-shares drawn by donkeys (a
symbolic assertion of capture of enemy territory) and vented in full his pent-up anger
against the Cholas.

55
He drove the Chola king into the forest, entered the Chola capital of Ayirattali (alias Mudi-
konda-sola-puram), ‘the city surrounded by a gold-plated wall of enclosure that rose to the
very skies’, and performed the virabhishekam(the ceremony of the anointment of a hero)
seated on the throne in the coronation pavilion known as Sola-valavan, and declared himself
the king of all Lords—with only his ‘sharp wheels and red shoulders’ as his support.

Then he proceeded to Tiruppuliyur (Chidambaram), paid homage at the feet of Nataraja and
Sivakama Sundari and then went to Ponnamaravati, ‘the city of lakes choked with lotuses that
attracted the buzzing bees in the early morning, who woke the sleepy swans from their
nightly slumber’, where Kulottunga III and his queen, who had hidden themselves in the
outskirts in shame at their defeat, came forth with their son Rajaraja (III) offering to name
him after the Pandya.

In a poignant ceremony, Sundara Pandya bestowed the captured empire back on the Chola
monarch, the ceremonial bestowal being accompanied by the pouring of water, and gave him
back his capital, his seal of authority and the title of 'Solapati and sent him (Kulottunga III)
back.

This (prasasti) proves that the Pandyan ruler paid the grand Chola emperor back in his own
coin, and repeated at Ponnamaravati the ceremonial disgracing of the enemy enacted by
Kulottunga III at the Pandyan capital of Madurai a few years earlier.

Maravarman Sundara Pandya assumed the title of ‘Sonadukonda Sundara Pandyan’, i.e.,
‘Sundara Pandya who took the Chola country’ and, since he bestowed the kingdom back on
the Chola emperor, he also later assumed the title of ‘Sonadu-valangiya Sundara Pandyan’,
i.e., ‘Sundara Pandyan who gave back the Chola country’.

Almost overnight, the Chola kingdom in almost the last year (a.d. 1216) of the reign of
Kulottunga III who ‘took Madurai, Ilam (Sri Lanka), Karuvur, and the crown of the Pandya’
and who performed the ceremonies of virabhishekam and vijayabhishekatn and crowned
himself Tribhuvanavira deva, lost its greatness, its power and authority and the enviable
position it had held for more than three and a half centuries.

What was Kulothunga III’s son Rajaraja III doing, while all this was going on ? Later when
he ascended the Throne, the Hoysalas under Vira Narasimha II had to come to his rescue
when Kopperunchinga (a Kadava feudatory of cholas) threatened to over throw the Chola
king. Narasimha also had to defend the Cholas against the Pandians. (Hoysalas had marriage
alliance with Cholas) For this feat Narasimha assumed the title : ‘the protector of the Chola
family’.Rajaraja III was overthrown by his own brother Rajendra III. Though Rajendra had
initial success against Pandiyas (fun fact - Hoysalas sided with Pandiyas), Jatavarman
Sundara Pandian’s ascension to throne finished off what ever was left of Chola kingdom - he
annexed it.

56
We have seen in history that many North Indian dynasties (Mauryas, Guptas, khaljis,
Tughluks, and Mughals) have controlled the southern part of India. whereas no South Indian
dynasty has effectively controlled and ruled the north India for a reasonable period of time.

This is because of advantages of North Indian dynasties.

1. The political base and their capital cities like Pataliputra, kannuj, Delhi and Agra
are based on the rich Indo Gangetic Doab. The Indo Gangetic Doab has one of the
most fertile Alluvial lands on the surface of the earth.
2. The rich soil aided with perennial rivers provide a strong agricultural surplus which
led to a emergence of strong economic base for the North Indian dynasties.
3. The agricultural surplus and economic prosperity had led to the growth of
population.
4. The above factors provided a base for the rising of a huge army, which could be
used for the expansion of the kingdom.
5. The core administrative area of these dynasties consists of a simple geography
(mainly plains). It was very easy for the rulers to control this area and consolidate
their position.
6. These empires are well protected by the Himalayas in the North, thick forest in the
east, Vindhyas in south and Hindukush mountains in the west. The only danger
they faced of foreign invasion is through the mountain passes of the Hindukush
mountains.
Disadvantages of the southern kingdoms,

1. The South Indian kingdoms existed mainly in the river valleys of Tungabhatra,
Krishna, Vaigai and Cauvery.
2. The agricultural base and the economic base is not so vast as compared to the North
Indian dynasties.

57
 3. The geographical terrain of the south India is characterised by numerous mountains
and plateaus, which were responsible for emergence of many small dynasties.
4. Due to this geographical factor it was difficult for any ruler to consolidate his
position. Most of the rulers spent their time in consolidation than expansion.
Inspite of all these disadvantages, we have some South Indian dynasties which established
fairly large empires.

 Imperial cholas
 Vijayanagar empire
 Marathas
1. Among them, the cholas stand unique. The cholas not only controlled and ruled the
south India, they had annexed parts of north India under Rajendra chola.
2. The cholas are the only dynasty in Indian history to have annexed territories outside
Indian subcontinent. The cholas had annexed Srilanka, Laccadives, Maldives, parts
of Malaysia and Indonesia.
3. It is to be noted that while the North Indian dynasties wasted their time and
economy on needless war, the south focussed its limited resources on cultural
activities. Almost all the great architectural remains belong to the dynasties of
south.
 There are numerous temples all over the south like (Thanjavur, Madurai,
Kanchipuram, Mamallapuram, Belur, Halibedu, Somnathpur, Vijayanagar, Badami,
caves of Ajanta and Ellora, etc. the list is huge).
 We have examples of such temples in the north, but they are few and less numerous
compared to their economic and dynastic potential. (Khajuraho, Konark,
Bhubhaneshwar etc.)

The Chola Empire was one of the greatest Indian empires, but Marxist historians buried it.
The Chola Empire – reduced to a mere dynasty by India's Marxist distorians, was the world's
longest-ruling kingdom.They succeeded in building the greatest thalassocratic empire in the
history of India, thereby leaving a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their
zeal in the building of temples has resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and
architecture.Indonesians accept that in our official history the Empire of Srivijaya was once
attacked and defeated by Rajendra Chola of Chola Empire.To this day the Malay people of
Sumatra and Malaysia still remember the name of Rajendra Chola as “Raja Chulan” who
defeated the Great Empire of Srivijaya in battle.

58
It is important to note that Indonesian sources said the Chola Empire did not annex Srivijaya,
and Indian people did not came to Indonesia as invaders or conquerors. The territories of
Srivijaya was included within Rajendra Chola’s sphere of influence, but not as part of the
Chola Empire itself.

Throughout most of their shared history, ancient Bharat and Nusantara (old name for
Indonesia) enjoyed friendly and peaceful relations, therefore this Indian invasion is a unique
event in Asian history. In the 9th and 10th centuries, Srivijaya maintained close relations with
the Pala Empire in Bengal, and an 860 CE the Nalanda inscriptiom records that Maharaja
Balaputradewa of Srivijaya dedicated a monastery at the Nalanda Mahavihara in Pala
territory. The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola Empire of southern India was friendly
during the reign of Rajadiraja Chola I. In 1006 CE a Srivijayan Maharaja from Shailendran
dynasty — king Maravijaya Tunggavarman constructed the Kudamani Vihara in the port
town of Nagapattinam.

Some Indonesian historian opined that the attack of Rajendra Chola to Srivijaya is a
punishment for the Srivijaya harassing and oppressing Tamil immigrants and merchants in
their territory with very high taxes. ·

59
“Chola dynasty is not over rated”

History of the Cholas falls into four periods: the Early Cholas of the Sangam literature, the
interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the Imperial medieval
Cholas under Vijayalaya (c. 848), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, and finally the Later
Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the 11th century.

So these are the basic Introduction to the Chola Dynasty.

Why they are not over rated :

1. Their Art : The period of the imperial Cholas (c. 850 CE - 1250 CE) was an age of
continuous improvement and refinement of Dravidian art and architecture. They
utilised their prodigious wealth earned through their extensive conquests in
building long-lasting stone temples and exquisite bronze sculptures.
2. Architecture : The chola temples were built during chola rule.The Cholas built
their temple in traditions way of the Pallava dynasty, who were themselves
influenced by the Amaravati school of architecture. The Chola artists and artisans
further drew their influences from other contemporary art and architectural schools
and elevated the Dravidian temple design to greater heights.
3. Warfare : They had amazing Army and Navy
4. Navy : They had the strongest navy you can understand it by seeing the Chola Dynasty
map.

In one of their poem they mentioned ocean are lakes for them. So in those olden days without
any tech or shipping equips like modern days these men were able to travel so long and
extend their conquer and trading routs. It was indeed one of the longest-ruling dynasties in
the history of southern India.” Not only in southern India, we can say southern Asia. In 1025,
Chola ruler Rajendra I sent an ambitious campaign (combined army and navy) against the
kingdom of Shrivijaya in the Southern Malay peninsula (present-day Malaysia and
Singapore) and Sumatra (present-day Indonesia). The campaign was a remarkable success,
and ended with the Chola controlling a number of strategic places along the Straits of
Malacca, but not much territory inland.

This was not an attempt for an overseas empire. The cause of the war was most likely a need
to protect commercial interests. There was a lucrative trade between India and China in the

60
10th Century that had to pass through the Straits of Malacca (between the Malay Peninsula
and Sumatra). Shrivijaya figured it would be in their own interest if the trade from China
terminated in Shrivijaya, and their own ships took over from there, thus cutting out the Indian
ships (which the Chola probably had a big interest in).

This is also inline with the aggressive moves the Cholas would make to take over the trade
with West Asian kingdoms. Rajaraja fought to bring the Malabar coast under his control and
conquered the Maldives, while Rajendra took that forward by attacking Sri Lanka (and
destroying their capital Anuradhapura).

Rajendra's south-east Asian campaign seems to have kept the straits safe for Indian shipping
long after his death. The Chola Kulottonga I would send an embassy of 72 merchants to
China in 1077. But there was never a follow-up campaign to gain territory. The Cholas were
kept busy by their many enemies on the mainland and in Sri Lanka - the Pandyas, the Cheras,
the Chalukyas and later the Hoysalas and Kakatiyas.

So the Cholas had enough influence in south-east Asia that they could control commerce
(which was a pretty big deal) but they did not really hold any territory there.

the conquest of Maldives is associated with Rajaraja I, not Rajendra I. Corrected that.

“Chola”, “Cho-la” and “So-la” are all wrong ! In Tamil, சோழர் is pronounced as ‘Cho-zha-
i*r’. This is the correct way to pronounce.The word ‘ChoZha - nadu’ means “New Country”,
in the lines of ‘Pandya nadu’ which means “Old Country” !Pandya is derived from ‘Pandaya’
(Ancient or Old), similarly, Chozha is derived from ‘Cho-zhai’ (Often related to ‘Puthumai-
New’, ‘Fresh’ or even ‘Garden’).

The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River. They ruled a
significantly larger area at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century till
the beginning of the 13th century. They unified peninsular India south of the Tungabhadra
River, and held the territory as one state for three centuries between 907 and 1215 CE.
[2]
Under Rajaraja I and his successors Rajendra I, Rajadhiraja I, Rajendra II, Virarajendra,
and Kulothunga Chola I, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural powerhouse
in South Asia and Southeast Asia. The power and the prestige the Cholas had among political
powers in South, Southeast, and East Asia at its peak is evident through their expeditions to
the Ganges, naval raids on cities of the Srivijaya empire based on the island of Sumatra, and
their repeated embassies to China. The Chola fleet represented the zenith of ancient Indian
maritime capacity. During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I,
Virarajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I the Chola armies invaded Sri Lanka, the
Maldives and parts of Southeast Asia like Malaysia, Indonesia and Southern Thailand of the
Srivijaya Empire in the 11th century. Rajaraja Chola I launched several naval campaigns that
resulted in the capture of Sri Lanka, Maldives and the Malabar Coast.
In 1025, Rajendra Chola launched naval raids on ports of Srivijaya and against the Burmese
kingdom of Pegu. A Chola inscription states that he captured or plundered 14 places, which
have been identified with Palembang, Tambralinga and Kedah among others. A second
invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola, who conquered Kedah in Malaysia of Srivijaya in
the late 11th century. Chola invasion ultimately failed to install direct administration over
Srivijaya, since the invasion was short and only meant to plunder the wealth of Srivijaya.
However, this invasion gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the
formation of regional kingdoms. Although the invasion was not followed by direct Cholan

61
occupation and the region was unchanged geographically, there were huge consequences in
trade. Tamil traders encroached on the Srivijayan realm traditionally controlled by Malay
traders and the Tamil guilds' influence increased on the Malay Peninsula and north coast of
Sumatra.
During the period of 1010–1153 CE, the Chola territories stretched from the Maldives in the
south to the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh as the northern limit. Rajaraja
Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed part of the Rajarata kingdom in present-
day Sri Lanka, and occupied Maldives islands. His son Rajendra Chola further expanded the
Cholar territory by sending a victorious expedition to North India that touched the
river Ganges and defeating the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. By 1019, he also
completely conquered the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and annexed it to the Chola empire.
In 1017 and 1025, Rajendra Chola launched raids on the cities of
the Srivijaya empire. However, this invasion failed to install direct administration over
Srivijaya, as the invasion was short and only meant to plunder the wealth of Srivijaya.
However, the Chola influence on Srivijava would last until 1070, when the Cholas began to
lose almost all of their overseas territories. The later Cholas (1070–1279 CE) would still rule
portions of Southern India. The Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning of the 13th
century with the rise of the Pandyan dynasty, which ultimately caused their downfall.
The Cholas succeeded in building the greatest thalassocratic empire in the history of India,
thereby leaving a lasting legacy. They established a centralized form of government and a
disciplined bureaucracy. Moreover, their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal for
building temples has resulted in some of the greatest works of Tamil literature and
architecture.[3] The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their
kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centers of economic activity. A UNESCO
world heritage site, the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur, commissioned by the Rajaraja
Chola in 1010 CE, is a prime example for Cholar architecture. They were also well known for
their patronage to art. The development of the specific sculpturing technique used in the
'Chola bronzes', exquisite bronze sculptures of Hindu deities built in a lost wax process was
pioneered in their time. The Chola tradition of art spread and influenced the architecture and
art of Southeast Asia.
Chola empire also had profound impact on Southeast Asia, who executed South-East Asia
campaign of Rajendra Chola I and Chola invasion of Srivijaya.
The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola Empire of south India was friendly during the
reign of Raja Raja Chola I but during the reign of Rajendra Chola I the Chola Empire invaded
Srivijaya cities. In 1025 and 1026 Gangga Negara was attacked by Rajendra Chola I of
the Chola Empire, the Tamil emperor who is now thought to have laid Kota Gelanggi to
waste. Kedah—known as Kedaram, Cheh-Cha (according to I-Ching) or Kataha, in
ancient Pallava or Sanskrit—was in the direct route of the invasions and was ruled by
the Cholas from 1025. A second invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola of the Chola
dynasty who conquered Kedah in the late 11th century. The senior Chola's successor, Vira
Rajendra Chola, had to put down a Kedah rebellion to overthrow other invaders. The coming
of the Chola reduced the majesty of Srivijaya, which had exerted influence
over Kedah, Pattani and as far as Ligor. During the reign of Kulothunga Chola I Chola
overlordship was established over the Srivijaya province kedah in the late 11th century. The
expedition of the Chola Emperors had such a great impression to the Malay people of the
medieval period that their name was mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the
medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melaya. Even today the Chola rule is remembered

62
in Malaysia as many Malaysian princes have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such
was the Raja of Perak called Raja Chulan.

Avalokiteshvara statue found in Perak, 8th–9th century bronze.

Pattinapalai, a Tamil poem of the 2nd century CE, describes goods from Kedaram heaped in
the broad streets of the Chola capital. A 7th-century Indian drama, Kaumudhimahotsva, refers
to Kedah as Kataha-nagari. The Agnipurana also mentions a territory known as Anda-Kataha
with one of its boundaries delineated by a peak, which scholars believe is Gunung Jerai.
Stories from the Katasaritasagaram describe the elegance of life in Kataha. The
Buddhist kingdom of Ligor took control of Kedah shortly after. Its king Chandrabhanu used
it as a base to attack Sri Lanka in the 11th century and ruled the northern parts, an event noted
in a stone inscription in Nagapattinum in Tamil Nadu and in the Sri Lankan
chronicles, Mahavamsa.

63
The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas
to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had
developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. The south Indian guilds played a
major role in interregional and overseas trade. The best known of these were the
Manigramam and Ayyavole guilds who followed the conquering Chola armies. The
encouragement by the Chola court furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations
such as the Ayyavole and Manigramam guilds into Southeast Asia and China. The Cholas,
being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at
the forefront of these ventures. The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire under the
Sailendras,and the Abbasid Kalifat at Baghdad were the main trading partners.
Some credit for the emergence of a world market must also go to the dynasty. It played a
significant role in linking the markets of China to the rest of the world. The market structure
and economic policies of the Chola dynasty were more conducive to a large-scale, cross-
regional market trade than those enacted by the Chinese Song Dynasty. A Chola record gives
their rationale for engagement in foreign trade: "Make the merchants of distant foreign
countries who import elephants and good horses attach to yourself by providing them with
villages and decent dwellings in the city, by affording them daily audience, presents and
allowing them profits. Then those articles will never go to your enemies."
Song dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court
in 1077, and that the king of the Chulian at the time, Kulothunga I, was called Ti-hua-kia-lo.
This embassy was a trading venture and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned
with copper coins in exchange for articles of tribute, including glass and spices. Probably, the
motive behind Rajendra's expedition to Srivijaya was the protection of the merchants'
interests.[
A good number of inscriptions written in Sanskrit language have been found
in Malaysia and Indonesia (in Indonesian known as Prasasti). "Early inscriptions written in
64
Indian languages and scripts abound in Southeast Asia. [...] The fact that southern Indian
languages didn't travel eastwards along with the script further suggests that the main carriers
of ideas from the southeast coast of India to the east - and the main users in Southeast Asia of
religious texts written in Sanskrit and Pali - were Southeast Asians themselves. The spread of
these north Indian sacred languages thus provides no specific evidence for any movements of
South Asian individuals or groups to Southeast Asia.[1]
Kutai inscriptions

Tugu inscription in National Museum of Indonesia/ Picture of one of the Kutai inscriptions at
the National Museum in Jakarta

The oldest known inscriptions in Indonesia are the Kutai inscriptions, or the Muarakaman
inscriptions, which are those on seven stone pillars, or yupa (“sacrificial posts”), found in the
eastern part of Borneo, in the area of Kutai, East Kalimantan province. They are written in
the early Pallava script, in the Sanskrit language, and commemorate sacrifices held by a king
called Mulavarman. Based on palaeographical grounds, they have been dated to the second
half of the 4th century AD. They attest to the emergence of an Indianized state in the
Indonesian archipelago prior to AD 400, and hence Old Kutai Kingdom (Kutai Kuno) is the
earliest known Indianized polity in Indonesia.
In addition to Mulavarman, the reigning king, the inscriptions mention the names of his father
Asvavarman and his grandfather Kundungga. It is generally agreed that Kundungga is not a
Sanskrit name, but one of native origin. The fact that his son Asvavarman is the first of the
line to bear a Sanskrit name indicates that he was probably also the first to adhere to
Hinduism.[2]
Tugu Inscription
The Tugu inscription is one several inscriptions associated to Tarumanagara, discovered in
Batutumbuh hamlet, Tugu village, Koja, North Jakarta, in Indonesia. The inscription contains
information about hydraulic projects; the irrigation and water drainage project of the
Chandrabhaga river by the order of a certain Rajadirajaguru, and also the water project of the
Gomati river by the order of King Purnawarman in the 22nd year of his reign. The digging
project to straighten and widen the river was conducted in order to avoid flooding in the wet
season, and as an irrigation project during the dry season.

65
The Tugu inscription was written in Pallava script arranged in the form of Sanskrit Sloka
with Anustubh metrum, consisting of five lines that run around the surface of the stone. Just
like other inscriptions from the Tarumanagara kingdom, the Tugu inscriptions do not mention
the date of the edict. The date of the inscriptions was estimated and analyzed according to
paleographic study which concluded that the inscriptions originated from the mid 5th century.
The script of the Tugu inscription and the Cidanghyang inscription bear striking similarity,
such as the script "citralaikha" written as "citralekha", leading to the assumption that the
writer of these inscriptions was the same person.
The Tugu inscription is the longest Tarumanagara inscription pronounced by edict of Sri
Maharaja Purnawarman. The inscription was made during the 22nd year of his reign, to
commemorate the completion of the canals of the Gomati and Candrabhaga rivers. On the
inscription there is an image of a staff crowned with Trisula straight to mark the separation
between the beginning and the end of each sentence.
Kedah Inscription
An inscription in Sanskrit dated 1086 has been found in Kedah. This was left by Kulothunga
Chola I (of the Chola empire, Tamil country). This too shows the commercial contacts the
Chola Empire had with Malaysia.
Ligor Inscription
An inscription was found on the Southern Thailand Malay peninsula, at Nakhon Si
Thammarat. It has been dubbed the Ligor inscription, being the name given by Europeans to
the region in the 16th and 17th centuries. It is written in Sanskrit and bears the date of 775
AD. One side of the inscription refers to the Illustrious Great Monarch (śrīmahārāja)
belonging to the "Lord of the Mountain" dynasty (śailendravaṁśa), which is also mentioned
in four Sanskrit inscriptions from Central Java; the other side refers to the founding of several
Buddhist sanctuaries by a king of Srivijaya. Srivijaya is the name of a kingdom whose centre
was located in the modern city of Palembang in South Sumatra province, Indonesia. The
Ligor inscription is testimony to an expansion of Sriwijaya power to the peninsula.
Ligor inscription is an 8th-
century stone stele or inscription
discovered in Ligor, Nakhon Si
Thammarat, Southern Thailand.
This inscription was written and
carved on two sides, the first part
is called Ligor A inscription, or
also known as Viang Sa
inscription, while on the other
side is called the Ligor B
inscription written in Kawi script
dated 775 CE. The Ligor B
inscription was probably written
by Mahārāja dyāḥ Pañcapaṇa
kariyāna Paṇaṃkaraṇa, king of
Shailendra dynasty. This
inscription was connected to the
kingdom of Srivijaya and the
Shailendra dynasty.
Interpretation :

66
 Ligor A inscription tell about a
Srivijayan king named
Dharmasetu, the king of kings in
the world, who built the
Trisamaya caitya for Kajara.
While the Ligor B inscription,
dated 775 CE, written in Kawi
script, contains the information
about a king named Visnu who
holds the title Sri Maharaja, from
Śailendravamśa hailed as
Śesavvārimadavimathana (the
slayer of arrogant enemies
without any trace). There are
some different interpretations
regarding the king mentioned in
Ligor B inscription; some
suggest that the king mentioned
in this inscription was King
Panangkaran while other argues
that it was his successor, King
Dharanindra.

List of Sanskrit inscriptions throughout the Malay

Inscriptions Place of discovery Date Note

Võ Cạnh 2nd-3rd
Nha Trang, Vietnam
inscription Century CE

Muarakaman East Also known as Kutai

~ 400 CE
inscriptions Kalimantan, Indonesia inscriptions

Kebon Kopi I Also known as Tapak

Bogor, Indonesia ~ 400 CE
inscription Gajah inscriptions

early 5th
Tugu inscription North Jakarta, Indonesia
Century CE

67
Inscriptions Place of discovery Date Note

Cidanghiang 5th Century Also known as Lebak

Pandeglang, Indonesia
inscription CE inscription

Ciaruteun 5th Century

Bogor, Indonesia
inscription CE

Muara Cianten 5th century

Bogor, Indonesia
inscription CE

5th century
Jambu inscription Bogor, Indonesia
CE

Pasir Awi 5th century

Bogor, Indonesia
inscription CE

6th-7th
Tukmas inscription Magelang, Indonesia
Century CE

Canggal Earliest mention of

Magelang, Indonesia 732 CE
inscription King Sanjaya

Plumpungan
Salatiga, Indonesia 760 CE
inscription

Nakhon Si
Ligor inscription 775 CE
Thammarat, Thailand

Kalasan inscription Sleman, Indonesia 778 CE

Kelurak inscription Klaten, Indonesia 782 CE

68
Inscriptions Place of discovery Date Note

Karangtengah Also known as

Temanggung, Indonesia 824 CE
inscriptions Kayumwungan inscription

Tri Tepusan
Temanggung, Indonesia 842 CE
inscription

Munggu Antan
Purworejo, Indonesia 887 CE
inscription

Belanjong pillar Denpasar, Indonesia 913 CE

Sangguran Also known as Minto

Batu, Indonesia 928 CE
Inscription Stone

Pucangan Also known as Calcutta

Mojokerto, Indonesia 1041 CE
inscription Stone

Mula Malurung
Kediri, Indonesia 1255 CE
inscriptions

Gondang
Mojokerto, Indonesia 1275 CE
inscription

Padang Roco
Dharmasraya, Indonesia 1286 CE
inscription

Wurare Inscription Mojokerto, Indonesia 1289 CE

Pasir Panjang 9-12th

Karimun, Indonesia
inscription Century CE

Singapore Stone Singapore 10-11th Language unclear; either

69
 Inscriptions Place of discovery Date Note

Century CE Sanskrit or Old Javanese

Akarendra 12th
Tanah Datar, Indonesia
inscription Century CE

Manjusri
Malang, Indonesia 1343 CE
inscription

Amoghapasa
Dharmasraya, Indonesia 1347 CE
inscription

Pagaruyung III
Tanah Datar, Indonesia 1347 CE
inscription

Bukit Gombak
Tanah Datar, Indonesia 1357 CE
inscription

Pagaruyung VIII 1369 or

Tanah Datar, Indonesia
inscription 1316 CE

Suruaso I
Tanah Datar, Indonesia 1375 CE
inscription

Suruaso II 14th Also known as

Batusangkar, Indonesia
inscription Century CE Batusangkar inscription

Kuburajo 14th
Tanah Datar, Indonesia
inscription Century CE

TAMIL
A number of medieval inscriptions written in Tamil language and script that have been found
in Southeast Asia and China, mainly in Sumatra and peninsular Thailand. These texts arose
directly from trade links between south India and certain parts of Southeast Asia and China,

70
which involved the residence in those regions of Tamil-speaking Indians. Several of these
overseas Tamil inscriptions mention well-known medieval Indian merchant associations.
A good number of Tamil inscriptions, as well as Hindu and Buddhist icons emanating
from South India, have been found in Southeast Asia (and even in Quanzhou in China).
On the Malay Peninsula, inscriptions have been found at Takuapa, not far from
the Vishnuite statues of Khao Phra Narai in Southern Thailand. It is a short inscription
indicating that an artificial lake named Avani-naranam was dug by Nangur-Udaiyan, which
is the name of an individual who possessed a military fief at Nangur, being famous for his
abilities as a warrior, and that the lake was placed under the protection of the members of the
Manikkiramam (which according to K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, was a merchant guild) living in
the military camp. Since Avani-narayana is a surname of the Pallava King Nandivarman
III who reigned from 826 to 849, we can deduce the approximate date of this inscription.
In the capital of Tabralinga there is a sanctuary in which there is a bronze image
of Ganesa bearing a Tamil inscription Majapisedesa in modern characters.

Neusu inscription found in Banda Aceh, now kept at Aceh Museum

A slightly later Tamil language inscription has recently been found at Neusu Aceh, Banda
Aceh. The date of the inscription is illegible, but it has been dated palaeographically to about
the 12th century, The entire front of the stone is illegible, aside from the isolated
word mandapam, presumably relating to a temple foundation or endowment. A provisional
translation of the legible portion of the back reads:
"[....] that [we] would not hold (kaikkollakadavadalla); for this decision. [If any violation
comes or situation arises against it (?)...those] who put the [royal] emblem (ilachchinal,
Sanskrit lancana) will come to take and go (seize?) [....] that [we] would not get or collect
(kolludal) interest [in kind] (polisai) [...even] afterwards our people (makkal) would do in
accordance with this inscription (ikkalvettuku kokka[okka]). Let there be prosperity."

71
This provisional reading suggests that the inscription dealt with trading regulations covering
losses of goods, the waiving of collection of interest, and perhaps of royal fees. The legible
portion of the text does not bear the name of any merchant association, but a reference to "our
people" (makkal) may indicate that an association was involved: several inscriptions of this
period in southern India connect merchant associations — particularly the Ainnurruvar —
with the construction of mandapa or other additions to both Hindu and Buddhist foundations.
[5]

In ancient Kedah there is an important and unmistakably Hindu settlement which has been
known for about a century now from the discoveries reported by Col. Low and has recently
been subjected to a fairly exhaustive investigation by Dr. Quaritch Wales. Dr. Wales
investigated no fewer than thirty sites round about Kedah. The results attained show that this
site was in continuous occupation by people who came under strong South
Indian influences, Buddhist and Hindu, for centuries.
An inscribed stone bar, rectangular in shape, bears the ye-dharmma formula in South Indian
characters of the 4th century AD, thus proclaiming the Buddhist character of the shrine near
the find-spot (site I) of which only the basement survives. It is inscribed on three faces
in Pallava script, or Vatteluttu rounded writing of the 6th century AD, possibly earlier.
BARUS or Lobu Tua Inscription
An inscription in the Tamil language, the Lobu Tua Inscription dated 1088 AD, has been
found on the western coast of Sumatra island at Lobu Tua, North Sumatra province,
Indonesia. It was erected by a Tamil merchant guild, the Ayyavole 500 (“the 500 of the
thousand directions”) which enjoyed the patronage of the Chola rulers. The inscription
mentions the guild as “having met at the velapuram in Varocu” “Varocu” is Barus, an ancient
port located not far from Lobu Tua, which had played a major role in
the camphor and benzoin trade since the 9th century. These valuable products were in high
demand in China, India and the Middle East and came from the forests in the northern
Sumatra hinterland. From there, they were brought to Barus and exported. Tamil were among
the foreign merchants who would come to Barus and buy the camphor and benzoin from
local traders.
In 1017 and 1025, the Chola kings had sent fleets to raid ports controlled by Sriwijaya in
the Malacca Straits. After these successful attacks, the Chola seem to have been in a position
to intervene in the region for the rest of the 11th century. This allowed for an increased
presence of Tamil merchant guilds in Sumatra.
In the ancient city of Tanjore (Thanjavur — ancient name) in Tamil Nadu are
inscriptions dating from 1030. which contain a list of the ports in the Malacca Strait raided by
a fleet sent by King Rajendra Chola I. A large stone makara found in Jambi province in
Sumatra, dated 1064 AD, bears testimony to the reemergence of a significant power in Jambi,
with a strong link to Java, in the 11th century. [9] The following are the places that Rajendran
claims to have raided:[10][11]: 77–78, 170

 Sriwijaya (Palembang)
 Pannai (Pannai kingdom)
 Malaiyur (the Malayu of the 7th century, i.e. Jambi) (referring to the ancient Melayu
Kingdom. Known as Jambi today.)
 Mayirudingan (the Je-lo-ting of the Chinese on the Malay Peninsula)
 Ilangasokam (Langkasuka)

72
 Mapappalam (Papphaal, placed by the Sinhalese chronicle Mahavamsa on the coast
of Pegu in Burma)
 Mevilimbangam (unknown)
 Valaippanduru (unknown)
 Talaittakkolam (Takkola of Ptolemy and the Milindapandha, On the isthmus of Kra)
 Madamalingam (Tambralinga, Chinese Tan-ma-ling, of which the center was
at Ligor in Southern Thailand), or the Kra Isthmus
 Ilamuridesam (Lamuri of the Arabs, Lambri of Marco Polo at northern Sumatra)
 Manakkavaram (Nicobar islands)
 Kadaram (Kedah)

The Mahanavika Buddhagupta ("Great Navigator

Buddhagupta") stone inscription, is a 5th-century CE Buddhist stone inscription found in
the Wellesley Province, Penang, Malaysia. It was discovered in 1834 by Captain James Low,
of the East India Company.The plaque is in schist, 8–9 cm wide, and 66 cm high. It is today
in the Indian Museum in Kolkata. The plate features the illustration of a Buddhist stupa. The
script is Brahmi from South India, and very similar to the script of the inscription of
King Purnavarman. Buddhagupta declares in his inscription that he is from Raktamartikka,
thought to be Rajbadidanga in Bengal.The stele examplifies the links between India and
Southeast Asia and that early time, as well as the link between trade and Buddhism. Another
inscription by Mahanavika Buddhagupta, the "Sungai Mas Buddhist stele", was found in
Kampong Sungai Mas, Sungai Petani, Kedah, and dated to circa the 5th-6th century CE. It is
now in the Muzium Arkeologi Lembah Bujang, Merbok, Malaysia.

Old Malay inscriptions and Ancient inscriptions Balinese

73
Old Malay inscriptions
inscriptions that use the language of the ancient Malay inscriptions are relics of the kingdom
of Srivijaya, both in Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. For example Inscription Kedukan
Mount Talang Tuo Inscription, Inscription Rock Lake, and Inscription Ligor.

Ancient inscriptions Balinese

The inscriptions that use the ancient Balinese language is a relic of kingdoms in Bali. The
inscription is generally contain King Casana or regulation of the King. Required letter is the
letter Pallawa, Old Javanese, and Pranagari.
For example: julah Inscription, Inscription Ugrasena, and Monument Inscription Sanur

INVASIONS
In 1025 CE, the Chola Emperor Rajendra I launched naval raids on Srivijaya in maritime
Southeast Asia, Rajendra's overseas expedition against Srivijaya was a unique event in India's
history and its otherwise peaceful relations with the states of Southeast Asia. Several places
in present-day Indonesia and Malaysia were invaded by Rajendra I of the Chola
dynasty. The Chola invasion furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations such as
the Manigramam, Ayyavole and Ainnurruvar into Southeast Asia. The Cholan invasion led to
the fall of the Sailendra Dynasty of Srivijaya and the Chola invasion also coincides with
return voyage of the great Buddhist scholar Atiśa from Sumatra to India and Tibet in 1025
CE.
Throughout most of their shared history, ancient India and Indonesia enjoyed friendly and
peaceful relations, therefore this Indian invasion is a unique event in Asian history. [9] In the
9th and 10th centuries, Srivijaya maintained close relations with the Pala Empire in Bengal,
and an 860 CE Nalanda inscription records that Maharaja Balaputra of Srivijaya dedicated a
monastery at the Nalanda Mahavihara in Pala territory. The relation between Srivijaya and
the Chola dynasty of southern India was friendly during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I. In
1006 CE a Srivijayan Maharaja from Sailendra dynasty — king Maravijayattungavarman —
constructed the Chudamani Vihara in the port town of Nagapattinam.[10] However, during the
reign of Rajendra Chola I the relations deteriorated as the Cholas attacked Srivijayan cities.[11]
The Cholas are known to have benefitted from both piracy and foreign trade. Sometimes
Chola seafaring led to outright plunder and conquest as far as Southeast Asia.[12] Srivijaya
controlled two major naval choke points (Malacca and the Sunda Strait) and was at that time
a major trading empire that possess formidable naval forces. The Malacca Strait's northwest
opening was controlled from Kedah on the Malay Peninsula side and from Pannai on
the Sumatran side, while Malayu (Jambi) and Palembang controlled its southeast opening and
also Sunda Strait. They practiced naval trade monopoly that forced any trade vessels that
passed through their waters to call on their ports or otherwise be plundered.

74
The reasons of this naval expedition are unclear, the historian Nilakanta Sastri suggested that
the attack was probably caused by Srivijayan attempts to throw obstacles in the way of the
Chola trade with the East (especially China), or more probably, a simple desire on the part of
Rajendra to extend his digvijaya to the countries across the sea so well known to his subject
at home, and therefore add luster to his crown. Another theory suggests that the reasons for
the invasion was probably motivated by geopolitics and diplomatic relations.
King Suryavarman I of the Khmer Empire requested aid from Rajendra Chola I of the Chola
dynasty against Tambralinga kingdom.[ After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with
Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the Srivijaya king Sangrama
Vijayatungavarman.
The Chola invasion against Srivijaya was a swift campaign that left Srivijaya unprepared.
Moreover, during this time in the 11th century, the Chola navy had developed strongly, while
Srivijaya sea power was relatively weak. To sail from India to the Indonesian archipelago,
vessels from India sailed eastward across the Bay of Bengal and called at the ports of Lamuri
in Aceh or Kedah in Malay peninsula before entering Strait of Malacca. But the Chola
armada sailed directly to the Sumatran west coast. The port of Barus in the west coast
of North Sumatra at that time belonged to Tamil trade guilds and served as a port to replenish
after crossing the Indian Ocean. The Chola armada, then continued to sail along Sumatra's
west coast southward and sailed into Strait of Sunda. The Srivijaya navy guarded Kedah and
the surrounding areas on the northwest opening of the Malacca Strait and so were completely
unaware that the Chola invasion was coming from the Sunda Strait in the south. The first
Srivijayan city that was raided was Palembang, the capital of Srivijaya empire. The
unexpected attack led to the Cholas sacking the city and plundering the Kadatuan royal
palace and monasteries. The Thanjavur inscription states that Rajendra captured
King Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman of Srivijaya and took a large heap of treasures
including the Vidhyadara Torana, the jeweled 'war gate' of Srivijaya, adorned with great
splendor.
The Chola invasion did not result in Chola administration over the defeated cities, as the
armies moved fast and plundered the Srivijayan cities. The Chola armada seems to have
taken advantage of the Southeast Asian monsoon for moving from one port to another
swiftly. The tactic of a fast-moving unexpected attack was probably the secret of Cholan
success, since it did not allow the Srivijayan mandala to prepare their defenses, reorganize
themselves, provide assistance or to retaliate. The war ended with a victory for the Cholas
and major losses for the Srivijaya Empire, thus ending their maritime monopoly in the region.

75
Charter issued by Rajendra I that declared the collection of revenue to build a Buddhist Vihara in
Srivijaya.

With the Maharaja Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman imprisoned and most of its cities
destroyed, the leaderless Srivijaya mandala entered a period of chaos and confusion. The
invasion marked the end of the Sailendra dynasty. According to the 15th-century Malay
Annals, Rajendra Chola I after the successful naval raid in 1025 CE married Onang Kiu, the
daughter of Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman. This invasion forced Srivijaya to make peace
with Javanese kingdom of Kahuripan. The peace deal was brokered by the exiled daughter of
Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman, a Srivijayan princess who managed to escape the
destruction of Palembang and came to the court of King Airlangga in East Java. She also
became the queen consort of Airlangga named Dharmaprasadottungadevi and in 1035 CE,
Airlangga constructed a Buddhist monastery named Srivijayasrama dedicated to his queen
consort.
Despite the devastation, Srivijaya mandala still survived as the Chola invasion ultimately
failed to install direct administration over Srivijaya, since the invasion was short and only
meant to plunder. Nevertheless, this invasion gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and
enabled the formation of regional kingdoms like Kahuripan and its
successor, Kediri in Java based on agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Sri
Deva was enthroned as the new king and the trading activities resumed. He sent an embassy
to the court of China in 1028 CE.[17] Although the invasion was not followed by
direct Cholan occupation and the region was unchanged geographically, there were huge
consequences in trade. Tamil traders encroached on the Srivijayan realm traditionally
controlled by Malay traders and the Tamil guilds' influence increased on the Malay
Peninsula and north coast of Sumatra.
With the growing presence of Tamil guilds in the region, relations improved between
Srivijaya and the Cholas. Chola nobles were accepted in Srivijaya court and in 1067 CE, a
Chola prince named Divakara or Devakala was sent as a Srivijayan ambassador to the
Imperial Court of China. The prince who was the nephew of Rajendra Chola later was
enthroned in 1070 CE as Kulothunga Chola I. Later during the Kedah rebellion, Srivijaya
asked the Cholas for help. In 1068 CE, Virarajendra Chola launched a naval raid to help

76
Srivijaya reclaim Kedah. Virarajendra reinstated the Kedah king at the request of the
Srivijayan Maharaja and Kedah accepted the Srivijayan sovereignty

TAMIL INFLUENCE ON ANGKOR

Why Angkor Wat should be part of Indian history lessons Kingshuk Nag

Kingshuk Nag considers himself a jack of all trades. Accordingly, his older blog on this site,
Masala Noodles, is about life, people, politics, economics, history and what hav ... MORE
Standing in Angkor Wat – the world’s largest religious monument- the realization dawns on me
that Indian history has neither been adequately documented nor properly written. Here are a
fabulous collection of temples – replete with tales from Ramayana and Mahabharata etched on
its walls – that lie 2500 km from the south Indian shores, as the crow flies. The temple complex

77
– brilliant by all accord – was built in the 12th century by the local king Suryavaraman in a place
that was named Yeshodharapura but subsequently renamed Angkor. If all the names sound so
Indian, then don’t be surprised: the king was by descent related to the Cholas who ruled from
present day Tamil Nadu. Our local guide Arjun tells us that Angkor Wat is Vishnu loka, the
abode of the preserver of the universe. It later became a Buddhist temple and even today the
idols of the Sakyamuni adorn the temple and are worshipped daily here in Cambodia.

In fact the entire stretch of South East Asia from Indonesia to Cambodia is strewn with remains
of Indian influence. Travelers would not have missed that Bangkok’s airport is
called Suvarnabhoomi and the entrance of the airport depicts Amrit Manthan, the churning of
the sea by devas to extract the elixir of life. The Indian influence in Indonesia –whose tourist
haven of Bali is a Hindu majority province, is something that is fairly well known.

But the Indian history lessons taught in our schools and colleges depict nothing of this Hindu,
Buddhist and ancient Indian influence on this region. Instead all that it depicts is the continual
invasion of India from north-west borders and how hordes upon hordes entered and pillaged the
plains of Hindustan. Soon these invading armies started settling in the regions around Delhi and
thus begun the Delhi sultanate. This was followed by the Mughals whose 180 year rule between
1530 and 1707 was the high-water mark of Indian prosperity in medieval India. Everybody in
India has been exposed to Akbar and in college studying economic history (as a side course in
Economics) I was exposed to the agrarian revenue system of the Mughals and how it was
established by the great Mughal. I also learnt that agricultural productivity in those days was
high, in fact higher than pre green revolution levels.

But how many have heard of the great Cholas

and their emperors Rajaraja I and Rajendra Chola? Even, if our movers and shakers have heard
of them, it is just the name. For those who came in late, the Cholas in their heydays controlled
peninsular India – which means the entire south of India and had gone up to Kalinga. More
importantly using their naval forces the Cholas had extended into present day Malaysia and
southern Thailand, not to mention Sri Lanka and Maldives. It was thus a huge empire that
extended out of present day India.
They could easily rival the Mughals, although their heyday was between the ninth and the
thirteenth century. This was 300 years earlier than the Mughals whose territories extended from
the North West frontier province of present day Pakistan to present day Bangladesh in the east.
Interestingly the Cholas were ruling south India around the time that the Mahmud of Ghazni was
pillaging Somnath- something that he did many times.

78
The Mughals controlled the whole chunk of north India but met their waterloo in the Deccan.
Aurungzeb, the last major Mughal emperor spent 25 years of his 49 year reign trying to conquer
the Deccan and could not move south of Golconda (present day Hyderabad). Hyderabad is the
southern- most part of central India or is northern part of south India.
Unlike the Mughals who had little maritime interests (in fact if the Mughals were a naval force,
the English and the Europeans would never have been successful in penetrating India so easily),
the Cholas were a maritime power and promoted overseas trade. Trade was organized through
merchant guilds. The Cholas also had an efficient bureaucracy and had a centralized
administration. The economy and agriculture flourished and trade relations extended to countries
as far off as the Chinese.

The stability brought in by the Mughals in north India brought in wanderers from distant lands:
Iran, Turkey and present Central Asian republics. The Mughals themselves came in from these
regions. The wanderers came in search of fortunes and most of them settled in India. So there
was import of foreign influences and people into India, albeit in course of time these people
became indigenous and created a composite culture. But contrast them with the Cholas: the
Cholas were exporting Indian influence creating a heritage abroad. The role of Buddhism
cannot be overemphasized in the context of exporting Indian influence. Little wonder that H G
Wells in his Short History of the World has said that by his posthumous impact Gautam Buddha
was the great Indian ever born.

The problem with Indian history is that it is too Delhi centric. Since the English came after the
Mughals (who ruled from the Delhi/ Agra region), they also followed the footsteps of the latter.
The first English capital was in Calcutta, a town erected by them but when the Bengali babus
became seditious they shifted to Delhi. They wanted to inherit the mantle of the Mughals and be
more acceptable in India. From the climes of Delhi, the south is far off and this has impacted on
the writing of Indian history.

It is time that Indian history is rewritten with emphasis on hitherto neglected regions. This will
bring out the un-emphasized facets of India’s past and Indian glory overseas. Such a history will
treat the Taj Mahal at par with the Angkor Wat and claim the latter as part of Indian heritage.
Some say that Angkor temple constructed by Tamilians only. There are Chola inscriptions in
angkor wat temple this is the best evidence and suryavarman is a Chola king when pallavas
and cholas fights each other suryavarman went to combodia to sea route and married a
combodian queen and the son is suryavarman I and the grandson of suryavarman is
suryavarman II came to India and learn architect and constructed there for Lord vishnu..
Chola dyansty is the most architecture grand in india.. Angkor wat temple constructed by
Tamilians; that’s why indian archaeological department is maintaining that temple. There's
Tamil brahmi scripture in anghor wat.

There's history of a Tamil king who went to East Asian countries for trading and to be correct
in cholan period . He ruled Cambodia under a Cambodian king . That's the same period as the
most of the south Indian temples built which is similar to that . It could have been built by
khemer people but the technology came from south India and mixed with local or other
technology of building.

79
During Raja raja and rajendra chola period their rule were from srilanka till malayasia
and their influence even further. Just in Tamilnadu there are 4 types of different types of
temple architecture that i know of. Angkor wat tower looks more like orissa and
srilankan influence to its towers . Its known cholas and before cholas pandiyans and
other from tamil country have been doing trade with the east in a big scale and they were
dependent upon our resources and support in many ways.

Angkor

Preah Vihear

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

designates World Heritage Sites of outstanding universal value to cultural or natural

80
heritage which have been nominated by signatories to the 1972 UNESCO World
Heritage Convention. Cultural heritage consists of monuments (such as architectural
works, monumental sculptures, or inscriptions), groups of buildings, and sites
(including archaeological sites). Natural features (consisting of physical and biological
formations), geological and physiographical formations (including habitats of
threatened species of animals and plants), and natural sites which are important from
the point of view of science, conservation or natural beauty, are defined as natural
heritage. Cambodia ratified the convention on 28 November 1991.
As of 2022, Cambodia has three sites on the list. Angkor was listed in 1992 when the
country was briefly governed by the United Nations mission after the Cambodian–
Vietnamese War, in line with the 1991 Paris Peace Agreements. The site was
immediately placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger in order to quickly and
efficiently deal with urgent problems of conservation. In 2004, Angkor was removed
from the endangered list. The Temple of Preah Vihear was listed in 2008 and
the Sambor Prei Kuk temple complex in 2018. All three sites are cultural. In addition,
Cambodia has eight sites on its tentative list.
UNESCO lists sites under ten criteria; each entry must meet at least one of the criteria.
Criteria i through vi are cultural, and vii through x are natural
World Heritage Sites
Yea
Location
r UNESC
Site Image (provinc Description
liste O data
e)
d
Angko Siem Reap 1992 668; i, ii, The Angkor area,
r iii, iv one of the largest
(cultural) archaeological
areas in the world,
was the site of
different capitals of
the Khmer
Empire from the
9th to the 15th
century. The
temples of Angkor
Wat (pictured), Ang
kor Thom, Bayon,
and the
nearby Banteay
Srei and the
temples
of Roluos depict
different periods
of Khmer
architecture and are

81
 World Heritage Sites
Yea
Location
r UNESC
Site Image (provinc Description
liste O data
e)
d
richly decorated
with sculptures and
stone carvings.
Khmer art had an
important influence
on the wider region.
Upon inscription,
the site was listed
as endangered to
ensure
conservation; it was
removed from that
list in 2004.
The temple, dating
to the first half of
the 11th century, is
a masterpiece
of Khmer
architecture. The
temple complex,
which comprises
several sanctuaries
Templ and staircases along
e of Preah 1224: i an 800 m (2,600 ft)
2008
Preah Vihear (cultural) axis, is dedicated
Vihear to Shiva and is
richly decorated
with stone carvings.
It is located on the
edge of a mountain
plateau overlooking
the plains, and,
mainly due to its
remote location, is
well preserved

82
 Year
Site Image Description
listed
Angkor Borei was a capital
of Funan, an early Khmer
political entity that lasted
until the late 6th century
CE. Brick buildings, city
walls, and several canals
have been preserved, as
well as some of the earliest
Khmer inscriptions. Phnom
The site of Angkor
Da (pictured) is a nearby
Borei and Phnom Da 2020
mount with remains of two
Takeo
temples and several caves
with shrines. The two sites
represent the early Khmer
art styles that developed
under influence from India,
fusing elements
of Hinduism and Buddhism,
and were also influenced by
the Greco-Buddhist art
The temple complex of
Banteay Chhmar dates to
the 12th and 13th century
and was built in
the Bayon style. It is
The Archeological decorated with stone
Complex of Banteay carvings depicting scenes
2020
Chhmar from Hindu mythology and
Bantey |Meanchey scenes from the war
between Khmer and Chams.
An important feature of the
complex is a large artificial
water reservoir, a baray,
with an island in the middle
Beng Mealea 2020 The temple was constructed
Temple in the 12th century, in
Siem Riep the Angkor period, during
the reign of
king Suryavarman II. The
large complex is now
mostly in ruins and
renovations have not yet
begun. Due to its location

83
 Year
Site Image Description
listed
on an intersection of
important trade routes, it
was a regional commercial
centre. The remains of
some water management
structures have been
preserved
Koh Ker was the capital of
the Khmer Empire under
Koh Ker: King Jayavarman IV in the
Archeological Site first half of the 10th
of Ancient century. Now in ruins and
2020
Lingapura or Chork difficult to access, the
Gargyar remains of the city
Preah Vihear contain Hindu temples,
shrines, monuments, and
water management systems.
Oudong was the capital of
the post-Angkorian period,
from the 17th to the 19th
century. The city was
involved in trade with
countries of Southeast Asia
Ancient City and also with Europe. It had
of Oudong 2020 enclaves to house
Kandal foreigners, including
Chinese, Cham, Japanese,
Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch,
and English. The mountain
above the town (pictured)
houses stupas of the Royal
family.
Phnom Kulen: 2020 Phnom Kulen is a mountain
Archeological Site/ range with a strong
Ancient Site symbolic significance for
of Mahendraparvata the Khmer people. It
at Siem Reap includes the city of
Mahendraparvata, where
king Jayavarman
II declared independence
from Java in 802. The
architecture of the city

84
 Year
Site Image Description
listed
marks the transition form
pre-Angkorian
to Angkorian period, with
several temples and
monuments partially
preserved. It was one of the
first cities in Cambodia to
use a grid plan. Some
monuments in the area also
date to the post-Angkorian
period
This nomination comprises
three sites of
the Cambodian
genocide under the Khmer
Rouge regime in the 1970s.
M-13 was a prison set up
Former M-13
by Kang Kek Iew to train
prison/ Tuol Sleng
prison guards in detaining,
Genocide
torturing, and killing. Tuol
Museum (former S-
2020 Sleng was a school
21)/ Choeung
converted to a prison where
Ek Genocidal Centre
over 18.000 people were
(former Execution
detained, tortured,
Site of S-21)
interrogated, and then often
taken to the nearby
execution site of Choeung
Ek. All three places have
since been converted into
memorial sites
Preah Khan Kompong Svay
was a large provincial city
and a religious complex of
the Angkorian period. It
The ancient complex
was mostly constructed
of Preah Khan
between the 11th and early
Kompong Svay 2020
13th century. The temple is
decorated
Preah Vihear
with Buddhist motifs. The
city had an important iron
industry, due to nearby iron
resources.

85
VII

86
Cholas in South East Asia
Indonesia and Cambodia

87
Dr Uday Dokras as World
No 1 Five time s. Featured
in

88
What was the relationship between the
Srivijaya Empire and the Chola?

89
The Srivijaya Empire was a maritime empire that dominated Southeast Asia from the 7th to the
13th century, while the Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty that ruled parts of South India from
the 9th to the 13th century.
There is evidence of a diplomatic relationship between the Srivijaya Empire and the Chola
dynasty during the 11th century, where they engaged in trade and cultural exchange. The Cholas
had a significant naval presence in Southeast Asia, and there is evidence of Chola princes being
appointed as governors of Srivijayan provinces.
However, there were also instances of conflict between the two powers, particularly in the 11th
century, when the Cholas invaded and briefly occupied parts of the Srivijaya Empire. Despite
these conflicts, the relationship between the two powers was primarily characterized by trade and
cultural exchange, with both leaving a significant mark on each other's culture and society.
Indonesians accept that in our official history the Empire of Srivijaya was once attacked and
defeated by Rajendra Chola of Chola Empire. To this day the Malay people of Sumatra and
Malaysia still remember the name of Rajendra Chola as “Raja Chulan” who defeated the Great
Empire of Srivijaya in battle.

It is important to note that Indonesian sources said the Chola Empire did not annex Srivijaya, and
Indian people did not came to Indonesia as invaders or conquerors. The territories of Srivijaya

90
was included within Rajendra Chola’s sphere of influence, but not as part of the Chola Empire
itself.
Throughout most of their shared history, ancient Bharat and Nusantara (old name for Indonesia)
enjoyed friendly and peaceful relations, therefore this Indian invasion is a unique event in Asian
history. In the 9th and 10th centuries, Srivijaya maintained close relations with the Pala Empire in
Bengal, and an 860 CE the Nalanda inscriptiom records that Maharaja Balaputradewa of
Srivijaya dedicated a monastery at the Nalanda Mahavihara in Pala territory. The relation
between Srivijaya and the Chola Empire of southern India was friendly during the reign of
Rajadiraja Chola I. In 1006 CE a Srivijayan Maharaja from Shailendran dynasty — king
Maravijaya Tunggavarman constructed the Kudamani Vihara in the port town of Nagapattinam.

Some Indonesian historian opined that the attack of Rajendra Chola to Srivijaya is a punishment
for the Srivijaya harassing and oppressing Tamil immigrants and merchants in their territory with
very high taxes. (This article detailed this opinion, but unfortunately it is in the Indonesian
language Alasan Cola Serang Sriwijaya ).The Chola invasion of Southeast Asia, including the
regions of Shrivijaya and Kadaram (present-day Indonesia and Malaysia), is a historical event
that has been studied and interpreted in various ways. The Indonesian view on this invasion can
vary depending on different perspectives and historical interpretations. Some historians and
scholars in Indonesia may view the Chola invasion as a significant historical event that impacted

91
the region's political and cultural landscape. It's important to note that historical perspectives can
be diverse and complex, and interpretations of such events may vary among different individuals
and academic communities.

What is the link between Indonesia and ancient Tamil kingdoms?

I am a descendant of the Cirebon royal family. We are ethnically Sundanese. We recently did an
ancestry test which included Tamil and Kurdish blood. According to my family history on
wikipedia, an ancestor of mine married a Muslim man from the middle east so he was probably
Kurdish. However, I have no idea how we have Tamil blood because Cirebon seems to have
more Chinese than Tamil influence. I have a Tamil friend and Tamil neighbors, I watch Tamil
movies and eat Tamil food because I live in Singapore. I wish I could reconnect with my Tamil
ancestry, I have never been to India but my family and my husband always said I look Indian.

Did the kings of Sri Lanka help King Sri Vijaya of Sumatra against the Chola invasion?
The Sri Lankan kings did not help the Srivijayans in the invasion led by the Cholas. The Sri
Lankan royal family shared marital relations with the Srivijayan and Tambralingan royal
families; however, this did not go to a point where the Sri Lankans aided the Srivijayans. One
reason was because the Sri Lankans themselves were under Chola control and resisting the
Cholas in their homeland. Secondly, the Chola invasion was a Chola accomplishment in its peak-
the Cholas to date are the only Indian kingdom to ever have led such an impressive naval attack
in such a faraway destination. The Chola invasion was not meant to occupy Srivijaya but to
rapidly raid important ports. So the attack was a surprise that didn’t give Srivijaya enough time to
regroup or seek Sri Lankan assistance. While there is a possibility the Sri Lankans would have
supported the Srivijayans if they had the ability, at that time it is doubtful if there would have
been any impact.
Viking invasions of Europe were barbaric attacks were people were killed, religious places
attacked and plundered. Generally, Christian monks were killed. Viking were polytheists like
Hindus and settled in places that are now in Ireland and parts of France now called Normandy.
They even traveled to lands now part of Russia and Middle East.
Chola Invasion of South East Asia can not be treated the same way as Vikings barbaric attacks
though Chola army plundered and carried away the riches of the land they conquered.
Inscriptions and historical sources assert that the Medieval Chola king Rajendra Chola I sent a
naval expeditions to Indochina, the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia in 1025 in order to subdue

92
Srivijaya Kings (Malay, Indonesia). The Thiruvalangadu plates, the Leyden grant, and the Tamil
stele of Rajendra Chola I are the principal sources of information about the campaign.
Sri Vijeya kingdom covered Sumatra, Indonesia and Malay regions. Sri Vijeya (Srey Vichay in
Chinese) were powerful in South East Asia and dominated all the kingdoms up to China.
Rajendra Chola I was a powerful Chola King and is known to have had friendly relations with Sri
Vijeya Kings. Sri Vijeya kings even built arches in a town called Nagapattinam. Why Rajendra
Chola invaded Sri Vijeya is not very clear. Some say he wanted to dominate the South Eastern
Seas and he had to subdue Sri Vijeya kings to achieve it. Some say it was nothing but plundering
expeditions. There is also a view that a Khmer king (Cambodia) wanted Chola help to fight
Tambralinga King (Southern Thailand). It seems that the Khmer king Suryavarman I of the
Khmer Empire requested help from the powerful Chola Emperor Rajendra Chola I against
Tambralinga kingdom. After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, the
Tambralinga kingdom requested support from the Srivijaya king Sangrama Vijayatungavarman.
This eventually led to the Chola Empire coming into conflict with the Sri Vijeya Empire directly.
The war ended with a victory for the Chola King with the fall of Angkor Wat of the Khmer
Empire, and including major losses for the Sri Vijaya Empire and the Tambralinga kingdom.
Cholas had conquered present day Cambodia, Thailand, Java, Sumatra, Malaysia, Singapore,
Indonesia, Burma, Srilanka & Maldives. In India Chola Kingdom stretched from the banks of
Ganges in the North to the South. Cholas did not directly rule over any of the captured lands but
collected periodic tributes probably in the form of levies or taxes.
The Southeast Asia campaign intensified interactions between Cholas and Southeast Asia. The
campaign also led to the establishment of diplomatic ties with China. The first Indian embassy to
the court of the Song Emperor was sent by Raja Raja Chola I in 1015. This was followed by a
second embassy by his son, Rajendra Chola I, in 1033 and a third by Kulothunga Chola I in 1077.
Traders from the Tamil country firmly established themselves over various parts of South-East
Asia. A merchant guild was set up in Burma and another in Sumatra in 1088. Indian historian V.
R. Ramachandra Dikshitar suggests that Tamil traders of the Chola period might have had a
knowledge of Australia and Polynesia.
Chola Dynasty had a long run from 300 BCE to 1279 CE.

Indonesia and ancient Tamil kingdoms?

Indonesia is an archipelagic country comprising more than 18,000 islands. It is almost

unimaginably a vast: country located in Southeast Asia and lying between the Indian Ocean and

93
the Pacific Ocean. It is a huge Muslim country in the world. Hinduism was introduced to
Indonesia in the first century AD by merchants, sailors, clergy and educators. The pre-existing
Javanese culture (of Indonesia) and Hindu ideas and the sixth-century Buddhist ideas were
evolved into Indonesia's Hinduism.
Sri Vijaya was the first unified thalassocracratic Indonesian empire which dominated in the
Indonesian archipelago. The maritime and commercial empire of Sri Vijaya flourished between
the 7th and the 13th centuries The kingdom appeared in Palembang on the island of Sumatra and
shortly enlarged powerful kingdom and controlled the Strait of Malacca.

Sri Vijaya Empire was associated with the spice trade network in India. It also had trade links
with Chinese silk and porcelain traders. The empire had access to the trade network of spices
from India and goods like silk and porcelain from China. ... As a subservient to China, Sri Vijaya
acted as an intermediary between China and other smaller states on the Malay Archipelago.
Srivijaya monopolized naval trade. The kingdom compelled the Tamil traders vessels to pass
through their waters to call on their ports. The vessels of the maritime traders who refused to sail
through Sri Vijaya waters were plundered.

94
Inscriptions and other sources affirm that the Chola king Rajendra Chola I made a naval
expedition to Indochina, the Malay Peninsula, and Indonesia in 1025AD in order to subdue
Srivijaya. The monarch launched naval raids on ports of Srivijaya and conquered Kadaram
(modern Kedah) from Srivijaya. The Tamil inscription lists Sri Vijaya with "its jeweled wicket-
gate" and "a gate of large jewels" as the first of the treasures captured by the fleet.

The cultural and historical connections between India and Indonesia have a long and intricate
history, spanning several centuries. Indian empires and kingdoms, such as the Chola Dynasty and
the Majapahit Empire, have significantly influenced various regions of Indonesia.
To fully comprehend the impact of Indian empires and kingdoms in Indonesia, it is essential to
delve into the historical background of both regions. India, known for its rich civilization and
cultural diversity, developed sophisticated political systems, trade networks, and artistic
traditions. Meanwhile, the Indonesian archipelago was home to diverse indigenous communities,
including the early kingdoms of Tarumanagara, Srivijaya, and Sailendra, which laid the
foundation for the future political and cultural landscape of the region.
The Chola Dynasty, which emerged in southern India around the 9th century CE, played a crucial
role in shaping Indian maritime trade and expanding its political influence beyond its shores. The
Chola Empire's naval prowess allowed them to establish trade connections and exert control over
strategic locations along the maritime routes, including parts of Indonesia. One of the regions
influenced by the Chola Dynasty was the eastern coast of Sumatra, particularly the Srivijaya
Kingdom.

95
The Srivijaya Kingdom, with its capital at Palembang, rose to prominence during the 7th century
CE and reached its zenith in the 9th to the 13th centuries CE. Srivijaya became a dominant
maritime power in Southeast Asia, controlling extensive trade networks that connected China,
India, and the Islamic world. The Chola Dynasty sought to challenge Srivijaya's control over the
crucial Strait of Malacca, resulting in intermittent conflicts between the two powers. The Chola
military expeditions into Srivijayan territories, particularly the Kedah region of modern-day
Malaysia and parts of Sumatra, temporarily established Chola influence in these areas.
However, it is worth noting that the Chola influence in these regions was not characterized by
direct political control or administration but rather by the establishment of military garrisons and
the installation of subordinate rulers. The Chola influence was largely centered on maritime trade
and the establishment of alliances with local rulers to secure their economic and political
interests.
Moving on to the Majapahit Empire, it emerged as a dominant power in the Indonesian
archipelago during the 13th to the 15th centuries CE. Founded by King Raden Wijaya, the
Majapahit Empire became renowned for its political centralization, military strength, and cultural
sophistication. The empire's influence extended to various parts of Indonesia, including Java,
Bali, Sumatra, Kalimantan, and parts of Malaysia.

96
The Majapahit Empire's cultural and political influence was instrumental in shaping the
development of these regions. Through its imperial expansion, Majapahit absorbed and
assimilated various local kingdoms, fostering a sense of unity and shared cultural identity. The
empire's capital, Trowulan, served as a vibrant center for trade, art, literature, and religious
practices.
Despite being predominantly a Hindu-Buddhist empire, the Majapahit Empire demonstrated
remarkable religious and cultural syncretism. Indian cultural elements, such as Sanskrit literature,
Hindu-Buddhist art and architecture, and religious rituals, were adopted and integrated into local
practices. Majapahit's patronage of Indian cultural expressions, including the development of
courtly arts and literature, further strengthened the cultural ties between India and Indonesia.
One notable example of the Majapahit Empire's influence is the spread of the Indianized courtly
tradition known as the Kakawin. Kakawin refers to classical poetic works written in Old
Javanese, heavily influenced by Indian epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The most
famous Kakawin, the "Nagarakretagama," composed by Mpu Prapanca, provides a vivid
description of Majapahit's political and cultural landscape, highlighting the presence of Indian
cultural elements and traditions.
Furthermore, the Majapahit Empire's political reach extended beyond the borders of modern-day
Indonesia. It established vassal states and tributary relationships with neighboring regions,
including the Malay Peninsula, the southern part of Thailand, and parts of Cambodia. These
alliances facilitated cultural exchanges, trade networks, and the spread of Indianized cultural
practices throughout the region.
The decline of the Majapahit Empire in the 15th century CE led to the fragmentation of political
power in the Indonesian archipelago. Numerous regional kingdoms emerged, each with its own
distinctive cultural and political characteristics. However, the influence of Indian empires and
kingdoms, such as the Chola Dynasty and the Majapahit Empire, left a lasting impact on these
regions.
Hence, the parts of Indonesia that were once controlled or significantly influenced by Indian
empires and kingdoms like the Majapahit Empire and the Chola Dynasty include the eastern coast
of Sumatra, particularly the Srivijaya Kingdom, and various regions of Java, Bali, Sumatra,
Kalimantan, and parts of Malaysia under the Majapahit Empire. The Indian empires' influence
primarily manifested through trade connections, military alliances, cultural exchanges, and the
assimilation of Indian cultural elements into the local traditions. These interactions have
contributed to the rich historical, cultural, and artistic heritage of Indonesia, showcasing the
enduring ties between India and Indonesia throughout centuries of shared history.

97
The chola invasions of srivijaya proved the naval might of an Indian kingdom in the Indian
Ocean and South China Sea.

Previously China was dictating terms in South East Asia. The SEA kingdoms obeyed the
instructions of china. Cholas changed it.For the first time an Indian kingdom became the
stakeholders in South East Asia.

The Chinese who were very friendly with the pallavas were suspicious on cholas who succeeded
pallavas because they believed the chola invasions may reduce their hold in South East Asian
regions.

98
The eleventh century was dominated by song , fatimads and cholas. The victory in South East
Asia gave them additional control in malacca, java, Sumatra and Andaman seas besides their
existing control over Lakshadweep, Malabar ,Maldives, Srilanka, Nagapattinam and
Mamallapuram .

The cholas with their victories in Ganges and SEA regions became a formidable force.

99
"India has not invaded any country". How can we justify this statement when Chola
captured Thailand(Sri Vijaya)?

This is my answer to another question but it suits here too :: Chola kings did captured lands
of Indonesia,java,Malaysia,thailand and other neighbouring parts. But they do not invade them
like Muslim invaders did in India.. They had morals.. Even if the enemy king is defeated they will
not kill him but they will give him his land again and to pay taxes to chola dynasty .. Annexing
nation and Invading a nation is completely different.. Chola kings had built greatest temple
structures wherever they go and will not threaten the local people to convert their religion like
Muslim rulers did in India (accept Allah or die)

Why did Rajendra Chola 1 attack Srivijaya?

It seems Rajendra chola never had any intention to attack srivijaya.

The conquests of Rajaraja 1 put the cholas in an advantageous situation over the other Indian
Kingdoms.
They had access upto Kolhapur in Maharashtra in the west and Orissa in the west.

100
Rajendra chola would have in the normal course followed the footsteps of the illustrious
preceding South Indian kingdoms of the Chalukyas of Badami or the Rashtrakuta of Malked or
his own glorious ancestors of Karikalan to expand in the north and central India.
When Rajendra chola ascended the throne he had disadvantages also. He had to put up extra
efforts to mobilise his troops for an additional 1000 kms than the two kannadiga kingdoms.
He didn’t have any friendly deep northern kingdoms like Magadha which Karikalan enjoyed.. He
had to counter the powerful Afghan cavalry of Mohammed of Ghazni. The strong navy which
Rajendra chola commissioned could not be used in the plains.
Hence Rajendras decided to strengthen his hold on the territories inherited from his father by
defeating the rebels in chera Pandya and Sinhala nations.
At this time an unexpected event occurred. The chola merchant guild which went to China during
the fag end of Rajaraja s rule returned and reported the shabby treatment meted out to them in the
Chinese court . The reason can be explained by this Chinese account.
“Chola [kingdom] is subject to Srivijaya, this is why during the Xining reign period , we wrote to
its ruler on coarse paper with an envelope of plain stuff. Pagan, on the other hand, is a
greatkingdom and should not be perceived as a small tributary state. [It]deserves a comparable
status [given to] the Arabs, Jiaozhi (present-day Vietnam), and other similar states. “
The Chinese historian Tansen sen observed
The inaccurate information regarding a Srivijayan subjugation of theCholas, noted in the above
memorial, seems to have been supplied to theSong court before the first Chola mission reached
China. Upon its arrival atthe Song court, the Cholas were accorded a status similar to that of
Kucha,a tributary state of the Song in Central Asia. The status of a specific foreignkingdom was
usually fixed on the basis of its military strength, which thendetermined the type of reception
embassies received when they arrived at theSong court. Commercially, the bestowal of higher
status helpe the bestowal of higher status helped merchantsrepresenting these kingdoms obtain
favourable trading rights at the Song ports. The designation of Chola as a tributary kingdom
meant that the Song court not only perceived the Cholas as a militarily weak state that
wassubjugated by the Srivijayan ruler, but also that traders from southern India may have
received limited access to the Song markets and trading rights inChina compared with their
Southeast Asian counterparts
Actually the relationship between cholas and south east Asia kingdoms reached its zenith under
Rajaraja who gave lands in Nagapattinam for the construction of Buddha Vihar by the srivijaya
king Vijayatunga who gave lavish gifts to the chola king.
Rajendra himself received a chariot from the Khmer king Suryavarman. Rajendra to address the
grievances of the merchant guild of Tamil sailors sent his navy to attack the srivijayan ports.

101
After this Rajendra showed his interest in north India by sending troops which conquered Bengal
and other north east India states.
By this time the Geopolitics of South East Asia changed. The srivijayan kingdom came closer to
the Thambralinga power which threatened the Khmer.
The Khmer king decided to invade Thambralinga. To counter srivijaya suryavarman sought
Rajendra chola s help.
The cholas who were benifitted by the previous campaign, saw another opportunity and
undertook an extensive attack on srivijaya ports which gave them huge wealth.
Due to unforeseen historical events, the greatest Indian thalassocracy was born.

"India has not invaded any country". How can we justify this statement when Chola
captured Thailand(Sri Vijaya)?
Cholas invaded the south east Asian countries. There is chola influence in all these
nations( Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia etc. ) The cholas even occupied Sri lanka for a period of
100 years and even fought bloody wars there. There is no denying that.
Actually I think we should be proud of this fact. We didn't enslave them or massacre them or

102
forcibly settle in those lands. We shared our culture. We had a huge navy then. Just shows India's
greatness. Proud Indian and tamilian

How significant was the Chola invasion of Southeast Asia?

Though this is the official picture taken from Wiki Commons this tells only partial story of
Chozha!
As we humans always thrive only on evidences, the evidences identified so far gave the above
picture.
However if proper research analysis and documentation is done in tracing back Tamil Royal
Lineage the “True Significance of Choza will Emerge” both “Onshore & Offshore”
Chozha and for that case Pandya and Chera are great Naval Force of that times.
There are sayings that Tamil Dynasties have fought against natural calamities than they fought
against each other.
This means, they have been constantly on the on WAR with each other
 not only to build an empire but
 build a BIG place for their people to live in (or relocate in worst case)

103
Same goes to Invasion of Chozha across continents, either they made friends or they waged war
like any other Dynasty
All in All Significance of Chozha (Tamil) is yet to be discovered to its fullest.
Is Sri Lumay the son of Rajendra Chola and Onang Kiu? Rajendra Chola, a Chola king
who conquered Srivijaya, married the imprisoned king's daughter Onang Kiu. Sri Lumay
is said to be born in "Chola-occupied Sri Vijaya"
I only know that
1. Rajendra Chola invaded Srivijaya and married the defeated king’s daughter, Onang
Kiu.
2. Sri Lumay’s family and background is not known. We know that he was born in
Chola-occupied Srivijaya.
3. Sri Lumay later on established his kingdom, Rajahnate of Cebu, in Philippines, where
he reveals he is a half-Chola and half Sumatran (Srivijayan).
4. So, is Sri Lumay son of this couple?

Do Indonesia, Thailand, and Cambodia have Tamil roots? Through chola expansion, is that
why they have tannish skin?
The whole of south India including east India had close relations with south east Asia for at least
two millennia. The Cholas, Pallavas and Kalingans had close relations with SE Asia. No wonder
all SE Asians have a dark hue in varying proportions. Chinese influence was also strong in these
countries.
Did the kings of Sri Lanka help King Sri Vijaya of Sumatra against the Chola invasion?
They couldn’t.
Mahinda V of Anuradhapura was overthrown in 993 and made powerless and in 1017 was
captured by Rajendra Chola, and with his family taken back to Thanjavur as prisoners
8 years later, Rajendra made his great naval campaign against the SriVijaya. Kadaram was sacked
and Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman made prisoner.
For a brief period, nothing could withstand the Chola.

Why do many Indian Hindus claim they are peaceful and victims of invasion history yet so
proud of King Chola's invasion and oppresion of Southeast Asia?
Unlike the Moghuls who plundered , looted , and then ruled the ancient India for over 600 yrs ,
and unlike the Britishers who came as merchants in 1600s but occupied the whole country and
ruled for 300 yrs, Cholzha kings didn't indulge in any of these things in south eastern asia. They

104
went there at the request of the local kings of Srivijaya empire. They helped them but did not stay
there. They developed friendship treaties .They didn't rule those countries..
On the other hand , Cholzha kings introduced the ancient pallava- Cholzha brahmi script and
spread the ancient indian culture , faith, and arts. They gave temple architecture and trained the
local artisans . Now Parambanan temple, Anchor wat , Bodabudur, Bali temples etc stand
testimony to friendship based on temple architecture and agama worship.

How did the Chola influence spread so far in Southeast Asia, and how much can their
written records be trusted (if at all)?

The Cholas had the largest naval base in the world those times. Based on the historical records,
King Rajendra Chola - I was the emperor who built the largest naval base of the ancient times.
Infact, he had changed the capital of the Cholas from Tanjore to Gangaikondacholapuram(on the
banks of the kollidam river aka coleroon). The largest naval base that he built was at theevukottai
on the estuary of the coleroon river.
1. The Cholas excelled in the Maritime navigation with their then-state of the art
Catamarons ”paaimaram”.
Proof - 1 : The stone carved Chola Ship at Borobudur, Indonesia

source : wikipedia commons

Proof -2 : Rajendra Cholan Meikeerthi:

105
"பலகலம்"
பல — Many; கலம் — Ships
2. The Southeast Asian conquest:
Pic Chola Empire during Rajendra Chola I

Proof - 1 : Stone inscriptions at Triconamalee temple : Areas mentioned in Rajendra Cholan’s

meikeerthi(True fame) :

106
 Presently preserved at
Government Museum, Chennai and the inscription

107
108
Proof 2 : Copper Plates of thiruvalangadu - Tiruvalangadu Cheppedu reports the order of land
grant for this town issued by Rajendra Chola I. During the restoration of the temple in 1903, this
Cheppet block was found with 31 edus along with some Iambon idols.

Pic: Talks about King Raja Raja I who conquered the northern part of sri lanka with Rajendra
Chola I as his commander. Source :https://www.tagavalaatruppadai.in/copper-plate-details?
id=jZY9lup2kZl6TuXGlZQdjZpy#lg=1&slide=80
Proof 3: Karandhai Copper plate inscriptions:

109
https://www.tamildigitallibrary.in/book-detail.php?
id=jZY9lup2kZl6TuXGlZQdjZt1kul7#book1/341
These sources of information (more than one source at different time period), issued by different
kings confirm that the Chola Navy had invaded the South east from our historical records. The
records should be trustworthy in my opinion because:
1. Proof from more than one source at different time period
2. Meikeerthis are supposedly true achievements as they are written in temple and the
kings those time are true in front of the gods. The Cholas who are devotees of lord
shiva I am sure are of no exception
3. Documentation of the Cholas are very perfect and it is hard to maintain total perfection
and alignment for all the evidences at different point of time
But, why did the cholas concentrate on invading the south east instead of taking over the
complete Indian subcontinent?
Infact, the thiruvalangadu copper plates confirm the chola invasion to the Pala Dynasty in the
west bengal following a series of victory over Vengai country(present Rajamundry), Kosala
country( present Orissa ) and the pala kings.
The important reason is that, the sea route between china to the west mainly flows through these
territories of Indonesia, Malayasia and Srilanka. Definitely the ships has to take journey breaks in
these countries and trade with them. Cholas can collect taxes from these ships and also trade with
these countries which would fetch more revenue to the chola country than the northern invasion.
Silappadhikaram epic also confirms the trade of the cholas from the sangam literature.
Were the Chola invasions of Southeast Asia like the Viking invasions of Western Europe?
No invasion or war can take place without violence in some form or other. The barbaric nature of
the Vikings is entirely due to Hollywood. Much as I am proud of my ancestors, the Cholas, they
would definitely have used violence. Hollywood has not made any movie of them yet. War is
barbaric whether clubs and bows and arrows or mustard gas or Bofors howitzers or atomic
weapons are used. The Vikings, the Cholas, Asoka, Rommel - in war, they were barbaric.
What is the link between Indonesia and ancient Tamil kingdoms?
Do you know drumstick?. A vegetable which tamil people use extentively in their gravy dishes.
This veg gives a special taste to tamilnadu famous sambar. Tamil name for this vegetable is
MURUNGAI.
Filipinos call this drumstick MALUNGAI in their filipino language.
Also the LA pronounciation they use is the special strong ZHA sound in tamil.
Sounds a strong green link. Correct?

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What are the main causes of conflict between the Chola and the Srivijaya?
The main causes of conflict between the Chola and the Srivijaya are as follows:-
1. Srivijaya practiced naval trade monopoly that forced Tamil traders vessels that passed through
their waters to call on their ports or otherwise being plundered.
2. Chola invasion of Srivijaya By King Rajendra Chola.
3. Rajendra Chola I after the successful naval raid in 1025 married Onang Kiu, the daughter of
Vijayottunggavarman.
4.The peace deal was brokered by the exiled daughter of Vijayottunggavarman, who managed to
escape Palembang and came to the court of King Airlangga in East Java.
·

1
Why did Rajendra Chola invade Panduranga in Champa (Vietnam) as part of his Southeast
Asia invasion? Wasn't his target Srivijaya, Malaya, and Kadaram?
Rajendra Chola invaded Paduranga because he, allied with the Khmer Empire, had already
defeated Srivijaya and Tambralinga.
Srivijaya came under the vassalage of the Chola Empire while Tambralinga was conquered by the
Khmer Empire. The Cholas of this era are classified into 2 parts, namely the Medieval
Cholas and Later Cholas. The emergence of the Chola Empire during this period happened in the
9th century. The Cholas could not invade the North during this century and a good part of the
10th century mainly because of the presence of the Rashtrakuta dynasty which was not only the
most powerful dynasty in Southern India but in the entire Indian subcontinent according to Arab
travelers like Sulaiman.
In the later part of the 10th century, the Rashtrakutas were replaced by the Western Chalukya
Empire. The era from 10th to 11 centuries is called as Chola-Chalukya era because of their 135
year old conflict. Even though the Cholas seemed to beat the Chalukyas most of the times, the
Chalukyas never stopped giving up and would win back the territories that they had lost to the
Cholas. So although the conflict was long and bloody, it didn’t cause any territorial changes to
either of the empires.

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Cholas could not invade the North because of the Chalukyas. However, they did invade the North
under Rajendra Chola I who invaded the North via the Eastern Coast, which was not under the
Chalukyas. Rather, it was under the Eastern Chalukyas who were the allies of the Cholas.
Rajendra Chola invaded the North and reached the Ganga by defeating the Pala Empire of
Bengal. But this was the only time that they could invade the North. Rajendra Chola actually
conquered parts of Sri Lanka and the Malay peninsula but his campaign was cut short because the
Chalukyas had invaded the Chola Empire.
So, yes. The Chalukyas didn’t allow the Cholas to invade the North and apart from the reign of
Rajendra Chola, as far as I know, the Cholas didn’t invade the North. But in the early years of the
Chola Empire during this era, they couldn’t invade the North because of the Rashtrakutas. In fact,
the Rashtrakutas under Krishna III repeatedly invaded the Cholas and on most occasions, were
victorious and a famous battle was fought in Thakkolam where the Chola king Rajaditya
Chola was killed.
The presence of Rashtrakutas and later, the Chalukyas didn’t allow the Cholas to invade the
North, except for the occasion when Rajendra Chola invaded the North and reached the Ganga by
defeating the Palas.

Is it true that the Chola dynasty's rule was spread up to Indonesia? Who was the biggest
Chola ruler?

Infact, Medieval Chola’s rule extended from eastern Hemisphere to Western Hemisphere. The
greatest of medieval Cholas are Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I.
“Many rulers of South East Asian Countries like Song Dynasty (China), Malaysia, Indonesia,
Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Khmer, Srilanka and many ruling Indian Dynasties like
Chalukyas, Hoysalas, Telugu Chodas (Cholas), Gangas, Konkans, Rajputs, Magadha (UP and
Bihar), Bengal, Malwa (parts of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh), Pallavas, Koobakas, Java,
Sumatra, Sethias, Yadavas, Kannadas, Kaithavar, Kadavas, Karias, Kaaraalas, Thuminthas,
Kavindhas, Kadambas, Thuluvas, Ilatas, Marathas, Virathas, Mayindhar, Scinthians, Singhalese,
Se-gunar, Se-vanar, Kulungar, Sowrastrians, Gujaratis, Kuchas, Machars, Milochar, Guptas,
Gunathars, Turks, Kurus, Vyathas, Kalingas (Choda Gangas) and Northerners were paying
tributes to Cholas (from 850 AD to 1279 AD)” .
Source: Kaligathuparani, Chola Copper Plates, and stone inscriptions…

Chola invasions were brutal which lead to their rapid expansions across the lower Asia.

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All their expansion activities started from 993 and ended in 1027.Only three kings were involved
in the expansion activities. They were Rajaraja, Rajendra and Rajathiraja. The next two kings
kept the chola territories intact. They were Rajendra2 and Veera Rajendra.
Their best king Rajendra 1 did conquer territories outside of India in Indian Ocean upto South
China Sea and won territories of island of Pegu in Myanmar , Phan rang in Vietnam , isthmus kra
in Thailand, kedah in Malaysia , Sumatra in Indonesia and Cebu in Philippines. Besides he
conquered srilanka, Maldives and Bangladesh.Rajendra chola 1 was the only Indian king to have
an overseas empire of 2.5 million square kilometres besides a moderate 1 million square
kilometres inside India.His father Rajaraja himself acquired a vast land straddling from Kalinga
to Maldives. The relentless conquest of cholas under these three kings expanded the chola empire
from a small coastal province into a coastal south Asian empire.

The Imperial Cholas of Thanjavur, who ruled South India between 850CE and 1300CE, are
known mainly through the numerous inscriptions they commissioned on the walls of the temples
constructed by them. There are no written accounts of the Chola period by visiting travelers,
including those from lands where Islam was the dominant religion. Islam had not yet established
a permanent political presence in the Indian subcontinent in the 11th century CE, which coincided
with the rule of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola (1014CE-1044CE). during the period
of the imperial Cholas, particularly during the rule of Rajendra Chola I .11th century India did not
have a single dominant power who ruled over the entire subcontinent. There were regional
polities like the Cholas in South India, the Chalukyas of Western Deccan, the Solankis
(Chaulukya) rulers of Saurashtra. North and Central India was dominated by regional powers like

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the Paramaras of Malwa and other minor kingdoms. Islam would establish a permanent presence
only during the beginning of the 13th century CE, when the Mamluk dynasty took power in Delhi
and established its rule over large parts of North India. The incentive to venture out into
unknown lands probably did not exist for travelers from the Islamic world in the West due to this
factor.
In contrast, there were Arab and Irani merchants who frequently visited the seaports on the
West and the East coasts of peninsular India to conduct commercial transactions with their local
counterparts. We do not have written accounts of their visits, though they would have come in
contact with members of prominent merchants and their trade bodies, either. There was a huge
demand in the India of that period for gold, horses for the cavalry units of the rulers’ armies and
wine. Horses, in particular of Arabian and Irani origin were preferred by Indian rulers, including
the imperial Cholas, who during the time of Rajendra Chola I maintained a large standing army.
Trade in horses in the seaports on the West Coast was conducted by Tamil merchants known as
Kudirai Chettiars, who may have either made the land journey to the West Coast to trade or
conducted a trade transaction through their locally based representatives. One of the reasons for
Chola control of ports in Kerala was the high volume of trade that passed through its ports. The
Thiruvalangad inscription records the Chola attack on Vizhinjam port in South Kerala under the
leadership of Rajendra Chola I. Other than the epigraphic evidence, no written accounts have
been discovered so far.

Do Indonesia, Thailand, and Cambodia have Tamil roots? Through chola expansion, is that
why they have tannish skin?

As per records the Humans or Homo sapiens are believed to have come from Africa and migrated
to All continents, so why isn't every human Black?
The reason being the melanin pigment depends on the exposure to sun.
Indonesian, Thaliand, Cambodia, Malaysia etc have been vassals to Cholas due to their powerful
Navy and after their fall still their words exist in their languages and there could gave been
intermix of stayed back Tamils with locals creating a new generation with different features.
Just like Babur being Cental Asian and his 5 th gen grandson Aurangazeb Having Bronze skin
colour and no central Asian features.

Do you think Rajendra Chola I's invasion of Sri Lanka was justified?

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Rajendra Chola I, who ruled the Chola Empire in South India from 1014 to 1044 CE, launched a
military campaign against Sri Lanka (then known as Lanka) during his reign. The invasion was
part of his expansionist policies and desire to establish Chola's dominance in the region.
The Cholas had maintained a strong naval presence in the Indian Ocean and had historical and
cultural connections with Sri Lanka. They had also established friendly relations with the Sri
Lankan ruling dynasties in the past. However, when a civil war broke out in Sri Lanka and the
ruler sought assistance from the Cholas, Rajendra Chola I saw an opportunity to extend his
influence.
Justification for the invasion, from Rajendra Chola I's perspective, might have included the
following reasons:
1. Establishing control: Rajendra Chola I may have viewed the invasion as a means to
establish political control and expand his empire. This was a common objective for
many rulers during that era.
2. Strategic importance: Sri Lanka's geographical location and resources, particularly its
strategic position in the Indian Ocean, might have made it an attractive target for the
Cholas.
3. Geopolitical considerations: The Cholas may have sought to counter the influence of
other regional powers, such as the Pandyas and the Cheras, who also had interests in
Sri Lanka. The invasion could have been seen as a way to weaken their rivals.
4. Historical ties: The Cholas had historical connections with Sri Lanka through trade
and cultural exchanges. This may have been used to justify the invasion as a way to
protect Chola's interests and maintain influence in the region.
It's important to note that historical events are often viewed through different perspectives, and
what might be considered justified by one party may be seen as unjustified or even aggressive by
another. Evaluating the invasion's justification ultimately depends on individual interpretations of
historical events, cultural context, and personal values.
Prior to Indian Independence, Indian subcontinent was a mesh work of princely ruled provinces
(Hyderabad, Gwalior, Assam(or Ahom), Bengal, Madras etc..). Thus India as the idea of Bharat
Varsha came into picture just 100-200 years before British rule. That India never invaded any
country. Secondly wherever I find claims, India never invaded a country I would like to highlight
that they are usually added with never in 1000/2000 years of History which is correct given that
we...

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Cholas initially had friendly and trade relations with the kingdom of Srivijaya, which is said to
have originated in Indonesia (dunno if it was called Jambudweepa, I could be wrong here), and
controlled the area between both the Indo-Malay Peninsula till what is known as Irian Jaya near
Papua New Guinea on the east, and till the Burma-Thailand areas then called Swarnadweepa.
Before the Cholas, the Pallavas and some kingdoms from Andhra or Orissa also had their sphere
of influence on these areas and Hinduism had spread in what is modern Cambodia (called
Kamboja), Vietnam-Laos (then called Champa), before advent of Buddhism in the 11th to 13th
centuries followed by Islam. The Kingdom of Srivijaya, the Kamboja royalty of My Son, the
Varman dynasty (name similar to kings of the Pallavas whose names and titles ended with
Varman, like Mahendravarman, Narasimhavarman etc.) all had trade and cordial relations with
the Cholas, but during the time of Rajendra Chola and possibly also his son Rajadhiraja Chola the
relations had deteriorated and the Cholas sent an army to re-establish their control or influence on
those areas. Then during the period 107...

116
 II

Relationship of the Srivijaya empire with the Tamil Chola empire

The Chola dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire of southern India and one of the
longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the
Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE during the reign of Ashoka of
the Maurya Empire. As one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, along with
the Chera and Pandya, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territories until the 13th
century CE. The Chola Empire was at its peak under the Medieval Cholas in the mid-9th
century CE. Dr Uday Dokras’ articles and Books on Srivijay Empire>
7. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342815787_Buddhism_in_the_Srivijaya_Empire
8. https://pdfcoffee.com/the-mandalas-of-the-srichakra-7-th-book-in-mandala-series-pdf-
free.html
9. https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/63279669/hindu-tempel-of-india-and-cambodia
10. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348915911_The_MYSTERIOUS_Srivijaya_Empire
11. https://www.academia.edu/85825605/
Mysterious_Knowledge_Centre_of_SriVijayapura_of_the_Srivijaya_Empire_Part_II
12. https://www.academia.edu/45293503/Srijijay_the_Kingdom_of_the_Winds_booK
The Chola dynasty was one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of southern India.
The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century
BCE left by Ashoka, of the Maurya Empire. As one of the Three Crowned
Kings of Tamilakam, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until the 13th
century CE.

The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River, but they ruled a
significantly larger area at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century till
the beginning of the 13th century. The whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united
and held as one state for a period of two centuries and more.

Cholas did conquer territories outside of India in Indian Ocean upto South China Sea . Their
great king Rajendran 1 won territories of island of Pegu in Myanmar , Phan rang in Vietnam ,
isthmus kra in Thailand, kedah in Malaysia , Sumatra in Indonesia and Cebu in Philippines.
Besides he conquered srilanka, Maldives and Bangladesh. He won territories in south and
east India. He ruled over 36 lakh square kilometres which is more than Indian union.Herman
kulke a German historian notes in his book from “ Nagapattinam to swarnadweepa “ the
motivation for the conquest was the desire to perform Digvijaya by Rajendra across the
oceans.Spencer an American historian points out in his book “ chola conquest “ the
motivation of plunder of small and medium kingdoms stretching across Indian Ocean and
extending upo South China Sea.Tansen Sen a Chinese American historian mentions in his

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research paper “ Military campaigns of Rajendra chola” amassing huge wealth through
hegemonic oceanic trade activities.

But all agree that “ Rajendra did conquer huge territories in Indian Ocean and South China
Sea ““ Sherja malayu” a Malaysian folklore suggests Rajendras grandson established the
nation of Singapore.For more information the readers are advised to refer the above books
along with Udai Dokras “ The untold legacy of Rajendra chola”. Not only did this South
Indian kingdom “ expand “ beyond South India, it also conquered the then heart of North
India “ Kannauj” and also defeated every northern rival totally dominating northern India.

Not only did this South Indian kingdom “ expand “ beyond South India, it also conquered
the then heart of North India “ Kannauj” and also defeated every northern rival totally
dominating northern India.

They were the Rashtrakutas.

This map is rather conservative and doesn't include most of Kerela Tamilnadu and Ceylon
which were later defeated or vassalised.
During the reign of Govinda III, Indra III and Krishna III, their power and influence existed
from the Himalayan region to Rameshwar. Govinda III, is eulogized is one inscription as,
having horses which drank the icy water of the Himalayas and his war elephant tasted the
sacred water of Ganga. His invincible armies overran the territories from Cape Comorin to
Kanouj and from Banaras to Broach.

Rashtrakuta domination wasn't short lived either. Infact this staggering domination went on
for more than 2 centuries. There were only two powers who challenged Rashtrakuta
supremacy in North . They were the Gujara prathiharas and the palas. Both were defeated by
their southern rival and subsequently lost control of Kannauj and major trade routes.So this is

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one of the stories of a southern empire dominating northern India for centuries.They met their
doom at the hands of their arch nemesis - the medieval Pandiyan Dynasty.

Medieval Cholas and Pandiyas had always been adversaries.But, what culminated in the utter
destruction of Chola empire was a costly mistake by Kulothunga Chola III.He destroyed the
centuries old coronation hall of Pandiyas during his campaign against them in 1205, this was
the greatest humiliation Pandiyas had ever met. He later gave back their kingdom to them,
however the humiliation was just too much to bear for the Pandiyas and this sowed seeds of
revenge.

Though Kulothunga was an able conquerer, his later half of the reign was mired with revolts
from every corner. His empire shrunk.The Pandiyas had been waiting for an opportunity like
this.In 1216, Maravarman Sundara Pandian I, brother of Jatavarman Kulashekara
Pandian I (who had been humiliated by the Cholas) ascended the throne.He was determined
to wreak vengeance on the Chola power. In a very short span of two years, he managed to
rise a huge army and invaded the Chola kingdom.

Excerpts from, “Later Chola temples”

“The prasasti of Maravarman Sundara Pandya gives a graphic description of the invasion.
Determined to exterminate the seal of the Tiger (the Chola emblem) from the land of the
Kaveri and establish in its place the seal of the Fish (the Pandyan emblem)”, heading a force
comprising turbulent elephants and spirited horses, he razed to the ground the Chola
citadels of Tanjavur and Uraiyur and destroyed the Chola authority altogether.

The inscription says that he bloodied the quiet waters of the lakes and rivers in the Chola
country, destroyed halls and forts, towers and dance halls, buildings and palaces, and
looted the treasuries and caused a river of tears to flow from the eyes of the queens of the
opposing kings, ploughed the enemy territory with plough-shares drawn by donkeys (a
symbolic assertion of capture of enemy territory) and vented in full his pent-up anger
against the Cholas.

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He drove the Chola king into the forest, entered the Chola capital of Ayirattali (alias Mudi-
konda-sola-puram), ‘the city surrounded by a gold-plated wall of enclosure that rose to the
very skies’, and performed the virabhishekam(the ceremony of the anointment of a hero)
seated on the throne in the coronation pavilion known as Sola-valavan, and declared himself
the king of all Lords—with only his ‘sharp wheels and red shoulders’ as his support.

Then he proceeded to Tiruppuliyur (Chidambaram), paid homage at the feet of Nataraja and
Sivakama Sundari and then went to Ponnamaravati, ‘the city of lakes choked with lotuses that
attracted the buzzing bees in the early morning, who woke the sleepy swans from their
nightly slumber’, where Kulottunga III and his queen, who had hidden themselves in the
outskirts in shame at their defeat, came forth with their son Rajaraja (III) offering to name
him after the Pandya.

In a poignant ceremony, Sundara Pandya bestowed the captured empire back on the Chola
monarch, the ceremonial bestowal being accompanied by the pouring of water, and gave him
back his capital, his seal of authority and the title of 'Solapati and sent him (Kulottunga III)
back.

This (prasasti) proves that the Pandyan ruler paid the grand Chola emperor back in his own
coin, and repeated at Ponnamaravati the ceremonial disgracing of the enemy enacted by
Kulottunga III at the Pandyan capital of Madurai a few years earlier.

Maravarman Sundara Pandya assumed the title of ‘Sonadukonda Sundara Pandyan’, i.e.,
‘Sundara Pandya who took the Chola country’ and, since he bestowed the kingdom back on
the Chola emperor, he also later assumed the title of ‘Sonadu-valangiya Sundara Pandyan’,
i.e., ‘Sundara Pandyan who gave back the Chola country’.

Almost overnight, the Chola kingdom in almost the last year (a.d. 1216) of the reign of
Kulottunga III who ‘took Madurai, Ilam (Sri Lanka), Karuvur, and the crown of the Pandya’
and who performed the ceremonies of virabhishekam and vijayabhishekatn and crowned
himself Tribhuvanavira deva, lost its greatness, its power and authority and the enviable
position it had held for more than three and a half centuries.

What was Kulothunga III’s son Rajaraja III doing, while all this was going on ?

Nothing. He was as incompetent as anyone can get.

Later when he ascended the Throne, the Hoysalas under Vira Narasimha II had to come to his
rescue when Kopperunchinga (a Kadava feudatory of cholas) threatened to over throw the
Chola king. Narasimha also had to defend the Cholas against the Pandians. (Hoysalas had
marriage alliance with Cholas) For this feat Narasimha assumed the title : ‘the protector of
the Chola family’.

Rajaraja III was overthrown by his own brother Rajendra III. Though Rajendra had initial
success against Pandiyas (fun fact - Hoysalas sided with Pandiyas), Jatavarman Sundara
Pandian’s ascension to throne finished off what ever was left of Chola kingdom - he annexed
it.

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We have seen in history that many North Indian dynasties (Mauryas, Guptas, khaljis,
Tughluks, and Mughals) have controlled the southern part of India. whereas no South Indian
dynasty has effectively controlled and ruled the north India for a reasonable period of time.

This is because of advantages of North Indian dynasties.

7. The political base and their capital cities like Pataliputra, kannuj, Delhi and Agra
are based on the rich Indo Gangetic Doab. The Indo Gangetic Doab has one of the
most fertile Alluvial lands on the surface of the earth.
8. The rich soil aided with perennial rivers provide a strong agricultural surplus which
led to a emergence of strong economic base for the North Indian dynasties.
9. The agricultural surplus and economic prosperity had led to the growth of
population.
10. The above factors provided a base for the rising of a huge army, which could be
used for the expansion of the kingdom.
11. The core administrative area of these dynasties consists of a simple geography
(mainly plains). It was very easy for the rulers to control this area and consolidate
their position.
12. These empires are well protected by the Himalayas in the North, thick forest in the
east, Vindhyas in south and Hindukush mountains in the west. The only danger
they faced of foreign invasion is through the mountain passes of the Hindukush
mountains.
Disadvantages of the southern kingdoms,

5. The South Indian kingdoms existed mainly in the river valleys of Tungabhatra,
Krishna, Vaigai and Cauvery.
6. The agricultural base and the economic base is not so vast as compared to the North
Indian dynasties.
7. The geographical terrain of the south India is characterised by numerous mountains
and plateaus, which were responsible for emergence of many small dynasties.
8. Due to this geographical factor it was difficult for any ruler to consolidate his
position. Most of the rulers spent their time in consolidation than expansion.

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Inspite of all these disadvantages, we have some South Indian dynasties which established
fairly large empires.

 Imperial cholas
 Vijayanagar empire
 Marathas
4. Among them, the cholas stand unique. The cholas not only controlled and ruled the
south India, they had annexed parts of north India under Rajendra chola.
5. The cholas are the only dynasty in Indian history to have annexed territories outside
Indian subcontinent. The cholas had annexed Srilanka, Laccadives, Maldives, parts
of Malaysia and Indonesia.
6. It is to be noted that while the North Indian dynasties wasted their time and
economy on needless war, the south focussed its limited resources on cultural
activities. Almost all the great architectural remains belong to the dynasties of
south.
 There are numerous temples all over the south like (Thanjavur, Madurai,
Kanchipuram, Mamallapuram, Belur, Halibedu, Somnathpur, Vijayanagar, Badami,
caves of Ajanta and Ellora, etc. the list is huge).
 We have examples of such temples in the north, but they are few and less numerous
compared to their economic and dynastic potential. (Khajuraho, Konark,
Bhubhaneshwar etc.)

The Chola Empire was one of the greatest Indian empires, but Marxist historians buried it.
The Chola Empire – reduced to a mere dynasty by India's Marxist distorians, was the world's
longest-ruling kingdom.They succeeded in building the greatest thalassocratic empire in the
history of India, thereby leaving a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their
zeal in the building of temples has resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and
architecture.Indonesians accept that in our official history the Empire of Srivijaya was once
attacked and defeated by Rajendra Chola of Chola Empire.To this day the Malay people of
Sumatra and Malaysia still remember the name of Rajendra Chola as “Raja Chulan” who
defeated the Great Empire of Srivijaya in battle.

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It is important to note that Indonesian sources said the Chola Empire did not annex Srivijaya,
and Indian people did not came to Indonesia as invaders or conquerors. The territories of
Srivijaya was included within Rajendra Chola’s sphere of influence, but not as part of the
Chola Empire itself.

Throughout most of their shared history, ancient Bharat and Nusantara (old name for
Indonesia) enjoyed friendly and peaceful relations, therefore this Indian invasion is a unique
event in Asian history. In the 9th and 10th centuries, Srivijaya maintained close relations with
the Pala Empire in Bengal, and an 860 CE the Nalanda inscriptiom records that Maharaja
Balaputradewa of Srivijaya dedicated a monastery at the Nalanda Mahavihara in Pala
territory. The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola Empire of southern India was friendly
during the reign of Rajadiraja Chola I. In 1006 CE a Srivijayan Maharaja from Shailendran
dynasty — king Maravijaya Tunggavarman constructed the Kudamani Vihara in the port
town of Nagapattinam.

Some Indonesian historian opined that the attack of Rajendra Chola to Srivijaya is a
punishment for the Srivijaya harassing and oppressing Tamil immigrants and merchants in
their territory with very high taxes. ·

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“Chola dynasty is not over rated”

History of the Cholas falls into four periods: the Early Cholas of the Sangam literature, the
interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the Imperial medieval
Cholas under Vijayalaya (c. 848), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, and finally the Later
Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the 11th century.

So these are the basic Introduction to the Chola Dynasty.

Why they are not over rated :

3. Their Art : The period of the imperial Cholas (c. 850 CE - 1250 CE) was an age of
continuous improvement and refinement of Dravidian art and architecture. They
utilised their prodigious wealth earned through their extensive conquests in
building long-lasting stone temples and exquisite bronze sculptures.
4. Architecture : The chola temples were built during chola rule.The Cholas built
their temple in traditions way of the Pallava dynasty, who were themselves
influenced by the Amaravati school of architecture. The Chola artists and artisans
further drew their influences from other contemporary art and architectural schools
and elevated the Dravidian temple design to greater heights.
3. Warfare : They had amazing Army and Navy
4. Navy : They had the strongest navy you can understand it by seeing the Chola Dynasty
map.

In one of their poem they mentioned ocean are lakes for them. So in those olden days without
any tech or shipping equips like modern days these men were able to travel so long and
extend their conquer and trading routs. It was indeed one of the longest-ruling dynasties in
the history of southern India.” Not only in southern India, we can say southern Asia. In 1025,
Chola ruler Rajendra I sent an ambitious campaign (combined army and navy) against the
kingdom of Shrivijaya in the Southern Malay peninsula (present-day Malaysia and
Singapore) and Sumatra (present-day Indonesia). The campaign was a remarkable success,
and ended with the Chola controlling a number of strategic places along the Straits of
Malacca, but not much territory inland.

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This was not an attempt for an overseas empire. The cause of the war was most likely a need
to protect commercial interests. There was a lucrative trade between India and China in the
10th Century that had to pass through the Straits of Malacca (between the Malay Peninsula
and Sumatra). Shrivijaya figured it would be in their own interest if the trade from China
terminated in Shrivijaya, and their own ships took over from there, thus cutting out the Indian
ships (which the Chola probably had a big interest in).

This is also inline with the aggressive moves the Cholas would make to take over the trade
with West Asian kingdoms. Rajaraja fought to bring the Malabar coast under his control and
conquered the Maldives, while Rajendra took that forward by attacking Sri Lanka (and
destroying their capital Anuradhapura).

Rajendra's south-east Asian campaign seems to have kept the straits safe for Indian shipping
long after his death. The Chola Kulottonga I would send an embassy of 72 merchants to
China in 1077. But there was never a follow-up campaign to gain territory. The Cholas were
kept busy by their many enemies on the mainland and in Sri Lanka - the Pandyas, the Cheras,
the Chalukyas and later the Hoysalas and Kakatiyas.

So the Cholas had enough influence in south-east Asia that they could control commerce
(which was a pretty big deal) but they did not really hold any territory there.

the conquest of Maldives is associated with Rajaraja I, not Rajendra I. Corrected that.

“Chola”, “Cho-la” and “So-la” are all wrong ! In Tamil, சோழர் is pronounced as ‘Cho-zha-
i*r’. This is the correct way to pronounce.The word ‘ChoZha - nadu’ means “New Country”,
in the lines of ‘Pandya nadu’ which means “Old Country” !Pandya is derived from ‘Pandaya’
(Ancient or Old), similarly, Chozha is derived from ‘Cho-zhai’ (Often related to ‘Puthumai-
New’, ‘Fresh’ or even ‘Garden’).

The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River. They ruled a
significantly larger area at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century till
the beginning of the 13th century. They unified peninsular India south of the Tungabhadra
River, and held the territory as one state for three centuries between 907 and 1215 CE.
[2]
Under Rajaraja I and his successors Rajendra I, Rajadhiraja I, Rajendra II, Virarajendra,
and Kulothunga Chola I, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural powerhouse
in South Asia and Southeast Asia. The power and the prestige the Cholas had among political
powers in South, Southeast, and East Asia at its peak is evident through their expeditions to
the Ganges, naval raids on cities of the Srivijaya empire based on the island of Sumatra, and
their repeated embassies to China. The Chola fleet represented the zenith of ancient Indian
maritime capacity. During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I,
Virarajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I the Chola armies invaded Sri Lanka, the
Maldives and parts of Southeast Asia like Malaysia, Indonesia and Southern Thailand of the
Srivijaya Empire in the 11th century. Rajaraja Chola I launched several naval campaigns that
resulted in the capture of Sri Lanka, Maldives and the Malabar Coast.
In 1025, Rajendra Chola launched naval raids on ports of Srivijaya and against the Burmese
kingdom of Pegu. A Chola inscription states that he captured or plundered 14 places, which
have been identified with Palembang, Tambralinga and Kedah among others. A second
invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola, who conquered Kedah in Malaysia of Srivijaya in
the late 11th century. Chola invasion ultimately failed to install direct administration over
Srivijaya, since the invasion was short and only meant to plunder the wealth of Srivijaya.

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However, this invasion gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the
formation of regional kingdoms. Although the invasion was not followed by direct Cholan
occupation and the region was unchanged geographically, there were huge consequences in
trade. Tamil traders encroached on the Srivijayan realm traditionally controlled by Malay
traders and the Tamil guilds' influence increased on the Malay Peninsula and north coast of
Sumatra.
During the period of 1010–1153 CE, the Chola territories stretched from the Maldives in the
south to the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh as the northern limit. Rajaraja
Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed part of the Rajarata kingdom in present-
day Sri Lanka, and occupied Maldives islands. His son Rajendra Chola further expanded the
Cholar territory by sending a victorious expedition to North India that touched the
river Ganges and defeating the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. By 1019, he also
completely conquered the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and annexed it to the Chola empire.
[5]
In 1017 and 1025, Rajendra Chola launched raids on the cities of the Srivijaya empire.
[6]
However, this invasion failed to install direct administration over Srivijaya, as the invasion
was short and only meant to plunder the wealth of Srivijaya. However, the Chola influence
on Srivijava would last until 1070, when the Cholas began to lose almost all of their overseas
territories. The later Cholas (1070–1279 CE) would still rule portions of Southern India. The
Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of
the Pandyan dynasty, which ultimately caused their downfall.
The Cholas succeeded in building the greatest thalassocratic empire in the history of India,
thereby leaving a lasting legacy. They established a centralized form of government and a
disciplined bureaucracy. Moreover, their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal for
building temples has resulted in some of the greatest works of Tamil literature and
architecture.[3] The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their
kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centers of economic activity. A UNESCO
world heritage site, the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur, commissioned by the Rajaraja
Chola in 1010 CE, is a prime example for Cholar architecture. They were also well known for
their patronage to art. The development of the specific sculpturing technique used in the
'Chola bronzes', exquisite bronze sculptures of Hindu deities built in a lost wax process was
pioneered in their time. The Chola tradition of art spread and influenced the architecture and
art of Southeast Asia.
Chola empire also had profound impact on Southeast Asia, who executed South-East Asia
campaign of Rajendra Chola I and Chola invasion of Srivijaya.
The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola Empire of south India was friendly during the
reign of Raja Raja Chola I but during the reign of Rajendra Chola I the Chola Empire invaded
Srivijaya cities. In 1025 and 1026 Gangga Negara was attacked by Rajendra Chola I of
the Chola Empire, the Tamil emperor who is now thought to have laid Kota Gelanggi to
waste. Kedah—known as Kedaram, Cheh-Cha (according to I-Ching) or Kataha, in
ancient Pallava or Sanskrit—was in the direct route of the invasions and was ruled by
the Cholas from 1025. A second invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola of the Chola
dynasty who conquered Kedah in the late 11th century. The senior Chola's successor, Vira
Rajendra Chola, had to put down a Kedah rebellion to overthrow other invaders. The coming
of the Chola reduced the majesty of Srivijaya, which had exerted influence
over Kedah, Pattani and as far as Ligor. During the reign of Kulothunga Chola I Chola
overlordship was established over the Srivijaya province kedah in the late 11th century. The
expedition of the Chola Emperors had such a great impression to the Malay people of the
medieval period that their name was mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the

126
medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melaya. Even today the Chola rule is remembered
in Malaysia as many Malaysian princes have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such
was the Raja of Perak called Raja Chulan.

Avalokiteshvara statue found in Perak, 8th–9th century bronze.

Pattinapalai, a Tamil poem of the 2nd century CE, describes goods from Kedaram heaped in
the broad streets of the Chola capital. A 7th-century Indian drama, Kaumudhimahotsva, refers
to Kedah as Kataha-nagari. The Agnipurana also mentions a territory known as Anda-Kataha
with one of its boundaries delineated by a peak, which scholars believe is Gunung Jerai.
Stories from the Katasaritasagaram describe the elegance of life in Kataha. The
Buddhist kingdom of Ligor took control of Kedah shortly after. Its king Chandrabhanu used
it as a base to attack Sri Lanka in the 11th century and ruled the northern parts, an event noted
in a stone inscription in Nagapattinum in Tamil Nadu and in the Sri Lankan
chronicles, Mahavamsa.

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The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas
to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had
developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. The south Indian guilds played a
major role in interregional and overseas trade. The best known of these were the
Manigramam and Ayyavole guilds who followed the conquering Chola armies. The
encouragement by the Chola court furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations
such as the Ayyavole and Manigramam guilds into Southeast Asia and China. The Cholas,
being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at
the forefront of these ventures. The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire under the
Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Baghdad were the main trading partners.
Some credit for the emergence of a world market must also go to the dynasty. It played a
significant role in linking the markets of China to the rest of the world. The market structure
and economic policies of the Chola dynasty were more conducive to a large-scale, cross-
regional market trade than those enacted by the Chinese Song Dynasty. A Chola record gives
their rationale for engagement in foreign trade: "Make the merchants of distant foreign
countries who import elephants and good horses attach to yourself by providing them with
villages and decent dwellings in the city, by affording them daily audience, presents and
allowing them profits. Then those articles will never go to your enemies."
Song dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court
in 1077, and that the king of the Chulian at the time, Kulothunga I, was called Ti-hua-kia-lo.
This embassy was a trading venture and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned
with copper coins in exchange for articles of tribute, including glass and spices. Probably, the
motive behind Rajendra's expedition to Srivijaya was the protection of the merchants'
interests.[
A good number of inscriptions written in Sanskrit language have been found
in Malaysia and Indonesia (in Indonesian known as Prasasti). "Early inscriptions written in
Indian languages and scripts abound in Southeast Asia. [...] The fact that southern Indian
languages didn't travel eastwards along with the script further suggests that the main carriers
of ideas from the southeast coast of India to the east - and the main users in Southeast Asia of
religious texts written in Sanskrit and Pali - were Southeast Asians themselves. The spread of
these north Indian sacred languages thus provides no specific evidence for any movements of
South Asian individuals or groups to Southeast Asia.[1]
Kutai inscriptions

Tugu inscription in National Museum of Indonesia/ Picture of one of the Kutai inscriptions at
the National Museum in Jakarta

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The oldest known inscriptions in Indonesia are the Kutai inscriptions, or the Muarakaman
inscriptions, which are those on seven stone pillars, or yupa (“sacrificial posts”), found in the
eastern part of Borneo, in the area of Kutai, East Kalimantan province. They are written in
the early Pallava script, in the Sanskrit language, and commemorate sacrifices held by a king
called Mulavarman. Based on palaeographical grounds, they have been dated to the second
half of the 4th century AD. They attest to the emergence of an Indianized state in the
Indonesian archipelago prior to AD 400, and hence Old Kutai Kingdom (Kutai Kuno) is the
earliest known Indianized polity in Indonesia.
In addition to Mulavarman, the reigning king, the inscriptions mention the names of his father
Asvavarman and his grandfather Kundungga. It is generally agreed that Kundungga is not a
Sanskrit name, but one of native origin. The fact that his son Asvavarman is the first of the
line to bear a Sanskrit name indicates that he was probably also the first to adhere to
Hinduism.[2]
Tugu Inscription
The Tugu inscription is one several inscriptions associated to Tarumanagara, discovered in
Batutumbuh hamlet, Tugu village, Koja, North Jakarta, in Indonesia. The inscription contains
information about hydraulic projects; the irrigation and water drainage project of the
Chandrabhaga river by the order of a certain Rajadirajaguru, and also the water project of the
Gomati river by the order of King Purnawarman in the 22nd year of his reign. The digging
project to straighten and widen the river was conducted in order to avoid flooding in the wet
season, and as an irrigation project during the dry season.
The Tugu inscription was written in Pallava script arranged in the form of Sanskrit Sloka
with Anustubh metrum, consisting of five lines that run around the surface of the stone. Just
like other inscriptions from the Tarumanagara kingdom, the Tugu inscriptions do not mention
the date of the edict. The date of the inscriptions was estimated and analyzed according to
paleographic study which concluded that the inscriptions originated from the mid 5th century.
The script of the Tugu inscription and the Cidanghyang inscription bear striking similarity,
such as the script "citralaikha" written as "citralekha", leading to the assumption that the
writer of these inscriptions was the same person.
The Tugu inscription is the longest Tarumanagara inscription pronounced by edict of Sri
Maharaja Purnawarman. The inscription was made during the 22nd year of his reign, to
commemorate the completion of the canals of the Gomati and Candrabhaga rivers. On the
inscription there is an image of a staff crowned with Trisula straight to mark the separation
between the beginning and the end of each sentence.
Kedah Inscription
An inscription in Sanskrit dated 1086 has been found in Kedah. This was left by Kulothunga
Chola I (of the Chola empire, Tamil country). This too shows the commercial contacts the
Chola Empire had with Malaysia.
Ligor Inscription
An inscription was found on the Southern Thailand Malay peninsula, at Nakhon Si
Thammarat. It has been dubbed the Ligor inscription, being the name given by Europeans to
the region in the 16th and 17th centuries. It is written in Sanskrit and bears the date of 775
AD. One side of the inscription refers to the Illustrious Great Monarch (śrīmahārāja)
belonging to the "Lord of the Mountain" dynasty (śailendravaṁśa), which is also mentioned
in four Sanskrit inscriptions from Central Java; the other side refers to the founding of several
Buddhist sanctuaries by a king of Srivijaya. Srivijaya is the name of a kingdom whose centre

129
was located in the modern city of Palembang in South Sumatra province, Indonesia. The
Ligor inscription is testimony to an expansion of Sriwijaya power to the peninsula.
Ligor inscription is an 8th-century stone
stele or inscription discovered in Ligor,
Nakhon Si Thammarat, Southern Thailand.
This inscription was written and carved on
two sides, the first part is called Ligor A
inscription, or also known as Viang Sa
inscription, while on the other side is called
the Ligor B inscription written in Kawi
script dated 775 CE. The Ligor B
inscription was probably written by
Mahārāja dyāḥ Pañcapaṇa kariyāna
Paṇaṃkaraṇa, king of Shailendra dynasty.
This inscription was connected to the
kingdom of Srivijaya and the Shailendra
dynasty.
Interpretation :
Ligor A inscription tell about a Srivijayan
king named Dharmasetu, the king of kings
in the world, who built the Trisamaya
caitya for Kajara.
While the Ligor B inscription, dated 775
CE, written in Kawi script, contains the
information about a king named Visnu who
holds the title Sri Maharaja, from
Śailendravamśa hailed as
Śesavvārimadavimathana (the slayer of
arrogant enemies without any trace). There
are some different interpretations regarding
the king mentioned in Ligor B inscription;
some suggest that the king mentioned in
this inscription was King Panangkaran
while other argues that it was his
successor, King Dharanindra.

List of Sanskrit inscriptions throughout the Malay

Inscriptions Place of discovery Date Note

Võ Cạnh 2nd-3rd
Nha Trang, Vietnam
inscription Century CE

130
Inscriptions Place of discovery Date Note

Muarakaman East Also known as Kutai

~ 400 CE
inscriptions Kalimantan, Indonesia inscriptions

Kebon Kopi I Also known as Tapak

Bogor, Indonesia ~ 400 CE
inscription Gajah inscriptions

early 5th
Tugu inscription North Jakarta, Indonesia
Century CE

Cidanghiang 5th Century Also known as Lebak

Pandeglang, Indonesia
inscription CE inscription

Ciaruteun 5th Century

Bogor, Indonesia
inscription CE

Muara Cianten 5th century

Bogor, Indonesia
inscription CE

5th century
Jambu inscription Bogor, Indonesia
CE

Pasir Awi 5th century

Bogor, Indonesia
inscription CE

6th-7th
Tukmas inscription Magelang, Indonesia
Century CE

Canggal Earliest mention of

Magelang, Indonesia 732 CE
inscription King Sanjaya

Plumpungan
Salatiga, Indonesia 760 CE
inscription

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Inscriptions Place of discovery Date Note

Nakhon Si
Ligor inscription 775 CE
Thammarat, Thailand

Kalasan inscription Sleman, Indonesia 778 CE

Kelurak inscription Klaten, Indonesia 782 CE

Karangtengah Also known as

Temanggung, Indonesia 824 CE
inscriptions Kayumwungan inscription

Tri Tepusan
Temanggung, Indonesia 842 CE
inscription

Munggu Antan
Purworejo, Indonesia 887 CE
inscription

Belanjong pillar Denpasar, Indonesia 913 CE

Sangguran Also known as Minto

Batu, Indonesia 928 CE
Inscription Stone

Pucangan Also known as Calcutta

Mojokerto, Indonesia 1041 CE
inscription Stone

Mula Malurung
Kediri, Indonesia 1255 CE
inscriptions

Gondang
Mojokerto, Indonesia 1275 CE
inscription

Padang Roco
Dharmasraya, Indonesia 1286 CE
inscription

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Inscriptions Place of discovery Date Note

Wurare Inscription Mojokerto, Indonesia 1289 CE

Pasir Panjang 9-12th

Karimun, Indonesia
inscription Century CE

10-11th Language unclear; either

Singapore Stone Singapore
Century CE Sanskrit or Old Javanese

Akarendra 12th
Tanah Datar, Indonesia
inscription Century CE

Manjusri
Malang, Indonesia 1343 CE
inscription

Amoghapasa
Dharmasraya, Indonesia 1347 CE
inscription

Pagaruyung III
Tanah Datar, Indonesia 1347 CE
inscription

Bukit Gombak
Tanah Datar, Indonesia 1357 CE
inscription

Pagaruyung VIII 1369 or

Tanah Datar, Indonesia
inscription 1316 CE

Suruaso I
Tanah Datar, Indonesia 1375 CE
inscription

Suruaso II 14th Also known as

Batusangkar, Indonesia
inscription Century CE Batusangkar inscription

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 Inscriptions Place of discovery Date Note

Kuburajo 14th
Tanah Datar, Indonesia
inscription Century CE

TAMIL
A number of medieval inscriptions written in Tamil language and script that have been found
in Southeast Asia and China, mainly in Sumatra and peninsular Thailand. These texts arose
directly from trade links between south India and certain parts of Southeast Asia and China,
which involved the residence in those regions of Tamil-speaking Indians. Several of these
overseas Tamil inscriptions mention well-known medieval Indian merchant associations.
A good number of Tamil inscriptions, as well as Hindu and Buddhist icons emanating
from South India, have been found in Southeast Asia (and even in Quanzhou in China).
On the Malay Peninsula, inscriptions have been found at Takuapa, not far from
the Vishnuite statues of Khao Phra Narai in Southern Thailand. It is a short inscription
indicating that an artificial lake named Avani-naranam was dug by Nangur-Udaiyan, which
is the name of an individual who possessed a military fief at Nangur, being famous for his
abilities as a warrior, and that the lake was placed under the protection of the members of the
Manikkiramam (which according to K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, was a merchant guild) living in
the military camp. Since Avani-narayana is a surname of the Pallava King Nandivarman
III who reigned from 826 to 849, we can deduce the approximate date of this inscription.
In the capital of Tabralinga there is a sanctuary in which there is a bronze image
of Ganesa bearing a Tamil inscription Majapisedesa in modern characters.

Neusu inscription found in Banda Aceh, now kept at Aceh Museum

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A slightly later Tamil language inscription has recently been found at Neusu Aceh, Banda
Aceh. The date of the inscription is illegible, but it has been dated palaeographically to about
the 12th century, The entire front of the stone is illegible, aside from the isolated
word mandapam, presumably relating to a temple foundation or endowment. A provisional
translation of the legible portion of the back reads:
"[....] that [we] would not hold (kaikkollakadavadalla); for this decision. [If any violation
comes or situation arises against it (?)...those] who put the [royal] emblem (ilachchinal,
Sanskrit lancana) will come to take and go (seize?) [....] that [we] would not get or collect
(kolludal) interest [in kind] (polisai) [...even] afterwards our people (makkal) would do in
accordance with this inscription (ikkalvettuku kokka[okka]). Let there be prosperity."
This provisional reading suggests that the inscription dealt with trading regulations covering
losses of goods, the waiving of collection of interest, and perhaps of royal fees. The legible
portion of the text does not bear the name of any merchant association, but a reference to "our
people" (makkal) may indicate that an association was involved: several inscriptions of this
period in southern India connect merchant associations — particularly the Ainnurruvar —
with the construction of mandapa or other additions to both Hindu and Buddhist foundations.
[5]

In ancient Kedah there is an important and unmistakably Hindu settlement which has been
known for about a century now from the discoveries reported by Col. Low and has recently
been subjected to a fairly exhaustive investigation by Dr. Quaritch Wales. Dr. Wales
investigated no fewer than thirty sites round about Kedah. The results attained show that this
site was in continuous occupation by people who came under strong South
Indian influences, Buddhist and Hindu, for centuries.
An inscribed stone bar, rectangular in shape, bears the ye-dharmma formula in South Indian
characters of the 4th century AD, thus proclaiming the Buddhist character of the shrine near
the find-spot (site I) of which only the basement survives. It is inscribed on three faces
in Pallava script, or Vatteluttu rounded writing of the 6th century AD, possibly earlier.
BARUS or Lobu Tua Inscription
An inscription in the Tamil language, the Lobu Tua Inscription dated 1088 AD, has been
found on the western coast of Sumatra island at Lobu Tua, North Sumatra province,
Indonesia. It was erected by a Tamil merchant guild, the Ayyavole 500 (“the 500 of the
thousand directions”) which enjoyed the patronage of the Chola rulers. The inscription
mentions the guild as “having met at the velapuram in Varocu”.[7] “Varocu” is Barus, an
ancient port located not far from Lobu Tua, which had played a major role in
the camphor and benzoin trade since the 9th century. These valuable products were in high
demand in China, India and the Middle East and came from the forests in the northern
Sumatra hinterland. From there, they were brought to Barus and exported. Tamil were among
the foreign merchants who would come to Barus and buy the camphor and benzoin from
local traders.
In 1017 and 1025, the Chola kings had sent fleets to raid ports controlled by Sriwijaya in
the Malacca Straits. After these successful attacks, the Chola seem to have been in a position
to intervene in the region for the rest of the 11th century. This allowed for an increased
presence of Tamil merchant guilds in Sumatra.
In the ancient city of Tanjore (Thanjavur — ancient name) in Tamil Nadu are
inscriptions dating from 1030. which contain a list of the ports in the Malacca Strait raided by
a fleet sent by King Rajendra Chola I. A large stone makara found in Jambi province in
Sumatra, dated 1064 AD, bears testimony to the reemergence of a significant power in Jambi,

135
with a strong link to Java, in the 11th century. [9] The following are the places that Rajendran
claims to have raided:[10][11]: 77–78, 170

 Sriwijaya (Palembang)
 Pannai (Pannai kingdom)
 Malaiyur (the Malayu of the 7th century, i.e. Jambi) (referring to the ancient Melayu
Kingdom. Known as Jambi today.)
 Mayirudingan (the Je-lo-ting of the Chinese on the Malay Peninsula)
 Ilangasokam (Langkasuka)
 Mapappalam (Papphaal, placed by the Sinhalese chronicle Mahavamsa on the coast
of Pegu in Burma)
 Mevilimbangam (unknown)
 Valaippanduru (unknown)
 Talaittakkolam (Takkola of Ptolemy and the Milindapandha, On the isthmus of Kra)
 Madamalingam (Tambralinga, Chinese Tan-ma-ling, of which the center was
at Ligor in Southern Thailand), or the Kra Isthmus
 Ilamuridesam (Lamuri of the Arabs, Lambri of Marco Polo at northern Sumatra)
 Manakkavaram (Nicobar islands)
 Kadaram (Kedah)

The Mahanavika Buddhagupta ("Great Navigator

Buddhagupta") stone inscription, is a 5th-century CE Buddhist stone inscription found in
the Wellesley Province, Penang, Malaysia. It was discovered in 1834 by Captain James Low,
of the East India Company.The plaque is in schist, 8–9 cm wide, and 66 cm high. It is today
in the Indian Museum in Kolkata. The plate features the illustration of a Buddhist stupa. The
script is Brahmi from South India, and very similar to the script of the inscription of
King Purnavarman. Buddhagupta declares in his inscription that he is from Raktamartikka,
thought to be Rajbadidanga in Bengal.The stele examplifies the links between India and
Southeast Asia and that early time, as well as the link between trade and Buddhism. Another
inscription by Mahanavika Buddhagupta, the "Sungai Mas Buddhist stele", was found in

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Kampong Sungai Mas, Sungai Petani, Kedah, and dated to circa the 5th-6th century CE. It is
now in the Muzium Arkeologi Lembah Bujang, Merbok, Malaysia.

Old Malay inscriptions and Ancient inscriptions Balinese

Old Malay inscriptions

inscriptions that use the language of the ancient Malay inscriptions are relics of the kingdom
of Srivijaya, both in Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. For example Inscription Kedukan
Mount Talang Tuo Inscription, Inscription Rock Lake, and Inscription Ligor.

Ancient inscriptions Balinese

The inscriptions that use the ancient Balinese language is a relic of kingdoms in Bali. The
inscription is generally contain King Casana or regulation of the King. Required letter is the
letter Pallawa, Old Javanese, and Pranagari.
For example: julah Inscription, Inscription Ugrasena, and Monument Inscription Sanur

INVASIONS
In 1025 CE, the Chola Emperor Rajendra I launched naval raids on Srivijaya in maritime
Southeast Asia, Rajendra's overseas expedition against Srivijaya was a unique event in India's
history and its otherwise peaceful relations with the states of Southeast Asia. Several places
in present-day Indonesia and Malaysia were invaded by Rajendra I of the Chola
dynasty. The Chola invasion furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations such as
the Manigramam, Ayyavole and Ainnurruvar into Southeast Asia. The Cholan invasion led to
the fall of the Sailendra Dynasty of Srivijaya and the Chola invasion also coincides with
return voyage of the great Buddhist scholar Atiśa from Sumatra to India and Tibet in 1025
CE.
Throughout most of their shared history, ancient India and Indonesia enjoyed friendly and
peaceful relations, therefore this Indian invasion is a unique event in Asian history. [9] In the
9th and 10th centuries, Srivijaya maintained close relations with the Pala Empire in Bengal,
and an 860 CE Nalanda inscription records that Maharaja Balaputra of Srivijaya dedicated a
monastery at the Nalanda Mahavihara in Pala territory. The relation between Srivijaya and
the Chola dynasty of southern India was friendly during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I. In
1006 CE a Srivijayan Maharaja from Sailendra dynasty — king Maravijayattungavarman —
constructed the Chudamani Vihara in the port town of Nagapattinam.[10] However, during the
reign of Rajendra Chola I the relations deteriorated as the Cholas attacked Srivijayan cities.[11]
The Cholas are known to have benefitted from both piracy and foreign trade. Sometimes
Chola seafaring led to outright plunder and conquest as far as Southeast Asia.[12] Srivijaya

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controlled two major naval choke points (Malacca and the Sunda Strait) and was at that time
a major trading empire that possess formidable naval forces. The Malacca Strait's northwest
opening was controlled from Kedah on the Malay Peninsula side and from Pannai on
the Sumatran side, while Malayu (Jambi) and Palembang controlled its southeast opening and
also Sunda Strait. They practiced naval trade monopoly that forced any trade vessels that
passed through their waters to call on their ports or otherwise be plundered.[13]
The reasons of this naval expedition are unclear, the historian Nilakanta Sastri suggested that
the attack was probably caused by Srivijayan attempts to throw obstacles in the way of the
Chola trade with the East (especially China), or more probably, a simple desire on the part of
Rajendra to extend his digvijaya to the countries across the sea so well known to his subject
at home, and therefore add luster to his crown.[9] Another theory suggests that the reasons for
the invasion was probably motivated by geopolitics and diplomatic relations.
King Suryavarman I of the Khmer Empire requested aid from Rajendra Chola I of the Chola
dynasty against Tambralinga kingdom.[ After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with
Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the Srivijaya king Sangrama
Vijayatungavarman.
The Chola invasion against Srivijaya was a swift campaign that left Srivijaya unprepared.
Moreover, during this time in the 11th century, the Chola navy had developed strongly, while
Srivijaya sea power was relatively weak. To sail from India to the Indonesian archipelago,
vessels from India sailed eastward across the Bay of Bengal and called at the ports of Lamuri
in Aceh or Kedah in Malay peninsula before entering Strait of Malacca. But the Chola
armada sailed directly to the Sumatran west coast. The port of Barus in the west coast
of North Sumatra at that time belonged to Tamil trade guilds and served as a port to replenish
after crossing the Indian Ocean. The Chola armada, then continued to sail along Sumatra's
west coast southward and sailed into Strait of Sunda. The Srivijaya navy guarded Kedah and
the surrounding areas on the northwest opening of the Malacca Strait and so were completely
unaware that the Chola invasion was coming from the Sunda Strait in the south. The first
Srivijayan city that was raided was Palembang, the capital of Srivijaya empire. The
unexpected attack led to the Cholas sacking the city and plundering the Kadatuan royal
palace and monasteries. The Thanjavur inscription states that Rajendra captured
King Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman of Srivijaya and took a large heap of treasures
including the Vidhyadara Torana, the jeweled 'war gate' of Srivijaya, adorned with great
splendor.
The Chola invasion did not result in Chola administration over the defeated cities, as the
armies moved fast and plundered the Srivijayan cities. The Chola armada seems to have
taken advantage of the Southeast Asian monsoon for moving from one port to another
swiftly. The tactic of a fast-moving unexpected attack was probably the secret of Cholan
success, since it did not allow the Srivijayan mandala to prepare their defenses, reorganize
themselves, provide assistance or to retaliate. The war ended with a victory for the Cholas
and major losses for the Srivijaya Empire, thus ending their maritime monopoly in the region.

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Charter issued by Rajendra I that declared the collection of revenue to build a Buddhist Vihara in
Srivijaya.

With the Maharaja Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman imprisoned and most of its cities
destroyed, the leaderless Srivijaya mandala entered a period of chaos and confusion. The
invasion marked the end of the Sailendra dynasty. According to the 15th-century Malay
Annals, Rajendra Chola I after the successful naval raid in 1025 CE married Onang Kiu, the
daughter of Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman. This invasion forced Srivijaya to make peace
with Javanese kingdom of Kahuripan. The peace deal was brokered by the exiled daughter of
Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman, a Srivijayan princess who managed to escape the
destruction of Palembang and came to the court of King Airlangga in East Java. She also
became the queen consort of Airlangga named Dharmaprasadottungadevi and in 1035 CE,
Airlangga constructed a Buddhist monastery named Srivijayasrama dedicated to his queen
consort.
Despite the devastation, Srivijaya mandala still survived as the Chola invasion ultimately
failed to install direct administration over Srivijaya, since the invasion was short and only
meant to plunder. Nevertheless, this invasion gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and
enabled the formation of regional kingdoms like Kahuripan and its
successor, Kediri in Java based on agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Sri
Deva was enthroned as the new king and the trading activities resumed. He sent an embassy
to the court of China in 1028 CE.[17] Although the invasion was not followed by
direct Cholan occupation and the region was unchanged geographically, there were huge
consequences in trade. Tamil traders encroached on the Srivijayan realm traditionally
controlled by Malay traders and the Tamil guilds' influence increased on the Malay
Peninsula and north coast of Sumatra.
With the growing presence of Tamil guilds in the region, relations improved between
Srivijaya and the Cholas. Chola nobles were accepted in Srivijaya court and in 1067 CE, a
Chola prince named Divakara or Devakala was sent as a Srivijayan ambassador to the
Imperial Court of China. The prince who was the nephew of Rajendra Chola later was
enthroned in 1070 CE as Kulothunga Chola I. Later during the Kedah rebellion, Srivijaya
asked the Cholas for help. In 1068 CE, Virarajendra Chola launched a naval raid to help
Srivijaya reclaim Kedah. Virarajendra reinstated the Kedah king at the request of the
Srivijayan Maharaja and Kedah accepted the Srivijayan sovereignty

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 VIII

AMAZING
CholaS

140
 Highest
Historiographical writings

Dhamma
Vaastu
Jainism
Tantra Dr Uday Dokras
Borobudur World Number # 1
PRAMBANA
N 5 times
Hindu Mandir
Astrology
ANGKOR Wat

I
CHOLA AS TEMPLE BUILDERS
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India is the country which is known for its rich Hindu Culture and Tradition. There are
hundreds of mesmerizing Hindu temples across the country in different design, shape,
locations; but not all temples are built as described in Vedic literature. Temples are found
deliberately at a place where the positive energy is available abundantly from the magnetic
and electric wave conveyances of north/south post push.

The idol of God is set in the core center of the temple, known as" Grabhagriha" or
"Moolasthanam". Ideally, the structure of the temple is built after he idol has been placed in a
high positive wave centric place. In olden days, temples were built in such a way that the
floor at the center of the temple were good conductors of these positive vibrations allowing
them to pass through our feet to the body. Hence it is necessary to walk barefooted while you
enter the center of the temple. Also Read - Karimnagar: Bandi to adopt temple. The Five
senses of the body get activated when you are inside the temple if the positive energy inside
the temple is absorbed properly that is only if you ensure that all the five senses are activated
in your body while in the temple. The senses of the Human Body are Sight, Hearing, Taste,
Sight, And Smell. Also, the place of worship is said to be pleased only if your five senses are
pleased.

Science of Ancient Temples - Human's throughout history have created a space for the
divine. There is a link between God and Man, as the house of worship, as structures for
religious and spiritual activities space for the divine has been created by the human kingdom.
The entire art of building temples is not just a mere art; it is a science. Every single facet of it
- from the size of the idol to the directions and the sanctum- yes! Temple architecture is a
highly developed science. A Temple is more than a Building People have put aside any
constraints of money any time to erect inspiring structures built on faith, science, and
mystery. For most of us, the science of temples built on thousands of years of research and
development has been lost... The understanding the science of Indian temples, we can
experience the intelligence, power, and miracles that these structures were made from and
for.

The Divine aspects of a Temple- The temple is comprised of five senses and a presiding
deity. The temple is an outgrowth of the deity which has its own independent intelligence and
from which energy is constantly radiating. Temples are places where mind spontaneously
moves within and meditation happens effortlessly. Every aspect of the temple, from the
architecture to the rituals to the kinds of worship offered, has been consciously created to
make this experience happen. Energy Centres If you look into the ancient past of India and its
temples it reveals the fundamental science and purpose behind temple building. Far from
being a place of prayer or worship, temples were created as powerful spaces where an
individual could imbibe the enshrined energies. Most temples were created to address a
particular aspect of life and were thus consecrated to activate one or two particular chakras,
the main energy centers within the human system.

Construction of a Temple -The main deity was often complemented by one or more minor
deities carefully positioned along the path of approach to the main deity. Looking at these
structures, it is apparent that the temples were built to a certain pattern, certain understanding,
and purpose, catering to the needs of the individual and the society. Scientific reasons for
visiting the temples There are thousands of temples all over India in different size, shape, and
locations but not all of them are considered to be built in a Vedic way. It is said that in the
ancient times, a temple should be located at a place where the earth magnetic wave path
passes through densely. How the energy quotient of a place was measured is not known but

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keeping in mind the lost advance science fundas of our ancient saints, they would have
figured a way out. Location of the diety Temples are located where there is positive energy
available from magnetic and electric wave distributions of north or south pole thrust. The
main idol is placed in the core center of the temple. In fact, the temple structure is built after
the idol has been placed. The place of the deity is where earth's magnetic waves are found to
be maximum.

There is a metal plate beneath the statue Did you notice a copper place beneath the main idol
in the temples? what could be the reason for this? It is believed that these copper plates
absorb the magnetic force and radiates it to the surroundings. The person visiting the temple
would receive the beamed magnetic waves. This a very slow process and a regular visitor
would eventually start feeling the positive vibes. The holy water The curd, honey, milk, sugar
and coconut water made by which we clean the copper idol is believed to make the amrit a
blessing. Moreover, the holy water that comprises basil leaves and karpor(camphor) help to
fight diseases like cold and cough. The magic of temple bells A temple bell is another
scientific phenomena; it is not just your ordinary metal; It is made of various metals earth
including cadmium, lead, copper, zinc, nickel, chromium, and manganese. The proportion at
which each one them mixed is real science behind a bell.

Each of these bells is made to produce such a distinct sound that it can create unity of your
left and right brain. What happens when you ring the temple bell The moment you ring the
bell, it produces the lasting sound which lasts for a minimum of seven echo mode which is
good enough to touch your 7 healing chakras. Th ebreian empties all your thoughts.
Invariably you enter into a state of trans where you are very receptive. the trans-state the one
with awareness. Don't just visit the temple, sit The belief is never to visit the temple and go.
traditionally, the belief is that one who visits and goes the visit would be fruitless. This is so
because temples are built like a public charging place, people can charge themselves with
their inner energies. People visited the temple before they entered into their daily work so that
they could go about with a certain sense of balance and depth in their lives. No Footwear in
Temple. Temples are a place where it contains pure vibrations of magnetic and electric fields
with positive energies. In olden days the floor at the center of the temple were good
conductors of these positive vibration allowing them to pass throughout feet to the body.
Hence it is necessary to walk barefooted while you enter the core center of the temple.
Parikrama The idol inside the chamber absorbs all the energy from the bell sound., Camphor
heat and vibrates the positive energy within the chamber for a certain duration of time. When
you do the circumambulation at this point of time, you tend to absorb all these positive
vibrations once your five senses are activated. Indian temples are a fascinating blend of
religion, art, and science. They are not only places of worship but also architectural
masterpieces that showcase the advanced knowledge of science and engineering of ancient
India.

VASTU SHASTRA
The construction of Indian temples involves a deep understanding of mathematics,
astronomy, and engineering. The temples were built according to strict guidelines set out in
ancient texts, such as the Shilpa Shastras, which are treatises on architecture. These texts
contain detailed instructions on the design and construction of temples, including the
proportions of the various parts of the temple and the placement of the temple in relation to
the cardinal directions.
One of the most striking examples of the scientific knowledge used in the construction of
Indian temples is the use of the Vastu Shastra, which is a set of guidelines for the design and

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construction of buildings. The Vastu Shastra is based on the principles of Hindu cosmology
and is said to promote harmony and balance in the built environment. The temples were
constructed in such a way that they align with the cardinal directions and the sun’s
movements, to ensure that the temple receives the right amount of light and air.

The Indian temples are also known for their intricate carvings and sculptures. The temples
were constructed using locally available materials, such as granite, sandstone, and limestone,
and the sculptures were made using advanced tools and techniques. The sculptures were
made to very high precision and the intricate details on them are a testament to the skill and
knowledge of the artisans who created them.

Another striking aspect of Indian temples is their acoustics. Many temples have a specific
chamber or hall called ‘Sabha mandapam’ or ‘Nada mandapam’ which is designed to
enhance the sound and resonance of the temple bells and other musical instruments. The
science behind this is the use of specific architectural elements such as the shape, size, and
materials used in the construction of the chamber, which work together to amplify and
enhance the sound.
In conclusion, Indian temples are not just places of worship but also architectural wonders
that showcase the advanced knowledge of science and engineering of ancient India. From
mathematics, astronomy, engineering, to acoustics, the Indian temples are an excellent
example of how science and spirituality can coexist and complement each other in the
architectural heritage.

THE LAND OF THE CHOLAS AND RIVER KAVERI

According to Tamil tradition, the Chola country comprised the region that includes the
modern-day Tiruchirapalli District, Tiruvarur District, Nagapattinam District, Ariyalur
District, Perambalur district, Pudukkottai district, Thanjavur District in Tamil
Nadu and Karaikal District. The river Kaveri and its tributaries dominate this landscape of
generally flat country that gradually slopes towards the sea, unbroken by major hills or
valleys. The river, which is also known as the Ponni (Golden) river, had a special place in the
culture of Cholas. The annual floods in the Kaveri marked an occasion for celebration, known
as Adiperukku, in which the whole nation took part

Chola Nadu is a cultural region of the Tamil Nadu state in southern India. It encompasses the
lower reaches of the Kaveri River and its delta, and formed the cultural homeland and
political base of the Chola Dynasty which ruled large parts of South India and parts of Sri
Lanka between the 9th and 13th centuries CE. Cauvery obviously was not only a life-giving
source but the very sustenance for the people’s soul. For such is the invaluable received
tradition regarding Cauvery.

What confronts us immediately in the Cauvery delta civilisation are the massive temple
structures raised by Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas and Pallavas in the course of 1,500 years.
Interestingly enough, the prosperity gifted by the Cauvery turned the Tamil royalty towards
raising immense temples to the gods, and not in building luxuriant palaces of dead perfection
as the kings of France did in Louvre and Fontainebleau.mThere is a connect between water
boidies and Hinduism. The significance of water in Vedas is that the Vedas identify water
as the very essence of spiritual sacrifice or 'the first door to attain the divine order ' (Atharva
Veda). The use of water in daily life as well as in ritualistic ceremony was referred to as

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spiritual sacrifice, a process of attaining eternity. Vedic philosophy which is the structural
basis of Hinduism identifies that water and the human body in the Hindu social system are
not merely physical entities. Hindus give a lot of importance to water in their day to day life,
because water is seen as source of physical and spiritual cleanliness and well-being... a
striving to attain purity and avoid pollution. This widespread aspiration lends itself to a
reverence for water as well as the integration of water into most Hindu rituals. Water in
Hindu Ritual Water is very important for all the rituals in Hinduism. For example, water is
essential as a cleaning agent, cleaning the vessels used for the poojas (rituals), and for
Abhishekas or bathing of deities. Several dravyas or nutrients used for the purpose of bathing
the deities and after use of each dravya. Water is used for cleansing the deity. Water offered
to the deity and the water collected after bathing the Deities are considered very sacred. This
water is offered as “Theertha” or blessed offering to the devotees. Poorna Kumba literally
means a full pitcher (“poorna” is full and “kumbha” is pitcher). The Poorna Kumbha is a
pitcher full of water with fresh leaves preferably of mango tree and a coconut placed on the
top. Poorna Kumbha is an object symbolizing God and it is regularly used during different
religious rites. The water in the jar is said to be of divine essence. Many of the poojas in
Hinduism start with keeping a kalasa which is a brass, silver or gold pot filled with water
adorned with a coconut amidst mango or other sacred leaves. Kalasa symbolizes the universe
and becomes an integral part of the Mandalic-liturgy as it still forms an indispensable element
of certain poojas in Hinduism. The pot is the first mandala into which the deities descend and
raise themselves. One of the religious rituals is tarpana, which means to please or to gratify.
Specifically, tarpana is the act of pouring water through the hands with the use of sacred
grass as a symbolic gesture of recognition, thanking and pleasing Gods, sages, and fathers.
During all purification rites water is sprinkled on the objects which are to be purified. Water
used to be sprinkled on any offerings to the deities. Before starting a meal Hindus sprinkle
water around the leaf or plate in which the meal is traditionally eaten. In times past, a King
was sprinkled with water in order to purify him during his coronation. This was believed to
ensure an auspicious beginning to his reign. There is also an important ritual called
Sandhyopasana or Sandhyavandana which is a combination of meditation and concentration.
Sandhya is an obligatory duty to be performed daily for self-purification and self-
improvement. Regular Sandhya cuts the chain of old Samskaras and changes everyones old
situation entirely. It brings purity, Atma-Bhava, devotion and sincerity. The important
features of this ceremony are: Achamana or sipping of water with recitation of Mantras,
Marjana or sprinkling of water on the body which purifies the mind and the body,
Aghamarshana or expiation for the sins of many births, and Surya Arghya or ablutions of
water to the Sun-god (the other two non water-based elements of the ceremony are:
Pranayama, or control of breath which steadies the wandering mind, and silent recitation of
Gayatri; and Upasthana, or religious obeisance). The first part of Arghya consists of hymns
addressed to water and its benefits. The sprinkling of water on the face and the head and the
touching of the different organs (the mouth, nose, eyes, ears, chest, shoulders and head) with
wetted fingers, are meant to purify those parts of the body and invoke the respective presiding
deities on them. They also stimulate the nerve-centres and wake up the dormant powers of the
body. The Arghya drives the demons who obstruct the path of the rising sun. Esoterically,
lust, anger and greed are the demons who obstruct the intellect from rising up (the intellect is
the sun). In Hinduism, the river is embodied by the goddess Ganga, Mother of all human
beings, and is considered as the holiest of rivers. Hindus from around the world traditionally

145
gather at the banks of the river for holy festivals and immerse themselves in the water for
purification from sins.

In Hinduism, the Kaveri River is considered one of seven holy rivers in India. There are
many stories narrated in the Puranas about the origin of Kaveri as a river and a goddess.
The Skanda Purana narrates that during the Samudra Manthana, or churning of the Ocean of
Milk, Mohini and Lopamudra retrieved the nectar of immortality for the gods. Afterwards,
Mohini became a cave in the Brahmagiri hills and Brahma took care of Lopamudra as his
daughter. Later, Brahma offered Lopamudra to king Kavera, who was childless, as he was
pleased by king Kavera's devotion. Lopamudra was then renamed as Kaveri. When Kaveri
grew up she prayed to Brahma to transform her into a purifying river.

Rivers are the basis of Indian religion hence it's very respected and also rivers are the easiest
way of gaining water (as we all know water is the base of human life). Rivers are very
honourable in indian religion as-

1. Rivers are equally respected to mother (mother feed theire baby same as river feed
human).
2. Rivers are cradle of civilisation as we know there are so many cities developed on the bank
of rivers like Kashi , Prayag, Haridwar, Patliputra (Patna) etc.

3. Rivers are good source of water, which is the best medium of cleaness and servival. So,
people can clean them self very easily and go to temple with clean body and clean heart.

4. During the vedic and post vedic era gurukul were also situated near to river banks and they
have a common ritual of having kuldevi and kuldevta which also gave birth to situated
temples on bank of river.

So, also on that term both river and temple are correlated to each other that's why temples are
situated near to rivers.

Significance of River Kaveri to Certain famous Mandirs

The Kaveri (also known as Cauvery, the anglicised name) is one of the major Indian rivers
flowing through the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The Kaveri River rises
at Talakaveri in the Brahmagiri range in the Western Ghats, Kodagu district of the state of
Karnataka, at an elevation of 1,341 m above mean sea level and flows for about 800 km
before its outfall into the Bay of Bengal. It reaches the sea in Poompuhar,
in Mayiladuthurai district. It is the third largest river – after Godavari and Krishna –
in southern India, and the largest in the state of Tamil Nadu, which, on its course, bisects the
state into north and south. In ancient Tamil literature, the river was also called Ponni (the
golden mother, in reference to the fine silt it deposits).

The Kaveri is a sacred river to the people of southern India and is worshipped as the Goddess
Kaveriamma (Mother Cauvery). It is considered to be among the seven holy rivers of India. It
is extensively used for agriculture in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The word Kaveri is derived
from the Sankethi word for "river", (kāveri), as this is the major river for the Sankethi

146
people who live along its waters. .Marudvṛdhā is another hypothesised name for this river,
meaning "the beloved of the Maruts". However, this is unlikely as Marudvrdhā is also
identified with a river in Punjab. In another legend, Lopamudra becomes sage Agastya's wife
and takes on a form of water during a severe drought in south India. Sage Agastya carries her
in his small brass water pot on his journey to the south. Arriving on a hill, he places the water
pot on the ground, but Ganesha, in the form of crow, knocks the water pot down. The spilled
water runs down the hill and onto the drought-stricken land.

The Cauvery nurtured a civilisation that has enriched Indian culture in polity,
architecture, religion, music and literature

The well known Tamil writer and scholar. Dr Prema Nandakumar has this to say about
the river and that flavour continues still, and may it continue, as expressed in Ilango Adigal’s
poem in the Tamil epic Silapathikaram:

“With the dark bees buzzing as the crown,

Wearing a garment of flowerjewels,
The gleaming fish as your glances,
You streamed forth ; Long may you live, O Cauvery

Sculpture of the Goddess Cauvery in the Brindaban Gardens at the Krishna Raja Sagara Hydro Power
Station./Nurturing a civilisation: A view of Trichy (Tiruchirapalli) city and the Cauvery, from the ancient
Rock Fort.

For Indians, a river is more than just the waters that flow in it. Cauvery is a goddess and this
was demonstrated on an August-day when I stood watching the river from a vantage point at
Srirangam. There was no water and yet the temple honours from Sri Ranganatha were
brought to the river. Usually the gifts from the Lord are placed in the flowing river water with
Vedic chants. Thousands converge on the banks bringing offerings and lighting lamps to set
sail on the stream.

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Manimekalai, the first epic in Tamil literature, written about 1,800 years ago, opens with a
beautiful legend. When the Chola king Kanthaman wanted to improve the water sources of
his country, he prayed to sage Agasthya. Understanding the plight of the land, Agasthya tilted
his water pot and the Cauvery streamed forth till she touched the ocean. The goddess
Jambapathi, famed for her tapasya, immediately welcomed her: “Venavaa theertha vilakke
vaa! [Quencher—light of this land’s water-thirst! Come!].”

Wherever the Cauvery has flowed, the river has been a mother to the people. In ancient times,
the Chola kings were hailed as “the lords of paddy-growing waters” and the land was referred
to as sorudaiththu, which gave food aplenty.

Chola temple Craft

The Chola administrators gave much importance to the upkeep of water sources fed by the
river. Apparently, floods in the Cauvery were a regular affair. The administrators had devised
a Kaveri karai viniyogam (Cauvery banks tax) according to the inscriptions found in the
Thiruppampuram temple renovated in the time of Kulothunga III (12th century Chola king).
This was an occasional tax collected for strengthening the banks to protect the villages.
There seems to have been such an abundant flow in the Cauvery that to guard the land as well
as increase the area under irrigation, rivers like Manni, Coleroon, Katuvai and Vanni were
formed by bifurcating it. There is plentiful epigraphic evidence on these matters. Wherever
there were vast landscapes, the ancient Tamils built huge tanks that were filled by the
Cauvery. The Veeranam tank near Chidambaram, Cholavaridhi in North Arcot and
Cholagangam to the west of Gangaikonda Cholapuram are justly famous.

Building marvels in stone seems to have been in the genius of the people since Karikala
Chola built the Grand Anicut (Kallanai) with stone across the Cauvery two millennia ago. An
increasing number of devotees thronged the temples heeding the call given by the mellifluous
hymnologists of Vaishnavism and Shaivism (3rd century to 9th century AD) who refer to the
Cauvery river in ecstatic terms. Thondaradipodi Alwar of Srirangam sings of Cauvery that is
holier than the Ganges, and how in the island created by the river’s flow lies sea-hued
Ranganatha.

Holy spring: Talacauvery, which is considered to be the source of the river Cauvery, at Brahmagiri hill in Kodagu,
Karnataka |
There have been many spiritual luminaries, too, who have sanctified the Cauvery delta. It is
as though there had been a concentration of the light divine on earth in this particular area

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during the 18th and 19th centuries. Sridhara Venkatesa Ayyaval and Bodhendra who initiated
the Nama Siddhanta as a pathway for the common man to attain the divine belonged to these
spaces.

Kaveri

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Today the well is a place of pilgrimage.The Andhra Brahmin Narayana Teertha, author of the
lilting Sri Krishna Leela Tarangini, and Sadguruswamy who codified the Bhajana Paddhati
that is followed by millions all over the world, literally transformed life in the delta into a life
divine. With such a rich material and spiritual heritage, it is not surprising that this
intellectual richness is thought of as the nectar of the gods bestowed by the Cauvery. The
renowned novelist Kalki Krishnamurthy made the history and culture of Cauvery immortal in
his epic novel Ponniyin Selvan (Son of Ponni). There is a unique flavour about the river, its
environs, the culture it nurtured, immortalised by Shankar Ram in his The Children of the
Kaveri.

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The Golden River
For the sacred waters of river Kaveri1
He2 raised floodgates adorning her like drapes!

By the sound of rushing water

the paddy blooms
By the sound of the chisel
the rock blooms
By the sound of conflict
the arrow blooms
To utter the greatness of the Cholas
the very language blooms...

Ponni river has to be seen (reegaari esamaari3)

Before the sun sets (reegaari esamaari)
Where walk the dainty damsels (reegaari esamaari)
Like the tranquil breeze (reegaari esamaari)

Across the barren lands (reegaari esamaari)

Across the sandy dunes (reegaari esamaari)
Across the fallow fields (reegaari esamaari)
Across the black soil (a land that birthed valour)
Awe! Such sight to behold (Semba!4 Semba!
Why has time flown?

Oh land! while I lay on your bosom (a land imbued with green)

A sweet longing springs up! (a land drizzling with blessings)
Wouldn't my time ripen to joy? (a land yielding abundance)
Wouldn't my legs find rest? (a land with the purest heart)
Oh Semba! (a land that birthed valour)

(a land that birthed valour)

Oh Mistress Ponni! (reegaari esamaari)
"Laali lalla laali
Lalla laali lalla,"
is what they sing—Oh warrior,
Prance into the majestic land of Cholaburi
Come on swiftly, you who are good with words
Oh friend, fulfil our dreams

Ponni river has to be seen (reegaari esamaari)

Before the sun sets (a land that birthed valour)
Where walk the dainty damsels (reegaari esamaari)
Like the tranquil breeze (a land that birthed valour)

Beauty of beauties (reegaari esamaari)

Stay closer to my heart (a land that birthed valour)
Oh mischievous one (reegaari esamaari)
Stay close to me (a land that birthed valour)

Isn't she a Chola sculpture? (Semba)

Chuckling like corn grains (Semba)
Causing thundering in Eezham5 (Semba)
Am I to not fall for her? (Indeed)
I cannot... (Indeed)

Oh... Is there rest for the sea? (Semba)

Duty calls, come on up! (Semba)
Be swift like an arrow (Semba)
If the golden opportunity passes
Would it ever come again, young one?

Wet lands, dry lands

Maidens alluring than that of celestial apsaras
Wet lands, dry lands
Maidens alluring than that of celestial apsaras

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 The Chola dynasty

The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty originating from southern India. At its height, it
ruled over the Chola Empire, an expansive maritime empire. The earliest datable references
to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE during the reign of Ashoka of
the Maurya empire. The Chola empire was at its peak and achieved imperialism under
the Medieval Cholas in the mid-9th century CE. As one of the Three Crowned
Kings of Tamilakam, along with the Chera and Pandya, the dynasty continued to govern over
varying territories until the 13th century CE.

The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River. They ruled a
significantly larger area at the height of their power from the latter half of the 9th century till
the beginning of the 13th century. They unified peninsular India south of the Tungabhadra
River, and held the territory as one state for three centuries between 907 and
1215 CE.Under Rajaraja I and his successors Rajendra I, Rajadhiraja I, Rajendra
II, Virarajendra, and Kulothunga Chola I, the empire became a military, economic and
cultural powerhouse in South Asia and Southeast Asia.

There is very little written evidence for the Cholas prior to the 7th century CE. The main
sources of information about the early Cholas are ancient Tamil literature of the Sangam
period (c. 150),[a] oral traditions, religious texts, temple and copperplate inscriptions.
Later medieval Cholas also claimed a long and ancient lineage. The Cholas are mentioned
in Ashokan Edicts (inscribed 273 BCE–232 BCE) as one of the Mauryan empire's neighbors
to the South (Ashoka Major Rock Edict No.13), who, thought not subject to Ashoka, were on
friendly terms with him. There are also brief references to the Chola country and its towns,
ports and commerce in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei), and in
the slightly later work of the geographer Ptolemy. Mahavamsa, a Buddhist text written down
during the 5th century CE, recounts a number of conflicts between the inhabitants of Sri
Lanka and Cholas in the 1st century BCE.
A commonly held view is that Chola is, like Chera and Pandya, the name of the ruling
family or clan of immemorial antiquity. The annotator Parimelazhagar said: "The charity of
people with ancient lineage (such as the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras) are forever
generous in spite of their reduced means". Other names in common use for the Cholas
are Choda, Killi (கிள்ளி), Valavan (வளவன்), Sembiyan (செம்பியன்) and Cenni.
Killi perhaps comes from the Tamil kil (கிள்) meaning dig or cleave and conveys the idea of
a digger or a worker of the land. This word often forms an integral part of early Chola names
like Nedunkilli, Nalankilli and so on, but almost drops out of use in later times. Valavan is
most probably connected with "valam" (வளம்) – fertility and means owner or ruler of a
fertile country. Sembiyan is generally taken to mean a descendant of Shibi – a legendary hero
whose self-sacrifice in saving a dove from the pursuit of a falcon figures among the early
Chola legends and forms the subject matter of the Sibi Jataka among the Jataka stories
of Buddhism.[10] In Tamil lexicon Chola means Soazhi or Saei denoting a newly formed
kingdom, in the lines of Pandya or the old country.[11] Cenni in Tamil means Head.
The history of the Cholas falls into four periods: the Early Cholas of the Sangam literature,
the interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the Imperial medieval
Cholas under Vijayalaya (c. 848), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, and finally the Later
Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the 11th century.

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The earliest Chola kings for whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in the Sangam
literature. Scholars generally agree that this literature belongs to the late centuries before the
common-era and the early centuries of the common era. The internal chronology of this
literature is still far from settled, and at present a connected account of the history of the
period cannot be derived. It records the names of the kings and the princes, and of the poets
who extolled them.
The Sangam literature also records legends about mythical Chola kings. These myths speak
of the Chola king Kantaman, a supposed contemporary of the sage Agastya, whose devotion
brought the river Kaveri into existence.Two names are prominent among those Chola kings
who feature in Sangam literature: Karikala and Kocengannan.There are no sure means of
settling the order of succession, of fixing their relations with one another and with many other
princelings of around the same period. Urayur (now a part of Thiruchirapalli) was their oldest
capital. Kaveripattinam also served as an early Chola capital The Mahavamsa mentions that a
Chola prince known as Ellalan, invaded the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and conquered it
in 235 BCE with the help of a Mysore army.
Interregnum

South India in BC 300, showing the Chera, Pandya and Chola countries

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Thanjai Mamani Koil from where the city gets its name

Thanjai Mamani Koil is a set of three Hindu temples adjescent to each other and dedicated
to Vishnu located in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India. It is one of the Divya Desams, the 108
temples of Vishnu revered by the 12 poet saints called the Alvars. Unlike other Divya
Desams where a single shrine is referenced, this set of temples is referred together in all
the pasurams (sacred hymns).The temples are believed to be of significant antiquity with
contributions at different times from Medieval Cholas, the Vijayanagara Empire,
and Madurai Nayaks. The temples are enshrined within granite walls and the three complex
contains all the shrines of the temple.

Manikundra Perumal, Neelamegha Perumal temple, Veera Narasimha Perumal temple

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The temple finds its sacred origin in a legend from the Brahmanda Purana. During the Treta
Yuga, there were three demons by name Tanchakan, Tantakan, and Kacamukan who were
blessed by Shiva, became very powerful. They grew arrogant and troubled
sage Parashara who was doing penance at this place. Vishnu killed Thanjakan with his discus,
called the Sudarshana Chakra. Tancakan pleaded with Vishnu to relieve him off the curse,
and Vishnu named the place after his name, and hence it came to be named as Thanjavur.
Kachamukan was killed by Vishnu taking the form of a Yali, a mythical creature. Vishnu
took the form of Varaha the boar to kill the third demon Tantakan, who fled to Srimushnam.
The temples are located in the banks of Vennaaru River.
Neelamegha Perumal temple has a three-tiered rajagopuram and the sanctum faces east. The
presiding deity Neelamegha perumal is sported in veetrirunda posture. There is a separate
shrine of Sengamalli Thayar. The water body of the temple is called Amrutha Theertham.
The precinct around the sanctum has images of Hayagreeva, Vedanta Desikar, Alvars and
Garuda.
Thanjiyali Nagar also called Veera Narasimha Perumal has a small east facing shrine with the
main deity and his consort in the same sanctum. All of the Bhoothathalvar pasurams (poems)
of Thanjai refer to this shrine. The temple has a flat entrance tower and a single precinct.
Veera Narasimha Perumal is sculpted in a seated posture giving darshan to sage Markandeya.
The shrine over the sanctum is called Vedasundara Vimana and the water body associated
with it is called Surya Pushkarani.

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There is not much information about the transition period of around three centuries from the
end of the Sangam age (c. 300) to that in which the Pandyas and Pallavas dominated the
Tamil country. An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras invaded Tamil country, displaced the
existing kingdoms and ruled during that time. They were displaced by the Pallava dynasty
and the Pandyan dynasty in the 6th century. Little is known of the fate of the Cholas in Tamil
land during the succeeding three centuries. The Cholas disappeared from the Tamil land
almost completely in this debacle, though a branch of them can be traced towards the close of
the fifth century CE in Rayalaseema—the Telugu-Cholas, whose kingdom is mentioned by
Yuan Chwang in the seventh century CE. Due to Kalabhra invasion and growing power of
Pallavas, Cholas migrated from their native land Uraiyur to Telugu country and ruled from
there as chieftains of Pallavas at least since 540 CE. Several Telugu Chola families like
Renati Cholas, Pottapi Cholas, Nellore Cholas, Velanati Cholas, Nannuru Cholas, Kondidela
Cholas existed and claimed descent from ancient Tamil king Karikala Chola. The Cholas had
to wait for another three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya Chola belonging to
Pottapi Chola family in the second quarter of the ninth century to re-establish their dynasty as
independent rulers by overthrowing Pallavas and Pandyas. As per inscriptions found in and
around Thanjavur, Thanjavur kingdom was ruled by Mutharaiyars / Muthurajas for three
centuries. Their reign was ended by Vijayalaya chola who captured Thanjavur from Ilango
Mutharaiyar between 848 and 851 CE.

The Builders of Temples

The Chola Empire was founded in 848 CE by Vijayalaya, the successor of Pottapi
Chola king Srikantha Chola.

Detail of the statue of Rajaraja I at Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur./ Gopuram Corner

View of Thanjavur Brihadisvara Temple.The sikhara of Brihadisvara Temple, a cupolic dome
(25 tons), is octagonal and rests on a single block of granite, weighing 80 tons.
The Chola dynasty was at the peak of its influence and power during the 11th Century
Through their leadership and vision, Chola kings expanded their territory and influence. The
second Chola King, Aditya I, defeated the Pallava dynasty Pandyan dynasty Parantaka I also
defeated the Rashtrakuta dynasty in the battle of Vallala.
Rajaraja I and Rajendra I would expand the dynasty to its imperial state, creating an
influential empire in the Bay of Bengal. The Brihadeeswarar Temple was also built in this
era.

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Rajendra I conquered Odisha and Pala dynasty of Bengal and reached the Ganges river in
north India.
On the other hand, from 1150 CE to 1280 CE, Pandya became the staunchest opponents of
the Cholas and tried to win independence for their traditional territories. Thus, this period saw
constant warfare between the Cholas and the Pandyas. Besides, Cholas regularly fought with
the Eastern Gangas of Kalinga. Moreover, under Chola's protection, Vengi remained largely
independent. Cholas also dominated the entire eastern coast with their feudatories, the Telugu
Cholas of Velanati, Nellore etc. These feudatories always aided the Cholas in their successful
campaigns against the Chalukyas and levying tribute on the Kannada kingdoms. Furthermore,
Cholas fought constantly with the Sinhala kings from the Rohana kingdom of Sri Lanka, who
repeatedly attempted to overthrow the Chola occupation of Rajarata and unify the island. But
until the later Chola king Kulottunga I, the Cholas had firm control over the area. In one such
instance, the Chola king, Rajadhiraja Chola II, was able to defeat the Sinhalese, aided by their
traditional ally, a confederation of five Pandya princes, and kept the control of Rajarata under
Chola rule. His successor, the last great Chola monarch Kulottunga Chola III reinforced the
hold of the Chola territories by quelling further rebellions and disturbances in the Rajarata
area of Sri Lanka and Madurai. He also defeated Hoysala generals fought under Veera
Ballala II at Karuvur. Furthermore, he also continued holding on to traditional territories in
Tamil country, Eastern Gangavadi, Draksharama, Vengi, and Kalinga. However, after
defeating Veera Ballala II, Kulottunga Chola III entered into a marital alliance with him
through Ballala's marriage to a Chola princess, which improved the Kulottunga Chola III
relationship with Hoysalas.

Later Chola Kingdom under Kulothunga Chola I (1070–1120 C.E)

Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukyas began during the reign of
Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Rajaraja Chola's daughter married Chalukya prince
Vimaladitya and Rajendra Chola's daughter Ammanga Devi was married to the Eastern
Chalukya prince Rajaraja Narendra. Virarajendra Chola's son, Athirajendra Chola, was
assassinated in a civil disturbance in 1070, and Kulothunga Chola I, the son of Ammanga
Devi and Rajaraja Narendra, ascended the Chola throne. Thus began the Later Chola dynasty.
The Later Chola dynasty was led by capable rulers such as Kulothunga Chola I, his
son Vikrama Chola, other successors like Rajaraja Chola II, Rajadhiraja Chola II, and
Kulothunga Chola III, who conquered Kalinga, Ilam, and Kataha. However, the rule of the

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later Cholas between 1218, starting with Rajaraja Chola II, to the last emperor Rajendra
Chola III was not as strong as those of the emperors between 850 and 1215. Around 1118,
they lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya and Gangavadi
(southern Mysore districts) to the Hoysala Empire. However, these were only temporary
setbacks, because immediately following the accession of king Vikrama Chola, the son and
successor of Kulothunga Chola I, the Cholas lost no time in recovering the province of Vengi
by defeating Chalukya Someshvara III and also recovering Gangavadi from the Hoysalas.
The Chola empire, though not as strong as between 850 and 1150, was still largely
territorially intact under Rajaraja Chola II (1146–1175) a fact attested by the construction and
completion of the third grand Chola architectural marvel, the chariot-shaped Airavatesvara
Temple at Dharasuram on the outskirts of modern Kumbakonam. Chola administration and
territorial integrity until the rule of Kulothunga Chola III was stable and very prosperous up
to 1215, but during his rule itself, the decline of the Chola power started following his defeat
by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–16. Subsequently, the Cholas also lost control
of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power.
In continuation of the decline, also marked by the resurgence of the Pandyan dynasty as the
most powerful rulers in South India, a lack of a controlling central administration in its
erstwhile-Pandyan territories prompted a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a
civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. Details of the
Pandyan civil war and the role played by the Cholas and Sinhalas, are present in
the Mahavamsa as well as the Pallavarayanpettai Inscriptions.
Kaveripoompattinam on the coast near the Kaveri delta was a major port town. Ptolemy knew
of this, which he called Khaberis, and the other port town of Nagappattinam as the most
important centres of Cholas. These two towns became hubs of trade and commerce and
attracted many religious faiths, including Buddhism. Roman ships found their way into these
ports. Roman coins dating from the early centuries of the common era have been found near
the Kaveri delta. The other major towns were Thanjavur, Uraiyur and Kudanthai, now known
as Kumbakonam. After Rajendra Chola moved his capital to Gangaikonda Cholapuram,
Thanjavur lost its importance.

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 Ponni is the Tamil name for the river Kaveri, and while Selvan means son, it can also connote
wealth or a wealthy man. So, Ponniyin Selvan could mean the son of the Kaveri, or Kaveri's
son whose wealth derives from the Kaveri.

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Detail of the main vimanam (tower) of the Thanjavur Temple.

Under the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence
in art, religion, music and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the
culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas.
[74]
Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone
and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.
The Chola conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and Srivijaya, and their continued commercial
contacts with the Chinese Empire, enabled them to influence the local cultures. Examples of
the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy
of the Cholas. For example, the great temple complex at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibit a

164
number of similarities with the South Indian architecture. According to the Malay
chronicle Sejarah Melayu, the rulers of the Malacca sultanate claimed to be descendants of
the kings of the Chola Empire. Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia today as many princes
there have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such being Raja Chulan, the Raja
of Perak. In a version of the story, of the other famous temple King Rajaraja is said to have
experienced a dream from lord Shiva telling Rajaraja that the hymns in Thillai Nataraja
Temple, Chidambaram are in a state of destruction and to recover the remaining hymns from
the chambers.
Thillai Nataraja Temple, also referred as the Chidambaram Nataraja Temple, is a Hindu
temple dedicated to Nataraja, the form of Shiva as the lord of dance. The present temple was
built in the 10th century when Chidambaram was the capital of the Chola dynasty. After its
10th-century consecration by the Cholas who considered Nataraja as their family deity. The
temple is one of the five elemental lingas in the Shaivism pilgrimage tradition, and
considered the subtlest of all Shiva temples (Kovil) in Hinduism. It is also a site for
performance arts, including the annual Natyanjali dance festival on Maha Shivaratri. The
Chidambaram temple legend is contained in the 12th-century text Chidambara-mahatmya.
The central episode states that Shiva visits sages in the mythical forest in the form of a dancer
mendicant (Bhikshatana) accompanied by Mohini, Vishnu in his avatar as a beautiful woman.
The site became the capital of Cholas in the 10th century, and they renamed it to
Chidambaram and built the current temple for their family deity of Nataraja Shiva. The
word Chidambaram comes from the Tamil word Chitrambalam (also spelled Chithambalam)
meaning "wisdom atmosphere". The roots are citt or chitthu means "consciousness or
wisdom", while ampalam means "atmosphere. This composite word comes from its
association with Shiva Nataraja, the cosmic dancer and the cultural atmosphere for arts.

Sivaganga pool and gopuram, ca. 1800-1850.

Nataraja – Shiva as the cosmic dancer, inspired the 10th-century Chola kings to rebuild the
Chidambaram temple with stone and gold. A silver Nataraja, not Shivalinga, is the principal
icon in this temple.
The earliest historically verifiable Shiva temple at Chidambaram is traceable in inscriptions
that date to the rule of Aditya Chola I in the early 10th century.Raja Raja Chola I (985–1013
CE) embarked on a mission to recover the hymns of the 63 Nayanmars after hearing short
excerpts of the Tevaram in his court. The temple, according to inscriptions found in South
India and Southeast Asia, was also historic recipient of a precious jewel from the king of

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Angkor who built the Angkor Wat through Chola king Kulothunga, who submitted it to the
temple in 1114 CE. Kulothunga I and his son expanded the Chidambaram Nataraja temple
sixfold.
Chidambaram temple thrived during the Chola dynasty.
1. Its facilities infrastructure was expanded. Naralokaviran, the general of
king Kulothunga Chola I was responsible for building the steps that lead to Sivaganga
water pool, a goddess shrine, a shrine for child saint Thirugnana Sambanthar, temple
gardens and a pilgrim road network in and around Chidambaram.
2. He constructed a hall for recitation of Tevaram hymns and engraved the hymns in
copper plates.
3. The thousand pillar choultry, with friezes narrating Hindu texts, was built in the late
12th century.
4. Between the second half of the 12th century and the early 13th century, the Chola
kings added colorful and high gopura stone gateways as easily identifiable landmarks,
starting with the western gopura.
5. Thereafter, about mid 13th century, the Pandya dynasty ended the Chola dynasty.
6. The Hindu Pandyas were liberal supporters of Chidambaram temple, along with other
Shiva and Vishnu temples, just like the Chola. Sundara Pandya added the huge
eastern gopura at Chidambaram, beginning the colossal gateway tradition.
7. Most of the structure and plans currently seen in the Chidambaram complex,
including the mandapas with their pillar carvings, the various shrines with polished
granite sculptures, the sacred water pool and the early gopurams are from the 12th and
13th century, attributed to the late Chola and early Pandya kings.

1. HTTPS://WWW.ACADEMIA.EDU/
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READ THE Above titles by the
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166
 II
Significance of Chola Architecture

World Heritage ConventionGreat Living Chola Temples(UNESCO)

The Great Living Chola Temples were built by kings of the Chola Empire, which stretched
over all of south India and the neighbouring islands. The site includes three great 11th- and
12th-century Temples: the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, the Brihadisvara Temple at
Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram. The Temple of
Gangaikondacholisvaram, built by Rajendra I, was completed in 1035. Its 53-
m vimana (sanctum tower) has recessed corners and a graceful upward curving movement,
contrasting with the straight and severe tower at Thanjavur. The Airavatesvara temple
complex, built by Rajaraja II, at Darasuram features a 24-m vimana and a stone image of
Shiva. The temples testify to the brilliant achievements of the Chola in architecture,
sculpture, painting and bronze casting.

Outstanding Universal Value

Brief synthesis

The great Cholas established a powerful monarchy in the 9th CE at Thanjavur and in its
surroundings. They enjoyed a long, eventful rule lasting for four and a half centuries with
great achievements in all fields of royal endeavour such as military conquest, efficient
administration, cultural assimilation and promotion of art. All three temples, the Brihadisvara
at Thanjavur, the Brihadisvara at Gangaikondacholapuram and Airavatesvara at Darasuram,
are living temples. The tradition of temple worship and rituals established and practised over
a thousand years ago, based on still older Agamic texts, continues daily, weekly and annually,
as an inseparable part of life of the people.

These three temple complexes therefore form a unique group, demonstrating a progressive
development of high Chola architecture and art at its best and at the same time encapsulating
a very distinctive period of Chola history and Tamil culture.

The Brihadisvara temple at Tanjavur marks the greatest achievement of the Chola architects.
Known in the inscriptions as Dakshina Meru, the construction of this temple was inaugurated

167
by the Chola King, Rajaraja I (985-1012 CE) possibly in the 19th regal year (1003-1004 CE)
and consecrated by his own hands in the 25th regal year (1009-1010 CE). A massive
colonnaded prakara with sub-shrines dedicated to the ashatadikpalas and a main entrance
with gopura (known as Rajarajantiruvasal) encompasses the massive temple. The sanctum
itself occupies the centre of the rear half of the rectangular court. The vimana soars to a
height of 59.82meters over the ground. This grand elevation is punctuated by a
high upapitha, adhisthana with bold mouldings; the ground tier (prastara) is divided into two
levels, carrying images of Siva. Over this rises the 13 talas and is surmounted by an
octagonal sikhara. There is a circumambulatory path all around the sanctum housing a
massive linga. The temple walls are embellished with expansive and exquisite mural
paintings. Eighty-one of the one hundred and eight karanas, posed in Baharatanatya,are
carved on the walls of second bhumi around the garbhagriha. There is a shrine dedicated to
Amman dating to c.13th century.

Outside the temple enclosure are the fort walls of the Sivaganga Little Fort surrounded by a
moat, and the Sivaganga Tank, constructed by the Nayaks of Tanjore of the 16th century who
succeeded the imperial Cholas. The fort walls enclose and protect the temple complex within
and form part of the protected area by the Archaeological Survey of India.

The Brihadisvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram in the Perambalur district was built

for Siva by Rajendra I (1012-1044 CE). The temple has sculptures of exceptional quality. The
bronzes of Bhogasakti and Subrahmanya are masterpieces of Chola metal icons.
The Saurapitha (Solar altar), the lotus altar with eight deities, is considered auspicious.

The Airavatesvara temple at Tanjavur was built by the Chola king Rajaraja II (1143-1173
CE.): it is much smaller in size as compared to the Brihadisvara temple at Tanjavur and
Gangaikondacholapuram. It differs from themin itshighly ornate execution. The temple
consists of a sanctum without a circumambulatory path and axial mandapas. The front
mandapa known in the inscriptions as Rajagambhiran tirumandapam, is unique as it was
conceptualized as a chariot with wheels. The pillars of this mandapa are highly ornate. The
elevation of all the units is elegant with sculptures dominating the architecture. A number of
sculptures from this temple are the masterpieces of Chola art. The labelled miniature friezes
extolling the events that happened to the 63 nayanmars (Saiva saints) are noteworthy and
reflect the deep roots of Saivism in this region. The construction of a separate temple for
Devi, slightly later than the main temple, indicates the emergence of the Amman shrine as an
essential component of the South Indian temple complex.

Criterion (i): The three Chola temples of Southern India represent an outstanding creative
achievement in the architectural conception of the pure form of the dravida type of temple.

Criterion (ii): The Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur became the first great example of the
Chola temples, followed by a development of which the other two properties also bear
witness.

Criterion (iii): The three Great Chola Temples are an exceptional and the most outstanding
testimony to the development of the architecture of the Chola Empire and the Tamil
civilisation in Southern India.

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Criterion (iv): The Great Chola temples at Thanjavur, at Gangaikondacholapuram and
Darasuram are outstanding examples of the architecture and the representation of the Chola
ideology.

Integrity

These temples represent the development of Dravida architecture from Chola period to
Maratha Period. All three monuments have been in a good state of preservation from the date
of the inscription of the property and no major threats affect the World Heritage monuments.
These monuments are being maintained and monitored by the Archaeological Survey of
India. The tradition of temple worship and rituals established and practiced over a thousand
years ago, based on still older Agamic texts, continues daily, weekly and annually, as an
inseparable part of life of the people.

Authenticity

The three properties are considered to pass the test of authenticity in relation to their
conception, material and execution. The temples are still being used, and they have great
archaeological and historical value. The temple complexes used to be part of major royal
towns, but have remained as the outstanding features in today’s mainly rural context. The
components of the temple complex of the Brihadisvara at Thanjavur, declared a World
Heritage property in 1987, includes six sub-shrines which have been added within the temple
courtyard over a period of time. The later additions and interventions reinforce the original
concept embodied in the main temple complex, in keeping with homogeneity and its overall
integrity. The traditional use of the temple for worship and ritual contribute to the
authenticity. However the periodic report of 2003 noted a number of conservation
interventions that have the potential to impact on authenticity e.g chemical cleaning of the
structures and the total replacement of the temple floor; highlighting the need for a
Conservation Management Plan to guide the conservation of the property so as to ensure that
authenticity is maintained.

Similarly at the Brihadisvara complex at Gangaikondacholapuram, the sub-shrines of

Chandesa and Amman were originally built according to the plan of Rajendra I, as well as
the Simhakeni (the lion-well).Over time The sub-shrines of Thenkailasha, Ganesha and Durga
were added. The authenticity of these additions is supported by the Agamictexts concerning
renewal and reconstructions of temples in use.

At Darasuram, archaeological evidence since gazettal enhances the authenticity of the

property. The Airavatesvara temple complex itself has been entirely built at the same time
with no later additional structures, and remains in its original form. The Deivanayaki Amman
shrine built a little later also, stands in its original form within its own enclosure.

Protection and management requirements

The three cultural properties, namely, the Brihadisvara Temple complex at Thanjavur, the
Brihadisvara temple complex at Gangaikondacholapuram and the Airavatesvara temple
complex at Darasuram have been under the protection of the Archaeological Survey of India
from the years 1922, 1946 and 1954 respectively. Further, all of them were brought under the
Tamil Nadu Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Act from the year 1959, at the time
of its enactment. The management of these cultural properties can, therefore, be divided into

169
two distinct parts: (1) The conservation, upkeep and maintenance of the properties, covering
physical structure, architectural and site features, environment and surroundings, painting,
sculpture, and other relics; and, (2) Temple administration covering staffing structure and
hierarchy, accounting and bookkeeping, records and rules.

The management authority in relation to (1) is solely vested with the Archaeological Survey
of India while the aspects covered in (2) are entirely looked after by the Department of Hindu
Religious and Charitable Endowments of the Government of Tamil Nadu. Therefore, it is
evident that the property management is, in effect, jointly carried out by these two agencies,
one a Central agency, the other belonging to the State.

The practice has been for the two agencies to prepare their own management plans
independently, and review them from time to time. When necessary, joint discussions are
held and any apparent contradiction or points of conflict are given due consideration and
sorted out. In the case of the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur and the Airavatesvara temple
at Darasuram, the agencies consult the Hereditary Trustee of the Palace Devasthanam when
necessary to finalise any issue which requires the Trustee’s input.

However, since the nomination of the extended property , the Archaeological Survey of India
the Department of Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments, Government of Tamil Nadu,
have, in principle, agreed to draft a joint property management plan encompassing the
specific requirements of both while meeting the fundamental objectives of protecting and
promoting (1) the three cultural properties while enhancing their Outstanding Universal
Value; (2) the Vedic and Agamic traditions and their significance in the life of the people; (3)
the arts (sculpture, painting, bronze casting, dance, music and literature) inseparable
components of traditional culture; and (4) the ancient science of vastu and silpa shastras, the
fundamental guidelines to the construction of temples and religious structures, and to
sculpture and painting.

Since the inscription of property as World Heritage property, the monuments have been
maintained in a good state of preservation and no major threats affect the monuments.
Periodic maintenance and monitoring of the monuments by Archaeological Survey of India
keeps the monuments to the expectation of tourists. However a Tourism Management and
Interpretation Plan and a Conservation Management Plan are required to guide future work
and determine priorities for conservation and interpretation effort. Basic amenities like water,
toilets, etc. have been provided attracting more tourists to the place. Improving landscaping
and tourist amenities are some of the long term plans. The temples have been centres of
worship for the last 800-1000 years and continue to serve in this way. Monitoring of visitor
numbers and impacts is necessary to ensure that they do not threaten the Outstanding
Universal Value.

From-The "Brihadisvara Temple, Tanjavur", which was previously inscribed on the World
Heritage List, is part of the "Great Living Chola Temples".© UNESCO World Heritage Centre
1992-2024

Dravidian Architecture : Pallavas and Cholas

Chola temples had a beautiful shikara stone at the top. It had elaborate and carefully made
carvings. It is a marvel how these structures weighing in tonnes is placed without the help of
cranes. During their reign, Cholas made temples in Nagaeshwvara, Brihadeshwvara,

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Airavateshwara and Chidambaram. Other kingdoms in South India and Sri Lanka followed
their style.

Ever since the temple building process began, the architecture reflected a synthesis of arts,
the ideals of dharma, beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. Nagara,
Dravida, Vesara etc are different styles of temple architecture. Pallavas (7th century – 9th
century) and Cholas (9th century -11th century) were the major kingdoms which epitomized
the Dravidian Architecture. Chalukyas (7th century -11th century) followed Vesara style of
architecture in the Karnataka region. Their style is also known as Karnata Dravida
style. Chalukya art was followed by Hoysala art (13th century).

Pallavas used bricks, lion motifs, dwarfed gopurams etc. Things changed at the hands of
Cholas. They used stones instead of bricks. Walls were decorated with sculptures and
paintings of deities, kings and queens (not lion motifs). Temples have enclosed decorative
walls and entrance (Gopuram). They also have an audience hall known as Mandap. The deity
room is known as Garbhgriha. The pyramid like storey above the deity room is known as
Vimana.

Chola Temple Architecture in detail

The Dravidian temple architecture started by the Pallavas got matured at the hand of the
Cholas. Some prominent features of temple architecture in the Chola dynasty are enunciated
here.

1. Niche- These are characteristic architectural designs of Chola temples carved in

temple walls.

2. Devakusthas- These are decorative niches of chola temple walls where deities are
sculpted.

3. Pilasters- These magnificent architectural designs are carved as projection in walls

with placing of deities within it. The pilasters are positioned in both sides of the main
devakusthas.

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 4. Kumbhapapanjara and kushtapan- These are narrow niches in chola temple walls with
special design for placing sculpted images.

5. Kudus- These are two lion heads which crowns the curved roof of the pilasters.

6. Mythical motif- Makar along with warrior heads positions below all the decorative
devices.

7. Torus- It is a rounded structure placed on the basement of temple sculpture or motiff

sometimes decorated with ribs.

8. Yazhi- The base of the walls of chola temples are decorated with lines of mythical
animals called yazhi.

9. Mandapa features- Arthamandapa, nandi mandapa with special decoration are

characteristics of Chola temple architecture.

10. Parivardevatas- Besides the main shrine, Chola temples were evidences of subsidiary
shrines for other deities called parivardevatas which were highly decorative.

11. Dikapalas- These are some prominent directions transparent in Chola temple with
architectural design for placing of deities.

12. Inscription- The walls of Chola temples are seen with inscriptions with architectural
design.

Comparison between Pallava and Chola Architecture

 Yali – Pallava used yali or lion motif at the base of the pillar
Chola abandoned it and used yazhi at base or kudus in other parts of the pillar.
 Dwarapala – In pallava architecture dvarapalas are comparatively benign.
In chola architecture dwarapala became fierce with protruding tusk.
 Gopuram – The gopurams in pallava dynasties were comparatively dwarfed.
But in chola dynasty they became enlarged with high enclosure walls.
 Finial – The finial in Pallava dynasy was a little swelling in the top of the vimana.
But in Chola dynasty it became beautiful vase with artistic design.

Pallava art and architecture represent an early stage of Dravidian art

and architecture which blossomed to its fullest extent under the Chola Dynasty. The first
stone and mortar temples of South India were constructed during Pallava rule and were based
on earlier brick and timber prototypes. Starting with rock cut temples, built between 695AD
and 722AD, and archaeological excavations dated to the 6th century and earlier. Pallava
sculptors later graduated to free-standing structural shrines which inspired Chola dynasty's
temples of a later age. Some of the best examples of Pallava art and architecture are

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the Kailasanathar Temple at Kanchipuram, the Shore Temple and the Pancha
Rathas of Mahabalipuram. Akshara was the greatest sculptor of their time.
Pallava architecture was sub-divided into two phases
1. rock cut phase
2. structural phase.
JAIN religious rock cut phase lasted from the 610 AD to 668 AD and consisted of two
groups of monuments, the Mahendra group and the Mamalla group. The Mahendra group is
the name given to monuments constructed during the reign of Mahendravarman I (610 AD-
630 AD). The monuments of this group are invariably pillared halls hewn out of mountain
faces. These pillared halls or mandapas follow the prototype of Jain temples of the period.
The best examples of Mahendra group of monuments are the cave temples at
Mandagapattu, Pallavaram and Mamandur.
The second group of rock cut monuments belong to the Mamalla group in 630 to 668 AD.
During this period free-standing monolithic shrines called rathas (chariots) were constructed
alongside pillared halls. Some of the best examples of this style are the Pancha Rathas
and Arjuna's Penance at Mahabalipuram.

Pallava Pillar Mandagappattu, 7th century

The second phase of Pallava architecture is the structural phase when free-standing
shrines were constructed with stone and mortar brought in for the purpose. Monuments of
this phase are of two groups - the Rajasimha group (690 to 800 AD) and the Nandivarman
group (800 to 900 AD). The Rajasimha group encompasses the early structural temples of the
Pallavas when a lot of experimentation was carried out. The best examples of this period are
the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram and the Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple at Kanchipuram
both constructed by Narasimhavarman II who was known as Rajasimha. The best example of
the Nandivarman group of monuments is the Vaikunta Perumal Temple at Kanchipuram.
During this period, Pallava architecture attained full maturity and provided the models upon
which the massive Brihadeeswarar Temple of the Cholas at Thanjavur and Gangaikonda
Cholapuram and various other architectural works of note were constructed.

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 III
Fall Of The Srivijay at the hands of the Cholas’
Empire
The Malay kingdom of Srivijaya-Palembang

Overview
 As diverse peoples exchange goods, they also exchange political and cultural practices and
beliefs.
 A perfect example of this exchange is the Srivijaya Empire, which controlled modern-day
Indonesia and much of the Malay Archipelago from the seventh to twelfth centuries.
 The Srivijaya Empire traded extensively with India and China, incorporating Buddhist and
Chinese political practices into their traditions.
 When the Chola Empire from South India raided and took indirect control of the Strait of
Malacca in the thirteenth century, the Srivijaya Empire lost influence.

The Srivijaya Empire

Map of Srivijaya Empire.

Interactions among different peoples along trade routes led to syncretism, or blending, of
religious and political ideas. The Srivijaya Empire, which controlled much of the Malay

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Archipelago in the Indian Ocean from the seventh to twelfth centuries, is a perfect example of
this cultural blending. The Malay Archipelago is a group of islands between Indochina and
Australia and includes modern-day Indonesia, East Malaysia, and the Philippines.
What might this empire have looked like? Unfortunately, historians have only recovered
Srivijaya writings from a small window of time—the seventh century—written in Old Malay.
However, artifacts of the empire include Buddhist sculptures and the remains of stupas, or
Buddhist shrines, giving us a window into the role religion played in the region. We also have
access to texts written about the empire by Chinese and Indian traders, so we have a view of
what this empire was like through the lens of people interacting with the empire.

Trade
The Srivijaya Empire controlled two major passageways between India and China: the Sunda
Straits from the city of Palembang and the Strait of Malacca—see the Sunda Strait, in the
south, and the Strait of Malacca, to the north, on the map above. This control strengthened
trade routes to China, India, and even Arabia. Some of the goods the people in the empire
traded included ivory, tin, nutmeg, sandalwood, and strong-smelling camphor and aloes that
were used for medicinal purposes. The empire had access to the trade network of spices from
India and goods like silk and porcelain from China.
Even though we don’t have much political evidence about the scope of the Srivijaya Empire,
records of trade between the Srivijayans and the Chinese make it clear that Srivijaya was a
key economic actor. Chinese records show evidence of Srivijayan trade expeditions to the
Song dynasty as well as China’s acceptance of the Srivijaya Empire as a vassal. Vassal states
are subordinate to another nation. As a vassal to China, Srivijaya acted as a mediator between
China and other smaller states on the Malay Archipelago. China considered it a great honor to
bestow vassal status on another empire, so we know that the economic relationship between
the two regions was strong.

Buddhism in the Srivijaya Empire and beyond

Palembang, a major city of the Srivijaya Empire, became a well-known stop for Chinese
Buddhist pilgrims on their way to India, the birthplace of Buddhism. More than one thousand
Buddhist monks lived in the city, and Buddhist travelers were welcomed there to study
Buddhist texts.
A particularly popular form of Buddhism in the Srivijaya Empire was Vajrayana Buddhism,
a mystical form of the religion that involved the cultivation of magical or supernatural powers
through yantras, or special symbols. The Srivijaya Empire became a center for this form of
Buddhism. One reason the version of Vajrayana Buddhism that developed in the Srivijaya
Empire was so successful was that Srivijayan leaders combined Buddhist thought with
indigenous beliefs about magic—another example of cultural syncretism. Vajrayana
Buddhism originated in India but became popular in the Srivijaya empire during the same
time period, indicating that trade connections between the two regions in the seventh century
may have influenced each other’s religions.
The influence of Buddhism also affected political structures in the Srivijaya Empire.
Srivijayan rulers incorporated Buddhist philosophy into their public image. For example, an
inscription detailing a speech from a park dedication in 684 CE depicts a Srivijayan king, Sri
Jayanasa, as a bodhisattva, or someone who has already achieved buddhahood. By praying
aloud during his speech that the park would provide a benefit to all living things, Sri Jayanasa
showed that he was attempting to position himself as a religious authority as well as a
political one. This dedication is the first time on record that a Srivijayan ruler also claimed
the role of a religious figure. The fact that the king felt associating himself with Buddhism

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would help his image indicated the importance of Buddhism in the Srivijaya Empire during
the seventh century.

Srivijayan bronze torso statue of Boddhisattva Padmapani (Avalokiteshvara), eighth century

CE (Chaiya, Surat Thani, Southern Thailand). The statue demonstrates the Central Java art
influence. In 1905 Prince Damrong Rajanubhab removed the statue from Wat Wiang, Chaiya,
Surat Thani to Bangkok National Museum, Thailand.
Srivijayan bronze torso statue of Boddhisattva Padmapani (Avalokiteshvara), eighth century
CE (Chaiya, Surat Thani, Southern Thailand). The statue demonstrates the Central Java art
influence. In 1905 Prince Damrong Rajanubhab removed the statue from Wat Wiang, Chaiya,
Surat Thani to Bangkok National Museum, Thailand. Image Credit: Wikimedia
Malay language
Old Malay was the language of business and trade in the Srivijaya Empire. To successfully
navigate the ports and marketplaces throughout the Malay Archipelago, a person had to be
able to speak Old Malay. Establishing a standard means of communication made business
transactions more efficient.
Old Malay is an Indonesian language from the Austronesian family. Written inscriptions
show that Old Malay contains loanwords from Sanskrit, an Indo-Aryan language used
throughout South Asia. Persian and Arabic influences found in Old Malay suggest that the
language adapted due to the influence of people the Srivijayans traded with.
Decline of Srivijaya and new cultural interactions
Srijivayan power began to decrease after the Chola, a southern Indian dynasty, attacked the
Srivijaya Empire in 1025 CE, gaining dominance in the waters around Southeast Asia.
Already weakened, Srivijaya lost most of its remaining power in 1288 when the Singosari
Empire from East Java incorporated them into their empire.
Despite the Srivijaya Empire’s decline, the trade routes Srivijayans helped establish
continued to be widely used. For example, from 1405 to 1433, a Chinese Muslim diplomat
under the Ming Dynasty named Zheng He undertook several voyages to the Malay
Archipelago and on to East Africa and Arabia. Zheng He’s ability to travel these distances
indicates that the Srivijaya trade routes through the Malay Archipelago remained crucial to
travel and exchange after the Srivijayan Empire ceased to exist.

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Map of trade routes and extent

The kingdom of Srivijaya is first mentioned in the writings of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim I-
ching, who visited it in 671 after a voyage of less than 20 days from Canton. He was on the
first stage of his journey to the great teaching centre of Nalanda in northeastern India. The
ruler of Srivijaya assisted I-ching on his journey.

Archaeological surveys undertaken since the late 20th century immediately to the west of
Palembang city have revealed such a quantity of materials as to make it practically certain
that this was Srivijaya’s heartland in the 7th and subsequent three centuries. Surface remains
of more than a thousand shards of Chinese ceramics, many of which are datable from the 8th
to the 10th century, have been recovered from several sites. Shards from the 11th to the 14th
century found elsewhere in the area may represent shifts of political and commercial activity
in the Palembang region. Shards found on nearby Seguntang Hill (Bukit Seguntang), on the
other hand, span all these centuries. A piece of Romano-Indian rouletted ware, attributable to
the early centuries CE, has been discovered in Palembang near the river; the same ware has
been found in Java near Jakarta. Moreover, the sheer bulk of Buddhist, Hindu, and other
statuary that has been recovered from the Musi River region has suggested that
the basin contained the site of a polity near the sea that enjoyed considerable international
contacts. Finally, stupa remains have been unearthed at the foot of Seguntang Hill. These
discoveries reinforce the textual evidence that Palembang was indeed the centre of the
Srivijaya empire.

Buddhism in Palembang

Srivijaya-Palembang’s importance both as a trade nexus and as a Southeast Asian centre for
the practice of Buddhism has been established by Arab and Chinese historical sources
spanning a long period of time. Its own records, in the form of inscriptions in
Old Malay (Malay language written in an Indian-based script), are limited almost entirely to
the second half of the 7th century. The inscriptions reveal that the ruler was served by
a hierarchy of officials and that he possessed wealth. The period when the inscriptions were
written was an agitated one. Battles are mentioned, and the ruler had to reckon with

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disaffection and intrigue at his capital. Indeed, the main theme of the inscriptions is a curse
on those who broke a loyalty oath administered by drinking holy water. The penalty for
disloyalty was death, but those who obeyed the ruler were promised eternal bliss.

I-ching recommended Palembang, with more than a thousand monks, as an excellent centre at
which to begin studying Buddhist texts. The 7th-century inscriptions, however, are concerned
with less-scholarly features of Buddhism. Showing influences of Vajrayana, or Tantric
Buddhism, they deal largely with yantras, symbols to aid magical power that were distributed
by the ruler as favours to faithful servants. (Some of the ruler’s adversaries also dispensed
yantras, however.) The Talang Tuwo inscription of 684, which records the king’s prayer that
a park he has endowed may give merit to all living beings, is especially indicative of the
presence of Buddhism within the context of royal power. The language and style of this
inscription, incorporating Indian Tantric conceptions, make it clear that the ruler was
presenting himself as a bodhisattva—one who was to become a buddha himself—teaching
the several stages toward supreme enlightenment. This is the first instance in the
archipelago’s history of a ruler’s assumption of the role of religious leader.

The inscriptions show that the teachings of the Tantric school of Mahayana Buddhism, with
its magical procedures for achieving supernatural ends, had reached Palembang before the
end of the 7th century. Tantric Buddhism came into prominence in India only in the 7th
century, and the synchronism of its appearance in Palembang reflects not only the regularity
of shipping contacts between Sumatra and India but, more important, the Malays’ quick
perception of Tantrism as a source of personal spiritual power. The word for “curse” in the
inscriptions is Malay, and it is reasonable to suppose that the Malays grafted Tantric
techniques onto indigenous magical procedures. The prestige that was accorded the sacred
Seguntang Hill, a site visited by those in search of spiritual power, probably also reflects the
vitality of Malay religion; it is unlikely that the site would have become such a spiritual
centre merely as a result of traffic in Tantric conceptions during the 7th century. The agitation
and adversity revealed in the inscriptions, then, are less likely to have been the growing pains
of a rising kingdom than the efforts of an already important kingdom to achieve, or perhaps
recover, hegemony in southern Sumatra.

The maritime influence

In the centuries before they undertook long voyages overseas, the Chinese relied on foreign
shipping for their imports, and foreign merchants from afar required a safe base in Indonesia
before sailing on to China. This seaborne trade, regarded in China as “tributary” trade with
the “emperors’ barbarian vassals,” had developed during the 5th and 6th centuries but
languished in the second half of the 6th century as a result of the civil war in China that
preceded the rise of the Sui and T’ang dynasties. Chinese records for the first half of the 7th
century mention several small harbour kingdoms in the region, especially in northeastern
Sumatra, that were pretending to be Chinese vassals. As illustrated by the militancy of the
ruler in the Old Malay inscriptions, however, the rulers of Palembang, hoping for a revival of
trade under the new T’ang dynasty, were eager to monopolize the China trade and eliminate
their rivals. They indeed succeeded in their aim; before I-ching left Southeast Asia in 695,
Srivijaya had gained control of the Strait of Malacca.

The subsequent power of the higher-ranking rulers—the maharajas—of Srivijaya depended

on their alliance with those who possessed warships. The fact that Arab accounts make no
mention of piracy in the islands at the southern end of the Strait of Malacca suggests that the

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seafaring inhabitants of these islands identified with the interests of the maharajas; the
islanders therefore refrained from molesting merchant ships, and they cooperated in
controlling Srivijaya’s potential competitors in northern Sumatra. The maharajas offered their
loyal subjects wealth, posts of honour, and—according to the inscriptions—supernatural
rewards. But the grouping of maritime Malays in this geographically fragmented region
survived only as long as the Palembang entrepôt was prosperous and its ruler offered enough
largesse to hold the elements together. His bounty, however, depended on the survival of the
Chinese tributary trading system, which needed a great entrepôt in western Indonesia. Early
Malay history is then, to an important extent, the history of a Sino-Malay alliance. The
maharajas benefited from the China trade, while the emperors could permit themselves the
conceit that the maharajas were reliable imperial agents.

The Palembang rulers’ exact span of territorial influence is unknown. The Bangka Strait and
the offshore islands at the southern entrance of the Strait of Malacca would have been
essential to their maritime power. According to 7th-century inscriptions, the rulers also had
influence in southern Sumatra on the Sunda Strait. Elsewhere in the hinterland, including the
Batanghari River basin, which came to be known as Malayu (along with other regions of
Sumatra’s interior), their authority would have been exercised by alliances with local chiefs
or by force, with decreasing effect the farther these areas were from Palembang.

Malay unity under the leadership of the maharajas was inevitably undermined when, as early
as the 10th century, Chinese private ships began to sail to centres of production in the
archipelago, with the result that the Chinese market no longer depended on a single
Indonesian entrepôt. Toward the end of the 11th century, Srivijaya-Palembang ceased to be
the chief estuary kingdom in Sumatra. Hegemony had passed, for unknown reasons, to the
neighbouring estuary town of Jambi, on the Batanghari River, which was probably controlled
by the Minangkabau people of the island’s west-central interior. With the decline of the
tributary trade with China, a number of harbours in the region became centres of international
trade. Malayu-Jambi never had the opportunity to build up naval resources as Srivijaya-
Palembang had done, and in the 13th century a Javanese prince took advantage of the power
vacuum.
Central Java from c. 700 to c. 1000

Eastern Javanese inscriptions throw little light on happenings before the 10th century, but the
evidence from south-central Java, especially from the Kedu Plain in the 8th and 9th centuries,
is more abundant. This period in central Java is associated with the Shailendra dynasty and its
rivals. An Old Malay inscription from north-central Java, attributed to the 7th century,
establishes that the Shailendras were of Indonesian origin and not, as was once suspected,
from mainland Southeast Asia. In the middle of the 9th century, the ruler of Srivijaya-
Palembang was a Shailendra who boasted of his Javanese ancestors; the name Shailendra also
appears on the undated face of an inscription on the isthmus of the Malay Peninsula; the other
face of the inscription—dated 775—is in honour of the ruler of Srivijaya.

In spite of ambiguous references to Shailendra connections overseas, there is no solid

evidence that the territories of the central Javanese rulers at this time extended far beyond
central Java, including its north coast. Yet the agricultural wealth of this small kingdom
sustained vast religious undertakings; the monuments of the Kedu Plain are the most famous
in Indonesia. The Borobudur temple complex, in honour of Mahayana Buddhism, contains
2,000,000 cubic feet (56,600 cubic metres) of stone and includes 27,000 square feet (2,500
square metres) of stone bas-relief. Its construction extended from the late 8th century to the

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fourth or fifth decade of the 9th. Shiva’s great temple at Prambanan, though not associated
with the Shailendra family, is less than 50 miles (80 km) away, and an inscription dating to
856 marks what may be its foundation stone. The two monuments, which have much in
common, help to explain the religious impulses in earlier Javanese history.

Borobudur is a terraced temple surmounted by stupas, or stone towers; the terraces resemble
Indonesian burial foundations, indicating that Borobudur was regarded as the symbol of the
final resting place of its founder, a Shailendra, who was united after his death with the
Buddha. The Prambanan temple complex is also associated with a dead king. The inscription
of 856 mentions a royal funeral ceremony and shows that the dead king had joined Shiva, just
as the founder of the Borobudur monument had joined the Buddha. Divine attributes,
however, had been ascribed to kings during their lifetimes. A Mahayana inscription of this
period shows that a ruler was said to have the purifying powers of a bodhisattva, the status
assumed by the ruler of Srivijaya in the 7th century; a 9th-century Shaivite inscription from
the Kedu Plain describes a ruler as being “a portion of Shiva.”

standing deity

The divine qualities of these kings, whether of Mahayana or of Shaivite persuasion, had
important implications in Javanese history and probably in the history of all parts of the
archipelago that professed the forms of Indian religion. The ruler was now and henceforth
seen as one who had achieved union with the supreme god in his lifetime. Kingship was
divine only because the king’s soul was the host of the supreme god and because all the
king’s actions were bound to be the god’s actions. He was not a god-king; he was the god. No

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godlike action was more important than extending the means of personal salvation to others,
always in the form of union with the god.

The bas-relief of the Borobudur monument, illustrating Mahayana texts and especially
the Gandavyuha—the tale of the tireless pilgrim in search of enlightenment—is a gigantic
exposition of the Mahayana path to salvation taken by the king; it may be thought of as a type
of yantra to promote meditation and ultimate union with the Buddha. But Borobudur can also
be identified as a circle, or mandala, of supreme mystical power associated with
the Vairocana Buddha (one of the self-born Dhyani-Buddhas), according to the teachings
of Vajrayana Buddhism. The mandala was intended to protect the Shailendra realm for all
time. The pedagogical symbolism of the Prambanan temple complex is revealed in its
iconography, dominated by the image of the four-armed Shiva, the Great Teacher—the
customary Indonesian representation of the supreme deity. Prambanan affirms the Shaivite
path to salvation; the path is indicated in the inscription of 856, which implies that the king
had practiced asceticism, the form of worship most acceptable to Shiva. Thus, in
Java, Shaivism as well as Mahayana Buddhism had become hospitable to Tantric influences.
An almost contemporary inscription from the Ratu Baka plateau, which is not far from the
Prambanan complex, provides further evidence of Tantrism; it alludes to special rites for
awakening Shiva’s divine energy through the medium of a ritual consort.

These royal tombs taught the means of salvation. The royal role on earth was similar. The
kings, not the religious elite, bore the responsibility of ensuring that all could worship the
gods, whether under Indian or Indonesian names. Every god in the land was either
a manifestation of Shiva or a subordinate member of Shiva’s pantheon, and worship therefore
implied homage to the king, who was part of the god. The growing together, as a result of
Tantric influences, of Shaivism and Mahayana Buddhism meant that over the centuries the
divine character of the king was continually elaborated. His responsibility was the
compassionate one of maintaining his kingdom as a holy land. The bodhisattva-king was
moved by pity, as were all bodhisattvas, while the Shiva-like king, as an inscription of the 9th
century indicates, was also honoured for his compassion. Compassion was expressed by
providing an environment wherein religion could flourish. Keeping the peace, protecting the
numerous holy sites, encouraging religious learning, and, above all, performing purification
rituals to render the land acceptable to the gods were different aspects of a single mission: the
teaching of the religious significance of life on earth. The lonely status of the ruler did not
separate him from the religious aspirations of his subjects; Prambanan provides a recognition
of the community of interest between ruler and ruled. The 856 inscription states that a tank of
purifying water, filled by a diverted river, was made available as a pilgrimage centre for
spiritual blessings. Hermitages had been built at the Prambanan complex, and the inscription
states that they were “to be beautiful in order to be imitated.”

The great monuments of the 9th century suggest something of the cultural ambience within
which events took place. One new development in central Java was that capable raka (local
rulers) were gradually able, when opportunities arose, to fragment the lands of some raka and
absorb the lands of others. At the same time, they established lines of communication
between themselves and the villages in order to guarantee revenue and preserve a balance
between their own demands and the interests of the independent and prosperous
agricultural communities. When a ruler manifested divine qualities, he would attract those
who were confident that they would earn religious merit when they supported him. Local
princes from all over the Kedu Plain constructed small shrines around the main Prambanan

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temple in a manner reminiscent of a congregation gathered around a religious leader. The
inscription of 856 states that they built “cheerfully.”
Eastern Java and the archipelago from c. 1000 to c. 1300

Documentation in the form of inscriptions and monuments ceased in central Java after the
beginning of the 10th century. For a period of more than 500 years, little is known of events
in central Java, and simultaneous developments in western Java and in the eastern hook of the
island have also remained a mystery. Evidence of the events of these years comes almost
exclusively from the Brantas River valley and the adjacent valleys of eastern Java. This
abrupt shift in the locus of documentation has never been satisfactorily explained.

Government and politics

Eastern Java did not form a natural political unit. No single town was so exceptionally
endowed in local resources as to emerge as a permanent capital; instead, the residencies of
defeated kings were simply abandoned. There remains no trace of the location of some of
these royal compounds. The problems of government in these conditions are illustrated by the
events of the 11th century.

In 1016 the city of the eastern Javanese overlord was destroyed, likely by a rebellious vassal,
in what an inscription of 1041 (called the “Calcutta” inscription) described as “the destruction
of the world.” The kingdom consequently fell apart, but it was restored by the dead king’s
son-in-law Erlangga (Airlangga), a half-Balinese prince. Erlangga lived with hermits,
probably practicing asceticism, from 1017 to 1019, the year in which he was hailed as ruler of
the small principality of Pasuruan, near the Brantas delta. He could not take the military
offensive until 1028, however, and his final success was not before 1035; he dispatched his
last opponent by provoking an uprising in the manner taught by Kautilya, the master of
Indian statecraft who recommended the use of subversion against an enemy. Erlangga’s
victories gradually vindicated his claims to divine power, and in the “Calcutta” inscription he
expressed the hope that all in the land would now be able to lead religious lives.

Erlangga then undid the results of his achievement. Foreseeing that two of his sons might
quarrel, he divided his kingdom so that one son should rule over the southern part, known as
Panjalu, Kadiri, or Daha, and the other over the northern part, Janggala. Erlangga’s sons
refused to honour their father’s intentions. Fighting broke out, and the Kadiri rulers were
unable to establish their uneasy domination over the kingdom until the early 12th century.
The consequences of Erlangga’s decision to split the kingdom are mourned in
the Nagarakertagama, a poem written in 1365 that survives in a manuscript found
in Lombok at the end of the 19th century.

The chain of command between the capital and the villages—and the number of officials
involved—had grown since the central Java period. The ideal of a greater Javanese unity,
protected by a divine king, was probably cherished most by the villagers, since they
especially would benefit from peace and safe internal communications. Inscriptions
sometimes acknowledge the king’s gratitude for villagers’ assistance in times of need. The
villages were prosperous centres of local government. As a result of increasing contacts with
the royal court, village society had now become more stratified, with elaborate signs of
status. But local lords could make difficulties for the villages by tampering with the flow of
the river or exacting heavy tolls from traders. In comparison with these local vexations, the

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royal right to the villagers’ services and part of their produce was probably not resented. No
document was more respected than the inscription that recorded a village’s privileges.

The king’s chief secular responsibility was to safeguard his subjects’ lands, including the
estates of the temples and monasteries that were so conspicuous a feature of the Javanese
landscape. When the king wanted to build a temple on wet-rice land, he was expected to buy
the land, not confiscate it. At court he was assisted by a small council of high-ranking
officials, whose services were rewarded with appanages from royal lands. Of the council
members, the king’s heir seems to have been the most important. Council officials conveyed
royal decisions to subordinates, typically by visiting village elders while making a circuit of
the country.

Royal rule was probably not harsh. The protests that have been preserved were probably
prompted by unusually weak government. A reasonable relationship between ruler and
villagers may be seen in a Balinese inscription of 1025 that records a king’s sale of his
hunting land to a village after the villagers had complained of their lack of land. Village
elders sat with the officers of royal law in order to guarantee fair trials and verdicts reflecting
the consensus of local opinion. Customary law was incorporated into the royal statutes.
Aggrieved individuals could appeal to the king for redress; groups of villages sought his
assistance for large-scale irrigation works. The villages paid taxes to the ruler, who thus
enjoyed an economic advantage over other regional lords. Everything depended on the ruler’s
energy and a general agreement that his government served the interests of all.

The Kadiri princes of the 12th century ruled over a land that was never free from rebellion. In
1222 the king Kertajaya was defeated by an adventurer, Ken Angrok. A new capital was
established, with Ken Angrok as king, at Kutaraja—later renamed Singhasari—near the
harbours of east Java.

The empire of Kertanagara

Changed economic circumstances in the archipelago had an important impact

on Java beginning in the 13th century. Long before the 12th century, Chinese shipping had
become capable of distant voyages, and Chinese merchants sailed directly to the numerous
producing centres in the archipelago. The eastern Javanese ports became more prosperous
than ever before. A smaller entrepôt trade developed on the coasts
of Sumatra and Borneo and in the offshore islands at the southern entrance to the Strait of
Malacca. Heaps of Chinese ceramics from the 12th to the 14th century attest to the existence
of an important trading centre at Kota Cina, near present-day Medan on the northeast coast of
Sumatra. As a result of these shifts in the trade pattern, the Minangkabau princes in
the hinterland of central Sumatra, heirs to the pretensions of the great overlords of Srivijaya-
Palembang, were unable to develop their port of Jambi as a rich and powerful mercantile
centre. A power vacuum thus opened in the seas of western Indonesia, and the Javanese kings
aspired to fill it.

Java had probably long been regarded as the centre of a brilliant civilization, and Old
Javanese (Kawi) became the language of the inscriptions of the island of Bali in the 11th
century. The grafting of Tantric ritual onto a megalithic shrine at Bongkisam in Sarawak (part
of Malaysian Borneo), sometime after the 9th century, is indicative of Javanese

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cultural diffusion to the maritime fringes of Indonesia. Javanese cultural influence in other
islands almost certainly preceded political domination.

Disunity in the Malay world and the cultural fame of Java are not sufficient to explain why
the Javanese king Kertanagara (reigned 1268–92) chose to impose his authority on Malayu in
southern Sumatra in 1275. It has been suggested that the king’s concern was to protect the
archipelago from the threat of the Mongol ruler Kublai Khan by organizing a religious
alliance. But Kertanagara probably imposed his political authority as well, though his
demands would have been limited to expressions of homage and tribute.

The king’s activities overseas were almost certainly intended to enhance his prestige in Java
itself, where he was never free from enemies. His political priorities are reflected in a
Sanskrit inscription of 1289, attached to an image of the king in the guise of the wrathful
Aksobhya Buddha (a self-born Dhyani-Buddha), claiming that he had restored unity to Java;
his overseas exploits are not mentioned.

The precise doctrinal contents of Kertanagara’s Tantric cult are unknown. In his lifetime and
after his death, his supporters revered him as a Shiva-Buddha. They believed that he had
tapped within himself demonic forces that enabled him to destroy the demons that sought to
divide Java. The 14th-century poet Prapancha, author of the Nagarakertagama and a
worshipper of Kertanagara, on one occasion referred to the king as the “Vairocana Buddha”
and associated him with a ritual consort who was, however, the consort of Aksobhya Buddha.
Prapancha also admired the king’s scholarly zeal and especially his assiduous performance of
religious exercises for the good of mankind.

The role of the royal ascetic had long been a familiar feature of Javanese kingship. The king
who had been buried in the 9th-century mausoleum of Prambanan was identified with Shiva,
the teacher of asceticism. Early in the 13th century King Angrok, according to a later
chronicle, regarded himself as the Bhatara Guru, the divine teacher who was equated with
Shiva. Shaivite and Mahayana priests had been under royal supervision from at least as early
as the 10th century. Consequently, the Tantric concept of a Shiva-Buddha, taught by
Kertanagara, was not regarded as extraordinary. Javanese religious speculation had come to
interpret Shaivism and the Mahayana as identical programs for personal salvation, with
complementary gods. Union with divinity, to be achieved here and now, was the goal of
all ascetics, including the king, who was regarded as the paragon of ascetic skill.

Kertanagara’s religious status, as well as his political problems and policies, were in 13th-
century Java by no means eccentric or contradictory features. Indeed, such religious and
political authority enabled Kertanagara to take advantage of circumstances stemming from
Chinese trade in the archipelago to extend his divine power beyond Java itself. By the 14th
century the homage of overseas rulers to the Javanese king was taken for granted.
The Majapahit era

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terra-cotta head of Gajah Mada

In 1289 the Javanese king Kertanagara maltreated Kublai Khan’s envoy, who had been sent
to demand the king’s submission. The Mongol emperor organized a punitive expedition in
1292, but Kertanagara was killed by a Kadiri rebel, Jayakatwang, before the invaders landed.
Jayakatwang in his turn was quickly overthrown by Kertanagara’s son-in-law, later known
as Kertarajasa, who used the Mongols to his own advantage and then forced them
to withdraw in confusion. The capital city of the kingdom was moved to Majapahit. For some
years the new ruler and his son, who regarded themselves as successors of Kertanagara, had
to suppress rebellions in Java; not until 1319 was Majapahit’s authority firmly established
in Java with the assistance of the renowned soldier Gajah Mada. Gajah Mada was the chief
officer of state during the reign of Kertanagara’s daughter Tribhuvana (c. 1328–50), and in
these years Javanese influence was restored in Bali, Sumatra, and Borneo. Kertanagara’s
great-grandson, Hayam Wuruk, became king in 1350 under the name Rajasanagara.

Hayam Wuruk’s reign (1350–89) is remembered in the archipelago as the most glorious
period in Javanese history. Prapancha’s poem the Nagarakertagama provides a rare glimpse
of the kingdom from a 14th-century point of view. The poem, originally called the Desa
warnana (“The Description of the Country”), describes itself as a “literary temple” and
endeavours to show how royal divinity permeates the world, cleansing it of impurities and
enabling all to fulfill their obligations to the gods and therefore to the holy land—the now
undivided kingdom of Java. The poem resembles an act of worship rather than a chronicle.
The poet does not conceal his intention of venerating the king, and, in the tradition of
Javanese poetry, he may have begun it under the stimulus of pious meditation intended to
bring him into contact with the divinity that was embodied in the king.

The core territories of Hayam Wuruk’s polity were probably considerably more extensive
than those of his predecessors. Important territorial rulers, bound to the royal family by
marriage, were brought under surveillance through their incorporation into the court
administration. Although a network of royal religious foundations was centred in the capital,
it remains unclear whether a more centralized and enduring structure of government was
introduced or whether the unity of the realm and the ruler’s authority still depended on the
ruler’s personal prestige. Prapancha, at least, did not ascribe to Hayam Wuruk an unrealistic
degree of authority, even though his poem is an undisguised representation of the attributes of
royal divinity and the effects of divine rule in Java. In their travels around the kingdom,
subordinate officials asserted their royal authority in such matters as taxes and the control of
religious foundations. A sign of the king’s prestige was his decision to undertake a land
survey to ensure that his subjects’ privileges were being maintained. In the absence of an
elaborate system of administration, the authority of the government was strengthened by the
ubiquity of its representatives, and no one set a more strenuous example than the king

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himself. According to Prapancha, “the prince was not for long in the royal residence,” and
much of the poem is an account of royal progresses. In this way Hayam Wuruk was able to
assert his influence in restless areas, enforce homage from territorial lords, reassure village
elders by his visits, verify land rights, collect tribute, visit holy men in the countryside for his
own spiritual enlightenment, and worship at Mahayana, Shaivite, and ancient Javanese holy
sites. His indefatigable traveling, at least in the earlier years of his reign, meant that many of
his subjects had the opportunity to come into the presence of one whom they regarded as the
receptacle of divinity.

One of the most interesting sections of the Nagarakertagama concerns the annual New
Year ceremony, when the purifying powers of the king were reinforced by the administration
of holy water. The ceremony, attended by scholarly Indian visitors, enabled the poet to assert
that the only famous countries were Java and India because both contained many religious
experts. At no time in the year was the king’s religious role more emphatically recognized
than at the New Year, when the notables of the kingdom, the envoys of vassals, and village
leaders went to Majapahit to pay homage and to be reminded of their duties. The ceremony
ended with speeches to the visitors on the need to keep the peace and maintain the rice fields.
The king explained that only when the capital was supported by the countryside was it safe
from attack by “foreign islands.”

Since the poem venerates the king, it is not surprising that more than 80 places in the
archipelago are described as vassal territories and that the mainland kingdoms, with the
exception of Vietnam, are said to be protected by the king. Prapancha, believing that the
king’s glory extended in all directions, delineated in detail what he perceived to be the limits
of relevant space. No fewer than 25 places in Sumatra are noted, and the Moluccas, whose
spices and other products were a source of royal wealth, are well represented. On the other
hand, northern Celebes (Sulawesi) and the Philippines are not mentioned.

During Hayam Wuruk’s lifetime Javanese overseas prestige was undoubtedly considerable,
though the king demanded no more than homage and tribute from his more important vassals,
such as the ruler of Malayu in Sumatra. In 1377, when a new Malayu ruler dared to seek
investiture from the founder of the Ming dynasty in China, Hayam Wuruk’s envoys
in Nanking convinced the emperor that Malayu was not an independent country. Javanese
influence in the archipelago, however, depended on the ruler’s authority in Java itself. When
Hayam Wuruk died in 1389, the Palembang ruler in southeastern Sumatra saw an opportunity
to repudiate his vassal status. He had noted the Ming dynasty’s restoration of the long-
abandoned tributary trading system and its prohibition of Chinese voyages to Southeast
Asia and supposed that foreign traders would again need the sort of entrepôt facilities in
western Indonesia that Srivijaya-Palembang had provided centuries earlier. He may even
have announced himself as a bodhisattva and heir of the maharajas of Srivijaya. The Javanese
expelled him from Palembang, and he fled to Singapore and then to Malacca on the Malay
Peninsula.

Chola invasion of Srivijaya

In 1025 CE, the Chola Emperor Rajendra I launched naval raids on Srivijaya in maritime
Southeast Asia, Rajendra's overseas expedition against Srivijaya was a unique event in India's
history and its otherwise peaceful relations with the states of Southeast Asia. Several places
in present-day Indonesia and Malay Peninsula were invaded by Rajendra I of the Chola
dynasty.[3][4] The Chola invasion furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations such

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as the Manigramam, Ayyavole and Ainnurruvar into Southeast Asia. The Cholan invasion led
to the fall of the Sailendra Dynasty of Srivijaya and the Chola invasion also coincides with
return voyage of the great Buddhist scholar Atiśa from Sumatra to India and Tibet in 1025
CE.[
Throughout most of their shared history, ancient India and Indonesia enjoyed friendly and
peaceful relations, thus making this Indian invasion a unique event in Asian history. [10] In the
9th and 10th centuries, Srivijaya maintained close relations with the Pala Empire in Bengal,
and an 860 CE Nalanda inscription records that Maharaja Balaputra of Srivijaya dedicated a
monastery at the Nalanda Mahavihara in Pala territory. The relation between Srivijaya and
the Chola dynasty of southern India was friendly during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I. In
1006 CE a Srivijayan Maharaja from Sailendra dynasty - king Maravijayattungavarman -
constructed the Chudamani Vihara in the port town of Nagapattinam.[11] owever, during the
reign of Rajendra Chola I the relations deteriorated as the Cholas attacked Srivijayan cities.
The Cholas are known to have benefitted from both piracy and foreign trade. Sometimes
Chola seafaring led to outright plunder and conquest as far as Southeast Asia. Srivijaya
controlled two major naval choke points (Malacca and the Sunda Strait) and was at that time
a major trading empire that did possess formidable naval forces. The Malacca Strait's
northwest opening was controlled from Kedah on the Malay Peninsula side and
from Pannai on the Sumatran side, while Malayu (Jambi) and Palembang controlled its
southeast opening and also Sunda Strait. They practiced naval trade monopoly that forced any
trade vessels that passed through their waters to call on their ports or otherwise be plundered.
The reasons of this naval expedition are unclear, the historian Nilakanta Sastri suggested that
the attack was probably caused by Srivijayan attempts to throw obstacles in the way of the
Chola trade with the East (especially China), or more probably, a simple desire on the part of
Rajendra to extend his digvijaya to the countries across the sea so well known to his subject
at home, and therefore add luster to his crown. Another theory suggests that the reasons for
the invasion was probably motivated by geopolitics and diplomatic relations.
King Suryavarman I of the Khmer Empire requested aid from Rajendra Chola I of the Chola
dynasty against Tambralinga kingdom. After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with
Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the Srivijaya king Sangrama
Vijayatungavarman.
The Chola invasion against Srivijaya was a swift campaign that left Srivijaya unprepared.
Moreover, during this time in the 11th century, the Chola navy had developed strongly, while
Srivijaya sea power was relatively weak. To sail from India to the Indonesian archipelago,
vessels from India sailed eastward across the Bay of Bengal and called at the ports of Lamuri
in Aceh or Kedah in Malay peninsula before entering Strait of Malacca. But the Chola
armada sailed directly to the Sumatran west coast. The port of Barus in the west coast
of North Sumatra at that time belonged to Tamil trade guilds and served as a port to replenish
after crossing the Indian Ocean. The Chola armada, then continued to sail along Sumatra's
west coast southward and sailed into Strait of Sunda. The Srivijaya navy guarded Kedah and
the surrounding areas on the northwest opening of the Malacca Strait and so were completely
unaware that the Chola invasion was coming from the Sunda Strait in the south. The first
Srivijayan city that was raided was Palembang, the capital of Srivijaya empire. The
unexpected attack led to the Cholas sacking the city and plundering the Kadatuan royal
palace and monasteries. The Thanjavur inscription states that Rajendra captured
King Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman of Srivijaya and took a large heap of treasures
including the Vidhyadara Torana, the jeweled 'war gate' of Srivijaya, adorned with great
splendor.

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The Chola invasion did not result in Chola administration over the defeated cities, as the
armies moved fast and plundered the Srivijayan cities. The Chola armada seems to have
taken advantage of the Southeast Asian monsoon for moving from one port to another
swiftly. The tactic of a fast-moving unexpected attack was probably the secret of Cholan
success, since it did not allow the Srivijayan mandala to prepare their defenses, reorganize
themselves, provide assistance or to retaliate. The war ended with a victory for the Cholas
and major losses for the Srivijaya Empire, thus ending their maritime monopoly in the region.
[15][16][19][20]

Charter issued by Rajendra I that declared the collection of revenue to build a Buddhist
Vihara in Srivijaya.
With the Maharaja Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman imprisoned and most of its cities
destroyed, the leaderless Srivijaya mandala entered a period of chaos and confusion. The
invasion marked the end of the Sailendra dynasty. According to the 15th-century Malay
Annals, Rajendra Chola I after the successful naval raid in 1025 CE married Onang Kiu, the
daughter of Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman. This invasion forced Srivijaya to make peace
with Javanese kingdom of Kahuripan. The peace deal was brokered by the exiled daughter of
Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman, a Srivijayan princess who managed to escape the
destruction of Palembang and came to the court of King Airlangga in East Java. She also
became the queen consort of Airlangga named Dharmaprasadottungadevi and in 1035 CE,
Airlangga constructed a Buddhist monastery named Srivijayasrama dedicated to his queen
consort.
This invasion gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of
regional kingdoms like Kahuripan and its successor, Kediri in Java based on agriculture
rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Sri Deva was enthroned as the new king and the
trading activities resumed. He sent an embassy to the court of China in 1028 CE.
[18]
Sanfoqi sent a mission to China in 1028, but this would refer to Malayu-Jambi, not
Srivijaya-Palembang. No Srivijayan envoys came to China between 1028–1077. This
indicates that the mandala of Srivijaya has faded. It is very possible that Srivijaya collapsed
in 1025. In the following centuries, Chinese chronicles still refer to "Sanfoqi", but this term
probably refers to the Malayu-Jambi kingdom, evidenced by Chinese record of Sanfoqi
Zhanbei guo (Jambi country of Sanfoqi). The last epigraphic evidence that mentions the word
"Sriwijaya" or "Srivijaya" comes from the Tanjore inscription of the Chola kingdom in 1030
or 1031.
The Chola control over Srivijaya lasted for several decades. Chinese chronicles
mentioned Sanfoqi Zhu-nian guo which means "Chola country of Sanfoqi", likely refer to
Kedah. Sanfoqi Zhu-nian guo sent missions to China in 1077, 1079, 1082, 1088, and 1090
CE. It is possible that the Cholas installed a crown prince in the Tamil-dominated area of the
Malacca Straits.

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Tamil colonization of the Malacca Straits seems to have lasted for a century. The Cholas left
several inscriptions in northern Sumatra and the Malay peninsula. Tamil influence can be
found in works of art (sculpture and temple architecture), it indicated government activity
rather than commerce. Chola's grip on the northern Sumatra and the Malay peninsula receded
in the 12th century — the Tamil poem Kalingatupparani of ca. 1120 CE
mentioned Kulottungga's destruction of Kadaram (Kedah). After that, Kedah disappeared
from Indian sources.

V
International Conquests of the mighty Tamil Cholas

The Chola empire which arose in the ninth century developed a powerful navy which enabled
them to conquer Sri Lanka and the Maldives too. Its impact was felt even by the countries of
Southeast Asia. The rise of Chola empire actually hanged the political scenario of south
India. During 400 years of its rule, Chola power extended over a large area of south India
comprising the whole of the modern state of Tamil Nadu and contiguous areas of southern
Karnataka and southern Andhra. Emerging from their heartland in the locality of Uraiyur
along the banks of the river Kaveri in the mid 9th century, they soon controlled the entire
Tamilspeaking area.Between the late 10th and late 11th centuries, the Chola Empire extended
over the entire Andhra region, Mysore, and northern-central part of the island of Sri Lanka.
Other islands in the Indian Ocean such as the Lakshadweep and the Maldives were also
brought under its control. During the time of Rajendra Chola (1012–1044), its power
extended to the Malay Peninsula and the eastern archipelago. The conquests of this ruler in
particular suggest that he was victorious over the entire region, from Andhra to Orissa, parts
of Madhya Pradesh, and Bengal, which earned him the title of Gangaikondan or the
“conqueror of the river Ganga”.

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 Rajendra Chola I

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 The Chola dynasty was
one of the ancient empires of Tamil Nadu, along with the Pandyas and Cheras who ruled
Tamil Nadu, along the Kaveri river. The mention of Cholas can be found in texts of the third
Sangam, Mahavamsha of Sri Lanka, and many other records. They played an important part
in shaping the culture, art and traditions of present-day Tamil Nadu. Chola kings were great
patrons of art, commissioned grand temples and were also known for their maritime
expeditions and conquests of southeast Asia. The Cholas conquered Lanka, Serivijaya,
Sumatra, Malaya, and many countries in Southeast Asia. The conquests were mainly to gain
monopoly on control of trade in the Bay of Bengal and the Pacific Ocean, where extensive
trade extended as far as Song China. This not only strengthened their treasuries but also aided
in providing access to Tamil merchant guilds to ports and conduct business in Southeast Asia.
The Tamil merchant guilds played a significant role in driving the naval expeditions in
Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka.

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Chola rulers were patrons of the arts and architecture. They built the temple of
Gangaikondacholisvara. The temple has sculptures of exceptional quality. The bronzes of
Bhogasakti and Subrahmanya are masterpieces of Chola metal icons. The Saurapitha (Solar
altar), the lotus altar with eight deities, is considered auspicious. The shiva lingam is made
from single rock.
The Chola rulers constructed enormous stone temple complexes with intricate carvings of
Hindu gods. Rajaraja I built the famous Brihdrishvara temple at Thanjavur, which is about 50
km away from city of Gangaikonda Cholapuram, between 1003 and 1010 CE. Shiva is
worshipped here. The grandeur of this temple has not been diminished by age. There is a
massive statue of Nandi, the sacred bull of Shiva, in the central courtyard of the temple.
The exquisite bronze statues of the Chola period are known the world over for their grace and
lifelike appearance. Many beautiful figures of Nataraja, or the dancing Shiva, were made
during the Chola era.

Chola colonization of Southeast Asia by focusing on the maritime trading networks from
China to the Arab world as the key to understanding this interaction. Works that have focused
on religious traditions and transformations of the cultural landscape of the Tamil region draw
attention to the ideological institutions used by the state to further its reach and maintain its
power. Conventional histories have tended to focus on the decline of the Cholas because of
weak rulers in the late 12th century. Actually we have to understand to the political economy
on the one hand, and on the other to the rise of additional regional powers such as the
Hoysalas and Kakatiyas the northwest and northeast, and the Pandyas in the south to situate
the rise of Chola in the Indian as well as Asian history. Chola emperors were interested to
conquer economically important trade centres out siade the Indian subcontinent .Here
mention may be made of Rajendra I . During his time a naval expeditions was organized
against the Sri Vijaya empire. The Sri Vijaya empire, (revived in the 10th century) extended
over the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java and the neighbouring islands, and controlled the
overseas trade route to China. The rulers of the Sailendra dynasty of the Sri Vijaya kingdom
were Buddhists and had cordial relations with the Cholas. The Sailendra ruler had built a
Buddhist monastery at Nagapatnam and, at his instance, Rajendra I had endowed a village for
its upkeep. The cause of the break between the two apparently was the Chola eagerness to
remove obstacles to Indian traders, and to expand trade with China. The expeditionsled to the
conquest of Kadaram or Kedah and a number of other places in the Malay peninsula and
Sumatra. The Chola navy was the strongest in the area, and for some time the Bay of Bengal
was converted into a ‘Chola lake’. The Chola rulers also sent a number of embassies to
China. These were partly diplomatic and partly commercial. Chola embassies reached China
in 1016 and 1033. A Chola embassy of 70 merchants reached China in 1077 and, according
to a Chinese account, received ‘81,800 strings of copper-cash’, that is, more than four lakhs
of rupees in return for the articles of‘tribute’ comprising ‘glass-ware, camphor, brocades,
rhinoceros horns, ivory, etc.’Tribute was the word used by the Chinese for all articles brought
for trade.

This article tries to understand the naval expeditions of Cholas in the context of trade and
commerce. However, the maritime trade and conquests are have been a neglected area of
study. Maritime trade and cultural exchanges between India and Southeast Asia have
comparatively received lesser attention as compared to the studies made on Silk Road. This
article focuses primarily on the naval expeditions during the reign of Rajaraja Chola I and
Rajendra Chola I in the eleventh century.

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India has actively conducted trade with overseas empires for centuries, but the period from
tenth century onwards with the political developments, emergence of powerful empire- states
encouraged Cholas to make overseas expeditions and conquests, that is extended their
"Digvijaya" (Conquering neighboring kingdoms in all directions) to Southeast Asia. The wars
were motivated by the desire to earn more revenue from the intensifying trade in the Bay of
Bengal and Pacific ocean regions. The period also indicates an increased control and
cooperation of the state with merchant guilds. The state along with increased supervision
ensured to protect the interests of its merchants. This is evident from the raids conducted on
Lanka and Srivijiaya respectively. Regrettably not many studies are dedicated to study the
economic and cultural dialogues that took place between India and Southeast Asia through its
maritime trade over the centuries. There is a decline in merchant guilds' inscriptions which
could be attributed to the increased state control and invasions from 12th century onwards.
We can assume a decline in the mercantile assemblies power. The Chola expeditions thus
were taken to benefit from the trade in Tamil lands, coastal India and Southeast Asia, and
China as well. By the end of thirteenth century the merchant guilds significantly declined as
the Chola empire collapsed around 1279 AD. The attacks by invaders from middle east
further worsened the conditions. It was only after the establishment of Vijayanagar rule that
economic activity was revived and merchants were encouraged by the state.

Historical context

The later part of tenth century and early-eleventh century witnessed many political changes
and rise of powerful empires across Asia and Africa. The Fatimids in Egypt, Song dynasty of
China, and Cholas in southern India. The prominence of Malabar coast rose along with ports
in Gujarat, as Jewish traders came to trade with present day Kerala and Tamil Nadu. On the
other side trade began to gear in the Arabian sea and pacific ocean. Nilakanta Sastri notes that
Chola conquests were motivated by obstacles created by Srivijaya, to extend trade far east to

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China [1]. Thus, Rajendra Chola's Digvijaya could also be motivated to extend his empire to
Southeast Asia to both extend the borders of his kingdom and secure trade interests of Tamil
merchants [2]. The rise of Rashtrakuta and Angkor in Cambodia in the eight century also
marks the beginning of competition to control ports of Malabar in India and ports of Malaya
in south east. Another development in the eleventh century was threat from Pagans of coastal
Myanmar in Bay of Bengal.
Thus, the rise of powerful empires and rising trade in the Indian Ocean and Pacific could
have motivated Cholas to under naval expeditions to Southeast Asia and conquer Kerala,
Kalinga and Palas of Bengal all coastal empires.

Merchant Guilds, Maritime trade and Overseas conquests

Merchant guilds played an important role in trade and commerce. As trade expanded in the
ninth to fifteenth centuries to overseas markets the guilds became wealthier and powerful.
Evidences also suggest these guilds kept their own army, maintained towns with large
warehouses to secure and store their goods. Though large inscriptions are available in Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka and lesser in Kerala and Andhra regions there is very little study devoted to
this section. Inscriptions give us information about the goods that were sold by the guilds,
they include rice, paddy, oil, sandal, salt, betel leaves, cotton, yarns and threads, iron and
many varieties of grains. The list of commodities also give us the insight about the prevalence
of industries that produced these goods. Especially textile, oil mills and grains that were
traded internationally tell us the development and prominence of these industries. The
prominent guilds were Ainurruvar, Anjuvannam, Nanadesi, and Padinenbhumi. The first
guild included Jewish, Christian and Muslim traders who settled in south India from middle-
east regions and latter are groups from the Tamil, Kerala and even Andhra merchants. The
power and wealth of these mercantile groups can be known from their donations to local
temples and other charitable activities like construction of tanks seeking good profits on their
trade. Inscriptions also tell us that these guilds had very good relations with the kings and
local chieftains, and also that they enjoyed a certain level of independence.

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The Cholas, in the tenth century increased vigilance on Nagarams, mercantile towns and in
ports mainly to earn more revenue from the flourishing trade, especially international-
maritime flows. The increased state control is also evident from the episode where Rajaraja
Chola I sends an envoy of 52 members that included state ambassadors and merchants. Also
the merchants settling in northern parts of Sri Lanka show the support received from Chola
army who conducted raids on these regions. Though trade with Southeast Asia, China existed
for many years it rose to significance from ninth century onwards. Srivijaya controlled
important ports of Sunda and Malacca (Indonesia, northern parts). This expansion in markets
and the hurdle created by Srivijaya navy to control, restrict Chola and China trade might have
led Rajendra to raid Srivijaya twice in 1017 and 1025AD respectively. Certain evidences also
note the friendly relations between the two empires, as Nagapattinam inscription on Srivijaya
emperor Choodamani Varma donating gifts, gold to Chola emperor and donations to
construct a Buddhist vihara there. The ports controlled by Cholas became prosperous as they
transformed into important centers of trans-shipment international trade. These increased
trade should have ensured an inflow of great wealth, revenue to the Chola treasury. This
period of increase commerce in the Pacific between Cholas, Srivijaya and Song (China)
highlights the significance of controlling the ports around these regions.

That is the distance from Thanjavur to Somnath a distance of 2252 kilometres. For reference
this the similar distance laid out on the map of Europe.The Cholas had an extremely powerful
enemy to their north in the form of Chalukyas whom the Cholas could never completely
subdue. Inscriptions and historical sources assert that the Medieval Chola Emperor Rajendra
I sent a naval expedition to Indochina, the Indonesia and Malay Peninsula in 1025 in order to
subdue Srivijaya. The Thiruvalangadu plates, the Leyden grant, and the Tamil stele of
Rajendra I are the principal sources of information about the campaign.
The most detailed source of information on the campaign is the Tamil stele of Rajendra
I. The stele states:

(Who) having despatched many ships in the midst of the rolling sea and having caught
Sangrāma-vijayōttunga-varman, the king of Kadāram, together with the elephants in his

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glorious army, (took) the large heap of treasures, which (that king) had rightfully
accumulated; (captured) with noise the (arch called) Vidhyādharatorana at the "war gate" of
his extensive city, Śrī Vijaya with the "jewelled wicket-gate" adorned with great splendour
and the "gate of large jewels"; Paṇṇai with water in its bathing ghats; the ancient Malaiyūr
with the strong mountain for its rampart; Māyuriḍingam, surrounded by the deep sea (as) by
a moat; Ilangāśōka (i.e. Lankāśōka) undaunted in fierce battles; Māpappālam having
abundant (deep) water as defence; Mēviḷimbangam having fine walls as defence;
Vaḷaippandūru having Viḷappandūru (?); Talaittakkōlam praised by great men (versed in)
the sciences; Mādamālingam, firm in great and fierce battles; Ilāmuridēśam, whose fierce
strength rose in war; Mānakkavāram, in whose extensive flower gardens honey was
collecting; and Kadāram, of fierce strength, which was protected by the deep sea.

The Thiruvalangadu plates, from the fourteenth year of Rajendra Chola I, mentions his
conquest of Kadaram but does not go into the details. [6] The first attempt by someone from
outside India to identify the places associated with the campaign was made by epigraphist E.
Hultzsch, who had published the stele in 1891. Hultzsch identified the principalities
mentioned in the inscription with places ruled by the Pandyan Dynasty. In 1903, he rescinded
his theory and stated that the stele described Rajendra Chola I's conquest of Bago in Burma.
George Coedès' Le Royaume de Sri Vijaya published in 1918 after several years of research,
rejected both the theories and provided the first convincing description of Rajendra Chola I's
conquest of Southeast Asia.
The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola dynasty of Tamilakam was initially friendly
during the reign of Rajaraja I. In 1006 CE a Srivijayan Maharaja from Sailendra dynasty,
king Maravijayattungavarman, constructed the Chudamani Vihara in the port town

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of Nagapattinam. However, during the reign of Rajendra I the relations deteriorate as the
Chola Dynasty started to attack Srivijayan cities.
The causes of the hostility are obscure. While some scholars opine that the campaign was
undertaken to establish Chola dominance over the seas of South-East Asia, other suggest that
it might have been a war of plunder.[5] It seems that the Khmer king Suryavarman I of
the Khmer Empire requested aid from the powerful Chola Emperor Rajendra
against Tambralinga kingdom After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola,
the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the Srivijaya king Sangrama
Vijayatungavarman. This eventually led to the Chola Empire coming into conflict with the
Srivijiya Empire. The war ended with a victory for the Chola dynasty and Angkor Wat of
the Khmer Empire, and major losses for the Sri Vijaya Empire and the Tambralinga kingdom.

Chola invasion of Srivijaya-

Viking invasions of Europe were barbaric attacks were people were killed, religious places
attacked and plundered. Generally, Christian monks were killed. Viking were polytheists like
Hindus and settled in places that are now in Ireland and parts of France now called
Normandy. They even traveled to lands now part of Russia and Middle East.

Chola Invasion of South East Asia cannot be treated the same way as Vikings barbaric
attacks though Chola army plundered and carried away the riches of the land they conquered.
Inscriptions and historical sources assert that the Medieval Chola king Rajendra Chola I sent
a naval expeditions to Indochina, the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia in 1025 in order to
subdue Srivijaya Kings (Malay, Indonesia). The Thiruvalangadu plates, the Leyden grant,
and the Tamil stele of Rajendra Chola I are the principal sources of information about the
campaign.

Sri Vijeya kingdom covered Sumatra, Indonesia and Malay regions. Sri Vijeya (Srey Vichay
in Chinese) were powerful in South East Asia and dominated all the kingdoms up to China.

Background
Rajendra Chola I was a powerful Chola King and is known to have had friendly relations
with Sri Vijeya Kings. Sri Vijeya kings even built arches in a town called Nagapattinam.
Why Rajendra Chola invaded Sri Vijeya is not very clear. Some say he wanted to dominate
the South Eastern Seas and he had to subdue Sri Vijeya kings to achieve it. Some say it was
nothing but plundering expeditions. There is also a view that a Khmer king (Cambodia)
wanted Chola help to fight Tambralinga King (Southern Thailand). It seems that the Khmer
king Suryavarman I of the Khmer Empire requested help from the powerful Chola Emperor
Rajendra Chola I against Tambralinga kingdom. After learning of Suryavarman's alliance
with Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested support from the Srivijaya king
Sangrama Vijayatungavarman. This eventually led to the Chola Empire coming into conflict
with the Sri Vijeya Empire directly. The war ended with a victory for the Chola King with the
fall of Angkor Wat of the Khmer Empire, and including major losses for the Sri Vijaya
Empire and the Tambralinga kingdom.

Throughout most of their shared history, ancient India and Indonesia enjoyed friendly and
peaceful relations, thus making this Indian invasion a unique event in Asian history. In the
9th and 10th centuries, Srivijaya maintained close relations with the Pala Empire in Bengal,

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and an 860 CE Nalanda inscription records that Maharaja Balaputra of Srivijaya dedicated a
monastery at the Nalanda Mahavihara in Pala territory. The relation between Srivijaya and
the Chola dynasty of southern India was friendly during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I. In
1006 CE a Srivijayan Maharaja from Sailendra dynasty — king Maravijayattungavarman —
constructed the Chudamani Vihara in the port town of Nagapattinam. However, during the
reign of Rajendra Chola I the relations deteriorated as the Cholas attacked Srivijayan cities
The Cholas are known to have benefitted from both piracy and foreign trade. Sometimes
Chola seafaring led to outright plunder and conquest as far as Southeast Asia.[13] Srivijaya
controlled two major naval choke points (Malacca and the Sunda Strait) and was at that time
a major trading empire that did possess formidable naval forces. The Malacca Strait's
northwest opening was controlled from Kedah on the Malay Peninsula side and
from Pannai on the Sumatran side, while Malayu (Jambi) and Palembang controlled its
southeast opening and also Sunda Strait. They practiced naval trade monopoly that forced any
trade vessels that passed through their waters to call on their ports or otherwise be plundered.
The reasons of this naval expedition are unclear, the historian Nilakanta Sastri suggested that
the attack was probably caused by Srivijayan attempts to throw obstacles in the way of the
Chola trade with the East (especially China), or more probably, a simple desire on the part of
Rajendra to extend his digvijaya to the countries across the sea so well known to his subject
at home, and therefore add luster to his crown. Another theory suggests that the reasons for
the invasion was probably motivated by geopolitics and diplomatic relations.
King Suryavarman I of the Khmer Empire requested aid from Rajendra Chola I of the Chola
dynasty against Tambralinga kingdom. After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with
Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the Srivijaya king Sangrama
Vijayatunggavarman.
In 1025 CE, the Chola Emperor Rajendra I launched naval raids on Srivijaya in maritime
Southeast Asia, Rajendra's overseas expedition against Srivijaya was a unique event in
India's history and its otherwise peaceful relations with the states of Southeast Asia. Several
places in present-day Indonesia and Malay Peninsula were invaded by Rajendra I of
the Chola dynasty.[3][4] The Chola invasion furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant
associations such as the Manigramam, Ayyavole and Ainnurruvar into Southeast Asia.[5][6][7]
[8]
The Cholan invasion led to the fall of the Sailendra Dynasty of Srivijaya and the Chola
invasion also coincides with return voyage of the great Bengali Buddhist scholar Atiśa (c.
982–1054) from Sumatra to India and Tibet in 1025 CE.
The Chola invasion against Srivijaya was a swift campaign that left Srivijaya unprepared.
Moreover, during this time in the 11th century, the Chola navy had developed strongly, while
Srivijaya sea power was relatively weak. To sail from India to the Indonesian archipelago,
vessels from India sailed eastward across the Bay of Bengal and called at the ports of Lamuri
in Aceh or Kedah in Malay peninsula before entering Strait of Malacca. But the Chola
armada sailed directly to the Sumatran west coast. The port of Barus in the west coast
of North Sumatra at that time belonged to Tamil trade guilds and served as a port to replenish
after crossing the Indian Ocean. The Chola armada, then continued to sail along Sumatra's
west coast southward and sailed into Strait of Sunda. The Srivijaya navy guarded Kedah and
the surrounding areas on the northwest opening of the Malacca Strait and so were completely
unaware that the Chola invasion was coming from the Sunda Strait in the south. The first
Srivijayan city that was raided was Palembang, the capital of Srivijaya empire. The
unexpected attack led to the Cholas sacking the city and plundering the Kadatuan royal
palace and monasteries. The Thanjavur inscription states that Rajendra captured
King Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman of Srivijaya and took a large heap of treasures

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including the Vidhyadara Torana, the jeweled 'war gate' of Srivijaya, adorned with great
splendor.The Chola invasion did not result in Chola administration over the defeated cities, as
the armies moved fast and plundered the Srivijayan cities. The Chola armada seems to have
taken advantage of the Southeast Asian monsoon for moving from one port to another
swiftly. The tactic of a fast-moving unexpected attack was probably the secret of Cholan
success, since it did not allow the Srivijayan mandala to prepare their defenses, reorganize
themselves, provide assistance or to retaliate. The war ended with a victory for the Cholas
and major losses for the Srivijaya Empire, thus ending their maritime monopoly in the region.

Charter issued by Rajendra I declared the collection to build

a Buddhist Vihara in Srivijaya.

With the Maharaja Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman imprisoned and most of its cities
destroyed, the leaderless Srivijaya mandala entered a period of chaos and confusion. The
invasion marked the end of the Sailendra dynasty. According to the 15th-century Malay
Annals, Rajendra Chola I after the successful naval raid in 1025 CE married Onang Kiu, the
daughter of Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman.[21][22] This invasion forced Srivijaya to make
peace with Javanese kingdom of Kahuripan. The peace deal was brokered by the exiled
daughter of Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman, a Srivijayan princess who managed to escape
the destruction of Palembang and came to the court of King Airlangga in East Java. She also
became the queen consort of Airlangga named Dharmaprasadottungadevi and in 1035 CE,
Airlangga constructed a Buddhist monastery named Srivijayasrama dedicated to his queen
consort.
This invasion gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of
regional kingdoms like Kahuripan and its successor, Kediri in Java based on agriculture
rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Sri Deva was enthroned as the new king and the
trading activities resumed. He sent an embassy to the court of China in 1028 CE.
[18]
Sanfoqi sent a mission to China in 1028, but this would refer to Malayu-Jambi, not
Srivijaya-Palembang. No Srivijayan envoys came to China between1028–1077. . This
indicates that the mandala of Srivijaya has faded. It is very possible that Srivijaya collapsed
in 1025. In the following centuries, Chinese chronicles still refer to "Sanfoqi", but this term
probably refers to the Malayu-Jambi kingdom, evidenced by Chinese record of Sanfoqi
Zhanbei guo (Jambi country of Sanfoqi). The last epigraphic evidence that mentions the word
"Sriwijaya" or "Srivijaya" comes from the Tanjore inscription of the Chola kingdom in 1030
or 1031.
The Chola control over Srivijaya lasted for several decades. Chinese chronicles
mentioned Sanfoqi Zhu-nian guo which means "Chola country of Sanfoqi", likely refer to
Kedah. Sanfoqi Zhu-nian guo sent missions to China in 1077, 1079, 1082, 1088, and 1090
CE. It is possible that the Cholas installed a crown prince in the Tamil-dominated area of the
Malacca Straits.

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Tamil colonization of the Malacca Straits seems to have lasted for a century. The Cholas left
several inscriptions in northern Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. Tamil influence can be
found in works of art (sculpture and temple architecture), it indicated government activity
rather than commerce. Chola's grip on the northern Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula receded
in the 12th century — the Tamil poem Kalingatupparani of ca. 1120 CE
mentioned Kulottungga's destruction of Kadaram (Kedah). After that, Kedah disappeared
from Indian sources.

Cholas had conquered present day Cambodia, Thailand, Java, Sumatra, Malaysia, Singapore,
Indonesia, Burma, Srilanka & Maldives. In India Chola Kingdom stretched from the banks of
Ganges in the North to the South. Cholas did not directly rule over any of the captured lands
but collected periodic tributes probably in the form of levies or taxes.

The Southeast Asia campaign intensified interactions between Cholas and Southeast Asia.
The campaign also led to the establishment of diplomatic ties with China. The first Indian
embassy to the court of the Song Emperor was sent by Raja Raja Chola I in 1015. This was
followed by a second embassy by his son, Rajendra Chola I, in 1033 and a third by
Kulothunga Chola I in 1077.

Traders from the Tamil country firmly established themselves over various parts of South-
East Asia. A merchant guild was set up in Burma and another in Sumatra in 1088. Indian
historian V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar suggests that Tamil traders of the Chola period might
have had a knowledge of Australia and Polynesia.

Chola Dynasty had a long run from 300 BCE to 1279 CE.

Sri Vijaya
The stele of Rajendra Chola I mentions Sri Vijaya as the first of the countries conquered. The
Tamil inscription lists Sri Vijaya with "its jewelled wicket-gate" and "a gate of large jewels"
as the first of the treasures captured by the fleet. The Sri Vijaya, mentioned in the
inscriptions, has been identified by Coedès with the Sri Vijaya kingdom which rule from its
base at Palembang in South Sumatra.
Pannai
Pannai, with its bathing ghats, is second of the lands to be conquered by the naval fleet.
Pannai has been identified as Panai or Pane, a city on the eastern coast of North Sumatra,
located on the estuary of Panai River and Barumun River.
Malaiyur
Malaiyur, with "its strong mountain", has been identified with Malayu in
today Jambi province in Batanghari river valley, where a strong principality flourished at that
time. Other suggestion is the southern part of the Malay Peninsula.
Mayirudingam
Mayirudingam is believed to be the same as Ji-lo-ting listed by the Chinese writer Chau Ju-
Kua among the dependencies of Sri Vijaya and is identified with the city of Chaiya in the
centre of the Malay Peninsula.
Ilangasoka

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The land of Ilangasoka (Langkasuka) mentioned in the inscriptions has been located on the
east coast of the Malay Peninsula and is believed to be the same as the province of Ling-ya-
sseu-kia mentioned in Chau Ju-Kua's list.
Mapappalam
The epigraphist V. Venkayya identifies Mapappalam of the inscription with the city of
Papphalama mentioned in the Mahavamsa. The place is believed to be located in
the Talaing region of Lower Burma.
Talaittakkolam
Talaittakkolam is believed to be the same as Takkola mentioned by Ptolemy as a
trading emporion on the Golden Chersonese, and identified with Trang or the modern-day
city of Takuapa in the Isthmus of Kra.
Nakkavaram
Nakkavaram, mentioned in the records, has been identified by V. Venkayya with the Nicobar
Islands.
Kadaram
The place Kadaram (modern Kedah) mentioned in the stele is identified with the Kataha of
Sanskrit literature and Kadaram of the Kalingattuparani and the Kiet-cha of the Chinese
chronicles. The Southeast Asia campaign intensified interactions between India and
Southeast Asia. The campaign also led to the establishment of diplomatic ties with China.
The first Tamil embassy to the court of the Song Emperor was sent by Rajaraja I in 1015.
This was followed by a second embassy by his son, Rajendra I, in 1033 and a third
by Kulottunga I in 1077. The Chola Empire did not establish its direct rule over South-East
Asia though they might have levied a periodic tribute.[
Traders from the Tamil country firmly established themselves over various parts of South-
East Asia. A merchant guild was set up in Burma and another in Sumatra in 1088. Indian
historian V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar suggests that Tamil traders of the Chola period might
have had a knowledge of Australia and Polynesia.
Rajendra Chola I built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram to celebrate his
victories in northern India. Rajendra Chola I successfully invaded the Srivijaya kingdom in
Southeast Asia which led to the decline of the empire there. He also completed the conquest
of the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and sent Three diplomatic missions were sent to China
in 1016, 1033, and 1077. The Western Chalukya empire under Satyashraya and Someshvara
I tried to wriggle out of Chola domination from time to time, primarily due to the Chola
influence in the Vengi kingdom. The Western Chalukyas mounted several unsuccessful
attempts to engage the Chola emperors in war, and except for a brief occupation of Vengi
territories between 1118 and 1126 and made an alliance with Prince Vikramaditya VI.
Cholas always successfully controlled the Chalukyas in the western Deccan by defeating
them in war and levying tribute on them. With the occupation of Dharwar in North Central
Karnataka by the Hoysalas under Vishnuvardhana, where he based himself with his son
Narasimha I in-charge at the Hoysala capital Dwarasamudra around 1149, and with
the Kalachuris occupying the Chalukyan capital for over 35 years from around 1150–1151,
the Chalukya kingdom was already starting to dissolve.

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Gaṅgaikoṇḍa Chōḻapuram is located near to Jayankondam, Ariyalur district, Tamil
Nadu, India. //Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple Entrance

The city was founded by Rajendra I to commemorate his victory over the Pala Dynasty. The
translation of the city's name may be split
into Gangai (Ganga)/ Konda (Obtained)/ Chola (Chola)/ Puram (City). Hence, it refers to the
city of the Cholas built on a locale to commemorate the occasion when the water of the
Ganga was obtained. It is now a small village, its past eminence only remembered by the
existence of the Mahashiva Temple. The Chola Empire included the whole of southern India
to the river Tungabhadra in the north. For administrative and strategic purposes, they built a
new capital and named it Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
The city seems to have had two fortifications, one inner and the other outer. The outer was
probably wider. The remains of the outer fortification can be seen as a mound running all
around the palace.

Ruins of the ancient city

Excavations suggest that the outer fortification was built of burnt bricks, was about six to
eight feet wide. It consisted of two walls, the intervening space (the core) being filled with
sand. The bricks are fairly large in size and are made of well-burnt clay. The Tamil Nadu
State Archaeological Department has taken up fresh excavations to probe a nearby village
named Ayudhkalam which is believed to have weapon manufacturing workshops, as the
name suggests.
The surviving temple in Gangaikonda Cholapuram was completed in 1035 CE. Rajendra
emulated the temple built by his father after his victory in a campaign across India that Chola
era texts state covered Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Bengal. After his victory, he
demanded that the defeated kingdoms send pots of Ganges River water and pour it into the
well of this temple.

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Rajendra I, according to Tamil tradition, thereafter assumed the name of Gangaikonda
Cholan, meaning the one who conquered the Ganges. He established Gangaikonda
Cholapuram as his capital from the medieval Chola capital of Thanjavur, which would go on
to become the capital for the next 250 years. Rajendra I built the entire capital with several
temples using plans and infrastructure recommended in Tamil Vastu and Agama sastra texts.
These included a Dharma Sasta, Vishnu and other temples. However, all of these were
destroyed in the late 13th and 14th centuries except the Brihadishvara temple. The other
Chola landmarks are evidenced by soil covered mounds and excavated broken pillar stumps
and brick walls found over an area of several kilometres from the surviving temple.
The reasons for the city's destruction are unclear. According to Vansanthi, the Pandyas who
defeated the Cholas during the later part of the 13th century "may have razed the city to the
ground" to avenge their previous defeats.[4] However, it is unclear why other temples were
destroyed and this temple was spared, as well as why there are around 20 inscriptions from
later Cholas, Pandyas and Vijayanagar Empire indicating various gifts and grants to this
temple.[8] An alternate theory links the destruction to the raids and wars, particularly with the
invasion of the capital city and the territories that were earlier a part by the Chola Empire
along with Madurai by the armies of Delhi Sultanate led by the Muslim commander Malik
Kafur in 1311, followed by Khusrau Khan in 1314 and Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1327.The
period that followed saw wars between the Hindu kings and the Muslim Sultans who seceded
the Delhi Sultanate and carved out new polity such as the nearby Madurai Sultanate (1335–
1378). The Vijayanagara Empire defeated the Madurai Sultanate in 1378 and this temple
along with other Chola era temples thereafter came under Hindu kings again who repaired
and restored many of them. The temple has been re-consecrated in 2017 with installation of
a dwajasthambam and performance of maha kumbhabhishekam.

The royal palace also was built of burnt brick. The ceilings were covered with flat tiles of
small size, laid in a number of courses, in fine lime mortar. The pillars were probably made
of polished wood, supported on granite bases; a few pillar bases have survived to this day.
Iron nails and clamps have been recovered from this palace site. There is a tunnel that links
the palace and the temple inner 1st prakaara (north).

Remains of Royal Palace as of 2005 in Maligaimedu Village/ side View of Gangaikonda Cholapuram
Temple.
In the reign of Virarajendra Chola, Rajendra's third son, the palace at
Gangaikondacholapuram is referred to as Chola-Keralan Thirumaligai (Chola Keralan
palace) evidently after one of the titles of Rajendra I. The same inscription mentions a few
parts of the palace as adibhumi (the ground floor), Kilaisopana (the eastern portico), and a
seat named Mavali vanadhirajan. Evidently the palace was multistoried. In an inscription

203
dated in the 49th year of Kulothunga I (1119 CE) reference is made to
Gangaikondacholamaligai at this place. It is likely that there were more than one royals
building each having their own name.
Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati) statue in Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple

Excavated Ancient Stone Sculptures

Besides the names of the palace and fort walls, the names of a few roads and streets are
preserved in the epigraphs. The entryways named Thiruvasal, the eastern gate and the
Vembugudi gate, evidently the south gate leading to the village Vembugudi situated in that
direction are mentioned. Reference is also found to highways named after Rajaraja and
Rajendra as Rajarajan Peruvali and Rajendran Peruvali. Other streets mentioned in epigraphs
are the ten streets (Pattu teru), the gateway lane (Thiruvasal Narasam) and the Suddhamali
lane. The inscription also refers to the highways, Kulottungacholan Thirumadil
peruvali, Vilangudaiyan Peruvali and Kulaiyanai pona Peruvali (the highway through which
a short elephant passed by).
The epigraphs also refer to the Madhurantaka Vadavaru, now called the Vadavaru, running
about six kilometers east of the ruined capital. Madhurantaka Vedavaru, named after one of
the titles of Rajendra I, was a source of irrigation to a vast stretch of land bordering the
capital. An irrigation channel called Anaivettuvan is also mentioned.
"Anaivettuvan" - Anai means irrigation (step irrigation) vettuvan means labour or engineer.
There were both wet and dry lands inside the Fort, used for cultivation and other purposes.
The present positions of the existing temples throw some light on the lay out of the city. With
the palace as the centre to the city, the great temple, and the other temples in the city seem to
have been erected. Towards the northeast (Isanya) of the palace is the great temple of Siva.
The Siva temple according to Vastu and traditional texts should be in the northeast of the city
or village and should face east. The temple of Vishnu should be in the west.A number of
small tanks and ponds mentioned in inscriptions and a number of wells, supplied drinking
water to the residents.

modern statue of Rajaraja Chola I, Thanjavur

204
Thanjavur was a target of both Muslim and Hindu neighboring kingdoms, both near and far.
The Madurai Sultanate was established in the 14th century, after the disastrous invasions and
plunder of South India by Ala ud-Din Khalji's armies of Delhi Sultanate led by Malik Kafur.
Later Adil Shahi Sultanate, Qutb Shahis, Randaula Khan and others from east and west coasts
of South India raided it, and some occupied it for a few years.
The Cholas under Kulothunga Chola III --During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I and his
successors Rajendra Chola I, Virarajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I the Chola armies
invaded Sri Lanka, the Maldives and parts of Southeast Asia like Malaysia, Indonesia and
Southern Thailandof the Srivijaya Empire in the 11th century. Rajaraja Chola I launched
several naval campaigns that resulted in the capture of Sri Lanka, Maldives and the Malabar
Coast. In 1025, Rajendra Chola launched naval raids on ports of Srivijaya and against the
Burmese kingdom of Pegu. A Chola inscription states that he captured or plundered 14
places, which have been identified with Palembang, Tambralinga and Kedah among others.A
second invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola, who conquered Kedah in Malaysia of
Srivijaya in the late 11th century. [58] Chola invasion ultimately failed to install direct
administration over Srivijaya, since the invasion was short and only meant to plunder the
wealth of Srivijaya. However, this invasion gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and
enabled the formation of regional kingdoms. Although the invasion was not followed by
direct Cholan occupation and the region was unchanged geographically, there were huge
consequences in trade. Tamil traders encroached on the Srivijayan realm traditionally
controlled by Malay traders and the Tamil guilds' influence increased on the Malay Peninsula
and north coast of Sumatra.

The Tamil prasaśti of Virarajendra Chola records a naval invasion

of Kadaram (modern Kedah in Malaysia) by the Cholas in 1068. Sources assert that the
expedition was undertaken to help a Kadaram prince who had approached Virarajendra Chola
for assistance in procuring the throne. The kingdom of Kadaram is believed to be the same as
the Srivijaya empire.
Chola conquest of Anuradhapura-Sri Lanka
The Chola conquest of Anuradhapura was a military invasion of the Kingdom of
Anuradhapura by the Chola Empire. It can be seen as an ensuing conflict between Chola and
Sinhalese kings after the initial conflict between Chola and the Pandya-Sinhalese alliance
during conquest of the Pandya Kingdom by Chola king Parantaka I.After the defeat, Pandya
king Rajasimha took his crown and the other regalia and sought refuge in Anuradhapura.
[5]
The Paranthka made several futile attempts to regain regalia, including invasion of Sri
Lanka on a date between 947 and 949 CE during the reign of Sinhalese king Udaya IV (946–
954 CE). Therefore, one of the driving motives behind the invasions of Anuradhapura by the
Cholas' was their desire to possess these royal treasures. The conquest started with the
invasion of the Anuradhapura Kingdom in 993 CE by Rajaraja I when he sent a large Chola
army to conquer the kingdom and absorb it into the Chola Empire. Most of the island was
subsequently conquered by 1017 CE and incorporated as a province of the vast Chola
empire during the reign of his son Rajendra Chola I. The Chola occupation would be
overthrown in 1070 CE through a campaign of Sinhalese Resistance led by Prince Kitti, a
Sinhalese royal. The Cholas fought many subsequent wars and attempted to reconquer the
Sinhalese kingdom as the Sinhalese were allies of their arch-enemies, the Pandyas. The
period of Chola entrenchment in northern Sri Lanka lasted in total about three-quarters of a
century, from roughly 993 CE (the date of Rajaraja's first invasion) to 1070 CE,
when Vijayabahu I recaptured the north and expelled the Chola forces restoring Sinhalese
sovereignty.

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Military expeditions from South Indian forces into Anuradhapura had been brief ad hoc up
until the mid-tenth century. These were designed to facilitate short-term gains with minimal
involvement followed by a withdrawal to the mainland. However, with the ascension of more
ambitious and aggressive imperial Chola kings, Rajaraja I (985–1014) and his son Rajendra I
(1012–1044), a new strategy of ruthless plunder and destruction of major political and
religious centers on the island occurred, followed by the establishment of semi-permanent
and fortified encampments, from where wide-ranging raids could be carried out in other parts
of the island.

Fall of Anuradhapura Kingdom

The
Chola dynasty under Rajendra Chola I in 1030 A.D
The tirumagal inscription of Rajaraja I dated to 993 AD first mentions Anuradhapura among
the king's conquests. Mahinda V (981–1017) distracted by a revolt of his own Indian
mercenary troops fled to the south-eastern province of Rohana. Taking advantage of this
internal strife Rajaraja I invaded Anuradhapura sometime in 993 AD and conquered the
northern part of the country and incorporated it into his kingdom as a province named
"Mummudi-sola-mandalam" after himself. The Culavamsa says that the capital at
Anuradhapura was "utterly destroyed in every way by the Chola armyThe capital of the
conquered Rajarata was moved to Polonnaruwa which was then renamed
"Jananathamangalam", a title of Rajaraja. The Chola official Tali Kumaran erected
a Shiva temple called Rajarajeshvara ("Lord of Rajaraja") in the town of Mahatirtha (modern
Mantota, Mannar), which was renamed Rajaraja-pura. Comparing Rajaraja's campaign to the
invasion of Lanka by the legendary hero Rama, the Thiruvalangadu Plates states.

"Rama built with the aid of monkeys, a causeway across the sea, and then with great
difficulties defeated the king of Lanka by means of sharp edged arrows. But Rama was

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excelled by this king whose powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the king
of Lanka."
— Thiruvalangadu Copper Plates
A partial consolidation of Chola power in Rajarata had followed the initial season of plunder.
With the intention to transform Chola encampments into more permanent military enclaves,
Saivite temples were constructed in Polonnaruwa and in the emporium of Mahatirtha.
Taxation was also instituted, especially on merchants and artisans by the Cholas. [14] In 1014
Rajaraja I died and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I, perhaps the most aggressive
king of his line. Chola raids were launched southward from Rajarata into Rohana. By his fifth
year, Rajendra claimed to have completely conquered the Ceylon and incorporated it into the
Chola Empire. As per the Sinhalese chronicle Mahavamsa, the conquest of Anuradhapura
was completed in the 36th year of the reign of the Sinhalese monarch Mahinda V, i.e. about
1017–18.[16] Rajendra's success was complete and whole of the island became a Chola
Province.[17] But the Cholas never really consolidated their control over southern Sri Lanka,
which in the case lacked large and prosperous settlements to tempt long-term Chola
occupation.[14] According to the Culavamsa and Karandai plates, Rajendra Chola led a large
army into Rohana and captured Mahinda's crown, queen, daughter, a vast amount of wealth,
and the king himself whom he took as a prisoner to India, where he eventually died in exile in
1029.

Vijayabahu I sent three armies to attack Polonnaruwa. One was sent along the western shore
to Mahatittha and Polonnaruwa, another from the east across Magama, and the third and main
force across Mahiyanga.
In 1029, Eleven years after the Chola conquest of Rohana, Prince Kassapa, son of Mahinda,
hid in Rohana, where Chola forces vainly searched for him. Soon after the death of his father
Kassapa assumed the monarchy as Kassapa VI (also known as Vikramabahu) and "ruled" in
Rohana for several years (c. 1029–1040) while attempting to organize a campaign of
liberation and unification. He became the king of Rohana after 11 years of Chola rule in
Rohana. But he died before he could consolidate his power, and a series of ephemeral
aspirants to the throne subsequently appeared and disappeared in Rohana without dislodging
the Cholas from the north. Kassapa VI's mysterious death in 1040, however, brought an end
to the war. His successor Mahalana-Kitti (1040–1042) tried to lead an unsuccessful revolt
against the Cholas

207
208
209
Vijayabahu I (1039–1110), descended from or at least claimed to be descended from
the Sinhalese royal house. He had defeated his most powerful rivals in Rohana and was
anxious to take on the Cholas, by the age of seventeen. The crisis in the country left a
scattering of turbulent chiefs and intractable rebels whose allegiance, if any, was at best
opportunistic which proved a problem to both sides in the conflict, frustrating both the
Sinhalese kings and the Cholas. Vijayabahu, from his base in Rohana, faced a similar
difficulty; he had to contend with the hostility of local chiefs who regarded him as a greater
threat to their independence than the Cholas were.
For that reason, the Cholas occasionally succeeded in recruiting nominal support from rebel
chiefs in Rohana, as a result, Vijayabahu had difficulty consolidating a firm territorial base
from which to launch a decisive campaign against the Cholas. On the other hand, the Cholas
were unable to eliminate similar opposition to themselves in the north. Gradually the wider
conflict developed into a prolonged, back-and-forth struggle of raids and counter-raids, with

210
the forces of Vijayabahu advancing upon Polonnaruva and then falling back to fortresses
in Dakkhinadesa and Rohana to withstand retaliatory Chola attacks and sieges.
With time on the side of the insurgent forces, The Chola's determination began to gradually
falter. Vijayabahu possessed strategic advantages, even without a unified "national" force
behind him. A prolonged war of attrition was of greater benefit to the Sinhalese than to the
Cholas. After the accession of Virarajendra Chola (1063–69) to the Chola throne, the Cholas
were increasingly on the defensive, not only in Sri Lanka but also in peninsular India, where
they were hard-pressed by the attacks of the Chalukyas from the Deccan.
Vijayabahu eventually launched a successful two-pronged attack upon Anuradhapura and
Polonnaruva, when he could finally establish a firm base in southern Sri Lanka.
Anuradhapura quickly fell and Polonnaruva was captured after a prolonged siege of the
isolated Chola forces. Virarajendra Chola was forced to dispatch an expedition from the
mainland to recapture the settlements in the north and carry the attack back into Rohana, in
order to stave off total defeat.
In the battles that ensued, two powerful Sinhalese chiefs, Ravideva and Cala, crossed over
with their men from Vijayabahu's side to the Chola commander. One of Vijayabahu's Tamil
commanders, Kurukulattaraiyan, a Tamil Karaiyar chieftain, fell in battle.[19] What had begun
as a profitable incursion and occupation was now deteriorating into desperate attempts to
retain a foothold in the north. After a further series of indecisive clashes, the occupation
finally ended in the withdrawal of the Cholas.

End of occupation
In 1070, when Kulottunga I (1070–1122) came to the Chola throne, after a period of political
crisis at the Chola court, he initially concentrated on consolidating his authority in India. His
most pressing task was to defend the Chola territories against the inroads of the Western
Chalukya Empire. All this meant that the defence of Sri Lanka was given a low priority.
The conquest of the Sinhalese kingdom had been associated with his three immediate
predecessors (Rajendra Chola I, Rajendra Chola II, and Virarajendra Chola, all sons of
Rajaraja I), no longer seemed to be worthwhile. Kulottunga had less personal prestige
involved in the conquest, so he simply terminated it with little attempt to recoup Chola losses.
Vijayabahu attacked and captured Pulatthinagara and drove the Cholas out of the city.
Kulottunga sent a large army that engaged Vijayabahu in a pitched battle near Anuradhapura.
The Cholas initially succeeded in driving Vijayabahu to seek refuge in Vatagiri but
Vijayabahu took Mahanagakula on the Walaweganga and conducted his resistance from
there. Pulatthinagara and Anuradhapura fell to Vijayabahu and Mahatittha were soon
occupied.Although it would be more dramatic to picture Vijayabahu finally driving the
Cholas into the sea, the occupation actually ended in Chola withdrawal after a further series
of indecisive clashes. Having liberated the whole of Sri Lanka from Chola rule, Vijayabahu
crowned himself king of Polonnaruwa in 1076–77.
Legacy Kingdom of Polonnaruwa- Capital of Sri Lanka
The Chola conquest had one permanent result, the kingdom of Anuradhapura, which lasted
for over a millennium, was destroyed by the Cholas. Polonnaruwa, a military outpost of the
Sinhalese kingdom,[note 1] was renamed Jananathamangalam, after a title assumed by Rajaraja
I, and become the new center of administration for the Cholas. This was because earlier
Tamil invaders had only aimed at overlordship of Rajarata in the north, but the Cholas were
bent on control of the whole island. When Sinhalese sovereignty was restored under

211
Vijayabahu I, he crowned himself at Anuradhapura but continued to have his capital at
Polonnaruwa for it being more central and made the task of controlling the turbulent province
of Rohana much easier.

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 IV
Ptolemy and River Kaveri

The world according to Cl. Ptolemy. Map, 15th century. Photo credit: Wikimedia.

The Kaveri (also known as Cauvery, the anglicised name) is one of the major Indian rivers
flowing through the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The Kaveri River rises
at Talakaveri in the Brahmagiri range in the Western Ghats, Kodagu district of the state of
Karnataka, at an elevation of 1,341 m above mean sea level and flows for about 800 km
before its outfall into the Bay of Bengal. It reaches the sea in Poompuhar,
in Mayiladuthurai district. It is the third largest river – after Godavari and Krishna –

213
in southern India, and the largest in the state of Tamil Nadu, which, on its course, bisects the
state into north and south. In ancient Tamil literature, the river was also called Ponni (the
golden mother, in reference to the fine silt it deposits).

The Kaveri is a sacred river to the people of southern India and is worshipped as the Goddess
Kaveriamma (Mother Cauvery). It is considered to be among the seven holy rivers of India. It
is extensively used for agriculture in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Two books place on record the mention of the Kaveri river in the cartography and geography
of Ptolemy

1. Notes on Ptolemy (Continued)-J. Ph. Vogel,Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African
Studies, University of London,Vol. 13, No. 1 (1949), pp. 146-153 (8 pages),Published By:
Cambridge University Press
2. Two Notes on Ptolemy's Geography of India,E. H. Johnston-The Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland,No. 3 (Jul., 1941)
Reproduced is a news bulletin from South Indian newspaper- THE DECCAN HERALD from 2013
Underwater survey to verify Ptolemy’s account on Indian ports

A coastal survey is being carried out in Tamil Nadu, India, by a team of professors and
students, seeking to throw more light on the ancient ports in south India, mentioned in Greco-
Roman geographer Ptolemy’s accounts.

The survey is performed by experts, specialising in underwater archaeology of Tamil

University, in two coastal stretches- one between Kanyakumari and Rameswaram and
another between Rameswaram and Poompuhar in Nagapattinam district intends to gather
more information from ruins of coastal towns, which are believed to have existed during the
Sangam literature era.

Facilitated by the Central Institute of Classical Tamil, the survey is headed by N. Athiyaman
of the Centre for Underwater Archaeology in Tamil University. “The survey intends to study
the ancient coastal towns, which have functioned as ports. Our preliminary survey is to locate
the area, over which we can focus for further research. We are now looking at ports,”
Athiyaman said.

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Ancient Tamil literature, including ‘Akananuru’ of the Sangam era, referred to the period
between 600 BCE and 300 CE, suggest that some 20 to 25 ports had existed in the region.
“Greco-Roman writer Ptolemy’s geographical accounts mention some 15 ports.“We want to
find out whether these ports mentioned in the Sangam era literature and by Ptolemy are the
same,” Athiyaman said. For instance, a port known as Manamelkudi near Thondi Port, is
mentioned in the ‘Akananuru’ as Sellur.

But ambiguity still remains as to whether that is the same town referred to by Ptolemy as
Sallur in his accounts, he said.

Asked how has the team planned to conduct the survey, Athiyaman said, “We are presently
surveying coastal towns, near where we believe ports might have existed. If they have ex-
isted, there would have been a heavy traffic of boats and ships. Also in towns, we are looking
for pot shreds and other remains, which can indicate a lot.”Once the preliminary survey is
over, information from fishermen, who frequent the particular area in the sea would be
collected.

“Based on the information from fishermen, we would employ scientific equipment including
SONAR to detect objects under the sea. There are state-of-the-art equipment, which will help
us detect objects, if any, under sheets of clay,” he said.

Athiyaman is leading the team in the Kanyakumari-Rameswaram stretch, while his colleague
Rajavelu is looking after the Rameswaram-Poompuhar leg, with the help of research scholars
and Ph.D students of Tamil University.

The heavy traffic between coastal towns in Tamil Nadu and commercial hubs in the West has
already been established with the use of various text from the ancient times.

“In one of the accounts, Ptolemy talked of a ‘emporia’ north of Cauvery river in the
peninsula. When historians and archaeologists looked for the same in the Sangam literature, it
was established to be Kaveripoompattinam also known as Poompuhar (a famous port in the
Chola period),” Athiyaman said, adding they were hopeful of getting something concrete
before this year
end.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. D

215
eccan Chronicle, http://www.deccanchronicle.com/130914/news-current-affairs/article/
underwater-survey-tn-verify-ptolemy%E2%80%99s-account (14/09/2013)

216
The Golden River
For the sacred waters of river Kaveri1
He2 raised floodgates adorning her like drapes!

By the sound of rushing water

the paddy blooms
By the sound of the chisel
the rock blooms
By the sound of conflict
the arrow blooms
To utter the greatness of the Cholas
the very language blooms...

Ponni river has to be seen (reegaari esamaari3)

Before the sun sets (reegaari esamaari)
Where walk the dainty damsels (reegaari esamaari)
Like the tranquil breeze (reegaari esamaari)

Across the barren lands (reegaari esamaari)

Across the sandy dunes (reegaari esamaari)
Across the fallow fields (reegaari esamaari)
Across the black soil (a land that birthed valour)
Awe! Such sight to behold (Semba!4 Semba!
Why has time flown?

Oh land! while I lay on your bosom (a land imbued with green)

A sweet longing springs up! (a land drizzling with blessings)
Wouldn't my time ripen to joy? (a land yielding abundance)
Wouldn't my legs find rest? (a land with the purest heart)
Oh Semba! (a land that birthed valour)

(a land that birthed valour)

Oh Mistress Ponni! (reegaari esamaari)
"Laali lalla laali
Lalla laali lalla,"
is what they sing—Oh warrior,
Prance into the majestic land of Cholaburi
Come on swiftly, you who are good with words
Oh friend, fulfil our dreams

Ponni river has to be seen (reegaari esamaari)

Before the sun sets (a land that birthed valour)
Where walk the dainty damsels (reegaari esamaari)
Like the tranquil breeze (a land that birthed valour)

Beauty of beauties (reegaari esamaari)

Stay closer to my heart (a land that birthed valour)
Oh mischievous one (reegaari esamaari)
Stay close to me (a land that birthed valour)

Isn't she a Chola sculpture? (Semba)

Chuckling like corn grains (Semba)
Causing thundering in Eezham5 (Semba)
Am I to not fall for her? (Indeed)
I cannot... (Indeed)

Oh... Is there rest for the sea? (Semba)

Duty calls, come on up! (Semba)
Be swift like an arrow (Semba)
If the golden opportunity passes
Would it ever come again, young one?

Wet lands, dry lands

Maidens alluring than that of celestial apsaras
Wet lands, dry lands
Maidens alluring than that of celestial apsaras

217
Claudius Ptolemy or Claudius Ptolemaeus; c. 100 – c. 170 AD,] was an
Alexandrian mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist who
wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were important to
later Byzantine, Islamic, and Western European science. The first was his astronomical
treatise now known as the Almagest, originally entitled Mathematical
Treatise (Greek: Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις, Mathēmatikḗ Syntaxis). The second is
the Geography, which is a thorough discussion on maps and the geographic knowledge of
the Greco-Roman world. The third is the astrological treatise in which he attempted to
adapt horoscopic astrology to the Aristotelian natural philosophy of his day. This is
sometimes known as the Apotelesmatika (Greek: Αποτελεσματικά, lit. 'On the Effects') but
more commonly known as the Tetrábiblos, from the Koine Greek meaning "Four Books", or
by its Latin equivalent Quadripartite.

Because the Catholic Church promoted his work, which included the only mathematically-
sound geocentric model of the Solar System, and unlike most Greek mathematicians,
Ptolemy's writings (foremost the Almagest) never ceased to be copied or commented upon,
both in late antiquity and in the Middle Ages. However, it is likely that only a few truly
mastered the mathematics necessary to understand his works, as evidenced particularly by the
many abridged and watered-down introductions to Ptolemy's astronomy that were popular
among the Arabs and Byzantines. His work on epicycles has come to symbolize a very
complex theoretical model built in order to explain a false assumption.

Ptolemy's date of birth and birthplace are both unknown. The 14th-century
astronomer Theodore Meliteniotes wrote that Ptolemy's birthplace was Ptolemais Hermiou, a
Greek city in the Thebaid region of Egypt (now El Mansha, Sohag Governorate). This
attestation is quite late, however, and there is no evidence to support it.

It is known that Ptolemy lived in or around the city of Alexandria, in the Roman province of
Egypt under Roman rule He had a Latin name, Claudius, which is generally taken to imply he
was a Roman citizen. He was familiar with Greek philosophers and used Babylonian
observations and Babylonian lunar theory. In half of his extant works, Ptolemy addresses a
certain Syrus, a figure of whom almost nothing is known but who likely shared some of
Ptolemy's astronomical interests.He died in Alexandria c. 168.

218
Ptolemy placed the Muziris emporium north of the mouth of the Pseudostomus river
in his Geographia. Pseudostomus (literally, "false mouth", in Greek) is generally
identified with the modern-day Periyar River.
Muziris papyrus
This Greek papyrus of the 2nd century AD documents a contract involving an
Alexandrian merchant importer and a financier that concerns cargoes, especially of
pepper and spices from Muziris. The fragmentary papyrus records details about a
cargo consignment (valued at around nine million sesterces) brought back from
Muziris on board a Roman merchant ship called the Hermapollon. The discovery
opened a strong base to ancient international and trade laws in particular and has been
studied at length by economists, lawyers, and historians.
The etymology of the river was derived from the Sankethi word for "river", ಕಾವೇರಿ
(kāveri), as this is the major river for the Sankethi people who live along its waters.
Sanskrit
Marudvṛdhā is another hypothesised name for this river, meaning "the beloved of
the Maruts". However, this is unlikely as Marudvrdhā is also identified with a river
in Punjab.
Epithets
The Kaveri River is also known as Daksina Ganga, the "Ganges of the
South"and Kaveri Amman when worshipped as a river goddess.[16] In ancient Tamil
literature, the river was also called Ponni (the golden maid, in reference to the fine silt
it deposits).

Kaveripattinam is a historic town located in the Krishnagiri district of Tamil Nadu, India.
The town is situated on the banks of the river Palar, and its name is derived from the river
Kaveri that flows nearby.
Kaveripattinam has a rich history dating back to the 3rd century BCE when it was known as
Kaveri Vanam. It was a flourishing port town during the Sangam period (3rd century BCE to
4th century CE) and served as an important trade center for spices, silk, pearls, and other
goods between India and other parts of the world.

219
Kaveripattinam was also a significant center of Jainism during the 2nd century BCE, and
several Jain temples and sculptures have been found in and around the town. The town was
later ruled by various dynasties, including the Cholas, Pallavas, and Vijayanagara Empire.

In the 16th century, the town came under the rule of the Nawab of Arcot, and it continued to
thrive as a center of trade and commerce under the British Raj. Today, Kaveripattinam is
known for its cultural heritage, and its ancient temples and historic sites attract tourists from
all over the world. Kadambas existed as contemporaries to Ancient Cheras as a thalassocratic
power prior to the formation of independent Kannada kingdom under Mayurasharma.
Kadambas are said to be the descendants of the ancient Kadambu tribe as per prominent
historians Sha. Shettar & KK Pillai.

Ancient Kadambas exerted control over the western sea coast from Karwar till Srilanka. They
were often termed as Pirates in the Greek & Roman records.

Mc Crindle’s Ptolemy mentions that the region between Nitroy and Mangalore was a Pirate
coast. Pliny’s Periplus mentions that Nitroy was their base. Kadambu tribe also had its
presence near the present day Aripo river in Srilanka which was called as Kadamba river
then.

Historian K K Pillai in his book “South India & Srilanka: Sir William Meyer Endowment
Lectures: University of Madras 2001” has mentioned that the Kadambu tribe were Sea Pirates
& were ancestors of Kadambas of Banavasi.

Tamil Sangam Literature also has many references to Kadambas in conflict with Cheras. The
only available book on ancient Chera history mentions that the ‘’Chera King Cheralathan
had defeated the Kadambus on seas and also had cut their sacred Kadamba tree and made a
drum out of the same’’.

Eg: Pattripatthu 20

“நும் கோ யார் என வினவின் எம் கோ

இரு முந்நீர்த் துருத்தியுள்
முரணியோர்த் தலைச்சென்று
கடம்பு முதல் தடிந்த கடுஞ்சின முன்பின்…….”

220
The same is reiterated/mentioned in Pattripatthu 11,12 & 17

Even Akanannuru 347 mentions the same incidences

“சால் பெருந் தானைச் சேரலாதன்

மால் கடல் ஓட்டிக் கடம்பு அறுத்து இயற்றிய
பண் அமை முரசின் கண் அதிர்ந்தன்…..’’

Another reference for the cultural interaction between the western coast and Srilanka is the
similarities of suffixes to women in the Sinhala Brahmi inscriptions of 2nd and 4th Centuries
CE. Prof. Sha. Shettar in his scholarly work” Shangam Tamilagam matthu Kannada Naadu
Nudi’’ has mentioned that the honarary suffix “abbe/abbi/bi’’ used in the inscriptions like
Pusa’s wife Pusabi;Kada’s wife Kadabi has many similarities with the current day Banavasi
region & North Karnataka as these are still commonly used as a suffix to address women. It is
also to be noted that the cultural interaction through sea route to Srilanka from this region
predates Kadambas as Banavasi was a major Buddhist centre during the Mauryan era.This is
evident in similarities in the Kadamba & Sinhala script to a certain extent.

Ancient Kadambas prior to the Mayurasharma had Mahishaka(Erumaiyur),Punnatas, Gangas

and Banas as contemporary Kannada kingdoms.
How did the name 'Cauvery' come to be associated with the Kaveri River, and when was it so
named?
People used to invoke Ganga everywhere from a well to Kaveri in South India as many
couldn't travel all the way till Kashi Prayag or Haridwar to take bath in Ganga
The name of the river kaaveri(காவேரி) is a pure Tamil name.

If you pronounce it as kaaviri(காவிரி), it is also a pure Tamil word.

Kaaveri (காவேரி) = kaa + aeri (கா + ஏரி)

Kaa (கா) --> means defense. (காவல்) .

single letter giving meaning. (ஓரெழுத்து ஒரு மொழி)

Aeri(ஏரி) means a big storage water body.

The river which acted as a defense to the people by means of its water wealth similar the lake is called
as lake of defense. தன் ஏரி பொன்ற நீர்வளத்தால் மக்களைக் காத்தமையால்
காவல் ஏரி என்ற பொருளில் காவேரி என வழங்கப்படுகிறது.

It may also be called as Kaaviri (காவிரி)

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Kaaviri means ,the river spreading defense throughout its reach.

காவிரி →(தன் நீர்வளத்தால்) தான் விரிந்து பாயும் இடங்களைக் காத்து

நிற்பது.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. “Shangam Tamilagam Maathu Kannada Naadu Nudi’’ by Sha. Shettar.(Pages 84,85,153,154 &
155)
2. Learn Sangam Tamil
3. “South India & Srilanka: Sir William Meyer Endowment Lectures: University of Madras 2001” by
K.K Pillai
These are the ancient names. In addition , the has also a nick name as ponni.(பொன்னி)

The story of Kaveri river is as follows-In Hinduism, the Kaveri River is considered one of
seven holy rivers in India. There are many stories narrated in the Puranas about the origin of
Kaveri as a river and a goddess. The Skanda Purana narrates that during the Samudra
Manthana, or churning of the Ocean of Milk, Mohini and Lopamudra retrieved the nectar of
immortality for the gods. Afterwards, Mohini became a cave in the Brahmagiri
hills and Brahma took care of Lopamudra as his daughter. Later, Brahma offered Lopamudra
to king Kavera, who was childless, as he was pleased by king Kavera's devotion. Lopamudra
was then renamed as Kaveri. In another legend, Lopamudra becomes sage Agastya's wife and
takes on a form of water during a severe drought in south India. Sage Agastya carries her in
his small brass water pot on his journey to the south. Arriving on a hill, he places the water
pot on the ground, but Ganesha, in the form of crow, knocks the water pot down. The spilled
water runs down the hill and onto the drought-stricken land.
When Kaveri grew up she prayed to Brahma to transform her into a purifying river . In
another legend, Lopamudra becomes sage Agastya's wife and takes on a form of water during
a severe drought in south India. Sage Agastya carries her in his small brass water pot on his
journey to the south.

It may be that the first blow at the importance of the port of Kaverippattinam was the event
recorded in the Manimekalai in some detail. The Chola king of the time having lost his son at
sea wandered along the beach, distraught with grief, and the people abandoned in
consequence the usual festival to Indra; thereupon, the patron deity of the city grew wrath and
laid a curse on it. The sea quickly overwhelmed the city and in consequence the king betook
himself elsewhere. This account does not make it clear whether Kaverippattinam was

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completely ruined and leaves us in doubt whether the present village is a fraction of the
ancient city or is a new hamlet sprung from the carcass of a city long defunct. The other
blows to befall it were probably the cutting of channels to divert the water from the main
river Kaveri for irrigating areas not served by it. We might, therefore, conclude that the
palmiest days of that city were those of Karikalan and of the composition of the
Silappadikaram.
But we find it mentioned as an important port in the Geography of Ptolemy, the classical
geographer, astronomer, mathematician and musician who flourished about the middle of the
2nd century AD. Ptolemy mentions ‘Khaberis, an emporium’ which has been identified with
Kaverippattinam. He mentions also the ‘Mouth of the River Khaberos’ which has been
recognized as the mouth of the river Kaveri. Two points seem to emerge from his mention of
these two places. The first is that while Ptolemy gives 128°30’ and 15°40’ for Khaberis—
Ptolemy had worked out a system of reckoning by latitudes and longitudes—he gives 129°
and 15°15’ for the mouth of the Khaberos.
Howsoever we might frame a system of latitudes and longitudes and howsoever we might
work it, we cannot arrive at the results he gives for two places in such juxtaposition as we are
accustomed to associate with Kaverippattinam and the mouth of the Kaveri. Is it likely that
Ptolemy was misled by the authorities on whom he relied? Or is it possible that by Ptolemy’s
days the city and the river had divorced themselves? The second point is that in Ptolemy’s
days the mouth of the Kaveri, as distinguished from Kaverippattinam was a spot of
importance. Had the Kaveri been at its mouth the insignificant stream which it now is, it is
most unlikely to have been noted and made special mention of by Ptolemy.

To admit that in the days of Ptolemy, the Kaveri was a river of notable proportions at its
junction with the sea and to admit also that probably ever since the days of the Manimekalai,
that is, one or two decades after the Silappadikaram and two or three decades after Karikalan,
the Kaveri had been undergoing shrinkage in its lower course and diminishing at its mouth to
almost the proportions of an Euclidean point, would not amount, however, to an admission
that the dates of Karikalan and Ptolemy could not have been far distant from each other; for
we do not know with certainty for how long before and after Karikalan’s times the damsel
Kaveri ran due east and appeared near Kaverippattinam in an expanse of swelling waters nor
yet the period when its attenuation started or the rate at which it progressed.

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There is a widespread belief that the Kaveri flowed much farther north than now; there is
even a tradition that the Kollidam is the real Kaveri. The tradition has its counterpart in the
belief that the Kaverippattinam of today does not stand on the site of the city celebrated in
Tamil literature. The difficulties of the problem are greatly increased by the fact that we have
both a Palankollidam (or Old Kollidam) and a Kollidam (which, however, is not definitely
called the New Kollidam). The former flows within about a mile of the latter from which
really it seems to branch off. The width of the former is about a hundred yards while that of
the latter is about three furlongs.
If the distance between the mouth of the Kollidam and the present-day Kaveripattinam be
fairly represented in the latitudes and longitudes of Ptolemy, we shall have to abandon the
unanimous testimony of the most ancient among the available Tamil classics about
Kaverippattinam standing on the Kaveri.
We might indulge in the supposition that Kaverippattinam is to be sought for elsewhere than
in the sands on which lies perched the hamlet that goes now by that name were it not that
local traditions associate a number of places in the neighbourhood with various incidents in
the story of the Silappadikaram. Tradition against tradition leaves the historian in a plight
identical with that in which the judge is left by oath against oath.
The belief that Kaverippattinam has not migrated along the sea coast has this much at least to
support it that beside the village now going by that name are to be traced the relics of what
must have been once a large city, whereas for miles higher up and lower down we do not
come across sites which have the appearance of being the ruins of perished cities.

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 VI
Pallava-Chola architecture of the Prambanan Temple Compounds.
Dr uday Dokras

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Entrance to the Prambanan Temple Complex
The period roughly between 680 AD and 930 AD was the golden period of the Hindu-
Buddhist architecture or more commonly known as the Hindu-Javanese architecture. This
was the period that the Hindu-Buddhist Mataram Kingdom flourished (not to be confused
with the Mataram Sultanate) under couple of dynasties, Sailendra and Sanjaya, which
followed the two dharmic faiths, Hinduism and Buddhism.

What is Pallava Chola style of architecture?

Pallava art and architecture represent an early stage of Dravidian art and architecture which
blossomed to its fullest extent under the Chola Dynasty. The first stone and mortar temples of
South India were constructed during Pallava rule and were based on earlier brick and timber
prototypes. Prambanan Temple Compounds is the largest Hindu temple complex in Indonesia
and one of the largest Hindu temples in south-east Asia. It is characterised by its tall and
pointed architecture, typical of Hindu temple architecture, and by the 47m high central
building inside a large complex of individual temples. The holy place of Chola temples were
both in a circular and square shape. Special vimanas were built on the upper side of the shrine

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room where the idol of deity was placed. Dome-shaped shikhara and Kalash were placed on
the top of the Gopuram.

Prambanan as a Hindu Temple was made High and slim compared to Borobudur, with the
main Shiva shrine stands 47 meters in the middle of the complex surrounded with smaller
temples. Prambanan has a bas-relief on the inner side of the gate around the three main
shrine. the spectacular Brihadeeswarar temple in Tanjore in 2013 and was looking forward to
see the Prambanan.

The common relationship between them is that they share the same architectural style –
Pallava-Chola South Indian style. Though the geometrical pattern of the surrounding Perwara
temples (discussed later) of the Prambanan follow the Pala architecture as seen in the
Somapura Vihara ruins in Paharpur located in the present day Bangladesh.These various
structures represent different architectures such as Pallava-Chola architecture, Pala
architecture, Gupta architecture and indigenous Javanese architecture. In this article, I briefly
cover few of the architectural wonders in that region. But I would start with the disclaimer
that I cannot do justice to the places like my childhood favorite writer, Kalki, who can carry
you back in time to the place through his incantation.

Temples of Indonesia are of three different kinds - Pura, Candi and Koil. The Candi
(pronounced as Chandi) temples are more of Javanese temples, e.g., the Candi Prambanan
while Koil are those temples constructed by Indian traders from Tamil Nadu, e.g.,
Mariamman Koil in Aceh in the 19th century. The third type of temples are the ones
constructed by the Balinese and Tenggerese called Pura temples in Eastern Java and Bali,
e.g., Pura Luhur Poten in Mount Bromo. The temples here are called Candi. Candi itself is
derived from Candika, one of the manifestations of the goddess Durga and indicates the
temples built in Indonesia, during the ‘Indianized period’, between the seventh and fifteenth
centuries. Most of these structures are built in that period when Indian culture was at its peak
in these parts of the world.

Significance of Chola Architecture

Chola temples had a beautiful shikara stone at the top. It had elaborate and carefully made
carvings. It is a marvel how these structures weighing in tonnes is placed without the help of
cranes. During their reign, Cholas made temples in Nagaeshwvara, Brihadeshwvara,
Airavateshwara and Chidambaram. Other kingdoms in South India and Sri Lanka followed
their style.
Ever since the temple building process began, the architecture reflected a synthesis of arts,
the ideals of dharma, beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. Nagara,
Dravida, Vesara etc are different styles of temple architecture. Pallavas (7th century – 9th
century) and Cholas (9th century -11th century) were the major kingdoms which epitomized
the Dravidian Architecture. Chalukyas (7th century -11th century) followed Vesara style of
architecture in the Karnataka region. Their style is also known as Karnata Dravida
style. Chalukya art was followed by Hoysala art (13th century).
Dravidian Architecture : Pallavas and Cholas
Pallavas used bricks, lion motifs, dwarfed gopurams etc. Things changed at the hands of
Cholas. They used stones instead of bricks. Walls were decorated with sculptures and
paintings of deities, kings and queens (not lion motifs). Temples have enclosed decorative
walls and entrance (Gopuram). They also have an audience hall known as Mandap. The deity
room is known as Garbhgriha. The pyramid like storey above the deity room is known as
Vimana.

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Chola Temple Architecture in detail

The Dravidian temple architecture started by the Pallavas got matured at the hand of the
Cholas. Some prominent features of temple architecture in the Chola dynasty are enunciated
here.
13. Niche- These are characteristic architectural designs of Chola temples carved in
temple walls.
14. Devakusthas- These are decorative niches of chola temple walls where deities are
sculpted.
15. Pilasters- These magnificent architectural designs are carved as projection in walls
with placing of deities within it. The pilasters are positioned in both sides of the main
devakusthas.
16. Kumbhapapanjara and kushtapan- These are narrow niches in chola temple walls with
special design for placing sculpted images.
17. Kudus- These are two lion heads which crowns the curved roof of the pilasters.
18. Mythical motif- Makar along with warrior heads positions below all the decorative
devices.
19. Torus- It is a rounded structure placed on the basement of temple sculpture or motiff
sometimes decorated with ribs.
20. Yazhi- The base of the walls of chola temples are decorated with lines of mythical
animals called yazhi.
21. Mandapa features- Arthamandapa, nandi mandapa with special decoration are
characteristics of Chola temple architecture.
22. Parivardevatas- Besides the main shrine, Chola temples were evidences of subsidiary
shrines for other deities called parivardevatas which were highly decorative.
23. Dikapalas- These are some prominent directions transparent in Chola temple with
architectural design for placing of deities.
24. Inscription- The walls of Chola temples are seen with inscriptions with architectural
design.
Comparison between Pallava and Chola Architecture
 Yali – Pallava used yali or lion motif at the base of the pillar
Chola abandoned it and used yazhi at base or kudus in other parts of the pillar.
 Dwarapala – In pallava architecture dvarapalas are comparatively benign.
In chola architecture dwarapala became fierce with protruding tusk.
 Gopuram – The gopurams in pallava dynasties were comparatively dwarfed.
But in chola dynasty they became enlarged with high enclosure walls.
 Finial – The finial in Pallava dynasy was a little swelling in the top of the vimana.
But in Chola dynasty it became beautiful vase with artistic design.
Pallava art and architecture represent an early stage of Dravidian art
and architecture which blossomed to its fullest extent under the Chola Dynasty. The first
stone and mortar temples of South India were constructed during Pallava rule and were based
228
on earlier brick and timber prototypes. Starting with rock cut temples, built between 695AD
and 722AD, and archaeological excavations dated to the 6th century and earlier. Pallava
sculptors later graduated to free-standing structural shrines which inspired Chola dynasty's
temples of a later age. Some of the best examples of Pallava art and architecture are
the Kailasanathar Temple at Kanchipuram, the Shore Temple and the Pancha
Rathas of Mahabalipuram. Akshara was the greatest sculptor of their time.
Pallava architecture was sub-divided into two phases
3. rock cut phase
4. structural phase.
JAIN religious rock cut phase lasted from the 610 AD to 668 AD and consisted of two
groups of monuments, the Mahendra group and the Mamalla group. The Mahendra group is
the name given to monuments constructed during the reign of Mahendravarman I (610 AD-
630 AD). The monuments of this group are invariably pillared halls hewn out of mountain
faces. These pillared halls or mandapas follow the prototype of Jain temples of the period.
The best examples of Mahendra group of monuments are the cave temples at
Mandagapattu, Pallavaram and Mamandur.
The second group of rock cut monuments belong to the Mamalla group in 630 to 668 AD.
During this period free-standing monolithic shrines called rathas (chariots) were constructed
alongside pillared halls. Some of the best examples of this style are the Pancha Rathas
and Arjuna's Penance at Mahabalipuram.

The second phase of Pallava architecture is the structural phase when free-standing
shrines were constructed with stone and mortar brought in for the purpose. Monuments of
this phase are of two groups - the Rajasimha group (690 to 800 AD) and the Nandivarman
group (800 to 900 AD). The Rajasimha group encompasses the early structural temples of the
Pallavas when a lot of experimentation was carried out. The best examples of this period are
the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram and the Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple at Kanchipuram
both constructed by Narasimhavarman II who was known as Rajasimha. The best example of
the Nandivarman group of monuments is the Vaikunta Perumal Temple at Kanchipuram.
During this period, Pallava architecture attained full maturity and provided the models upon
which the massive Brihadeeswarar Temple of the Cholas at Thanjavur and Gangaikonda
Cholapuram and various other architectural works of note were constructed.

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 Pallava Pillar Mandagappattu, 7th century

The temples of Prambanan itself are organized as per the Logam concept. The foot of each
temple represents the Boologam or the realm of the mortals. The middle realm or the body of
the temple represents Bhuvarlogam or realm for the holy people. The upper realm or the
holiest part of the temple or the topmost layer is the realm of gods called Swarkalogam. The
upper realm is completed by a Vajra (it can mean both thunderbolt or diamond) on the roof.

The Bas reliefs of Prambanan is very extensive and narrative. The narrative part is about
Ramayana epic and Bhagavata Puranam - stories about Vishnu and his avatars. The reliefs
also have depictions about Kalpataru, Apsaras, Devadas - all part of Hindu/Buddhist
mythology.

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History
The temple is believed to have been built by Rakai Pikatan of Sanjaya dynasty around 850
AD and expanded by subsequent kings building the Perwara temples surrounding the
centerpiece in concentric squares.
At its peak, hundreds of Brahmins lived in the temple complex while the royal court with the
urban center was located nearby. The royal court was shifted either due to Mount Merapi
volcano eruption or due to power struggle throwing Prambanan into disuse. The locals knew
about the existence of the temple but did not know the background and so the folklore of
Roro Jonggrang was attached to the temple.
It was rediscovered in the early 19th century by archaeologists from Britain during its short
occupation.

Folklore of Roro Jonggrang

Candi Prambanan is also called as Candi Roro Jonggrang based on the folklore in these parts
of the island. Roro Jonggrang is the story of a princess by the same name and her love and
betrayal. The other architectural sites existing today, Ratu Boko, Candi Sewu temple complex
and the statue of Durga Mahishasuramardini within Prambanan temple complex all have their
mythical connections to this story.
Father of Roro Jonggrang, Prabu Boko was killed in a battle by neighboring kingdom’s
prince, Bandung Bondowoso. Prince Bondowoso along with his army captures the Ratu Boko
palace. On seeing Princess Roro Jonggrang, he falls in love with her and wishes to marry her.
Roro Jonggrang, not wishing to marry him for killing her father but at the same time does not
want to reject him for him being the victor, places an impossible condition to be fulfilled by
the prince - build 1000 temples in a night.
But Prince Bondowoso, has the magical powers to invoke demon spirits (kind of like Genies)
to build the 1000 temples. But the demon spirits can only work in the night as the sunlight
can burn these spirits during daytime. They proceed to build the temples and had completed
999 temples when the princess hears this news. She tricks the rooster in the Palace by having
the maids light candles on the eastern side. The rooster, thinking that the sun was rising, starts
to crow and the spirits rush back to below the earth.
Prince Bondowoso tries to build the 1000th temple but fails. In his anger at being tricked, he
curses the Princess, who becomes a statue in the Prambanan temple complex, that of the
statue of Durga.

Candi Bubrah
Thoroughly savouring the great architecture of Prambanan and wanting to visit the temple
another day (which I did two days later), I walked hundred or so meters to Candi Bubrah,
which is a Buddhist temple constructed in the 9th century by the Sailendra dynasty. It is
named as Bubrah as it was discovered in complete ruins. What exists today is a 12 meters x
12 meters platform where I could see works carried on to restore this temple. As per my
conversation with the workers, the temple is made up of volcanic rocks.

Candi Lumbung
As there was not much to be seen, I hardly spent fifteen minutes in Candi Bubrah and walked
to my next temple - Candi Lumbung. Candi Lumbung was built around the same time frame
as Candi Bubrah in the 9th century by Sailendra Dynasty but predates Prambanan temple.
The main temple is a Buddhist temple dedicated to Manjushri Bodhisattva. There are sixteen
Perwara temples similar to the Perwara temples of Prambanan. On top of the main temple is
the stupa, typical of a Buddhist temple. The main temple can be accessed from the 4 cardinal

231
points. Just like other temples in the compounds, Lumbung is going through renovation but is
in a better condition than Bubrah.

Candi Lumbung - Main temple renovation goes on with Perwara temples on the side
Candi Sewu
After visiting Lumbung, I walked few hundred meters to stop by Candi Sewu, which is a
large temple complex unlike the smaller ruins of Bubrah. As I mentioned above, it is the
second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia after Borobudur with a total of 249
temples in its complex. The architecture resembles the Pala architecture due to the Perwara

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temples arranged in a geometric fashion similar to Prambanan. But Sewu predates Prambanan
by at least a century. The original name for this temple was Manjusrigrha (meaning “house of
Manjushri”) and was dedicated to Manjushri Bodhisattva similar to the Lumbung temple
nearby.

Main chamber where the bronze statue of Manjushri is missing

The main temple itself is 30 meters in height and 29 meters in diameter and is in a 20 sided
Polygon shape. The temple was believed to have had a bronze statue of Manjushri. The main
temple is surrounded by four concentric rows of Perwara temples similar to Prambanan and
the temple complex itself follows the same Vaastu-based Mandala concept. Candi Sewu
shares its Folklore of Roro Jonggrang with the Prambanan as many associate it with this
temple complex.

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 VII

Millennium Temple of Tanjore

Also featuring Other Living CHOLA Temples
Dr Uday Dokras
Dr Uday Dokras
The founder of the Chola Empire was Vijayalaya, who was first feudatory of the Pallavas
of Kanchi. He captured Tanjore in 850 A.D. He established a temple of goddess
Nishumbhasudini (Durga) there.
Aditya I succeeded Vijayalaya. Aditya helped his overlord the Pallava king Aparajita
against the Pandyas but soon defeated him and annexed the whole of the Pallava
kingdom.
By the end of the ninth century, the Cholas had defeated the Pallavas completely and
weakened the Pandyas capturing the Tamil country (Tondamandala) and including it
under their domination He then became a sovereign ruler. The Rashtrakuta king, Krishna
II gave his daughter in marriage to Aditya.
This is map of 12 century Chola empire. You can see the names of the provinces. These were
the core Chola territories for a significant period of their rule.

234
The greatest rulers in India.
Two thousand years back they built a dam (Kallanai) to control the floods in Cauvery and
constructed an irrigation system. The dam is still the oldest earthen dam in the world.
They were the first to conduct elections in the world - The candidate had to be educated,
self-sufficient and done charity work - the votes were marked on palm leaves and
dropped into pots for individual contestents (Kudam).
They were the first to build a naval force and go on a conquest across the Indian Ocean.
They conquered Burma, Malaya, Singapore, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Indonesia…… but
appointed natives to rule the country and returned.
They were one of the three Tamil kingdoms to carry on trade across the seas with Rome,
Egypt.
If you have not learnt about Cholas, you know nothing about Indian History. May be you
know north-Indian history. Chola dynasty is one of the golden period in south india as
particularly south east india as they ruled from 300 BC to 1279 AD.
Agricultural wealth :The old Tamil prover says "Chola Nadu Chorudaithu" which means "
Chola's country has massive agricultural wealth".
Law and Justice : As the Law and Justice was most honest judgements in the world on not
only on that time alone even for ever. As the old history says the story of "Ellalan (a)
Manuneethi Cholan" - one of the emperor of chola's family killed his own son to establish the
justice as his son killed a cub on his chariot while going to hunt.
Architecture: Raja Raja Chola I- One of the emperor of Chola's family built " Brihadeeswarar
Temple in Tanjore which is recognized as one of the world heritage center by UNESCO.
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There are so many marvels held on those period. Then they were the strongest rulers on south
india along with Chera dynasty and Pandyan dynasty. significance of the Chola
Empires are:
 Longest ruling dynasty in the world
 Cholas only spreaded saivam (now Hindu religion) and temple culture
till Indonesia, Malaysia, Combodia, Vietnam and countries they ruled.
 The oldest functioning in the world is kallanaai dam was built by Karikaala
Cholan in Trichy city kallanaai

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👆 This is that kallanaai dam
 Sill now there a place named chola pass and chola mountain range in
Nepal ,China border which is named after this Karikaala Cholan who
extended his dainasty still there.

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Chola pass 👆

Chola mountain Range 👆.

 They are best in temple construction the second largest Temple and largest
temple gopuram in the world was built by dharma Varma
Cholan raganathasamy temple in Sri Rangam

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The best temple in the world is Peru udayar temple (pregadeeshwara temple) built
by Raja Raja Cholan

👆 Peru udayar temple (pregadeeshwara temple)

 One of the largest dainasty in the world and largest dainasty in India

239
👆 Chola territory .
If any kingdom accept the defeat before the war or during the War they will give
the kingdom to them itself and collect the tax and power was fully on cholas.

The next destination is Gangaikonda Cholapuram, situated 45 kms to the southwest of

Chidambaram, in the Udayarpalayam taluk of Ariyalur district, Tamil Nadu. The nearest
railway station is at Kumbakonam and Ariyalur. But, the simplest way to reach Cholapuram
is by road, with the help of state transport and private buses. You need to travel
via Kaattumannarkudi or kovil, which is 27 kms from Chidambaram. From there, local buses
and auto rickshaws are available at reasonable rates, to cover the final 17 kms. Locally,
Gangaikonda Cholapuram is known as Jayakondam (please, remember this). So, lets know
more about the Cholapuram temple …..
Cholas had become the greatest power in South India by 10th century CE. They had reached
the borders of the Rashtrakuta kingdom in the north. Rows of temples were built on both the
banks of the river Cauvery to mark their growing power. Cholas greatly made use of art to
proclaim their power, used temples to make unequivocal statements about their political
hegemony. The Great Chola King, Rajaraja I, crowned in 985, carved out an overseas empire
by establishing a second capital at Pollonaruva in Sri Lanka. The Brihadeeswara (Big temple
of Thanjavur), built by him (995 – 1010) at his capital Thanjavur, though he did not live to
see it completed is a product of this success. Temple inscriptions make clear the triumphal
nature of the edifice.

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Just a couple of years after Rajaraja I built the Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur, his proud
son Rajendra I (1012 – 1044 AD) became the Chola ruler. Rajendra ruled jointly alongside
his father, until the latter’s death in 1016 AD. Having served as a general under his father,
Rajendra was an accomplished warrior who led many successful military expeditions. He had
his army march northwards, all the way to the Ganga, to bring home pots of holy water from
the river. Defeating enemy armies along the way, his men returned victorious, earning
Rajendra the title ‘Gangaikondachola’, meaning ‘the Chola who conquered the Ganges’.
He established a new capital city called Gangaikondacholapuram (also called
Gangaikondacholeshwaram) about 70 km from Thanjavur, and had a royal temple by the
same name built in it. The temple is commonly called the Brihadisvara Temple now (the one
we are going to explore). Rajendra also built a lake in the town called Cholagangam to mark
his victorious expedition. It was fed by the Cauvery river, and some water from the holy
river, Ganga was poured into it as well. Today, people call it Ponneri lake.

Front view of the Glorious east facing Brihadisvara Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple is the pinnacle of the achievements of Rajendra I, the
mighty Chola King, who established his new capital here with the magnificent city and
temple dedicated to Lord Siva. The temple is massive and richly carved with sculptures. The
architecture has complex carvings on the hard granite stones unlike the customary simple
style of the Cholas. The sculptures that adorn the walls and ceilings of Gangaikonda
Cholapuram are exquisite.The temple is famed for its bronze sculptures, artwork on its walls,
the depiction of Nandi and the scale of its tower. As well as its notability for having been
built by Rajendra I, the temple is also noteworthy for its numerous inscriptions, although
none of them are his.

Brihadishvara Temple, called Rajarajesvaram (lit. 'Lord of Rajaraja') by its builder, and
known locally as Thanjai Periya Kovil ("Thanjavur Big Temple") and Peruvudaiyar Kovil,
is a Shaivite Hindu temple built in a Chola architectural style located on the south bank of

241
the Cauvery river in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India. It is one of the largest Hindu temples and
an exemplar of Tamil architecture. It is also called Dakshina Meru ("Meru of the South).
Built by Chola emperor Rajaraja I between 1003 and 1010 CE, the temple is a part of
the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the "Great Living Chola Temples", along with
the hola-era Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple and Airavatesvara temple, which are about 70
kilometres (43 mi) and 40 kilometres (25 mi) to its northeast respectively. The Peruvudaiyar
Temple is located in the city of Thanjavur, about 350 kilometres (220 mi) southwest
of Chennai. The city is connected daily to other major cities by the network of Indian
Railways, Tamil Nadu bus services and the National Highways 67, 45C, 226 and 226 Extn.
The nearest airport with regular services is Tiruchirappalli International Airport (IATA:
TRZ), about 55 kilometres (34 mi) away.
The city and the temple though inland, are at the start of the Kaveri River delta, thus with
access to the Bay of Bengal and through it to the Indian Ocean. Along with the temples, the
Tamil people completed the first major irrigation network in the 11th century for agriculture,
for movement of goods and to control the water flow through the urban center.

The original monuments of this 11th-century temple were built around a moat. It
included gopura, the main temple, its massive tower, inscriptions, frescoes, and sculptures
predominantly related to Shaivism, but also of Vaishnavism and Shaktism. The temple was
damaged in its history and some artwork is now missing. Additional mandapam and
monuments were added in the centuries that followed. The temple now stands amidst fortified
walls that were added after the 16th century.
Built using granite, the vimana tower above the shrine is one of the tallest in South India.
[6]
The temple has a massive colonnaded prakara (corridor) and one of the largest
Shiva lingas in India. It is also famed for the quality of its sculpture, as well as being the
location that commissioned the brass Nataraja, Shiva as the lord of dance, in the 11th century.
The complex includes shrines for Nandi, Parvati, Murugan, Vinayagar,
Sabhapati, Dakshinamurti, Chandikeshwar, Varahi, Thiyagarajar of Thiruvarur and others.
The temple is one of the most visited tourist attractions in Tamil Nadu.
Rajaraja Chola, who commissioned the temple, called it Rajarajeshvaram (Rajarājeśvaram),
literally "the temple of the god of Rajaraja".A later inscription in the Brihannayaki shrine
calls the temple's deity Periya Udaiya Nayanar, which appears to be the source of the modern
names Brihadisvara and Peruvudaiyar Kovil.
Brihadishwara (: Bṛihádīśvara) is a Sanskrit composite word composed of Brihat which
means "big, great, lofty, vast", and Ishvara means "lord, Shiva, supreme being,
supreme atman (soul)". The name means the "great lord, big Shiva" temple.

Statue of Chola emperor Rajaraja I who built the temple over 1003-1010 CE
A spectrum of Hindu temple styles continued to develop from the fifth to the ninth century
over the Chalukya era rule as evidenced in Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal, and then with

242
the Pallava era as witnessed at Mamallapuram and other monuments. Thereafter, between
850 and 1280, Cholas emerged as the dominant dynasty. The early Chola period saw a
greater emphasis on securing their geopolitical boundaries and less emphasis on architecture.
In the tenth century, within the Chola empire emerged features such as the
multifaceted columns with projecting square capitals. This, states George Michell, signaled
the start of the new Chola style. This South Indian style is most fully realized both in scale
and detail in the Brihadeshwara temple built between 1003 and 1010 by the Chola
king Rajaraja I.
Additions, renovations and repairs
The main temple along with its gopurams is from the early 11th century. The temple also saw
additions, renovations, and repairs over the next 1,000 years. The raids and wars, particularly
between Muslim Sultans who controlled Madurai and Hindu kings who controlled Thanjavur
caused damage. These were repaired by Hindu dynasties that regained control. In some cases,
the rulers attempted to renovate the temple with faded paintings, by ordering new murals on
top of the older ones. In other cases, they sponsored the addition of shrines. The significant
shrines of Kartikeya (Murugan), Parvati (Amman) and Nandi are from the 16th and 17th-
century Nayaka era. Similarly the Dakshinamurti shrine was built later. It was well
maintained by Marathas of Tanjore.

Architecture
The Peruvudaiyar temple's plan and development utilizes
the axial and symmetrical geometry rules. It is classified as Perunkoil (also called
Madakkoil), a big temple built on a higher platform of a natural or man-made mounds. The
temple complex is a rectangle that is almost two stacked squares, covering 240.79 metres
(790.0 ft) east to west, and 121.92 metres (400.0 ft) north to south. In this space are five main
sections: the sanctum with the towering superstructure (sri vimana), the Nandi hall in front
(Nandi-mandapam) and in between these the main community hall (mukhamandapam), the
great gathering hall (mahamandapam) and the pavilion that connects the great hall with the
sanctum (Antrala).The temple complex integrates a large pillared and covered veranda
(prakara) in its spacious courtyard, with a perimeter of about 450 metres (1,480 ft) for
circumambulation. Outside this pillared veranda there are two walls of enclosure, the outer
one being defensive and added in 1777 by the French colonial forces with gun-holes with the
temple serving as an arsenal. They made the outer wall high, isolating the temple complex
area. On its east end is the original main gopuram or gateway that is barrel vaulted. It is less
than half the size of the main temple's vimana. Additional structures were added to the
original temple after the 11th century, such as a mandapa in its northeast corner and
additional gopurams (gateways) on its perimeters to allow people to enter and leave from
multiple locations. Some of the shrines and structures were added during the Pandya,
Nayaka, Vijayanagara and Maratha era, before the colonial era started, and these builders
respected the original plans and symmetry rules. Inside the original temple courtyard, along
with the main sanctum and Nandi-mandapam are two major shrines, one for Kartikeya and
for Parvati. The complex has additional smaller shrines.
The Peruvudaiyar temple continued the Hindu temple traditions of South India by adopting
architectural and decorative elements, but its scale significantly exceeded the temples
constructed before the 11th century. The Chola era architects and artisans innovated the
expertise to scale up and build, particularly with heavy stone and to accomplish the 63.4
metres (208 ft) high towering vimana.

243
Nandi mandapam and the entrance gopurams, northeast view from courtyard Another view of
the entrance.
The temple faces east, and once had a water moat around it. This has been filled up. The
fortified wall now runs around this moat. The two walls have ornate gateways called the
gopurams. These are made from stone and display entablature. The main gateways are on the
east side. The first one is called the Keralantakan tiruvasal, which means the "sacred gate of
the Keralantakan". The word Keralantakan was the surname of king Rajaraja who built it.
About a 100 metres (330 ft) ahead is the inner courtyard gopuram called the Rajarajan
tiruvasal. This is more decorated than the Keralantakan tiruvasal, such as with
its adhishthanam relief work narrating scenes from the Puranas and other Hindu texts. The
inner eastern gopuram leads to a vast courtyard, in which the shrines are all signed to east–
west and north-west cardinal directions. The complex can be entered either on one axis
through a five-story gopuram or with a second access directly to the huge main quadrangle
through a smaller free-standing gopuram. The gopuram of the main entrance is 30 m high,
smaller than the vimana.[13]The main temple-related monuments and the great tower is in the
middle of this courtyard.[32] Around the main temple that is dedicated to Shiva, are smaller
shrines, most of which are aligned axially. These are dedicated to his consort Parvati, his
sons Murugan and Ganesha, Nandi, Varahi, Karuvur deva (the guru of Rajaraja Chola),
Chandeshvara and Nataraja. The Nandi mandapam has a monolithic seated bull facing the
sanctum. In between them are stairs leading to a columned porch and community gathering
hall, then an inner mandapa connecting to the pradakshina patha, or circumambulation path.
The Nandi (bull) facing the mukh-mandapam weighs about 25 tonnes.[36] It is made of a
single stone and is about 2 m in height, 6 m in length and 2.5 m in width. The image of Nandi
is a monolithic one and is one of the largest in the country.[
Preservation & Restoration
As a world heritage monument, the temple and the premises comes under the Archaeological
Survey of India (ASI) which falls under the Ministry of Culture of the Government of India,
to ensure safety, preservation and restoration. The surrounding facilities have been upgraded
to create an ambience worthy of the grandeur of this ancient marvel with lighting, signage
and facilities for devotees and visitors. The lighting of the monument is designed to enhance
the natural color of the stone along with the sculptural forms adorning all corners of the
temple. The restoration has been undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India that
commissioned Sheila Sri Prakash Indian architect and designer to lead the design

244
Brihadeeswara Temple Gopuram at Night
Sanctum and the Sri-vimana

The sanctum is at the center of the western square. It is surrounded by massive walls that are
divided into levels by sharply cut sculptures and pilasters providing deep bays and recesses.
Each side of the sanctuary has a bay with iconography. The interior of the sanctum
sanctorum hosts an image of the primary deity, Shiva, in the form of a huge stone linga. It is
called Karuvarai, a Tamil word that means "womb chamber". This space is called garbha
griha in other parts of India. Only priests are allowed to enter this inner-most chamber.
In the Tamizhan style, the sanctum takes the form of a miniature vimana. It has the inner wall
together with the outer wall creating a path around the sanctum for circumambulation
(pradakshina). The entrance is highly decorated. The inside chamber is the sanctum
sanctorum, which houses the brihad linga..The main Vimana (Shikhara) is a massive 16
storeys tower of which 13 are tapering squares. It dominates the main quadrangle. It sits
above a 30.18 metres (99.0 ft) sided square . The tower is elaborately articulated with Pila
ster, piers(a raised structure), and attached columns which are placed rhythmically covering
every surface of the vimana.

Deities and Natya Sastra dance mudras

The bronze Nataraja design of Thanjavur found in many museums was commissioned for this
temple's sanctum/ The sikhara, a cupolic dome (25 tons), is octagonal and rests on a single

245
block of granite, weighing 80 tons// One of the 81 dance positions carved on the outer wall of
the upper storey corridor wall.
The temple is dedicated to Shiva in the form of a huge linga, his abstract aniconic
representation. It is 8.7 m (29 ft) high, occupying two storeys of the sanctum. [6][12] It is one of
the largest monolithic linga sculptures in India.
Sculptures on the maha-mandapam walls
North side South side
Bhairava (Shiva) Ganesha
Mahishasuramardini
Vishnu
(Durga)
Saraswati Gajalakshmi

The Shaivism temple celebrates all major Hindu traditions by including the primary deities of
the Vaishnavism and Shaktism tradition in the great mandapa of the main temple. The
distribution of the deities is generally symmetric, except for the east entrance side which
provide for the door and walkway. In addition to the main deities, each side provides
for dvarapalas (guardians), and various other sculptures. The vestibule has three stone
sculptures that is intricately carved, and mural paintings. [43] The ground floor level sanctum
walls have the following sculptures:

 East wall: Lingodbhava, standing Shiva, Pashupata-murti,

plus two dvarapalas flanking the pathway from ardha-
mandapam
 South wall: Bhikshatana, Virabhadra,
Dakshinamurti, Kalantaka, Nataraja[note 3] plus two dvarapalas
 West wall: Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu), Lingodbhava,
Chandrashekhara without prabhavali, Chandrashekhara
with prabhavali, plus two dvarapalas
 North wall: Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati),
Gangadhara without Parvati, Pashupata-murti, Shiva-
alingana-murti, plus two dvarapalas

On the second floor, Shiva's Tripurantaka form in different postures is depicted

corresponding to these sculptures. Above these floors, the sri-vimana towers above
in thirteen storeys (talas). Above these storeys is a single square block of granite
weight 80 tons, and 7.77 metres (25.5 ft) side. On top of this block, at its corners are
Nandi pairs each about 1.98 metres (6 ft 6 in) by 1.68 metres (5 ft 6 in) in dimension.
Above the center of this granite block rises the griva, the sikhara and the finial (stupi)
of Tamil Hindu temple architecture. This stupi is 3.81 metres (12.5 ft) in height, and
was originally covered with gold (no longer). The sikhara at the top is cupola-shaped
and weighs 25 tons.[43][44] Each storey of this tower is decorated with kutas and salas.
The shrinking squares tower architecture of this temple differs from the tower at the
Chola temple at Gangaikondasolisvaram, because this is straight in contrast to the
latter which is curvilinear. The temple's sri-vimana magnitude has made it a towering
landmark for the city.[43] The upper storey corridor wall of the aditala is carved with 81
of the 108 dance karanas – postures of Natya Sastra. This text is the basis of
the Bharathanatyam, the classical dance of Tamil Nadu. The 27

246
unrepresented karanas are blank blocks of stone, and it is unclear why these were
not carved. The 81 postures carved suggest the significance of this classical Indian
dance form by early 11th century.[12]
The garbhagriha is square and sits on a plinth. This is moulded and 0.5 metres (1 ft
8 in) thick. It consists of upapitham and adhishthanam, respectively 140 cm and
360 cm thick.[12]
Mandapa
The two mandapa, namely maha-mandapa and mukha-mandapa, are square plan
structures axially aligned between the sanctum and the Nandi mandapa. The maha-
mandapa has six pillars on each side.[45] This too has artwork. The Vitankar and
Rajaraja I bronze are here, but these were added much later. The maha-mandapa is
flanked by two giant stone dvarapalas. It is linked to the mukha-mandapa by stairs.
The entrance of the mukha-mandapa also has dvarapalas. With the mandapa are
eight small shrines for dikpalas, or guardian deities of each direction such
as Agni, Indra, Varuna, Kubera and others. These were installed during the rule of
Chola king Rajendra I.[45]
Inscriptions indicate that this area also had other iconography from major Hindu
traditions during the Chola era, but these are now missing. The original eight shrines
included those for Surya (the sun god), Saptamatrikas (seven mothers), Ganesha,
Murugan, Jyeshtha, Chandra (the moon god), Chandeshvara and Bhairava.
[45]
Similarly, in the western wall cella was a massive granite Ganesha built during
Rajaraja I era, but who is now found in the tiruch-churru-maligai (southern veranda).
Of the Shaktism tradition's seven mothers, only Varahi survives in a broken form.
Her remnants are now found in a small modern era brick "Varahi shrine" in the
southern side of the courtyard. The original version of the others along with their
original Chola shrines are missing.[45]
Murals

247
A mural of Rajaraja I and his guru.

Nayaka era ceiling mural in the Nandi shrine.

The temple has an underneath layer of Chola frescoes on the sanctum walls along
the circumambulatory pathway. These frescoes which cover floor to ceiling, were
discovered in 1931 by S. K. Govindasami of the Annamalai University. [46] The painters
used natural pigments and infused it into the wet limestone layer as it was setting in.
The Chola frescoes were largely of Shaivism themes. These were restored in the
2000s.[47] The total Chola fresco area is about 670 square metres (7,200 sq ft), of
which about 112 square metres (1,210 sq ft) had been uncovered as of 2010 in a
method that preserves both paintings, a technique developed by Archaeological
Survey of India.[46] The frescoes narrate Hindu mythology.[46][48] According to
Balasubrahmanyam, most frescoes are related to Shiva, but the 11th century Chola
frescoes also show Vishnu, Durga and others, as well as scenes of Chola royalty,
courtly and common life.[48]

Murals in the ceiling of Nandi mandapa, Brihadeeswara temple

The later constructions, additions and modifications to the temple curtailed the
amount of natural light inside the temple. The frescoes were thus photographed in a
limited way and interpreted. According to Sriraman, a complete imaging with better
photographic equipment suggests that these historic interpretations were incorrect.
[46]
For example, a fresco that was previously interpreted as Dakshinamurti Shiva is

248
actually a secular scene of a royal guru meditating under a banyan tree. On the tree
are shown peacocks, birds, monkeys, squirrels and owls, plus a cobra. The animals
and birds are shown as worried of the cobra, the one's closer to the snake are shown
to be more worried.[46] Other parts of the panel similarly show a court listening to a
saint. Other show women in different dresses in different dance mudra.[46]
Some of the paintings in the sanctum sanctorum and the walls in the passage had
been damaged because of the soot that had deposited on them once upon a time.
Owing to the continuous exposure to smoke and soot from the lamps and burning of
camphor in the sanctum sanctorum over a period of centuries certain parts of the
Chola paintings on the circumambulatory passage walls had been badly damaged.
[47]
The Archaeological Survey of India, for the first time in the world, used its unique
de-stucco process to restore 16 Nayak paintings, which were superimposed on
1000-year-old Chola frescoes.[47] These 400-year-old paintings have been mounted
on fibre glass boards, displayed at a separate pavilion.[47]
Inscriptions

Tamil Inscriptions in Thanjavur Brahadeeshwara Temple written 1000 years ago

The temple walls have numerous inscriptions in Tamil and Grantha scripts. Many of
these begin with customary Sanskrit and Tamil language historical introduction to the
king who authorized it, and predominant number of them discuss gifts to the temple
or temple personnel, in some cases residents of the city. The temple complex has
sixty four inscriptions of Rajaraja Chola I, twenty nine inscriptions of Rajendra Chola
I, one each of Vikrama Chola, Kulottunga I and Rajamahendra (Rajendra II), three of
a probable Pandyan king, two of Nayaka rulers namely, Achyutappa Nayaka and
Mallapa Nayaka.[51]

249
 1. ஸ்வஸ்திஸ்ரீ் திருமகள் போல பெருநில

2. பெருநிலச் செல்வியுந் தனக்கேயுரிமை

3. கேயுரிமை பூண்டமை மனக்கொளக்

4. காந்தளூர்ச் சாலைக் களமறூத்தருளி வேங்கை

5. உடையார் ஸ்ரீராஜராஜ சோழன்

Excerpts of Rajaraja's inscription from Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur (first line in every image)
The Brihadishwara Temple has Tamil and Sanskrit inscriptions from the 11th century.

Temple personnel
An inscription on the north wall of enclosure, dated 1011 CE, gives a detailed
accounts of people employed and supported by the temple. The inscription gives
their wages, roles and names. It includes over 600 names including those of priests,
lamp lighters, washermen, tailors, jewelers, potters, carpenters, sacred parasol
bearers, dance gurus, dancing girls, singers, male and female musicians,
superintendents of performance artists, accountants among others. Their wages was
in parcels of land, so their temple employment was likely part-time.[52][50]
The temple employed devadasis who were dancers and singers of devotional
hymns. Among its numerous inscriptions are frequent gifts that state, "to provide for
worship, for food to assembly of sannyasis (monks or ascetics) and for repairs".
According to George Michell, the Thanjavur temple was a major charity institution in
its history. It provides free meal for pilgrims, devotees and wayfarers on a daily
basis. On the days of Hindu festivals, these meals were elaborate and
when brahmins were particularly invited and fed.[52][50]
Millennium commemoration

250
1,000-year-old Thanjavur Brihadeeshwara Temple - view at sunrise.

Dancers gathered at Brihadishwara Temple to commemorate it.

Built in the year 1010 CE by Chola emperor Rajaraja I in Thanjavur, the temple is
popularly known as the Big Temple. It turned 1000 years old in September 2010. To
celebrate the 1000th year of the grand structure, the state government and the town
held many cultural events. It was to recall the 275th day of his 25th regal year (1010
CE) when Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE) handed over a gold-plated kalasam (copper pot
or finial) for the final consecration to crown the vimana, the 59.82-metre tall tower
above the sanctum.[53][54][55]
Bharathanatyam Yajna
To mark the occasion, the state government organised a Bharathanatyam Yajna,
classical dance show under noted dancer Padma Subramaniam. It was jointly
organised by the Association of Bharatanatyam Artistes of India (ABHAI) and the
Brhan Natyanjali Trust, Thanjavur. To mark the 1000th anniversary of the building,
1000 dancers from New Delhi, Mumbai, Pune, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Singapore, Malaysia and the US danced in concert to
the recorded 11 verses of divine music Thiruvisaippa (ninth volume of Thirumurai)
composed by Karuvur deva (the guru of Rajaraja ). The small town turned into a
cultural hub for two days beginning 26 September 2010 as street performers and
dancers performed throughout the town.[56][57]
Commemorative stamps and coins
On 26 September 2010 (Big Temple's fifth day of millennium celebrations), as a
recognition of Big Temple's contribution to the country's cultural, architectural,

251
epigraphical history, a special ₹ 5 postage stamp featuring the 216-feet tall
giant Raja Gopuram was released by India Post.
The Reserve Bank of India commemorated the event by releasing a ₹ 5 coin with the
model of temple embossed on it.[58][59] A Raja, Cabinet Minister of Communications
and Information Technology released the esteemed Brihadeeswarar temple special
stamp, the first of which was received by G K Vasan, Cabinet Minister of Shipping.
Mumbai Mint issued Rs 1000 Commemorative Coin with the same picture as on the
Rs 5 coin. It was the first 1000 Rupees coin to be released in the Republic of India
coinage. This coin was a Non Circulative Legal Tender (NCLT).[60]
On 1 April 1954, the Reserve Bank of India released a ₹ 1000 currency note
featuring a panoramic view of the Brihadeeswar temple marking its cultural heritage
and significance. In 1975, the then government led by Prime Minister Indira
Gandhi demonetised all ₹ 1,000 currency notes in an effort to curtail black money.
These notes are now popular among collectors.[61]
In 2010, the then Tamil Nadu chief minister, M Karunanidhi renamed Semmai Rice,
a type of high productivity paddy variant, as Raja Rajan-1000 to mark the millennial
year of the constructor of the temple, Rajaraja Chola].[62]

Thanjavur or Chola Empire(Tamil: [t̪ aɲdʑaːʋuːɾ]), also Tanjore, is a city in the Indian state of
Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is the 11th biggest city in Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is an important
center of South Indian religion, art, and architecture. Most of the Great Living Chola
Temples, which are UNESCO World Heritage Monuments, are located in and around
Thanjavur. The foremost among these, the Brihadeeswara Temple, is located in the centre
of the city. Thanjavur is also home to Tanjore painting, a painting style unique to the region.

252
History of Brihadisvara temple, Cholapuram
The Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple is smaller yet more refined than the Thanjavur Big
temple. Because of its delicate appearance and gentle curve, this temple is often called the
feminine version of the one in Thanjavur. The temple was constructed in 1035 AD by
Rajendra Chola I. Some experts believe that the temple was built during 1020, during the
6th regnal year, but inscriptions indicate the 20th regnal year, which is 1035 AD. Rajendra
wanted to emulate the temple built by his father after his victory in a campaign across India
that Chola era texts state covered Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Bengal. After his
victory, he demanded that the defeated kingdoms send pots of Ganges River water and pour
them into the temple’s well. The well was originally called Cholagangam as it was filled with
water from Ganges.
Gangaikonda Cholapuram remained the Chola capital for the next 250 years. Rajendra I built
the entire capital with several temples using plans and infrastructure recommended in Tamil
Vastu and Agama Sastra texts. These included a Dharma Sasta, Vishnu and other temples.
However, these structures were destroyed in the late 13th and 14th centuries except this
temple. The other Chola landmarks, clearly shown by soil covered mounds and excavated
broken pillar stumps and brick walls, are found over a large area nearby. The earliest
inscription that mentions this city by name is dated 1029, while the earliest reference to
Rajendra I’s expedition towards the Ganges river in the north is dated 1023. The first gift to
the newly built Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple is dated 1035. Rajendra I, must have
involved the same craftsmen used by his father and transferred them from
Thanjavur. Archaeological excavations have revealed fort walls and palace remains a few
kilometers from this temple. It is believed that Kulothunga Chola I, Rajendra’s successor,
built fortifications around the city.
The reasons for the city’s destruction are unclear. The Pandyas who defeated the Cholas
during the later part of 13th-century “may have razed the city to ground” to avenge their
previous defeats. However, it is unclear why other temples were destroyed and this temple
was spared, as well as why there are around twenty inscriptions from later Cholas, Pandyas
and Vijayanagar Empires indicating various gifts and grants to this temple if they previously
razed this place. An alternative theory links the destruction to the raids, plunder and wars,
particularly with the invasion of the capital city and the territories, that were earlier a part of
the Chola and Madurai Empires, by the armies of the Delhi Sultanate led by the army
commander Malik Kafur in 1311, followed by Khusrau Khan in 1314, and Muhammad bin
Tughlaq in 1327. The period that followed saw many wars from the Delhi Sultanate and they
carved out new states such as the nearby Madurai Sultanate (1335–1378). The Vijayanagara
Empire defeated the Madurai Sultanate in 1378 and this temple, along with other Chola era
temples, then returned to the control of South Indian kings who repaired and restored many of
them. The temple was added to the list of Great Living Chola Temples in the year 2004.
According to available evidences, the last Chola, King Rajendra Chola III’s rule did not end
due to defeats in war. There are signs of some devastation that hint at some major catastrophe
that happened around Gangaikondacholapuram which brought to an end the Chola rule. The
temple, unfortunately, was looted several times. It was also used as a garrison and fortified
cantonment by the Pandyas and later on by the British as well.
Floor Plan of Brihadisvara temple, Cholapuram

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Though the temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram follows the plan of the great temple of
Thanjavur in most details it has an individuality of its own. From the remains it may be seen
that it had only one enclosure wall and a gopuram while the Thanjavur temple has two
gopurams and enclosures. The prakara follows the Thanjavur lay-out in that it had a two
storeyed cloister running all around. Only a part of this has survived in the north. The stones
from the other portions were utilized to build the Lower Anaicut across the
Kollidam, during British rule in 18th century. The pillars of cut stone are severely plain
throughout as in Thanjavur.
Second session of Day 2 – Exploring the Great Living Brihadisvara temple, Gangaikondam
Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple of Lord Shiva is really grand and is regarded as the
reproduction of Brihadeeswara temple built by Rajaraja Chola, father of Rajendra Chola I. It
surpasses the Thanjavur Big temple sculpture as, by the time it was built, Chola sculptors and
artisans had perfected the art of temple architecture. It is a tribute to the magnificent
architects and artisans.
As one steps in, the great Sri Vimana (superstructure) arrests the visitor’s sight. The Vimana
with its recessed corners and upward movement presents a striking contrast to the straight-
sided pyramidal tower of Thanjavur but with octagon shape of Dravidian architecture. As it
rises to a height of 182 feet (55 m) and is 9m shorter than the Thanjavur tower (as a mark of
respect to his father’s masterpiece) with larger plinth, it is often described as the feminine
counterpart of the Thanjavur temple.

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(Welcome Scene) Front view of Brihadisvara temple, Cholapuram – The temple is approached
through the eastern entrance from the road. The entrance is called the
“Mahaduvar” leads to the inner court. This Temple is renowned for having a
four-meter-high Lingam, one of the biggest Sivalingam in South India. Interestingly,
to provide a private worship area for the royal family, the sanctum is
encircled with two walls.

Mahaduvar – Entrance tower in east, has only basement portion: the superstructure is
completely fallen down. The stones from this ruined gopuram were used for the construction
of the lower Anaicut dam across the nearby Kollidam river. On
plan, the whole edifice forms a rectangle approximately 60 feet by 33 feet. Large dvarapalas
with 7 ft height, were placed on the outer facade.
A Flag post or Dvaja Sthamba is placed in front of the temple, near the eastern entrance….

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Flag Post or Dvaja Sthamba of Brihadisvara temple – Having a height of 40 ft and is plated with brass,
recently. Look at the design works ! they are similar to the art works of modern day flag posts, seen in many
other south indian temples.

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In this Flag mast, there are four images sculpted in the cardinal directions. The images are, Siva-Parvathi
facing east, Nandi facing west, Lord Karthikeya facing north and Lord Ganesha facing south.
In front of the flag mast, one can see a “Couchant Bull” facing west, towards the main
sanctum

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Nandi Statue (Couchant Bull) – The loyal mount of Lord Siva, constructed using bricks and lime, placed in front
of the Mahamandapa, which leads to the main sanctum.
original one was monolithic. A Bali pitha is found on east of Nandi.

A mythical monster face, found below the neck, on the torso of Nandi statue. Looks like a Chinese art work …. isn’t it
? Can this be identified as an example of ancient cultural exchanges ? Just look at his face…. How calm and how
proud he is ! Guarding his Lord without any inhibition….
The building to the north of Nandi, called Alankara mandapa, and now housing the executive
office of the temple was in all probability constructed in the 19th century. On the northeast
corner of the temple complex, you can see a circular well adorned with a lion structure at the
entrance…. “Simhakeni”

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“Singhamukha Kinaru” (Lion-faced well) – The lion-faced entrance to the well has a flight of steps
leading to the water level. An inscription on the sculpture (in the bottom part of left side) in the 19th CE
characters records that it was constructed by Zamindar of Udiyarpalaiyam.

Huge Circular well situated to the right side of Lion-faced well. After his victory (Ganges
conquest), Rajendra Chola demanded that the defeated kingdoms send pots of Ganges River water and
pour them into this temple well.

Viewing the Great Sri Vimana from the Lion’s perspective….

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The superb architecture of the temple boasts of a 9 storey Vimanam that extends to the height
of 185 feet. Not less than 54.86m in height, the temple structure follows the style of
Thanjavur big temple. Whole temple is thrived with rich and intricate carvings that are
exclusive to Chola style of artistry. Known to comprise a little northern style, the structure
embraces intricate carvings in the Vimanam. The colossal shrine also addresses several
significant bronzes of the Chola age.

Incredible piece of architecture, isn’t it ? Archeological Survey of India has renovated the Srivimana and painted it
beautifully
after the chemical cleaning. The sight of the Srivimana from this second entrance is magnificent and beautiful.
The structural difference of this Srivimana with that of Rajaraja-I’s Brihadeeswara temple at Thanjavur is that; this
Srivimana is of feminine structure and the Thanjavur Srivimana as masculine in nature. The main difference, that is
obvious, is this Srivimana has 8 sided (Octagonal) in structure and Thanjavur Srivimana has 4 sided (Quadragonal) in
structure.

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Top view of the Sri Vimana -The neck is provided with four niches in the cardinal directions
and bulls at the corners. The niches are topped by arch-like embellishment
called kirtimukhas. The globular element on the top called Sikhara is according to tradition,
made of one stone weighing many stones. But, in fact, it is made of many pieces of cut stones
dressed for the purpose, as may be seen from the portion where the plaster has fallen
down. The final, stupi is a metal vase (Kalasa) with a lotus-bud design at the top. It is gilded
with gold and is said to carry an inscription named after Nallakka-tola-udayar, a Poligar of
Udayarpalaiyam. It is not known whether the stupi is the original one and probably gilded by
the Poligar or is a new one gifted by him.
The main temple consists of a sanctum tower called Sri Vimana or Sri Koil, a big rectangular
mandapa called the mahamandapa with an intervening vestibule called mukhamandapa. The
front entrance to the great mandapa is approached by steps from north and south. As the
flooring of the mandapa is on a high elevation, the steps rise to a considerable height forming
a high platform in the front. It is said that there is a subterranean passage with steps under this
platform. Some claim that this passage leads to the royal palace, while others assert that it
leads to the river Kollidam. Yet a third tradition says that it leads to an underground treasury
wherein invaluable properties belonging to the temple are preserved. None in the living
memory has set foot on this passage for fear of darkness, poisonous gas and wasps. It is not
unlikely that the empty underground space below the great mandapa and the space between
the steps were utilized as store houses.

Inner view of the elongated Mahamandapa – Photography is banned inside of it.

So let me explain the inside of this structure, The Mahamandapa. If the original
mahamandapa had been preserved, it would have retained the grandeur of its conception and
beauty. But as it is, only the portion up to the main base is original. The side walls, the pillars
and the ceilings have been reconstructed; probably in the 18th century AD. Obviously the
superstructure should have crumbled due to neglect and vegetation. However a part of the
original has survived up to the ceiling at the western end. From the surviving portion it may
be seen, the roof (prastara) of the mahamandapa was in level with the prastara of the ground
floor (adi bhumi) of the main Vimana. Like the walls of the main Vimana, a horizontal
cornice divides the outer walls of the mahamandapa into two parts. They carry a series of
niches both in the upper and lower courses.

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A scene at the southwest corner of the Mahamandapa – Sculptures of King Rajendra Chola
I and his consort Queen Tribhuvanamadevi, decorated with crystal ornaments. (This space is
closed with metal grills due to security reasons)
As mentioned earlier, the adibhumi of the main Vimana has two floors inside the sandhara
passage (the intervening passage), the intervening cornice forming the intermediate floor
level. The mahamandapa should have been a two storeyed pavilion, quite fitting with the
mahaprasada of the temple. In view of the tall dvarapalas guarding the entrance to the
mukhamandapa, the central passage should have had only the upper ceiling without the
intermediate flooring. Thus the central passage was flanked by two storeyed structures,
resembling the storeyed cloister of the enclosure. It would have presented a most spectacular
sight when the deities were taken out in procession through the mahamandapa.
As it stands today the inner side of the mandapa has a central passage, leading from the front
to the sanctum flanked by two raised platforms and a passage running around. Two massive
dvarapalas are noticed at the western and guarding the entrance to the mukhamandapa. A few
sculptures and bronzes receiving regular worship are on the northern platform. The north
eastern corner houses an interesting solar altar, now worshipped as Navagraha (nine planets).
Moving on to The Main Sanctum of Gangaikondam Brihadisvara temple…..

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The sanctum enshrining the main deity is encased by an inner wall. Between the inner wall
and the outer, there is an intervening passage-called sandhara running all around. The two
walls are joined at the top by a series of corbelling. They are provided to support the massive
super-structure. No painting is noticed in the inner passage. The inner sanctum houses a
very big Siva Linga, rising to a height of thirteen feet. It is said to be one of the biggest Siva
Linga enshrined in a sanctum in any South Indian temple. The entrance to the sanctum
is guarded by massive doorkeepers, dvarapalas. The mandapa immediately preceding the
sanctum is approached by steps leading to it from the north and the south sides and also from
the great mandapa in the east. The entrances are guarded by big dvarapalas (15 ft high) of
astonishing beauty….

Remarkable view of Two Dvaraplas (15 ft high), guarding the northern entrance to the
Ardhamandapa, preceding the main sanctum. They are showing the ‘ Thatva concept ‘ of
Hinduism. Tiger emblem of Chola dynasty is shown between their legs.

Similar view of Two Dvaraplas (15 ft high), guarding the northern entrance to the
Ardhamandapa, preceding the main sanctum. They are showing the ‘ Thatva concept ‘ of
Hinduism.

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The mandapa is supported by massive plain and square pillars. The eastern walls flanking the
opening to the great mandapa carry groups of small sculptures illustrating Shaivite themes.
The following are the themes thus represented;

(On top) The episode of Ravana travelling in his chariot; shaking the Kailasa Mountain; Siva
seated with Uma, pressing the mountain with his toe; Ravana’s anguish under the weight of
the mountain and finally Siva bestowing boons on Ravana, are depicted in three panels. (On
the middle) The second episode on the same wall depicts Vishnu, worshipping Siva with
1008 lotus flowers; finding one short he plucks his own eye and offers it as a flower; Siva
bestows grace on Vishnu.

The panels closer to the entrance depict the marriage of Siva with Uma. Uma, the daughter of
Himavan, desirous of marrying Siva, undertakes austerities and worships Siva; Siva, after
testing her steadfastness as a beautiful youth, marries her; the celestials witness the marriage;
Brahma, the creator offers oblation to the sacrificial fire and Vishnu gives Uma in marriage to
Siva.

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The east wall close to the entrance on the northern side depicts the Kiratarjuna
scene; Arjuna the Pandava hero performs austerities to obtain a Pasupata weapon; Siva as a
hunter accompanied by Uma as a huntress, tests Arjuna’s devotion; picks up a quarrel with
Arjuna over a kill; Arjuna not knowing the personality behind the hunter, enters into a duel
with him and is ultimately vanquished; Siva manifesting himself bestows the weapon.

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At the extreme north of the same side are portrayed two episodes, one representing Siva
quelling the pride of God of death, in order to protect his devotee, Markhandeya and the other
representing Saint Chandikeswara a great devotee of Siva, cutting off the leg of his father,
who disturbed his faith and Siva bestowing grace on both father and son.
Though these group sculptures are carefully selected, they are imperfectly finished and lack
the beauty and elegance of the sculptures of the main tower.
Coming to the outside from the main sanctum through northern entrance of the
Ardhamandapa, you can see, one of the famous scenes sculpted in this Brihadisvara temple
complex (near the Dvarapala on the left side wall)….

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Majestically seated Lord Siva’s lower right hand garlands the head of Chandesvara, while the
left upper hand holding the end of a flower garland tying it round the head of Chandesvara:
upper right hand holds axe (Parasu), while the lower left hand not visible might be holding
deer. Chandesvara is piously seated in worshipping (anjali) posture with folded hands.
Bhuthaganas are seen behind the God. Devi is seen seated near the God. It is suggested that
the King Rajendra himself has carved his own image (his coronation scene) and shown his
benevolence to Lord Siva. The art historians regards this sculpture as the masterpiece of this
period.

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Facing towards Chandeshanugrahamurthi, on the west wall, is the figure of Saraswathi, the
Goddess of Knowledge. She is seen seated on a lotus throne with four arms; holding a rossary
of beads and an amrita kalasa in the upper arms and a palm leaf and Chinmudra pose in the
lower ones; behind her is shown a prabha, aureole.
Lets explore the northern side of Brihadisvara temple complex…….

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Splendid view of the Northern entrance to the Ardhamandapa, preceding the main
sanctum. Two 15 ft Dvarapalas, Chandeshanugrahamurthi and Goddess Saraswathi are the
interesting visuals in here.

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South facing Chandikesvara Temple (near the northern entrance) – The little temple to the
north-east of the central shrine enshrining Chandikesvara, the steward of Siva . It is an all
stone temple built on a raised basement, with a storeyed
superstructure. The sanctum is approached by side steps. Inside the sanctum is an image of
Chandikesvara, coeval with the temple. The outer walls of this sanctum have niches on all the
three sides, carrying sculptures of Chandikesvara. He is the principal subsidiary deity in
Siva temples and till about 13th century AD. All transactions relating to the temple were
made in his name. Hence a separate shrine is provided for him in the temple complex.

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Superstructure of Chandikesvara temple with a Lotus bud shaped circular Shikhara and A
stupi or final (Kalasa) made out of brass at the top. Presence of Kirthimukhas and Nandi at
four cardinal directions.

East facing Mahishasuramardhini Shrine – To the west of the lion-well is a shrine dedicated
to the Goddess, Mahishasuramardhini. The shrine is a later structure (probably built in 14 -
15th Century) and did not form part of the original layout. It consists of a sanctum preceded
by a mandapa. The Goddess installed in the sanctum is similar to a Durga found at Virareddi
street, in the same village and is in all likelihood, Chalukyan in origin.

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‘Brihanayaki Amman Temple’ (Northern Kailasa) – To the north of the main temple is a
small shrine now housing the Goddess, Brihannayaki, the consort of Lord Gangaikonda
Cholesvara. The temple resembles the southern kailasa in every aspect and is called Uttara
Kailasa. It has a sanctum, preceded by a front mandapa, provided with side-steps. In front of
this is a bigger mandapa (mahamandapa), which is well preserved, unlike its southern
counterpart. The Vanni tree seen on the bottom left is the Thalavirutcham or Sthala
Vriksha of this temple.
Two gatekeepers flank the entrance. In front of the gatekeepers, in the mahamandapa, are
images of Saraswati in the north and Gajalakshmi in the south. One of the Dvarapalas is
shown here…..

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North side of Brihanayaki Amman temple – The niches on the sanctum and the front
mandapa carry Ganesha, Nataraja, Bhikshatana, Subrahmanya, Dakshinamurthi,
Lingodhbhava, Brahma, Bhairava, Ardhanari, Durga, and Gauriprasada are noticed in order,
from the south.
A lion pendent ear ring is seen on the right ear while a roll or pendent is seen in the left ear. A
parasol above and a fly whisk on the either side are shown. The breast is shown on the left
emphasizing the feminine aspect. The left side wears a sari extending up to the knee. Right
part wears the tiger skin. Both masculine firmness and feminine tenderness visualized in the
same face which is the salient of this sculpture.

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A sculpture of Bearded Brahma – Four armed standing three headed (the fourth head at the
back not being visible) and bearded figure of Brahma standing erect position; holding sruk
and sruva (sacrificial ladles and spoons for pouring oblations of ghee) in the upper right arm
and a rosary of beads in the lower right; a bunch of dharbha grass in the upper left and lower
left is placed on His thigh.
It is significant that the mahamandapa of this Amman temple has steps to it, only on the side.
In ancient times, steps were always provided on the sides and not in front of the sanctum. The
beautiful image of Goddess now enshrined in the sanctum of this temple should be a later
installation. Originally the temple should have enshrined a Siva Linga, like the southern
Kailasa. Though separate shrines of Goddesses came to be built in the main temples only
from the reign of Rajendra I, no Devi-shrine was built originally in this temple, the present
one being clearly a later institution.
Back to the details about Great Sri Vimana of Brihadisvara….
According to architectural treatises, basements (upa-pithas) are introduced in temples to
increase the height of the main tower; to add to structural stability and to make the temple
tower majestic.That these purposes are magnificently fulfilled by the basement of
Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple, may be noticed even by a casual visitor not conversant
with architectural principles. Besides the purposes mentioned above, the basement also
provides, a space to walk around the tower. In this temple, the basement is ornamented with
sculptures of lions and leogriffs with lifted paws.
The main base adhishtana is decorated with well defined courses, consisting of the lotus
moulding adaspadma, and the kumuda moulding, topped by a frieze of leogriffs and riders.
This constitutes the main base, the top of which forms the flooring level of the inner sanctum.
That portion of the structure rising above the main base up-to the roof cornice is called ‘the
wall’ (bhitti or kal). It is the principal element that encases the main sanctum and carries on it
a number of niches housing various deities. The wall in this temple is divided into two
horizontal courses by an intervening cornice. Lower and upper courses have an equal number
of niches, on all the three sides except the front

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North side of the Sri Vimana, Brihadisvara temple – On the vertical axis the wall surfaces are
well defined by intervening recesses forming a rectangle in the centre and squares at the
corners. Each is made up of a central niche housing a deity, flanked by a group
of small sculptures which in turn are flanked by pilasters simulating pillars. Thus each niche
housing a deity appears as a miniature shrine. The recessed walls in the lower courses carry a
vase and pilaster ornamentation, while on the upper courses, there are small niches housing
deities. Thus these are five principal deities in the lower course and nine deities in the upper
course on each side.
The sculptures in the lower courses, of the Sri Vimana depict various aspects of Siva and also
the subsidiary deities who include Ganesha, Vishnu, Subrahmanya, Durga, Brahma, and
Bhairava, supplemented by Lakshmi, Saraswati, and Durga in the niches of the great
mandapa. The sculptures were made separately and fitted into the niches. They are flanked by
a group of small sculptures, carved in situ, illustrating the theme the niche sculpture seeks to
represent. The sculptures on the upper courses represent, besides some aspects of Siva, the
guardian deities of the eight quarters.
Lets examine the sculptures on the lower courses (north side of Sri Vimana)…..

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“Kalandhaka” (at the northwest corner) – Four armed Siva shown in such a way destroying
Kala, God of death, right leg placed on Kala and with the left pressing him down. The upper
right arm holds parasu is about to strike, while the lower right holds the trident, the upper left
holds a deer (antelope) and the lower left points to Kala. Surya and Chandra are shown at the
top and devotees in one side. Another side shown Markhandeya, devotee of Lord
Siva worshipping Linga and the God of death, Yama dragging him forcibly with a rope.

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“Durga” (next to Kalandhaka) – The Goddess is standing with eight arms holding discus,
arrow, sword and abhaya in right arms and conch, bow, shield in the left arms respectively
and the one hand is on her thigh. A buffalo head is shown below (Shape shifting
demon, Mahisha) and lion stands behind her.

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“Brahma” (at the center above Komugham) – Four armed standing three headed (the fourth
head at the back not being visible) and bearded figure of Brahma standing erect position;
holding sruk and sruva (sacrificial ladles and spoons for pouring oblations of ghee) in the
upper right arm and a rosary of beads in the lower right; a bunch of dharbha grass in the
upper left and a kamandala in lower left; goddess Saraswathi on the right side holds a bunch
of palm leaves in her left arm, in the left goddess Savithri is present. In the side walls Surya,
Chandra, devas and sages are present.

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“Bhairava” (next to Brahma) – standing with eight arms in naked position wearing garland of
skulls, round eyes, protruded teeth, hair show like a flame, holding trident, parasu, sword and
noose in his right arm; fire, kapala, khatwanga and bell in his left arm and a coil of snake
shown around his thighs.

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“Kamantaka” (at the northeast corner, next to Bhairava) – Seated figure of Lord Siva with
four arms; right upper arm holds a rossary while the lower arm pointing down. The left upper
arm holds a chouri and the lower is placed on thigh. In the right side wall a sage is shown in
penance attitude; two devotees are shown below him. On the left side at the top, Manmatha,
the God of love is shown aiming an arrow at Siva. Two devotees are shown in the
middle; Manmatha and Rathi are seen below the devotees.
The interesting thing is that, one can see ancient inscriptions (Grantha script) imprinted on
the basement part below these sculptures. Together, they called ‘ Chola Prasasthi ‘.
Prasasthi is a poetic way of expressing the extol of the king and his various heroic activities.
Prasasthi’s start with auspicious saying such as Swasthi Sri etc., they give historical details,
name of the king, his title, name of his queen, the regnal year and later on about donations,
land details etc.
Time to move on to the Western side of Great Sri Vimana of Brihadisvara….
This basement of Srivimana is 100 feet by 100 feet and the foundation is square in structure
and raises 20 feet above the ground level. The courtyard in 566 ft in the length and 318 ft
width and has a transept at the west in line with the main sanctum.

Western side of the Srivimana of Brihadisvara temple – Compared to the Thanjavur Temple,
which has straight contours, this temple has a curvilinear contour, slightly concave towards
the top. It has divided in to eight zones. The roof cornice consists mainly of three parts: (a)
the frieze of dwarfs at the bottom, (b) the cornice forming the outer edge of the ceiling roof
proper and, (c) the frieze of leogriffs (a mythical creature) on the top. The cornice
is decorated with plain spade-like ornamentation topped by the head of a leogriffs. A row of
miniature shrines runs around the tower like a garland, and is called a hara. It consists of
square pavilions at the corners, rectangular pavilions in the middle, with nest
(nida) ornamentation in between.
Above this rises the main tower, consisting of nine stories including the ground floor. The
upper stories of the main tower carry the same type of ornamentation, consisting of square
and oblong pavilions except a change; the central wagon-shaped pavilion is flanked by square
ones instead of “the nests”, the whole being projected forward than the rest. Now, look at the
different sculptures shown in the lower course niches of West side (Sri Vimana)….

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“Gangadhara” (at the southwest corner) – Four armed standing figure of Siva, embracing and
pacifying Parvathi standing side by his side. The upper right arm of Siva receives the falling
river Ganga from his matted lock; the lower right moves gently around Parvathi. The upper
left arm holds usual attributes of Siva, the deer: the lower left is placed on the thigh. The right
arm of the Devi is placed on jer thigh while left is bent. Three rows of miniature sculptures
are noticed on the side walls. Surya is shown on the top of the wall right of Siva; Devas are in
the middle and two devotees at the bottom. In the left wall Chandra seen at the top, devotees
in the middle and Bhagiratha doing penance in the lower part.

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“Lingodhbhava” (next to Gangadhara) – Four armed standing figure of Lingodhbhava
coming out from the shaft of fire. The upper right arm holds axe and the lower is in the
abhaya pose; the left upper holds deer and lower is placed on the thigh. The leg below the
ankle is hidden, a garland of flowers is shown around the Linga portion at the top. Vishnu as
a boar is shown at the bottom in an outline. Brahma as swanOne last shot of this is not represented
in the top.

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“Mahavishnu” (at the centre of west side) – Standing figure of Vishnu with four arms; the
upper two arms hold discus in the right and conch in the left respectively, the lower right arm
is in the abhaya pose while the left rests on the thigh. Sri devi with two arms present in
the right side while on the left Bhu devi is present also with two arms. Surya and Chandra on
either side of the top side walls, devas in the middle and sages at the bottom are seen.

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“Subrahmanya” (next to Mahavishnu) – The Subrahmanya figure is seen in the west wall
standing with four arms carrying Sakti and Vajra in the upper arms while the lower right is in
abhaya pose and the left in thigh. A Chennavira (the chest belt worn by the heroes) is shown
across his chest and the prominent garland of Kanni flower are shown below the crown.

286
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“Vishnuanugrahamurthi” (at the northwest corner) – Siva and Parvathi represented in the
seated position on a pedestal. Siva is shown with four arms carrying Parasu (axe), antelope in
the upper right and the left arms respectively, while the left arm is placed on his thigh; the
right holding Chakra.

“Ganesha Shrine” situated at the southwest corner of Brihadisvara – To the south-west of the
main temple, is a small shrine dedicated to Ganesha. It has a sanctum preceded by a
mandapa. The structure could be assigned to the 13th century on stylistic grounds.
It is from the southwest corner that, one gets an infamous view of the Great Srivimana of
Gangaikondam Brihadisvara temple…….

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Sri-vimana at Gangaikonda has nine storeys (talas) including those at the lower levels, in
contrast to the thirteen storeys at Thanjavur. Each storey has a square-circle-oblong artwork.
The upper levels repeat the lower level design in a rhythmic shrinking pattern. The symmetry
principles are dutifully embedded in, but the rate of shrinking is not linear with height. The
lower storeys shrink faster than the upper storeys. This gives the vimana an uncommon
parabolic form. Ganesha shrine is at the left corner and Southern Kailasa at the right corner.
Coming to the Southern side of Sri Vimana of Brihadisvara…..

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Southern side of the Sri Vimana, Brihadisvara temple – Sculptures on the upper courses
represent, besides some aspects of Siva, the guardian deities of the eight quarters. While on
the lower course of the vertical wall, one can see images of Nataraja, Harihara (Half Siva,
Half Vishnu), Ardhanareeshvara and Narthana Ganesha.

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“Narthana Ganesha’ (on the southeast corner of south side) – Lord Ganesha in a dancing pose
with four arms.

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“Nataraja (at the southwest corner of south side) and Harihara (next to Nataraja)” – Four
armed dancing Siva, holding drum in the upper right arm and showing Abhaya pose
bestowing palm on the lower right. The upper left arm carries fire and the lower left is
throwing across the body in gajahasta. The matted hair locks are depicted flying on either
side. On the right side of the matted hair river Ganga is shown. By the left side of the leg is
shown dancing Kali, carrying drum, sword, trident, abhaya, dandhasta in her hands. A three
legged figure, probably representing Bhringi is seen on the right. Below the feet is shown the
women saint Karaikkal ammayar. She is holding a musical instrument called as Kinkini.
Three Ganas are also shown playing symbols and drum. On the west side wall is

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shown Surya on top. Subrahmanya seated on peacock is flying; Ganapati moves on his rat.
Further down is four armed Nandikesvara playing drum. Chandra is shown on the top of the
side wall to east. Two armed Goddess Parvathi is leaning on a bull looking Majestically;
she holds lotus in her right arm. Harihara is the combined form of Lord Siva and Lord
Vishnu. A trident is shown in upper right arm and a discus is shown in upper left arm.
You can see two other interesting images on side walls of the southern entrance leading to the
ardhamandapa of main sanctum (near the 15 ft Dvarapalas on south side)……

“Kankaladhara” (at the west side wall of southern entrance ) – Lord Siva is standing in a
tribhanga pose with six arms, the upper right arm holds a snake, the middle feeds the deer
(antelope) and the lower one playing on udukkai or damaru, which is broken. The upper left
arm holds a trident across the back with a chowri hanging; the middle one is placed on the
head of a dwarf (Bhutha gana) standing by the side and the bottom holding the damaru is
broken. Pair of sandals adorn his feet.

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Kankaladhara – On the wall to the right of Siva, Surya on top; Bhutaganas in the middle and
wives of sages at the bottom are shown. While on the left side wall, Chandra on top, ganas in
the middle and wives of sages at the bottom are present. Makara thorana decorations above
this niche carries a bas relief of Uma Maheshvara in the centre.

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‘Lakshmi Devi” (at the east side wall of southern entrance) – Goddess Lakshmi seated on a
lotus throne with two arms. Devi holds lotus flowers in her arms; above her are shown two
elephants pouring water from pots held in their trunks (Gajalakshmi).
The shrine, south of the main Vimana and called the Southern Kailasa has a sanctum
preceded by a mandapa which in turn is fronted by flights of steps from south and north of
which the basement alone remains.

“Southern Kailasa or Dakshina Kailasa” – The outer walls of the sanctum and the front
mandapa carry niches, housing images. The niches of the sanctum carry Dakshinamurthi in
the south and Lingodhbhava in the west, while the niche on the north is empty. The niches on
the front mandapa carry; in the south, Ganesha, Nataraja, Bhikshatana, and Subrahmanya and
in the north, Gauriprasada, Durga, Ardhanari and Bhairava. The
inner sanctum of the shrine is now in ruins.
A little to the north-east of this temple is a granite basement, probably the ruin of a mandapa.
It is now called the Alankara mandapa. To the west of this is a well, probably coeval with the
temple.

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Completely ruined Alankar Mandapa in front of the Southern Kailasa.
And here come the final moments of a memorable day of my life….

South side of the Great Living Brihadisvara temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram – How
spectacular, it is! Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) administers the temple as a protected
heritage monument. UNESCO declared it a World Heritage Site in 2004, along with
the Brihadeeswara temple at Thanjavur and Airavatesvara temple at Darasuram. These are
referred to collectively as the Great Living Chola Temples.

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 Viewing Sunsets are always special. But with a spectacular marvel like Brihadisvara in the
scene, it gets incredibly awesome and i can’t even express that feeling in just words. Its
something you have to experience with your naked eyes, once in your life time.

1000 years old marvel and It has to be something special ! The Great Brihadisvara Temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
The symmetry, geometry and symbolism of these temple architectures simply leaves you
spell bound. Visualizing the stories of more than 10 centuries, oh! that’s something you can’t
just imagine. looking at these marvels, one must appreciate the brilliance of Chola artisans.
How skillful, they were! And can say, in every block of stone, there is a story inside and the
task of the sculptor is to discover it. Another memorable day of discovering creations,
enlightenment by the divine and touching the depths of eternal happiness.

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 IX

Pallava-Chola architecture of the Prambanan Temple Compounds.

Dr uday Dokras

Entrance to the Prambanan Temple Complex

The period roughly between 680 AD and 930 AD was the golden period of the Hindu-
Buddhist architecture or more commonly known as the Hindu-Javanese architecture. This
was the period that the Hindu-Buddhist Mataram Kingdom flourished (not to be confused
with the Mataram Sultanate) under couple of dynasties, Sailendra and Sanjaya, which
followed the two dharmic faiths, Hinduism and Buddhism.

What is Pallava Chola style of architecture?

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Pallava art and architecture represent an early stage of Dravidian art and architecture which
blossomed to its fullest extent under the Chola Dynasty. The first stone and mortar temples of
South India were constructed during Pallava rule and were based on earlier brick and timber
prototypes. Prambanan Temple Compounds is the largest Hindu temple complex in Indonesia
and one of the largest Hindu temples in south-east Asia. It is characterised by its tall and
pointed architecture, typical of Hindu temple architecture, and by the 47m high central
building inside a large complex of individual temples. The holy place of Chola temples were
both in a circular and square shape. Special vimanas were built on the upper side of the shrine
room where the idol of deity was placed. Dome-shaped shikhara and Kalash were placed on
the top of the Gopuram.

Prambanan as a Hindu Temple was made High and slim compared to Borobudur, with the
main Shiva shrine stands 47 meters in the middle of the complex surrounded with smaller
temples. Prambanan has a bas-relief on the inner side of the gate around the three main
shrine. the spectacular Brihadeeswarar temple in Tanjore in 2013 and was looking forward to
see the Prambanan.

The common relationship between them is that they share the same architectural style –
Pallava-Chola South Indian style. Though the geometrical pattern of the surrounding Perwara
temples (discussed later) of the Prambanan follow the Pala architecture as seen in the
Somapura Vihara ruins in Paharpur located in the present day Bangladesh.These various
structures represent different architectures such as Pallava-Chola architecture, Pala
architecture, Gupta architecture and indigenous Javanese architecture. In this article, I briefly
cover few of the architectural wonders in that region. But I would start with the disclaimer
that I cannot do justice to the places like my childhood favorite writer, Kalki, who can carry
you back in time to the place through his incantation.

Temples of Indonesia are of three different kinds - Pura, Candi and Koil. The Candi
(pronounced as Chandi) temples are more of Javanese temples, e.g., the Candi Prambanan
while Koil are those temples constructed by Indian traders from Tamil Nadu, e.g.,

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Mariamman Koil in Aceh in the 19th century. The third type of temples are the ones
constructed by the Balinese and Tenggerese called Pura temples in Eastern Java and Bali,
e.g., Pura Luhur Poten in Mount Bromo. The temples here are called Candi. Candi itself is
derived from Candika, one of the manifestations of the goddess Durga and indicates the
temples built in Indonesia, during the ‘Indianized period’, between the seventh and fifteenth
centuries. Most of these structures are built in that period when Indian culture was at its peak
in these parts of the world.

Significance of Chola Architecture

Chola temples had a beautiful shikara stone at the top. It had elaborate and carefully made
carvings. It is a marvel how these structures weighing in tonnes is placed without the help of
cranes. During their reign, Cholas made temples in Nagaeshwvara, Brihadeshwvara,
Airavateshwara and Chidambaram. Other kingdoms in South India and Sri Lanka followed
their style.
Ever since the temple building process began, the architecture reflected a synthesis of arts,
the ideals of dharma, beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. Nagara,
Dravida, Vesara etc are different styles of temple architecture. Pallavas (7th century – 9th
century) and Cholas (9th century -11th century) were the major kingdoms which epitomized
the Dravidian Architecture. Chalukyas (7th century -11th century) followed Vesara style of
architecture in the Karnataka region. Their style is also known as Karnata Dravida
style. Chalukya art was followed by Hoysala art (13th century).
Dravidian Architecture : Pallavas and Cholas
Pallavas used bricks, lion motifs, dwarfed gopurams etc. Things changed at the hands of
Cholas. They used stones instead of bricks. Walls were decorated with sculptures and
paintings of deities, kings and queens (not lion motifs). Temples have enclosed decorative
walls and entrance (Gopuram). They also have an audience hall known as Mandap. The deity
room is known as Garbhgriha. The pyramid like storey above the deity room is known as
Vimana.
Chola Temple Architecture in detail

The Dravidian temple architecture started by the Pallavas got matured at the hand of the
Cholas. Some prominent features of temple architecture in the Chola dynasty are enunciated
here.

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 25. Niche- These are characteristic architectural designs of Chola temples carved in
temple walls.
26. Devakusthas- These are decorative niches of chola temple walls where deities are
sculpted.
27. Pilasters- These magnificent architectural designs are carved as projection in walls
with placing of deities within it. The pilasters are positioned in both sides of the main
devakusthas.
28. Kumbhapapanjara and kushtapan- These are narrow niches in chola temple walls with
special design for placing sculpted images.
29. Kudus- These are two lion heads which crowns the curved roof of the pilasters.
30. Mythical motif- Makar along with warrior heads positions below all the decorative
devices.
31. Torus- It is a rounded structure placed on the basement of temple sculpture or motiff
sometimes decorated with ribs.
32. Yazhi- The base of the walls of chola temples are decorated with lines of mythical
animals called yazhi.
33. Mandapa features- Arthamandapa, nandi mandapa with special decoration are
characteristics of Chola temple architecture.
34. Parivardevatas- Besides the main shrine, Chola temples were evidences of subsidiary
shrines for other deities called parivardevatas which were highly decorative.
35. Dikapalas- These are some prominent directions transparent in Chola temple with
architectural design for placing of deities.
36. Inscription- The walls of Chola temples are seen with inscriptions with architectural
design.
Comparison between Pallava and Chola Architecture
 Yali – Pallava used yali or lion motif at the base of the pillar
Chola abandoned it and used yazhi at base or kudus in other parts of the pillar.
 Dwarapala – In pallava architecture dvarapalas are comparatively benign.
In chola architecture dwarapala became fierce with protruding tusk.
 Gopuram – The gopurams in pallava dynasties were comparatively dwarfed.
But in chola dynasty they became enlarged with high enclosure walls.
 Finial – The finial in Pallava dynasy was a little swelling in the top of the vimana.
But in Chola dynasty it became beautiful vase with artistic design.
Pallava art and architecture represent an early stage of Dravidian art
and architecture which blossomed to its fullest extent under the Chola Dynasty. The first
stone and mortar temples of South India were constructed during Pallava rule and were based
on earlier brick and timber prototypes. Starting with rock cut temples, built between 695AD
and 722AD, and archaeological excavations dated to the 6th century and earlier. Pallava
sculptors later graduated to free-standing structural shrines which inspired Chola dynasty's
temples of a later age. Some of the best examples of Pallava art and architecture are
the Kailasanathar Temple at Kanchipuram, the Shore Temple and the Pancha
Rathas of Mahabalipuram. Akshara was the greatest sculptor of their time.
Pallava architecture was sub-divided into two phases
5. rock cut phase
6. structural phase.
JAIN religious rock cut phase lasted from the 610 AD to 668 AD and consisted of two
groups of monuments, the Mahendra group and the Mamalla group. The Mahendra group is

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the name given to monuments constructed during the reign of Mahendravarman I (610 AD-
630 AD). The monuments of this group are invariably pillared halls hewn out of mountain
faces. These pillared halls or mandapas follow the prototype of Jain temples of the period.
The best examples of Mahendra group of monuments are the cave temples at
Mandagapattu, Pallavaram and Mamandur.
The second group of rock cut monuments belong to the Mamalla group in 630 to 668 AD.
During this period free-standing monolithic shrines called rathas (chariots) were constructed
alongside pillared halls. Some of the best examples of this style are the Pancha Rathas
and Arjuna's Penance at Mahabalipuram.

The second phase of Pallava architecture is the structural phase when free-standing
shrines were constructed with stone and mortar brought in for the purpose. Monuments of
this phase are of two groups - the Rajasimha group (690 to 800 AD) and the Nandivarman
group (800 to 900 AD). The Rajasimha group encompasses the early structural temples of the
Pallavas when a lot of experimentation was carried out. The best examples of this period are
the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram and the Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple at Kanchipuram
both constructed by Narasimhavarman II who was known as Rajasimha. The best example of
the Nandivarman group of monuments is the Vaikunta Perumal Temple at Kanchipuram.
During this period, Pallava architecture attained full maturity and provided the models upon
which the massive Brihadeeswarar Temple of the Cholas at Thanjavur and Gangaikonda
Cholapuram and various other architectural works of note were constructed.

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 Pallava Pillar Mandagappattu, 7th century

The temples of Prambanan itself are organized as per the Logam concept. The foot of each
temple represents the Boologam or the realm of the mortals. The middle realm or the body of
the temple represents Bhuvarlogam or realm for the holy people. The upper realm or the
holiest part of the temple or the topmost layer is the realm of gods called Swarkalogam. The
upper realm is completed by a Vajra (it can mean both thunderbolt or diamond) on the roof.

The Bas reliefs of Prambanan is very extensive and narrative. The narrative part is about
Ramayana epic and Bhagavata Puranam - stories about Vishnu and his avatars. The reliefs
also have depictions about Kalpataru, Apsaras, Devadas - all part of Hindu/Buddhist
mythology.
History
The temple is believed to have been built by Rakai Pikatan of Sanjaya dynasty around 850
AD and expanded by subsequent kings building the Perwara temples surrounding the
centerpiece in concentric squares.
At its peak, hundreds of Brahmins lived in the temple complex while the royal court with the
urban center was located nearby. The royal court was shifted either due to Mount Merapi
volcano eruption or due to power struggle throwing Prambanan into disuse. The locals knew
about the existence of the temple but did not know the background and so the folklore of
Roro Jonggrang was attached to the temple.

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It was rediscovered in the early 19th century by archaeologists from Britain during its short
occupation.

Folklore of Roro Jonggrang

Candi Prambanan is also called as Candi Roro Jonggrang based on the folklore in these parts
of the island. Roro Jonggrang is the story of a princess by the same name and her love and
betrayal. The other architectural sites existing today, Ratu Boko, Candi Sewu temple complex
and the statue of Durga Mahishasuramardini within Prambanan temple complex all have their
mythical connections to this story.
Father of Roro Jonggrang, Prabu Boko was killed in a battle by neighboring kingdom’s
prince, Bandung Bondowoso. Prince Bondowoso along with his army captures the Ratu Boko
palace. On seeing Princess Roro Jonggrang, he falls in love with her and wishes to marry her.
Roro Jonggrang, not wishing to marry him for killing her father but at the same time does not
want to reject him for him being the victor, places an impossible condition to be fulfilled by
the prince - build 1000 temples in a night.
But Prince Bondowoso, has the magical powers to invoke demon spirits (kind of like Genies)
to build the 1000 temples. But the demon spirits can only work in the night as the sunlight
can burn these spirits during daytime. They proceed to build the temples and had completed
999 temples when the princess hears this news. She tricks the rooster in the Palace by having
the maids light candles on the eastern side. The rooster, thinking that the sun was rising, starts
to crow and the spirits rush back to below the earth.
Prince Bondowoso tries to build the 1000th temple but fails. In his anger at being tricked, he
curses the Princess, who becomes a statue in the Prambanan temple complex, that of the
statue of Durga.

Candi Bubrah
Thoroughly savouring the great architecture of Prambanan and wanting to visit the temple
another day (which I did two days later), I walked hundred or so meters to Candi Bubrah,
which is a Buddhist temple constructed in the 9th century by the Sailendra dynasty. It is
named as Bubrah as it was discovered in complete ruins. What exists today is a 12 meters x
12 meters platform where I could see works carried on to restore this temple. As per my
conversation with the workers, the temple is made up of volcanic rocks.

Candi Lumbung
As there was not much to be seen, I hardly spent fifteen minutes in Candi Bubrah and walked
to my next temple - Candi Lumbung. Candi Lumbung was built around the same time frame
as Candi Bubrah in the 9th century by Sailendra Dynasty but predates Prambanan temple.
The main temple is a Buddhist temple dedicated to Manjushri Bodhisattva. There are sixteen
Perwara temples similar to the Perwara temples of Prambanan. On top of the main temple is
the stupa, typical of a Buddhist temple. The main temple can be accessed from the 4 cardinal

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points. Just like other temples in the compounds, Lumbung is going through renovation but is
in a better condition than Bubrah.

Candi Lumbung - Main temple renovation goes on with Perwara temples on the side
Candi Sewu

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After visiting Lumbung, I walked few hundred meters to stop by Candi Sewu, which is a
large temple complex unlike the smaller ruins of Bubrah. As I mentioned above, it is the
second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia after Borobudur with a total of 249
temples in its complex. The architecture resembles the Pala architecture due to the Perwara
temples arranged in a geometric fashion similar to Prambanan. But Sewu predates Prambanan
by at least a century. The original name for this temple was Manjusrigrha (meaning “house of
Manjushri”) and was dedicated to Manjushri Bodhisattva similar to the Lumbung temple
nearby.

Main chamber where the bronze statue of Manjushri is missing

The main temple itself is 30 meters in height and 29 meters in diameter and is in a 20 sided
Polygon shape. The temple was believed to have had a bronze statue of Manjushri. The main
temple is surrounded by four concentric rows of Perwara temples similar to Prambanan and
the temple complex itself follows the same Vaastu-based Mandala concept. Candi Sewu
shares its Folklore of Roro Jonggrang with the Prambanan as many associate it with this
temple complex.

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 X

The Chola Temple Vedic Architecture of

Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram

Dr UDAY DOKRAS

STOCKHOLM, TAMPERE, NAGPUR

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 I
Chola Architecture
The Chola dynasty

The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty originating from southern India. At its height, it
ruled over the Chola Empire, an expansive maritime empire. The earliest datable references
to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE during the reign of Ashoka of
the Maurya empire. The Chola empire was at its peak and achieved imperialism under
the Medieval Cholas in the mid-9th century CE. As one of the Three Crowned
Kings of Tamilakam, along with the Chera and Pandya, the dynasty continued to govern over
varying territories until the 13th century CE.

The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River. They ruled a
significantly larger area at the height of their power from the latter half of the 9th century till
the beginning of the 13th century. They unified peninsular India south of the Tungabhadra
River, and held the territory as one state for three centuries between 907 and
1215 CE.Under Rajaraja I and his successors Rajendra I, Rajadhiraja I, Rajendra
II, Virarajendra, and Kulothunga Chola I, the empire became a military, economic and
cultural powerhouse in South Asia and Southeast Asia.

There is very little written evidence for the Cholas prior to the 7th century CE. The main
sources of information about the early Cholas are ancient Tamil literature of the Sangam
period (c. 150),[a] oral traditions, religious texts, temple and copperplate inscriptions.
Later medieval Cholas also claimed a long and ancient lineage. The Cholas are mentioned
in Ashokan Edicts (inscribed 273 BCE–232 BCE) as one of the Mauryan empire's neighbors
to the South (Ashoka Major Rock Edict No.13), who, thought not subject to Ashoka, were on
friendly terms with him. There are also brief references to the Chola country and its towns,
ports and commerce in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei), and in
the slightly later work of the geographer Ptolemy. Mahavamsa, a Buddhist text written down
during the 5th century CE, recounts a number of conflicts between the inhabitants of Sri
Lanka and Cholas in the 1st century BCE.
A commonly held view is that Chola is, like Chera and Pandya, the name of the ruling
family or clan of immemorial antiquity. The annotator Parimelazhagar said: "The charity of
people with ancient lineage (such as the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras) are forever
generous in spite of their reduced means". Other names in common use for the Cholas
are Choda, Killi (கிள்ளி), Valavan (வளவன்), Sembiyan (செம்பியன்) and Cenni.
Killi perhaps comes from the Tamil kil (கிள்) meaning dig or cleave and conveys the idea of
a digger or a worker of the land. This word often forms an integral part of early Chola names
like Nedunkilli, Nalankilli and so on, but almost drops out of use in later times. Valavan is
most probably connected with "valam" (வளம்) – fertility and means owner or ruler of a
fertile country. Sembiyan is generally taken to mean a descendant of Shibi – a legendary hero
whose self-sacrifice in saving a dove from the pursuit of a falcon figures among the early
Chola legends and forms the subject matter of the Sibi Jataka among the Jataka stories
of Buddhism.[10] In Tamil lexicon Chola means Soazhi or Saei denoting a newly formed
kingdom, in the lines of Pandya or the old country.[11] Cenni in Tamil means Head.
The history of the Cholas falls into four periods: the Early Cholas of the Sangam literature,
the interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the Imperial medieval

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Cholas under Vijayalaya (c. 848), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, and finally the Later
Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the 11th century.

The earliest Chola kings for whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in the Sangam
literature. Scholars generally agree that this literature belongs to the late centuries before the
common-era and the early centuries of the common era. It records the names of the kings and
the princes, and of the poets who extolled them.
The Sangam literature also records legends about mythical Chola kings. These myths speak
of the Chola king Kantaman, a supposed contemporary of the sage Agastya, whose devotion
brought the river Kaveri into existence.Two names are prominent among those Chola kings
who feature in Sangam literature: Karikala and Kocengannan.There are no sure means of
settling the order of succession, of fixing their relations with one another and with many other
princelings of around the same period. Urayur (now a part of Thiruchirapalli) was their oldest
capital. Kaveripattinam also served as an early Chola capital The Mahavamsa mentions that a
Chola prince known as Ellalan, invaded the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and conquered it
in 235 BCE with the help of a Mysore army.
Interregnum

South India in BC 300, showing the Chera,

Pandya and Chola countries

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Thanjai Mamani Koil from where the city gets its name

Thanjai Mamani Koil is a set of three Hindu temples adjescent to each other and dedicated
to Vishnu located in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India. It is one of the Divya Desams, the 108
temples of Vishnu revered by the 12 poet saints called the Alvars. Unlike other Divya
Desams where a single shrine is referenced, this set of temples is referred together in all
the pasurams (sacred hymns).The temples are believed to be of significant antiquity with
contributions at different times from Medieval Cholas, the Vijayanagara Empire,
and Madurai Nayaks. The temples are enshrined within granite walls and the three complex
contains all the shrines of the temple.

Manikundra Perumal, Neelamegha Perumal temple, Veera Narasimha Perumal temple

The temple finds its sacred origin in a legend from the Brahmanda Purana. During the Treta
Yuga, there were three demons by name Tanchakan, Tantakan, and Kacamukan who were
blessed by Shiva, became very powerful. They grew arrogant and troubled
sage Parashara who was doing penance at this place. Vishnu killed Thanjakan with his discus,

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called the Sudarshana Chakra. Tancakan pleaded with Vishnu to relieve him off the curse,
and Vishnu named the place after his name, and hence it came to be named as Thanjavur.
Kachamukan was killed by Vishnu taking the form of a Yali, a mythical creature. Vishnu
took the form of Varaha the boar to kill the third demon Tantakan, who fled to Srimushnam.
The temples are located in the banks of Vennaaru River.
Neelamegha Perumal temple has a three-tiered rajagopuram and the sanctum faces east. The
presiding deity Neelamegha perumal is sported in veetrirunda posture. There is a separate
shrine of Sengamalli Thayar. The water body of the temple is called Amrutha Theertham.
The precinct around the sanctum has images of Hayagreeva, Vedanta Desikar, Alvars and
Garuda.
Thanjiyali Nagar also called Veera Narasimha Perumal has a small east facing shrine with the
main deity and his consort in the same sanctum. All of the Bhoothathalvar pasurams (poems)
of Thanjai refer to this shrine. The temple has a flat entrance tower and a single precinct.
Veera Narasimha Perumal is sculpted in a seated posture giving darshan to sage Markandeya.
The shrine over the sanctum is called Vedasundara Vimana and the water body associated
with it is called Surya Pushkarani.

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There is not much information about the transition period of around three centuries from the
end of the Sangam age (c. 300) to that in which the Pandyas and Pallavas dominated the
Tamil country. An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras invaded Tamil country, displaced the
existing kingdoms and ruled during that time. They were displaced by the Pallava dynasty
and the Pandyan dynasty in the 6th century. Little is known of the fate of the Cholas in Tamil
land during the succeeding three centuries. The Cholas disappeared from the Tamil land
almost completely in this debacle, though a branch of them can be traced towards the close of

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the fifth century CE in Rayalaseema—the Telugu-Cholas, whose kingdom is mentioned by
Yuan Chwang in the seventh century CE. Due to Kalabhra invasion and growing power of
Pallavas, Cholas migrated from their native land Uraiyur to Telugu country and ruled from
there as chieftains of Pallavas at least since 540 CE. Several Telugu Chola families like
Renati Cholas, Pottapi Cholas, Nellore Cholas, Velanati Cholas, Nannuru Cholas, Kondidela
Cholas existed and claimed descent from ancient Tamil king Karikala Chola. The Cholas had
to wait for another three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya Chola belonging to
Pottapi Chola family in the second quarter of the ninth century to re-establish their dynasty as
independent rulers by overthrowing Pallavas and Pandyas. As per inscriptions found in and
around Thanjavur, Thanjavur kingdom was ruled by Mutharaiyars / Muthurajas for three
centuries. Their reign was ended by Vijayalaya chola who captured Thanjavur from Ilango
Mutharaiyar between 848 and 851 CE.

The Builders of Temples

The Chola Empire was founded in 848 CE by Vijayalaya, the successor of Pottapi
Chola king Srikantha Chola.

Detail of the statue of Rajaraja I at Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur./ Gopuram Corner

View of Thanjavur Brihadisvara Temple.The sikhara of Brihadisvara Temple, a cupolic dome
(25 tons), is octagonal and rests on a single block of granite, weighing 80 tons.
The Chola dynasty was at the peak of its influence and power during the 11th Century
Through their leadership and vision, Chola kings expanded their territory and influence. The
second Chola King, Aditya I, defeated the Pallava dynasty Pandyan dynasty Parantaka I also
defeated the Rashtrakuta dynasty in the battle of Vallala.
Rajaraja I and Rajendra I would expand the dynasty to its imperial state, creating an
influential empire in the Bay of Bengal. The Brihadeeswarar Temple was also built in this
era.
Rajendra I conquered Odisha and Pala dynasty of Bengal and reached the Ganges river in
north India.
On the other hand, from 1150 CE to 1280 CE, Pandya became the staunchest opponents of
the Cholas and tried to win independence for their traditional territories. Thus, this period saw
constant warfare between the Cholas and the Pandyas. Besides, Cholas regularly fought with
the Eastern Gangas of Kalinga. Moreover, under Chola's protection, Vengi remained largely
independent. Cholas also dominated the entire eastern coast with their feudatories, the Telugu
Cholas of Velanati, Nellore etc. These feudatories always aided the Cholas in their successful
316
campaigns against the Chalukyas and levying tribute on the Kannada kingdoms. Furthermore,
Cholas fought constantly with the Sinhala kings from the Rohana kingdom of Sri Lanka, who
repeatedly attempted to overthrow the Chola occupation of Rajarata and unify the island. But
until the later Chola king Kulottunga I, the Cholas had firm control over the area. In one such
instance, the Chola king, Rajadhiraja Chola II, was able to defeat the Sinhalese, aided by their
traditional ally, a confederation of five Pandya princes, and kept the control of Rajarata under
Chola rule. His successor, the last great Chola monarch Kulottunga Chola III reinforced the
hold of the Chola territories by quelling further rebellions and disturbances in the Rajarata
area of Sri Lanka and Madurai. He also defeated Hoysala generals fought under Veera
Ballala II at Karuvur. Furthermore, he also continued holding on to traditional territories in
Tamil country, Eastern Gangavadi, Draksharama, Vengi, and Kalinga. However, after
defeating Veera Ballala II, Kulottunga Chola III entered into a marital alliance with him
through Ballala's marriage to a Chola princess, which improved the Kulottunga Chola III
relationship with Hoysalas.

Later Chola Kingdom under Kulothunga Chola I (1070–1120 C.E)

Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukyas began during the reign of
Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Rajaraja Chola's daughter married Chalukya prince
Vimaladitya and Rajendra Chola's daughter Ammanga Devi was married to the Eastern
Chalukya prince Rajaraja Narendra. Virarajendra Chola's son, Athirajendra Chola, was
assassinated in a civil disturbance in 1070, and Kulothunga Chola I, the son of Ammanga
Devi and Rajaraja Narendra, ascended the Chola throne. Thus began the Later Chola dynasty.
The Later Chola dynasty was led by capable rulers such as Kulothunga Chola I, his
son Vikrama Chola, other successors like Rajaraja Chola II, Rajadhiraja Chola II, and
Kulothunga Chola III, who conquered Kalinga, Ilam, and Kataha. However, the rule of the
later Cholas between 1218, starting with Rajaraja Chola II, to the last emperor Rajendra
Chola III was not as strong as those of the emperors between 850 and 1215. Around 1118,
they lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya and Gangavadi
(southern Mysore districts) to the Hoysala Empire. However, these were only temporary
setbacks, because immediately following the accession of king Vikrama Chola, the son and
successor of Kulothunga Chola I, the Cholas lost no time in recovering the province of Vengi
by defeating Chalukya Someshvara III and also recovering Gangavadi from the Hoysalas.
The Chola empire, though not as strong as between 850 and 1150, was still largely
territorially intact under Rajaraja Chola II (1146–1175) a fact attested by the construction and

317
completion of the third grand Chola architectural marvel, the chariot-shaped Airavatesvara
Temple at Dharasuram on the outskirts of modern Kumbakonam. Chola administration and
territorial integrity until the rule of Kulothunga Chola III was stable and very prosperous up
to 1215, but during his rule itself, the decline of the Chola power started following his defeat
by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–16. Subsequently, the Cholas also lost control
of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power.
In continuation of the decline, also marked by the resurgence of the Pandyan dynasty as the
most powerful rulers in South India, a lack of a controlling central administration in its
erstwhile-Pandyan territories prompted a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a
civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. Details of the
Pandyan civil war and the role played by the Cholas and Sinhalas, are present in
the Mahavamsa as well as the Pallavarayanpettai Inscriptions.
Kaveripoompattinam on the coast near the Kaveri delta was a major port town. Ptolemy knew
of this, which he called Khaberis, and the other port town of Nagappattinam as the most
important centres of Cholas. These two towns became hubs of trade and commerce and
attracted many religious faiths, including Buddhism. Roman ships found their way into these
ports. Roman coins dating from the early centuries of the common era have been found near
the Kaveri delta. The other major towns were Thanjavur, Uraiyur and Kudanthai, now known
as Kumbakonam. After Rajendra Chola moved his capital to Gangaikonda Cholapuram,
Thanjavur lost its importance.

Ponni is the Tamil name for the river Kaveri, and while Selvan means son, it can also connote
wealth or a wealthy man. So, Ponniyin Selvan could mean the son of the Kaveri, or Kaveri's
son whose wealth derives from the Kaveri.

318
319
Detail of the main vimanam (tower) of the Thanjavur Temple.

Under the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence
in art, religion, music and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the
culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas.
[74]
Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone
and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.
The Chola conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and Srivijaya, and their continued commercial
contacts with the Chinese Empire, enabled them to influence the local cultures. Examples of
the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy
of the Cholas. For example, the great temple complex at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibit a

320
number of similarities with the South Indian architecture. According to the Malay
chronicle Sejarah Melayu, the rulers of the Malacca sultanate claimed to be descendants of
the kings of the Chola Empire. Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia today as many princes
there have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such being Raja Chulan, the Raja
of Perak. In a version of the story, of the other famous temple King Rajaraja is said to have
experienced a dream from lord Shiva telling Rajaraja that the hymns in Thillai Nataraja
Temple, Chidambaram are in a state of destruction and to recover the remaining hymns from
the chambers.
Thillai Nataraja Temple, also referred as the Chidambaram Nataraja Temple, is a Hindu
temple dedicated to Nataraja, the form of Shiva as the lord of dance. The present temple was
built in the 10th century when Chidambaram was the capital of the Chola dynasty. After its
10th-century consecration by the Cholas who considered Nataraja as their family deity. The
temple is one of the five elemental lingas in the Shaivism pilgrimage tradition, and
considered the subtlest of all Shiva temples (Kovil) in Hinduism. It is also a site for
performance arts, including the annual Natyanjali dance festival on Maha Shivaratri. The
Chidambaram temple legend is contained in the 12th-century text Chidambara-mahatmya.
The central episode states that Shiva visits sages in the mythical forest in the form of a dancer
mendicant (Bhikshatana) accompanied by Mohini, Vishnu in his avatar as a beautiful woman.
The site became the capital of Cholas in the 10th century, and they renamed it to
Chidambaram and built the current temple for their family deity of Nataraja Shiva. The
word Chidambaram comes from the Tamil word Chitrambalam (also spelled Chithambalam)
meaning "wisdom atmosphere". The roots are citt or chitthu means "consciousness or
wisdom", while ampalam means "atmosphere. This composite word comes from its
association with Shiva Nataraja, the cosmic dancer and the cultural atmosphere for arts.

Sivaganga pool and gopuram, ca. 1800-1850.

Nataraja – Shiva as the cosmic dancer, inspired the 10th-century Chola kings to rebuild the
Chidambaram temple with stone and gold. A silver Nataraja, not Shivalinga, is the principal
icon in this temple.
The earliest historically verifiable Shiva temple at Chidambaram is traceable in inscriptions
that date to the rule of Aditya Chola I in the early 10th century.Raja Raja Chola I (985–1013
CE) embarked on a mission to recover the hymns of the 63 Nayanmars after hearing short
excerpts of the Tevaram in his court. The temple, according to inscriptions found in South
India and Southeast Asia, was also historic recipient of a precious jewel from the king of

321
Angkor who built the Angkor Wat through Chola king Kulothunga, who submitted it to the
temple in 1114 CE. Kulothunga I and his son expanded the Chidambaram Nataraja temple
sixfold.
Chidambaram temple thrived during the Chola dynasty.
8. Its facilities infrastructure was expanded. Naralokaviran, the general of king Kulothunga
Chola I was responsible for building the steps that lead to Sivaganga water pool, a goddess
shrine, a shrine for child saint Thirugnana Sambanthar, temple gardens and a pilgrim road
network in and around Chidambaram.
9.
He constructed a hall for recitation of Tevaram hymns and engraved the hymns in copper
plates.
10. The thousand pillar choultry, with friezes narrating Hindu texts, was built in the late 12th
century.
11. Between the second half of the 12th century and the early 13th century, the Chola kings added
colorful and high gopura stone gateways as easily identifiable landmarks, starting with the
western gopura.
12. Thereafter, about mid 13th century, the Pandya dynasty ended the Chola dynasty.
13. The Hindu Pandyas were liberal supporters of Chidambaram temple, along with other Shiva
and Vishnu temples, just like the Chola. Sundara Pandya added the huge eastern gopura at
Chidambaram, beginning the colossal gateway tradition.
14. Most of the structure and plans currently seen in the Chidambaram complex, including the
mandapas with their pillar carvings, the various shrines with polished granite sculptures,
the sacred water pool and the early gopurams are from the 12th and 13th century, attributed to
the late Chola and early Pandya kings.

5. HTTPS://WWW.ACADEMIA.EDU/
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SRI_THILLAI_NATARAJA_TEMPLE
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READ THE Above titles by the
author

322
The main gopuram of Chidambaram Natarajar temple/ What is special about Chidambaram
temple?
The Chidambaram temple complex proudly boasts of being one of the oldest temple
complexes in Southern India. The most unique characteristic of the Nataraj Temple is the
bejewelled image of Nataraj. The temple has five main Halls or Sabhas namely the Kanaka
Sabha, the Cit Sabha, Nritta Sabha, Deva Sabha and Raja Sabha. 1 It was built during a very
traumatic era:

___________________________________________________________________________
___

1. Younger, P. (1986). The Citamparam Temple Complex and Its Evolution. East and
West, 36(1/3), 205–226. http://www.jstor.org/stable/29756764

"The era under consideration opens with an unprecedented calamity for Southern India: the
invasion of the region at the turn of the fourteenth century by Malik Kafur, general of
Alauddin, Sultan of Delhi. Malik Kafur's forces brought to an abrupt end all of the
indigenous ruling houses of Southern India, not one of which was able to withstand the
assault or outlive the conquest. Virtually every city of importance in the Kannada, Telugu
and Tamil zones succumbed to the raids of Malik Kafur; forts were destroyed, palaces
dismantled and temple sanctuaries wrecked in the search for treasure. In order to
consolidate the rapidly won gains of this pillage, Malik Kafur established himself in 1323 at
Madurai (Madura) in the southernmost part of the Tamil zone, former capital of the Pandyas
who were dislodged by the Delhi forces. Madurai thereupon became the capital of the
Ma'bar (Malabar) province of the Delhi empire."

Michell, George (1988), The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms,
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 145–148, ISBN 0-226-53230-5
Thillai Nataraja Temple, also referred as the Chidambaram Nataraja temple is a Hindu
Temple dedicated to Lord Nataraja is one of the form of Lord Shiva as the lord of dance. This
temple is located in Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India. This temple has ancient roots and a
Shiva shrine existed at the site when the town was known as Thillai Chidambaram, the name
of the city and the temple literally means "atmosphere of wisdom" or "clothed in thought",
the temple architecture symbolizes the connection between the arts and spirituality, creative
activity and the divine. The temple wall carvings display all the 108 karanas from the Natya
Shastra by Bharata Muni, and these postures form a foundation of Bharatanatyam, a classical
Indian dance.

323
Bhakti movement
Bhakti movement was a revolution started by the Hindu saints to bring religious reforms by
adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation. This movement resulted in various rites
by practising rituals of devotion among the Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs in the Indian
subcontinent.There is, however, no reference to the temple in Sangam literature of the 1st to
5th centuries and the earliest mention is found in 6th-century Tamil literature. The temple and
the deity were immortalized in Tamil poetry in the works of Thevaram by three poet saints
belonging to the 7th century - Thirugnana
Sambanthar, Thirunavukkarasar and Sundaramoorthy Nayanar. Thirugnana Sambanthar has
composed 2 songs in praise of the temple, Thirunavukkarasar aka Appar 8 Tevarams in praise
of Nataraja and Sundarar 1 song in praise of Nataraja. Sundarar commences his Thiruthondar
thogai (the sacred list of Lord Shiva's 63 devotees) paying his respects to the priests of the
Thillai temple - "To the devotees of the priests at Thillai, I am a devotee". The works of the
first three saints, Thirumurai were stored in palm leaf manuscripts in the temple and were
recovered by the Chola King Rajaraja Chola under the guidance of Nambiandarnambi.
Manikkavasagar, the 10th-century saivite poet has written two works, the first
called Tiruvasakam (The sacred utterances) which largely has been sung in Chidambaram
and the Thiruchitrambalakkovaiyar (aka Thirukovaiyar), which has been sung entirely in the
temple. Manikkavasagar is said to have attained spiritual bliss at Chidambaram. The
Chidambaram Mahatmiyam composed during the 12th century explain the subsequent
evolution and de-sanskritization.
A unique feature of this temple is the bejeweled image of Lord Nataraja as the main deity. It
depicts Lord Shiva as the master of Koothu-Bharata Natyam and is one of the few temples
where Lord Shiva is represented by an anthropomorphic murthi rather than the classic,
aniconic Lingam.
At Chidambaram, the dancer dominates, not the linga as in other Shiva shrines. The
Chitsabha houses a small spatik (crystal) linga (Chandramoulisvara), believed to be a piece
that fell from the crescent adorning Lord Shiva's head and installed by Adi Shankara.
Daily puja is offered to the spatik linga (six times) and also to a small emerald figure of
Nataraja called Ratnasabhapati (once, at 10-30 am). The main sanctum also encloses
Chidambara Rahasya - the divine chakra adorned with golden vilva leaves. This remains
hidden and only during the pooja times (six times in a day), Rahasya Darshan will be offered
to the devotees. Rahasya emanates the vastness and formlessness of Akash, the divinity that
is the highest form of Supremacy (ether form of five elements).
Natyanjali Festival in the temple
A whole year for men is said to be a single day for the gods. Just as six poojas are performed
in a day at the sanctum sanctorum, six anointing ceremonies are performed for the principal
deity - Nataraja in a year. They are the Marghazhi Thiruvaadhirai (in December - January )
indicating the first puja, the fourteenth day after the new moon (Chaturdashi) of the month of
Masi (February - March) indicating the second pooja, the Chittirai Thiruvonam (in April-
May), indicating the third pooja or uchikalam, the Uthiram of Aani (June–July) also called
the Aani Thirumanjanam indicating the evening or the fourth puja, the chaturdasi of Aavani
(August - September) indicating the fifth puja and the chaturdasi of the month of Puratasi
(October - November) indicating the sixth pooja or Arthajama. Of these the Marghazhi
Thiruvaadhirai (in December - January) and the Aani Thirumanjanam (in June - July ) are the
most important. These are conducted as the key festivals with the main deity being brought

324
outside the sanctum sanctorum in a procession that included a temple car procession followed
by a long anointing ceremony. Several hundreds of thousands of people flock the temple to
see the anointing ceremony and the ritualistic dance of Shiva when he is taken back to the
sanctum sanctorum. Lord Shiva, in his incarnation of Nataraja, is believed to have born on
full moon day in the constellation of Ardra, the sixth lunar mansion. Lord Shiva is bathed
only 6 times a year, and on the previous night of Ardra, the bath rituals are performed on a
grand scale. Pots full of milk, pomegranate juices, coconut water, ghee, oil, sandal paste,
curds, holy ashes, and other liquids and solids, considered as sacred offering to the deity are
used for the sacred ablution.

A D M I N I S T R A T I O N
The temple is administered by an exclusive group of Brahmins who are learned in the Vedas
and Yagnas (sacrifices) called Dikshitars. The entire community of Diskhitars live
in Chidambaram and also serve as the hereditary trustees of the temple. They are also
called Thillai Muvayiravar or the Three Thousand of Thillai[119] Every Dikshitar once he is
married becomes as of right a trustee and archaka of the temple. A practice unique to the
community is that the priests wear the tuft of hair in front of the head similar to
the Nambuthiri Brahmans of Kerala.
Thillai Vazh Anthaanar or Dikshitars are a Vedic Shaiva Brahmin servitor community
of Tamil Nadu who are based mainly in the town of Chidambaram. Smartha (especially
the Vadamas), Sri Vaishnava and other brahmins in South India also carry the surname
Dikshitars, but are different from the Chidambaram Dishitar.
1. They are an exclusive group of Brahmins learned in the Vedas and Yagnas (sacrifices)
who also serve as the hereditary trustees of Natarajatemple in Chidambaram. They are
also called Thillai Muvayiravar or the Three Thousand of Thilla.
2. Every Dikshitar once he is married becomes as of right a trustee and archaka of
the Nataraja temple. A practice unique to the community is that the priests wear the tuft
of hair in front of the head similar to the Nambuthiri Brahmans of Kerala.
3. The Dikshithars might be traced back to the first line of Brahmanas who migrated to
South India from the north,as a result of the increasing spread
of Jainism and Buddhism there.The establishment
of Mauryan, Satavahana and Kadamba rule in South India also necessitated the
movement of Brahmans into the new regions because these kingdom required trained
ritualists.
4. They are mentioned in the 12th century work, the Periyapuranam of Sekkizhar. They
were originally the ritual arbiters of imperial legitimacy in the Chola Empire, ritually
crowning successive monarchs. This honour was reserved only for rulers belonging to
the Chola dynasty. When Kutruva Nayanar, a chieftain of Kalandai became very
powerful as a result of his conquests, he requested the 3000 of Tillai to crown him as
king of the Chola country but they declined saying that they would only crown a Chola
and instead fled to the Chera country to escape his wrath.
5. In order that he who conquered the world (Kutruvar) may not be bereft of a royal crown
he requested the crowning services of the ancient three thousand servitor priests at
Chidambaram (Thillai). Thereupon the priests refused the same saying that they are
entitled to perform the ceremony only to the most deserving of the ancient clan of
Sembiyars (Cholas). Having said this, they quit their dwelling to reach the hill country
(Kerala) of the ancient Chera king.- Periyapuranam

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 Architectural marvel of Chidambaram Natarajar Temple
BY MAHESH ON OCTOBER 1, 2012

STUNNING FEATURES OF ARCHITECTURAL EXCELLENCY

1. WORLD’S MAGNETIC EQUATOR: The place where temple located is the center
point of world’s magnetic equator. Three of the five Panchaboothasthala temples, those at
Kalahasti, Kanchipuram and Chidambaram all stand on a straight line exactly at 79 degree 41
minutes East longitude -truly an engineering, astrological and geographical wonder. Of the
other two temples, Tiruvanaikkaval is located at around 3 degrees to the south and exactly 1
degree to the west of the northern tip of this divine axis, while Tiruvannamalai is around
midway (1.5 degree to the south and 0.5 degree to the west).

“Advanced astrological and geological knowledge “ : Natarajar Temple at Chidambaram is

living testimony of ancient “Advanced astrological and geological knowledge” of Hindus
surpassing to anything contemporary.

The 9 gateways signify the 9 orifices in the human body.The Chitsabai or Ponnambalam,
the sanctum sanctorum represents the heart which is reached by a flight of 5 stairs called the
Panchaatchara padi – pancha meaning 5, achhara – indestructible syllables – “SI VA YA NA
MA”, from a raised anterior dias – the Kanakasabai. The access to the Sabhai is through the
sides of the stage (and not from the front as in most temples).

The 4 VEDAS: The Chit sabha roof is supported by four pillars symbolic of the four Vedas.

28 Pillars”|: The Ponnambalam or the Sanctum sanctorum is held by 28 pillars –

representing the 28 agama s or set methodologies for the worship of Shiva. The roof is held
by a set of 64 beams representing the 64 forms of art and is held by several cross-beams
representing the innumerable blood vessels.

The roof has been laid by 21,600 golden tiles with the word SIVAYANAMA inscribed on
them representing 21600 breaths.

72,000 golden nails: These tiles are fixed using 72,000 golden nails which represents the
no. of nadis exists in human body. The roof is topped by a set of 9 sacred pots or kalasas,
representing the 9 forms of energy. The arthamandapa (sanctum) has six pillars denoting the
six shastras (holy texts).

18 PILLARED HALL: The hall next to the artha mantapa has eighteen pillars symbolizing
the eighteen Puranas . Sri Nataraj Mandir at Satara is a replica of this temple.I’ve been
blessed to visit this greatest sthalam but did not know these facts. Thanks to my friend for
sharing this…We all do the mistake of not understanding the sthala purana and other
important data before we go to a temple – simply due to lack of time etc. Whoever drew this
picture did a fantastic job – just amazing!

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The present temple was built in the 10th century when Chidambaram was the capital of
the Chola dynasty, making it one of the oldest surviving active temple complexes in South
India. After its 10th-century consecration by the Cholas who considered Nataraja as their
family deity, the temple has been damaged, repaired, renovated and expanded through the
2nd millennium. Most of the temple's surviving plan, architecture and structure is from the
late 12th and early 13th centuries, with later additions in similar style. While Shiva
as Nataraja is the primary deity of the temple, it reverentially presents major themes
from Shaktism, Vaishnavism, and other traditions of Hinduism. The Chidambaram temple
complex, for example, has the earliest known Amman or Devi temple in South India, a pre-
13th-century Surya shrine with chariot, shrines for Ganesha, Murugan and Vishnu, one of the
earliest known Shiva Ganga sacred pool, large mandapas for the convenience of pilgrims
(choultry, ambalam or sabha) and other monuments. Shiva himself is presented as
the Nataraja performing the Ananda Tandava ("Dance of Delight") in the golden hall of the
shrine Pon Ambalam.
The temple is one of the five elemental lingas in the Shaivism pilgrimage tradition, and
considered the subtlest of all Shiva temples (Kovil) in Hinduism. It is also a site for
performance arts, including the annual Natyanjali dance festival on Maha Shivaratri.[1
Chidambaram is one of the many temple towns in the state which is named after the groves,
clusters or forests dominated by a particular variety of a tree or shrub and the same variety of
tree or shrub sheltering the presiding deity. The town used to be called Thillai, following
Thillaivanam, derived from the mangrove of Tillai trees (Exocoeria agallocha) that grow
here and the nearby Pichavaram wetlands.
The site became the capital of Cholas in the 10th century, and they renamed it to
Chidambaram and built the current temple for their family deity of Nataraja Shiva. The
word Chidambaram comes from the Tamil word Chitrambalam (also spelled Chithambalam)
meaning "wisdom atmosphere". The roots are citt or chitthu means "consciousness or
wisdom", while and ampalam means "atmosphere".This composite word comes from its
association with Shiva Nataraja, the cosmic dancer and the cultural atmosphere for arts. The
word Chidambaram is translated by James Lochtefeld as "clothed in thought".

327
The town and temple name appears in medieval Hindu texts by various additional names such
as Kovil (lit. "the temple"), Pundarikapuram, Vyagrapuram, Sirrampuram, Puliyur and
Chitrakuta.[20] Additional names for Chidambaram in Pallava era and North Indian texts
include Kanagasabainathar, Ponnambalam, Brahmastpuri and Brahmapuri.
LOCATION; The Nataraja temple in Chidambaram is located in the southeastern Indian
state of Tamil Nadu. It is about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) north of the Kollidam River (Kaveri),
15 kilometres (9.3 mi) west from the coast of Bay of Bengal, and 220 kilometres (140 mi)
south of Chennai. The closest major airport is about 60 kilometres (37 mi) north in
Pondicherry (IATA: PNY). The National Highway 32 (old numbering: NH-45A) passes
through Chidambaram. The Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation and private companies
operate services connecting it to major cities in the state. The site is linked to the Indian
Railways with daily express trains to South Indian cities.
Chidambaram is a temple town, with the Nataraja complex spread over 40 acres (0.16 km2)
within a nearly square courtyard in the center. Its side roads are aligned to the east–west,
north–south axis. It has double walls around its periphery with gardens. It has had entrance
gateways on all four sides.

Nataraja – Shiva as the cosmic dancer, inspired the 10th-century Chola kings to rebuild the Chidambaram temple
with stone and gold. A silver Nataraja, not Shivalinga, is the principal icon in this temple.

Sharada Srinivasan. (2004). Shiva as “Cosmic Dancer”: On Pallava Origins for the Nataraja
Bronze. World Archaeology, 36(3), 432–450. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4128341.

Nataraja temple has ancient roots, likely following the temple architecture tradition that is
found all over South India from at least the 5th century. Textual evidence, such as those of
the Sangam tradition, suggest a temple existed here along with Madurai in ancient times but
the town is not named Chidambaram in these pre-5th-century texts. The earliest mention of
"dancing god of Chidambaram" as Shiva is found in 6th- and early-7th-century texts by
Appar and Sambadar. The Suta Samhita embedded inside Sri Kanda Puranam and variously
dated between 7th and 10th century mentions the Chidambaram dance. The surviving
Nataraja temple has a structure that is traceable to the early Chola dynasty. Chidambaram
was the early capital of this dynasty, and Shiva Nataraja was their family deity. The
Chidambaram temple town remained important to the Cholas, albeit with increasing
competition from other temple towns when Rajaraja Chola I moved the capital to Thanjavur,
built a new city and the massive Brihadeeswarar Temple dedicated to Shiva in the early 11th
century, which is now a world heritage site.
Nataraja Shiva and his "dance of bliss" is an ancient Hindu art concept. It is found in various
texts such as Tatva Nidhi which describes seven types of dance and their spiritual
symbolism, Kashyapa Silpa which describes 18 dance forms with iconographic details and
design instructions, as well as Bharata's ancient treatise on performance arts Natya
Shastra which describes 108 dance postures among other things. Reliefs and sculptures of
328
Nataraja have been found across the Indian subcontinent, some dating to the 6th century and
earlier such as in Aihole and Badami cave temples.
The Chidambaram temple built on this heritage, yet creatively evolved the idea into forms not
found elsewhere. The earliest historically verifiable Shiva temple at Chidambaram is
traceable in inscriptions that date to the rule of Aditya Chola I in the early 10th century, and
far more during the rule of the 10th-century Chola king Parantaka I. For them, the dancing
Shiva was the kula-nayaka (family guide or deity) and Chidambaram was the capital they
built.[ These inscriptions and texts from this period suggest that the significance of
the Agama texts and Shaiva Bhakti movement was strengthening within the Chola leadership
and thought.
The copper plate inscriptions of Parantaka I (c. 907-955 CE) describe him as the "bee at the
lotus feet of Shiva" who built the golden house for Shiva, with Chit-sabha, Hema-sabha,
Hiranya-sabha and Kanaka-sabha (all mandapam, pillared pilgrim rest places). He is referred
to as "Pon veinda Perumal", which means "one who covered with gold" the Chit-sabha of
Chidambaram. Both Aditya I and his Chola successor Parantaka I were active supporters of
arts and temple building. They converted many older brick and wooden temples into more
lasting temples from cut stone as the building blocks in dozens of places across South India.
Raja Raja Chola I (985-1013 CE) embarked on a mission to recover the hymns of the
63 Nayanmars after hearing short excerpts of the Tevaram in his court. He sought the help
of Nambiyandar Nambi, who was a priest in a temple. It is believed that by divine
intervention Nambi found the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half eaten by
white ants in a chamber inside the second precinct in Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram.
The brahmanas (Dikshitars) in the temple are supposed to have disagreed with the king by
saying that the works were too divine, and that only by the arrival of the "Naalvar" (the four
saints)—Appar, Sundarar, Tirugnanasambandar and Manickavasagar would they allow for
the chambers to be opened. Rajaraja, however, created idols of them and prepared for them to
be brought to the temple through a procession. but Rajaraja is said to have prevailed. Rajaraja
thus became known as Tirumurai Kanda Cholan meaning one who saved the Tirumurai.
After the Pallavas, Chola dynasty became the main power of Southern India and emerged
victorious among other kingdoms. The capital of Chola dynasty was the city of Thanjavur
They advanced as far as Bengal, Sri Lanka, Java, Sumatra and had trade links as far as
Indonesia. Their military and economic power was reflected in the grand architectural
productions under the period atThanjavur, Gangaikondcholpuram, Darasuram,Tribhuvanam.
They had built more than two hundred temples which seems to be continuation of previous
Pallava architecture with some variations. These temples amply illustrate the style of
architecture between 8th to 12th century CE and its influence may also be seen on the
architecture of temples of Ceylone and those of SE Asian kingdoms like SriVijay (Sumatra)
and Chavakam (Java). RajRaja I has constructed a Shiva temple at Polanuruva at Sri Lanka in
the same pattern of Chola architecture.

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An 1847 sketch of gopuram with ruined pillars, published by James Fergusson
In another version of the story, Rajaraja is said to have experienced a dream from
lord Shiva telling Rajaraja that the hymns in Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram are in a
state of destruction and to recover the remaining hymns from the chambers.
The brahmanas (Dikshitars) in the temple, however, are supposed to have disagreed with the
king by saying that the works were too divine to be accessed, and that only by the arrival of
the 63 Nayanmars would they allow for the chambers to be opened. Rajaraja, devising a plan,
consecrated idols of each of them and prepared for them to be brought into the temple
through a procession. It is said that the 63 idols are still present in the Thillai Nataraja
Temple. When the vault was opened, Rajaraja is said to have found the room infested with
white ants, and that the hymns were salvaged as much as possible. [The temple, according to
inscriptions found in South India and Southeast Asia, was also historic recipient of a precious
jewel from the king of Angkor who built the Angkor Wat through Chola king Kulothunga,
who submitted it to the temple in 1114 CE. Kulothunga I and his son expanded the
Chidambaram Nataraja temple expanse sixfold.
ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES Chola temples can be categorised in two groups –
1. Early Temples and
2. Later Temples;
early temples are influenced with Pallava architecture while later have Chalukya influence.
Temples were surrounded by high boundary wall unlike Nagara. The earlier example were
modest in size and while later ones were huge and large with Vimanas or Gopuras
dominating the landscape The spire in in the form of stepped pyramid, popularly known as
Vimana. Pallava influence may be seen in spire/vimana similar to Rathas, an octagon shaped
crowning element known as Shikhara. Panchayatan style, but no vimana on subsidiary
shrines Absence of lion motifs in pillar’s base as seen in the Pallava architecture, but
presence of Kudus decoration, however, it is little bit different with that of Pallavas The
temple mostly consists grabhgriha, antarala, sabhamandapa Presence of water tank inside the
boundary of the temple

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The raw material used are blocks of gneiss and granite The important example of early group
is Vijayalaya temple while later group represents Brihadishwar temple of Tanjaur and
Brihadishwar temple of Gangaikondcholpuram

Chidambaram temple thrived during the Chola dynasty rule through mid 13th century, along
with the later Shiva-based Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram capitals, as well as
Vishnu-based Srirangam temple towns. Its facilities infrastructure was expanded.
Naralokaviran, the general of king Kulothunga Chola I was responsible for building the steps
that lead to Sivaganga water pool, a goddess shrine, a shrine for child saint Thirugnana
Sambanthar, temple gardens and a pilgrim road network in and around Chidambaram. He
constructed a hall for recitation of Tevaram hymns and engraved the hymns in copper plates.
The thousand pillar choultry, with friezes narrating Hindu texts, was built in the late 12th
century.Between the second half of the 12th century and the early 13th century, the Chola
kings added colorful and high gopura stone gateways as easily identifiable landmarks,
starting with the western gopura. Thereafter, about mid 13th century, the Pandya dynasty
ended the Chola dynasty. The Hindu Pandyas were liberal supporters of Chidambaram
temple, along with other Shiva and Vishnu temples, just like the Chola. Sundara Pandya
added the huge eastern gopura at Chidambaram, beginning the colossal gateway tradition.
Most of the structure and plans currently seen in the Chidambaram complex, including the
mandapas with their pillar carvings, the various shrines with polished granite sculptures, the
sacred water pool and the early gopurams are from the 12th and 13th century, attributed to
the late Chola and early Pandya kings.
Invasions

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 1. Subrahmanya shrine in ruins, early 19th century/ A Mandapam in 1869
2. One of the temple's pillared halls before demolition in the late 19th century.
In the north, the Indian subcontinent had been conquered by the Delhi Sultanate. Muslim
armies had begun raiding central India for plunder by the late 13th century. In 1311, the Ala
ud Din Khilji's Muslim general Malik Kafur and his Delhi Sultanate forces went deeper into
the Indian peninsula for loot and to establish annual tribute paying Muslim governors. The
records left by the court historians of the Delhi Sultanate state that Malik Kafur raided
Chidambaram, Srirangam and other Tamil towms, destroyed the temples, and the
Chidambaram Shiva temple was one of the sources of gold and jewels booty he brought back
to Delhi.
The temple towns of Tamil Nadu were again targeted for loot in the 1320s. However, when
the news of another invasion spread in Tamil lands, the community removed them into the
Western Ghats or buried numerous sculptures and treasures in the land and concealed
chambers underneath temples sites before the Muslim armies reached them. A large number
of these were rediscovered in archaeological excavations at the site in and after 1979,
including those in Chidambaram. According to Nagaswamy, those who buried the temple
artworks followed the Hindu Agama texts such as Marici
Samhita and Vimanarcanakalpa that recommend ritually burying precious metal murtis as a
means of protection when war and robbery is imminent. Over 200 such items have been
recovered, including relevant hordes of copper plate inscriptions.
PATRONAGE: The Islamic invasion in the 14th century, brought an abrupt end to the
patronage of Chidambaram and other temple towns. The Delhi Sultan appointed a Muslim
governor, who seceded within the few years from the Delhi Sultanate and began the Madurai
Sultanate. This Sultanate sought tribute from the temple towns, instead of supporting them.
The Muslim Madurai Sultanate was relatively short lived, with Hindu Vijayanagara
Empire removing it in the late 14th century. The Vijayanagara rulers restored, repaired and
expanded the temple through the 16th century, along with many other regional temples.
These kings themselves went on pilgrimage to Chidambaram, and gifted resources to
strengthen its walls and infrastructure.

The destruction of Vijayanagara Empire in the late 16th century by an alliance of Sultanates,
followed within a few decades by entrance of Portuguese, French and British colonial
interests brought geopolitical uncertainties to Chidambaram and other temple towns. The
Portuguese were already a major Coromandel Coast trading group by the early 17th century,
a region to which Chidambaram belonged. The Portuguese began building forts, garrison and
churches in Coromandel Coast region after the demise of Vijayanagara, triggering the
intervention of the French and the British. By the mid-17th century, the temple complex was
within the patronage of Nayakas, who repaired the temple and repainted the frescoes on
mandapa ceilings. According to Michell, these restorations likely occurred about 1643 CE
during the reign of Shrirangadeva Raya III.

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According to British reports, Chidambaram temple town had to bear the "brunt of several
severe onslaughts" between the French and the British colonial forces several times
particularly in the 18th century.
Legend
The Chidambaram temple legend is contained in the 12th-century text Chidambara-
mahatmya. The central episode states that Shiva visits sages in the mythical Pine Forest in the
form of a dancer accompanied by Mohini, none other than Vishnu in the avatar of a beautiful
woman. Mohini triggers lustful interest of the sages, while Shiva performs Tandava dance
that triggers the carnal interest of the wives of these sages. The sages ultimately realise how
superficial their austerities have been. The episode becomes widely known. Two sages
named Patanjali (also called Sesha-bodied in the south for his connection to Vishnu)
and Vyaghrapada (also called Tiger-footed sage) want to see the repeat performance of this
"dance of bliss" in the Thaillai forest, Chidambaram. They set up a Shivalinga, pray, meditate
and wait. Their asceticism impresses Shiva who appeared before them in Chidambaram and
performed "the dance" against "the wall, in the blessed hall of consciousness". This is how
this temple started, according to the mahatmya embedded in the Tamil Sthalapurana. The
late medieval text Chidambaramahatmya may reflect a process of Sanskritisation, where
these North Indian named sages with Vedic links became incorporated into regional temple
mythology.
According to another Hindu legend, Mahalingaswamy at Thiruvidaimarudur is the centre of
all Shiva temples in the region and the Saptha Vigraha moorthis (seven prime consorts in
all Shiva temples) are located at seven cardinal points around the temple, located in various
parts of the state. The seven deities are Nataraja in Chidambaram Nataraja Temple
at Chidambaram, Chandikeswarar temple at Tirucheingalur, Vinayagar in Vellai Vinayagar
Temple at Thiruvalanchuzhi, Muruga in Swamimalai Murugan
Temple at Swamimalai, Bhairava in Sattainathar Temple at Sirkali, Navagraha in Sooriyanar
Temple at Suryanar Kovil,Dakshinamoorthy in Apatsahayesvarar Temple at Alangudi.[58] and
Somaskanda in Thiyagarajar temple at Thiruvarur.
Nava Puliyur Temples
This is one of the Nava Puliyur Temples worshipped by Patanjali and Vyaghrapada. The
following temples are called as Nava Puliyur Temples.
 Perumpatrapuliyur
 Thirupathiripuliyur
 Erukathampuliyur
 Omampuliyur
 Sirupuliyur
 Atthippuliyur
 Thaplampuliyur
 Perumpuliyur
 Kanattampuliyur
Golden Roof, Nataraja Temple in
Chidambaram

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Nataraja temple plan. 1: East gopura; 2: South gopura; 3: West gopura; 4: North gopura; 5: 1000 pillar
hall (choultry); 6: Shivaganga pool; 7: Devi temple; 8: Shiva Sanctum + Chit Sabha + Kanaka Sabha; 9:
Vishnu shrine.
Architecture
The temple as it stands had a pre-Chola existence and the architecture is Dravidian with the
Sanctum Sanctorum closely resembling Kerala or Malabar style structures. Indeed, the royal
charters mention the rebuilding of the Sanctum using architects from Kerala. However the
golden roof is a striking example of Vesara architecture with its apsidal shape. Two small
structures called the Chit Sabha and Kanak Sabha form the crux of the vast architectural
complex. The temple is spread over a 40-acre (16 ha) area, within layers of concentric
courtyards. The inner sanctum, its connecting mandapams and pillared halls near it are all
either squares or stacked squares or both. The complex has nine gopurams, several water
storage structures of which the Shivaganga sacred pool is the largest with a rectangular plan.
The temple complex is dedicated to Nataraja Shiva and theological ideas associated with
Shaivism concepts in Hinduism. However, the temple also includes shrines for Devi, Vishnu,
Subrahmanyar, Ganesha, Nandi and others including an Amman shrine, a Surya shrine
complete with Chariot wheels. The plan has numerous gathering halls called sabha, two
major choultry called the 100 pillared and 1,000 pillared halls, inscriptions and frescoes
narrating Hindu legends about gods, goddesses, saints and scholars.

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Courtyards
The Nataraja Temple complex is embedded inside four prakarams (prakramas, courtyards).
Each of the courtyard has walls that were defensively fortified after the 14th-century plunder
and destruction.

Courtyard, Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram

The outermost wall around the fourth courtyard has four simple, insignificant gateways. The
walls and gateways of the fourth courtyard were added in the 16th century by Vijayanagara
rulers after they had defeated the Madurai Sultanate, and this outermost layer was heavily
fortified by the Nayakas in the 17th century. These face the four large gopurams that are
gateways into the third courtyard. These gopurams are also landmarks from afar. Inside the
third courtyard, near the northern gopuram, is the Shivaganga tank, the thousand pillar
mandapam, the Subrahmanyar (Murugan, Kartikeya) shrine and the shrine for Parvati (as
Shivakama Sundari). The other three gateways are closer to the sanctum. The four gopurams
pilgrims and visitors to enter the temple from all four cardinal directions. The complex is
interconnected through a maze of pathways.
The courtyard walls and gateways are made from cut stones with some brick structure added
in. The gardens and palm groves are in the fourth courtyard, outside the walls of the third
courtyard walls with the four large gopurams. These were restored or added in by the
Vijayanagara rulers in the 16th century.

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Towers: gopurams

Two distinct styled gopurams of the Chidambaram temple. The artwork narrates religious and secular stories from Hindu texts .

The temple has nine major gopuram gateways connecting the various courtyards. Four of
these are huge and colorful, visible from afar, a symbolic and convenient landmark for
pilgrims. These gateway towers or gopurams each have 7 storeys facing the East, South,
West and North. The first edition of the four gopuram superstructures were likely built
between 1150 and 1300 CE. The earliest was likely the western gopuram, which is also the
smaller of the four. This is generally dated to about 1150 CE. The eastern gopura was likely
completed by about 1200 CE, southern gopura by the mid-13th century, while the northern
was added in the late 13th century. The four high gopurams were destroyed, rebuilt, repaired,
enlarged and redecorated several times after the 13th century. This has made the gopurams
difficult to place chronologically, yet useful in scholarly studies of the history of the Nataraja
temple.
All gopuras are built of precisely cut large stone blocks all the way to the main cornice. Upon
this is a stone, brick and plaster structure with layers of pavilions. Above these talas (storeys)
is a Dravidian style barrel vaulted roof, crowned with thirteen kalasa finials. All four are
approximately similar in size and 14:10:3 ratio, about 42.7 metres (140 ft) high, 30.5 metres
(100 ft) wide and 9.1 metres (30 ft) deep.
Artwork on the gopuram

Nataraja Temple gopuram artwork in Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu/ Sculpture in a wall at Nataraja Temple in
Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu

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Each gopuram is colorful and unique in its own ways. They narrate stories from various
Hindu texts, showing religious and secular scenes from the various Hindu traditions. This art
is presented in each gopuram with anthropomorphic figure panels and about fifty niches with
stone sculptures in every gopuram. The scenes include multiple panels about the legend of
Shiva-Parvati wedding with Brahma, Vishnu, Saraswati and Lakshmi attending, dancing
Ganesha, Shiva in his various aspects, Durga in the middle of her war with a demon, Skanda
ready for war, seated Nandi, musicians, dancers, farmers, merchants, sadhu in namaste
posture, dancing dvarapalas near the vertical center line and others. The artists and architects
who built these gopura may have had a rationale in the relative sequence and position of the
artwork with respect to each other and on various levels, but this is unclear and a subject of
disagreement among scholars.

The artwork on gopuram showing Parvati-Shiva Kalyanasundara wedding legend. Near the newly weds are
Saraswati, Lakshmi, Vishnu and others.

The earliest built western gopuram is the only one with inscriptions below each artwork that
identifies what it is. The artwork on it includes Durga fighting the evil, shape shifting buffalo
demon and Skanda sitting on peacock and dressed up for war. Other artwork found on the
eastern gopuram include Surya, Ganapati, Vishnu, Sridevi (Lakshmi), Tripurasundari,
Brahma, Saraswati, Varuna, Durga, Agni, several rishis, Yamuna goddess, Kama and Rati,
Budha, the Vedic sages such as Narada and Agastya, Pantanjali, Somaskanda legend,
Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati), Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva), several forms
of dancing Shiva and others.
The surviving south gopuram called the Sokkaseeyan Thirunilai Ezhugopuram was
constructed by a Pandya king identified from the presence of the dynasty's fish emblem
sculpted on the ceiling. The Pandyas sculpted two fishes facing each other when they
completed gopurams (and left it with one fish, in case it was incomplete). Other artwork
found on the southern gopuram include Chandesha, Ganapati, Vishnu, Sridevi (Lakshmi),
several Devis, Brahma, Saraswati, Surya, Chandra, Durga, Indra, Agni, several rishis, Ganga
and Yamuna goddesses, Kama and Rati, Budha, the Vedic sages such as Narada, Pantanjali,
Somaskanda legend, Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati), Harihara (half Vishnu, half
Shiva), several forms of dancing and standing Shiva such as Pashupata, Kiratarjuna and
Lingobhava, as well as others.

The eastern gopura wall shows all 108 dance postures from the Natya Shastra. The other
gopuras also have dance images.
The eastern gopuram features the 108 reliefs of Natya Shastra dance postures (22 cm each in
a separate niche) and faces the sanctum. The eastern gopuram is credited to king

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Koperunsingan II (1243-1279 A.D.) as per epigraphical recordsand was repaired with support
from a woman named Subbammal in the late 18th century.
The northern gopuram was repaired and finished by
the Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya (1509-1530 A.D.) in the 16th century. The eastern
and northern gopura also depicts the wide range of narratives as the southern and western
gopuram.
The idols of Pachaiappa Mudaliar and his wife Iyalammal have been sculpted on the
eastern gopuram. The Pachaiappa Trust to date has been responsible for various functions in
the temple and also maintain the temple car. The eastern gopuram is renowned for its
complete enumeration of 108 poses of Indian classical dance – Bharathanatyam, detailed in
small rectangular panels along the passage that leads to the gateway.
Shrines

The Chidambaram temple complex includes gopura, vimana and the sacred pool.

The temple complex has many shrines, most related to Shaivism but elements of
Vaishnavism and Shaktism are included. The innermost structures such as the sanctum and
the shrines all have square plans, but the gateways do not align except the innermost two
courtyards.
Shaivism The sanctum of the temple is set inside the innermost 1st prakara which is a square
with about 44 metres (144 ft) side. This prakara is offset towards the west inside the 2nd
prakara, which is also a square with about 105 metres (344 ft) side. The Shiva sanctum is
unusual as it does not have a Shivalinga, rather it has the Chit Sabha (consciousness
gathering, also called chit ambalam) with an image of Shiva Nataraja. This introspective
empty space has a curtained space that is 3.5 meter long and 1.5 meter wide. It is called
the rahasya (secret) in Hindu texts. It consists of two layers, one red, the other black.
According to George Michell, this is a symbolism in Hinduism of "enlightenment inside,
illusion outside". It is replaced on the tenth day of the main festivals. The Chidambaram
Rahasya is the "formless" representation of Shiva as the metaphysical Brahman in Hinduism,
sometimes explained as akasha linga and divine being same as Self (Atman) that is
everywhere, in everything, eternally.
Facing the Chit Sabha is the Kanaka Sabha (also called pon ambalam), or the gathering of
dancers. These two sanctum spaces are connected by five silver gilded steps called
the panchakshara. The ceiling of the Chit Sabha is made of wooden pillars coated with gold,
while copper coats the Kanaka Sabha is copper colored.

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Durga in the Shivakamasundari shrine, in her Mahishasuramardini form killing the buffalo
demon below her foot.
Shaktism
The main Devi shrine in the Nataraja temple complex is offset towards the north of the
sanctum inside the third prakara, and found to the west of the Shivaganga pool. It is called the
Shivakamasundari shrine, dedicated to Parvati. The temple faces east and has an embedded
square plan, though the stacked squares created a long rectangular space. The shrine has its
own walls and an entrance gateway (gopura). Inside is the dedicated mandapas and brightly
colored frescoes likely from the 17th-century Vijayanagara period. These narrate the story of
Shiva and Vishnu together challenging the "learned sages, ascetics and their wives" in the
forest, by appearing in the form of a beautiful beggar that dances (bhikshatanamurti) and a
beautiful girl that seduces (Mohini) respectively. Another set of frescoes are secular depicting
temple festivities and daily life of people, while a stretch narrates the story of Hindu saints
named Manikkavachakar and Mukunda.
The shrine had artwork narrating the Devi Mahatmya, a classic Sanskrit text of Shaktism
tradition. However, in 1972, these were removed given their dilapidated state. These were
replaced with a different story. Other parts of the paintings and shrine also show great
damage.
The sanctum of the Shivakamasundari shrine is dedicated to Devi, where she is Shiva's
knowledge (jnana shakti), desire (iccha sakti), action (kriya sakti) and compassion (karuna
sakti). The oldest Shivakamasundari sculpture at the site representing these aspects of the
goddess has been dated to the king Parantaka I period, about 950 CE.
Vaishnavism
The Nataraja temple complex incorporates Vaishnava themes and images like many Hindu
temples in South India. A Vishnu shrine, for example, is found inside the sanctum of the
temple in its southwest corner. According to George Michell and others, Chola kings revered
Shiva with Tyagaraja and Nataraja their family deity, yet their urban Shaiva centers "echo a
very strong substratum of Vaishnava traditions". This historic inclusiveness is reflected in
Chidambaram with Vishnu Govindaraja in the same sanctum home by the side of Nataraja.
After the turmoil of the 14th century when the temple was attacked and looted, there was
period when some priests sought to restore only Shaiva iconography according to extant
Portuguese Jesuit records. However, the Vijayanagara rulers insisted on the re-consecration

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of all historic traditions. The temple inscriptions confirm that Vishnu was included along with
Shiva in the temple's earliest version, and was reinstalled when the temple was reopened by
the Vijayanagara kings.
Some texts from the time of king Kulottunga II give conflicting reports, wherein the Shaiva
texts state that the king removed the Vishnu image while Vaishnava texts state that they took
it away and installed it in Tirupati, sometime about 1135 CE. The scholar Vedanta Desika re-
established the co-consecration in 1370 CE, about the time Vijayanagara Empire conquered
Chidambaram and northern Tamil lands from the Madurai Sultanate. The current shrine,
states Michell, is from 1539 financed by king Achyutaraya and it features a reclining figure
of Vishnu.
The Govindaraja shrine is one of the 108 holy temples of Vishnu called divyadesam, revered
by the 7th-to-9th-century saint poets of Vaishnava tradition, Alwars.[93] Kulashekhara
Alwar mentions this temple as Tillai Chitrakutam and equates Chitrakuta of Ramayana fame
with this shrine. The shrine has close connections with the Govindaraja temple
in Tirupati dating back to saint Ramanuja of the 11th and 12th centuries.

The circumambulation paths in shrines, the mandapa's moulded plinth and the pilgrim hall
pillars of the Nataraja temple are carved with reliefs showing dancers and musicians.
Others
The Nataraja temple has a pre-13th-century Surya shrine. The image is unusual as it depicts a
three headed Surya same as Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu, with eight hands holding
iconographic items of these deities, along with two lotuses in a pair of hands in front,
accompanied by two small female figures possibly Usha and Pratyusha, standing on a chariot
drawn by seven horses and Aruna as charioteer. The temple also has a significant shrine

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for Ganesha in the southwest corner and a Subrahmanyar shrine in the northwest corner of
the third courtyard.
Halls: sabha
The temple has many halls called sabha (lit. "community gathering", also
called ambalams or sabhai) inside the complex. Two of these are the Chit Sabha and the
Kanaka Sabha inside the sanctum area of the Nataraja shrine, described earlier. The other
halls are:
Nritta sabha- DANCE HALLS
Nrithya sabha (also called Nritta Sabha, Natya sabha, or "Hall of Dance") is a "so-called 56-
pillared" hall. It is in the south section of the second courtyard that circumambulates the
Nataraja sanctum of the complex. This second courtyard is near the temple's flag mast (kodi
maram or dwaja sthambam). The 13th-century Nritta Sabha is traditionally considered as the
place where Shiva and Kali originally entered into a dance competition. Shiva won with
the urdhva-tandava pose that raised his right leg straight up, a posture that Kali refused
because she was a woman. The hall is rectangular consisting of three stacked squares, a 15-
meter-sided square that is the main hall, which is connected to 4 meters by 8 meters
rectangular mukha-mandapa to its north. The hall now has 50 pillars, but evidence suggests
that it may have had 56 or more pillars earlier. These pillars are intricately carved from top to
bottom. The lower levels have dancers in Natya Shastra mudras accompanied with
expressive musicians as if both are enjoying creating the music and the dance. The pillars
also have embedded narratives of legends from Hindu texts, such as of Durga fighting the
buffalo demon, as well as humorous dwarfs frolicking. Below the kapota, the structures show
reliefs of seated people, many in namaste posture, some with a beard and yogi like
appearance representing saints and rishis. Nearly 200 of these are still visible, rest appear to
have been damaged or eroded over time.
The Nritta Sabha platform's base is carved as a chariot, with horses and wheels, as if it is
rising out the ground. Historic texts state that the wheels were exquisitely carved and visible
in the past, each about 1.25 meter diameter with 28 spokes and 33 medallions, the chariot had
1.55-meter-high (5.1 ft) ornamented horses, on the wheel was a seated rishi as if he was
guiding the movement. Only remnants of this structure remains now. The northern niche of
the hall is carved with 14 figures in addition to Shiva as Kanakamurti. The Shiva image had
been damaged and is now restored. The 14 figures include Surya (sun god), Chandra (moon
god) and 12 rishis of which Narada and Tumburu with Vina can be identified, the others have
been too damaged to identify but are likely Vedic rishis. Near them are women in seductive
postures, some nudes, likely the wives of the rishis. Next to the northern niche with Shiva are
two smaller niches, one for Patanjali seated on coiled serpent and another for bald headed
Vyaghrapada, the two mythical Chidambaram saints. The western wall also has a niche with
a large Shiva image in his Vrisabhantika form. Once again rishis are with him, this time
in namaste posture. A few figures are dressed royally like warriors and these may be
representation of the Chola kings.
The hall's center is an open square, with an ornate inverted lotus ceiling decoration. Around
this lotus are 108 coffers, each with two human figures in namaste posture, all oriented to be
along the north–south axis likely to suggest the direction to performance artists who would
perform live and aligning themselves to the chit sabha in the sanctum.

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Carved pillars in a temple hall./The damaged 1,000 pillar hall.

342
 ceiling

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Raja sabha: 1,000 pillar hall
Raja sabha or the 1000-pillared hall is to the east of the Shivaganga pool, in the northeast part
of the third courtyard. A pillared pathway from the eastern gopuram leads to it. It was a
choultry for pilgrims with a convenient access to the pool. The hall's lower mouldings have
dance mudras and medieval era musical instruments being played by musicians. The pillars
have reliefs. It is now kept closed, except for festivals.
Shatasila sabha: 100 pillar hall[

This is northwest of the sanctum, south of the Devi shrine. It is badly damaged and closed to
public.
Deva sabha
Deva Sabhai is on the eastern side of the second courtyard. It is called Perampalam, literally
"Great Hall" in the inscriptions, which suggests that it is an early structure and was
historically important. According to Nanda and Michell, this may be the hall where Shaiva
bhakti saints Nayanars came and sang hymns. It may also have hosted royal visits during the
Chola era times.
The Deva sabha (divine gathering hall) houses the temple's revered collection of historic
bronze sculptures and modern era frescoes. One of the paintings show Parvati seated in a
chair, watching the Nrtta sabha hall.

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Temple Tanks

Sacred pool sketched in the 1870s.

It is locally called the Sivaganga (சிவகங்கை).

The Chidambaram temple is well endowed with several water bodies within and around the
temple complex.

 Sivaganga tankis in the third corridor of the temple opposite

to the shrine of Shivagami. It is accessed by flights of stone
steps leading from the shrine.[
 Paramanandha koobham is the well on the eastern side of the
Chitsabha hall from which water is drawn for sacred
purposes.

Temple Tank in Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram

 Kuyya theertham is situated to the north-east of Chidambaram in Killai

near the Bay of Bengal and has the shore called Pasamaruthanthurai.
 Pulimedu is situated around a kilometer and a half to the south of
Chidambaram.
 Vyagrapatha Theertham is situated on to the west of the temple opposite to
the temple of Ilamai Akkinaar
 Anantha Theertham is situated to the west of the temple in front of the
Anantheswarar temple.

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  Nagaseri tank is situated to the west of the Anantha thirtham
 Brahma Theertham is situated to the north-west of the temple at
Thirukalaanjeri.
 Underground channels at the shrine drain excess water in a northeasterly
direction to the Shivapriyai temple tank of the Thillai Kali Temple,
Chidambaram. Due to poor maintenance, it has not been in use
 Thiruparkadal is the tank to the south-east of the Shivapriyai tank
Inscriptions
Even though the history of the temple goes back to the Prabhandas and Tevaram, that is
the Pallava period, the earliest known inscriptions are only that of Rajendra
Chola and Kulothunga I followed by Vikrama Chola and other later rulers. The Nataraja
temple inscriptions are notable for mentioning a library of manuscripts in temple premises.
Two inscriptions dated to the early 13th century mention re-organization of old temple
library. According to Hartmut Scharfe, the older library mentioned may date to the early 12th
century. The inscriptions, states Scharfe, recite that the temple employed twenty librarians, of
which eight copied old manuscripts to create new editions, two verified the copy matched the
original and four managed the proper storage of the manuscripts.
There are many Chola inscriptions in the temple, both in Tamil and Sanskrit. These are
attributed to Rajendra Chola I (1012-1044 CE), Kulothunga Chola I (1070-1120
CE), Vikrama Chola (1118-1135 CE), Rajadhiraja Chola II (1163 -1178 CE), Kulothunga
Chola III (1178-1218 CE) and Rajaraja Chola III (1216-1256 CE). Pandya inscriptions date
from Thribhuvana Chakravarthi Veerapandiyan, Jataavarman Thribhuvana Chakravarthi
Sundarapaandiyan (1251-1268 CE) and Maaravarman Thribhuvana Chakravarthi
Veerakeralanaagiya Kulashekara Pandiyan (1268-1308 CE). Pallava inscriptions are
available for king Avani Aala Pirandhaan Ko-pperum-Singha (1216-1242 CE). Vijayanagara
Kings mentioned in inscriptions are Veeraprathaapa Kiruttina Theva Mahaaraayar (1509-
1529 CE), Veeraprathaapa Venkata Deva Mahaaraayar, Sri Ranga Theva Mahaaraayar,
Atchyutha Deva Mahaaraayar (1529-1542 CE) and Veera Bhooopathiraayar. One of the
inscriptions from the descendant of Cheramaan Perumal nayanar, Ramavarma Maharaja has
been found.
Temple Car

The temple car of Natraja used during festival processions./ An 1820 painting of Nataraja in a temple
chariot.
Temple carsare chariots that
are used to carry representations of Hindu gods. The car is usually
used on festival days, when many people pull the cart.

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The size of the largest temple cars inspired the Anglo-
Indian term Juggernaut (from Jagannath), signifying a tremendous, virtually unstoppable
force or phenomenon.
The procession of the Asia's largest and greatest temple car of Thiruvarur Thiyagarajar
Temple in Tamil Nadu features prominently in an ancient festival held in the town. [3] The
annual chariot festival of the Thygarajaswamy temple is celebrated during April – May,
corresponding to the Tamil month of Chitrai. The chariot is the largest of its kind in Asia and
India weighing 300 tonne with a height of 90 feet. The chariot comes around the four main
streets surrounding the temple during the festival. The event is attended by lakhs of people
from all over Tamil Nadu
The Aazhi Ther is the biggest temple chariot in Tamil Nadu. The 30-foot tall temple car,
which originally weighed 220 ton, is raised to 96 feet with bamboo sticks and decorative
clothes, taking the its total weight to 350 tons. Mounted on the fully decorated temple car, the
presiding deity – Lord Shiva – went around the four streets with the devotees pulling it using
huge ropes. Two bulldozers were engaged to provide the required thrust so that devotees
could move the chariot.[5]
As of 2004, Tamil Nadu had 515 wooden carts, 79 of which needed repairs. Annamalaiyar
Temple, Tiruvannamalai, Chidambaram Natarajar Temple are among the temples that possess
these huge wooden chariots for regular processions. The Natarajar Temple celebrates the
chariot festival twice a year; once in the summer (Aani Thirumanjanam, which takes place
between June and July) and another in winter (Marghazhi Thiruvaadhirai, which takes place
between December and January). Lord Krishna of Udupi has five temple cars,
namely Brahma ratha (the largest), Madya ratha (mediu

m), kinyo (small), and the

silver and gold rathas.

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348
The Chidambaram temple car is used for processions twice a year, where it is drawn by
several thousand devotees during the festivals. There are five temple cars, with the biggest
one for Lord Nataraja. The main deity in the sanctum santorum will be taken out on the
procession, unlike the other temples where Utsava idols are generally taken out. The four feet
idols of Lord Nataraja and Goddess Sivagamasundari, adorned with precious gem-studded
jewellery and flowers, are taken out of the main sanctum amidst a grand number of devotees
in a golden platforms. Fifties of men hold the huge wooden log connected to the platform
making a circumbulation around the Chitsaba, before being taken out to the temple car. After
the procession across four car streets, the deities are taken in a similar fashion to the
Rajasabha at night, where Laksharchana happens (chanting the 1000 names of Lord Nataraja
by 100 priests; laksha - 1 lakh). The next day, before dawn, the deities are bathed with holy
products. Unlike other temples, the holy bathing ritual goes for 4–5 hours which consists of
several products like milk, holy ash, turmeric, curd, honey, rose water sugarcane juice, fruits,
flowers, coconut water. For every Mahabisheka during Margazhi festival, Swarnabhisheka is
done (bath with golden coins). After abisheka, Lord Nataraja and Goddess Sivagamasundari
offers ROYAL DARSHAN to devotees in the Rajasabha (the royal hall). Around late
afternoon, the deities are taken inside temple in a grandeur manner, which forms the prime
Arudhra Darshan (Margazhi festival) or Uttra Darshan (Aani Thirumanjanam festival). These
two annual festivals coincidence with Winter and Summer solstice (of Northern Hemisphere),
respectively.
Significance of the architecture
The temple sanctum contains a silver sculpture of Shiva in his Ānanda-tāṇḍava Nataraja
aspect. It signifies:

 The demon under Lord Nataraja's feet signifies that ignorance

is under His feet.
 The fire in His hand (power of destruction) means He is the
destroyer of evil.
 The raised hand (Abhaya or Pataka mudra) signifies that He
is the savior of all life forms.[113]
 The arc of fire called Thiruvashi or Prabhavati signifies the
cosmos and the perpetual motion of the earth.
 The drum in His hand signifies the origin of life forms.
 The lotus pedestal signifies Om, the sound of the universe.
 His right eye, left eye and third eye signify the sun, moon and
fire/knowledge, respectively.
 His right earring (makara kundalam) and left earring (sthri
kundalam) signify the union of man and woman (right is man,
left is woman).
 The crescent moon in His hair signifies benevolence and
beauty.
 The flowing of river Ganges through His matted hair signifies
eternity of life.
 The dreading of His hair and drape signify the force of His
dance.[113]

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 6.

Sri Rama sculpture with Seeta and Lakshmana

7.

Sculpture of Vishnu seated on Garuda

8.

Dilapidated sculpture

9.

Thousand Pillared Hall

Dance and performance arts are not unique to Shiva in Hindu texts, including the Tamil
literature. Many other deities, including Vishnu, Durga, Krishna, Ganesha, Kartikeya are all
envisioned as dancers amongst other things. However, with Shiva the idea is most evolved.[31]

^ Sharada Srinivasan states that the Nataraja bronze has roots in 7th- to 9th-century Pallava
innovations.

Srinivasan, Sharada (2004). "Shiva as 'cosmic dancer': On Pallava origins for the Nataraja
bronze". World Archaeology. Informa UK Limited. 36 (3): 432–450.

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351
352
 Chidambaram Temple
Center Of Earths Magnetic Field Cdm Tmpl City

353
After 8 long years of research, Western scientists have proved that at Lord Nataraja's Temple
Chidambaram, in Tamil nadu, the big toe is the Centre Point of World 's Magnetic Equator.

It has been proved by our ancient Tamil ScholarThirumoolar about Five thousand years ago!
His treatiseThirumandiram is a wonderful Scientific guide for the whole world.

Chidambaram temple embodies the following characteristics :

1) This temple is located at the Center Point of world 's Magnetic Equator.

2) Of the "Pancha bootha" i.e. 5 temples, Chidambaram denotes the skies. Kalahasthi denotes
Wind. Kanchi Ekambareswar denotes land. All these 3 temples are located in a straight line at
79 degrees 41 minutes Longitude. This can be verified using Google. An amazing fact &

354
astronomical miracle !

3) Chidambaram temple is based on the Human Body having 9 Entrances denoting 9

Entrances or Openings of the body.

4) Temple roof is made of 21600 gold sheets which denotes the 21600 breaths taken by a
human being every day (15 x 60 x 24 = 21600)

5) These 21600 gold sheets are fixed on the Gopuram using 72000 gold nails which denote
the total no. of Nadis (Nerves) in the human body. Thesetransfer energy to certain body parts
that are invisible.

6) Thirumoolar states that man represents the shape of Shivalingam, which again represents
Chidambaram .this represents Sadashivam which represents HIS dance !

7) "Ponnambalam " is placed slightly tilted towards the left. This represents ourHeart. To
reach this, we need to climb 5 steps called "Panchatshara padi"Si, Va, Ya, Na, Ma " are the 5
Panchatshara mantras.
There are 4 pillars holding the Kanagasabha representing the 4 Vedas.

8) Ponnambalam has 28 pillars denoting the 28 "Ahamas "as well as the 28

methods to worship Lord Shiva. These 28 pillars support 64+64 Roof Beams which denote
the 64 Arts. The cross beams represent the Blood Vessels running across the Human body.

9) 9 Kalasas on the Golden Roof represent the 9 types of Sakthi or Energies.

The 6 pillars at the Artha Mantapa represent the 6 types of Sashtras.
The 18 pillars in theadjacent Mantapa represents 18 Puranams.

10) The dance of Lord Nataraja is described as Cosmic Dance by Western Scientists.
Whatever Science is propounding now has been stated by by our saints thousands of years

355
ago
SPIRITUALITY SCIENCE – ESSENCE AND EXISTENCE – CHIDAMBARA RAHASYAM:
LORD SHIVA’S ESSENCE IN THIS IMAGE IS DESCRIBED AS “ARDHANARISHWARA”,
HALF‐MALE AND HALF‐FEMALE, A PERFECT UNION OF MATTER, ENERGY, AND

THE ENERGY CONTROLLER

SPIRITUALITY SCIENCE – ESSENCE AND EXISTENCE: CHIDAMBARA RAHASYAM – THE GREAT MYSTERY OF CHIDAMBARAM.
LORD NATARAJA DESTROYS MAN’S IGNORANCE TO RELEASE MAN FROM THE INFLUENCE OF COSMIC ILLUSION.

356
SPIRITUALITY SCIENCE – ESSENCE AND EXISTENCE: IN BOTH CHRISTIAN AND
INDIAN TRADITIONS, EARTH IS THOUGHT TO BE THE CENTER OF THE UNIVERSE.
IN INDIA, CHIDAMBARAM IS THE CENTER OF THE UNIVERSE. THE PLACE IS
VIEWED AS THE CENTRE OF GEOMAGNETIC EQUATOR OF PLANET EARTH. THE
GREEN HORIZONTAL LINE REPRESENTS THE GEOMAGNETIC EQUATOR.

After 8 years of R & D, Western scientists have proved that at Lord Nataraja 's big toe is the
Centre Point of World 's Magnetic Equator.
Our ancient Tamil Scholar Thirumoolar has proved this Five thousand
years ago! His treatise THIRUMANDIRAM is a wonderful Scientific guide for the whole
world.

To understand his studies, it may need a 100 years for us.

Chidambaram, in Southern India’s state of Tamil Nadu, is also known as Thillai, since the
place was originally a forest of the thillai shrubs. It is an important pilgrim center, a major
shrine of Lord Shiva and as the famous Nataraja Temple. In fact, Chidambaram offers a
combination of the three aspects of Shiva worship – the form Lord Nataraja (dance), the form
and the formlessness (linga) and the formless omnipresence.The temple has influenced
worship, architecture, sculpture and performance art for over two millennium. Now, that is an
old temple.
The ancient temple is located in the center of the town and covers 40 acres with four seven-
story gopurams ( those huge gateways facing North, South East and West) each with around
fifty stone sculptures. There are also five sabhas or courts. The presiding deity of the temple
is formless, represented by air, one of the five elements of the universe. The temple is

357
dedicated to Lord Nataraja, and is unique as it one of the rare temples where Shiva is
represented by an idol rather than the customary lingam. (I’d been introduced to lingams
earlier, they are black phallic looking statues.) This temple also has exquisite carvings of
Bharathanatya dance postures, the Classical Dance of Tamil Nadu. At Chidambaram, the
dancer dominates, not the linga.
Temple dancer The eastern tower of the temple rises to a height of 134 feet with 108
Bharathanatyam dance poses as well as on Western tower. The Northern tower rises to a
height of 140 feet and is the tallest. This temple is also noted for its Gold Plated roof that
adorns the sanctum sanctorum, or called the kanakasabha. NonHindus are not allowed inside
the sanctum sanctorum. The temple as it stands is mainly from the 12th and 13th centuries,
with later additions in similar style. It was believed to have been originally constructed
during the early Chola period (900’s AD).

Chidambaram temple embodies the following characteristics :

1) This temple is located at the Center Point of world 's Magnetic Equator.
2) Of the "Pancha bootha" i.e. 5 temples, Chidambaram denotes the Skies. Kalahasthi denotes
Wind. Kanchi Ekambareswar denotes land. All these 3 temples are located in a straight line at
79 degrees 41 minutes Longitude. This can be verified using Google. An amazing fact &
astronomical miracle !
3) Chidambaram temple is based on the Human Body having 9 Entrances denoting 9
Entrances or Openings of the body.
4) Temple roof is made of 21600 gold sheets which denotes the 21600 breaths taken by a
human being every day (15 x 60 x 24 = 21600)
5) These 21600 gold sheets are fixed on the Gopuram using 72000 gold nails which denote
the total no. of Nadis (Nerves) in the human body. These transfer energy to certain body parts
that are invisible.
6) Thirumoolar states that man represents the shape of Shivalingam, which represents
Chidambaram which represents Sadashivam which represents HIS dance !
7) "Ponnambalam " is placed slightly tilted towards the left. This represents our Heart. To
reach this, we need to climb 5 steps called "Panchatshara padi " "Si, Va, Ya, Na, Ma " are the
5 Panchatshara mantras.
There are 4 pillars holding the Kanagasabha representing the 4 Vedas.
8) Ponnambalam has 28 pillars denoting the 28 "Ahamas "as well as the 28 methods to
worship Lord Shiva. These 28 pillars support 64 +64 Roof Beams which denote the 64 Arts.
The cross beams represent the Blood Vessels running across the Human body.
9) 9 Kalasas on the Golden Roof represent the 9 types of Sakthi or Energies.
The 6 pillars at the Artha Mantapa represent the 6 types of Sashtras.
The 18 pillars in the adjacant Mantapa represents 18 Puranams.
10) The dance of Lord Nataraja is described as Cosmic Dance by Western Scientists.
Whatever Science is propounding now has been stated by Hinduism thousands of years ago
Greatness Of Temple:

Lord Shiva is in three forms in Chidambaram, as visible idol form, formless as Akasha or

358
space and form and formless as a Spatika Linga. What is Chidambara Rahasyam – secret:
There is small entrance near Lord Sabanayaka in the Chit Saba. The screen is removed and
an arati is offered. There is nothing in a form inside. But there hangs a golden Vilwa garland
without a Murthi. The secret is that Lord is here as Akasha which has no beginning or an
end. This can be understood only by experience. Of the Panchabhoodha Sthals,
Chidambaram belongs to Akasha. Chit + Ambaram= Chidambaram. Chit means wisdom.
Ambaram means broad open space not measurable. “We have nothing with us” is the lesson
from this philosophy. The reputation of Chidambaram is still greater, because it is here that
the hymns of three great Saivite Saints were discovered. They sang thousands of hymns in
many Shiva Sthals they visited. Where were they for the use of the devotees? Tirunarayur
Nambiandar Nambi and king Tirumurai Kanda Chozhan fell at the feet of Lord Polla Pillayar
– Vinayaka to guide them in the matter. With the blessings of Lord Vinayaka, they came to
know that all these great spiritual literatures with the signatures of the respective authors are
hidden in this temple. They rushed to Chidambaram and worshipped the authors with
respectful festivals. They found the palm leaves covered by anthill and mostly consumed by
insects. Yet they picked up the available full leaves and saved them. All these invaluable
spiritual literatures would have been totally lost but for the painstaking and devout labour of
Nambiandar Nambigal and Tirumurai Kanda Chozhan.

Chidambaram Lord Nataraja probably is the first social reformer. Nandanar, a dalit farm
worker was a staunch Shiva devotee. He desired to have the darshan of Lord but could not
secure a holiday from his upper caste boss who said that as a low born he was not entitled for
the privilege. Nandanar did not lose hope. Naalai Pohalam – Let me go tomorrow – was his
hope. After many tomorrows, he finally reached Chidambaram but could not enter the
temple due to his community problem. He tried to have the glimpse of Lord, but Nandhi the
bull vehicle of Lord Shiva blocked the view. Lord asked Nandhi to move and enabled
Nandanar to have his darshan. Nandanar attained salvation here and merged with Lord to the
shock and surprise of the upper class. It is said that the four Saivite Saints entered the temple
through the four entrances of the temple, Manickavasagar through the east, Gnanasambandar
from south, Appar from west and Sundarar from the north. ApparTirunavukkarasar did his
Angapradakshina in the car strees (Ratha Veedhi) of Chidambaram. Saint Manickavasagar
cured the dumb daughter of the Buddhist king of Lanka with the blessings of Lord in the
temple. There are five Sabhas in the temple – Chittrambalam, Ponnambalam, Perambalam,
Niruddha Sabha and Rajatha Sabha.

The shrines of Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu are so structured that the devotee can have twin
darshan from one spot in the temple. This is a temple where Brahmma, Vishnu and Rudra
grace the devotees together. Saint Arunagirinathar had praised Lord Muruga of this temple
in ten of his Tirupugazh hymns. Many believe that Lord Nataraja is the presiding deity of
this temple. The presiding deity is Adhimoola Nathar in the Linga form. Sages Patanjali and
Vyakrapada wished that people of this earth too should have the chance to view and enjoy the
great dance of Lord Shiva performed at Mount Kailash. They came to earth and sat in
penance on Adhimoolanathar for the purpose. Responding to their selfless penance for the
common people, Lord Shiva along with Tri Sahasra Muniswaras – 3000 sages came to this
place and granted His dance darshan in Thai month (JanuaryFebruary) on Poosam Star day at
12.00 a.m. These 3000 Muniswaras then came to known as Thillai Moovayiravar.

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Chidambaram is a holy place that ensures total salvation to the souls. For salvation, one
should have his/her birth at Tiruvarur or live in Kanchi or think of Tiruvannamalai or die in
Kasi. If one worships Lords Tirumoolanathar and Nataraja at Chidambaram at least once in
life time, salvation is reserved for the soul.

Despite strong opposition to Nandanar to enter the temple due to community reasons, he
entered the temple with all honours and merged with the Lord. His bhaktidevotion was too
deep and true that transcended all blockades of caste discriminations. Every one in the world,
irrespective of race, colour, country, language, religion throng he temple for Lord Nataraja
darshan and also participate in pulling the carrath. Lord Brahmma organized a yajna and
invited the 3000 Muniswaras to join in the pujas. They simply replied that no great soulful
gain could be achieved by attending the yajna than the darshan of Nataraja at Thillai
Chidambaram. Lord advised them to go and attend the yajna and promised to appear there at
the end of the yajna. That form of His appearance in the Brahmma Loka is praised as Rathna
Sabapathy. This idol is under the Nataraja idol. Every day, between 10.00 a.m and 11.00
a.m. Arati is shown to Lord Rathna Sabapathi, both at front and back. There is a similarity in
the design of Nataraja shrine and the human body, it is said. The 21,600 golden tiles
engraved with the Na Ma Shi Va Ya mantra represent the number of times one breathes each
day. The 72,000 nails used in the Ponnambalam represent the number of nerves of the human
body. The 9 entrances represent the nine conveniences in the body activating our
movements. Five steps to Ponnambalam represent the five letters of Na Ma Shi Va Ya
Mantra. Wooden supports numbering 64 represent 64 arts, 96 windows the 96 philosophies,
the pillars the 4 Vedas, 6 Sastras and Panchaboodas. Sri Chakra installed by Acharya Adi
Sankara is in the Ambica shrine. The Arthajama puja in the temple has its own significance
when, it is believed that all other Gods assemble here for worship. Great Saivite poet
Sekkizhar released His magnum Opus Periapuranam in this temple. Saint Arunagiriar had
praised Lord Muruga of this temple in his Tirupugazh hymns.

Temple History:

Sage Vasishta, revered as leader of Rishis had a relative Madyandinar by name. He had a
son named Maadyandinar (the first name is short in sound, the next longer – spelling differs).
Sage Vasishta advised that the boy should worship the Swayambulinga in Thillai Vanam
forests for gaining complete spiritual wisdom. Son Maadyandinar reached this place. He
was sad that he lost his puja time in picking up flowers after sunrise and these flowers were
not pure as the honey in the same are taken away by the bees. He appealed to Lord Shiva
saying that he was unable to pick the flowers in darkness due to lack of light and the flowers
become unfit if picked after sunrise. Lord granted him hands and legs as that of a tiger to
climb the tree and a bright vision to the eyes functioning well even in utter darkness. Lord
also said that he would be known henceforth as Vyakrapada as had the legs as a tiger.
Vyakrapada was
too happy with the boon and name and continued his worship in Thillai.

Thillai Nataraja Kovil (or Temple, in English) situated in Chidambaram in Tamil Nadu is
dedicated to Lord Shiva, who is worshiped in the form of Nataraja in dancing posture. The

360
Presiding Deity of the temple is Thirumoolanathar (Lord Shiva) and the Goddess of the
temple is Umayambikai (Goddess Parvathi).The unique feature of the temple is the bejeweled
image of Nataraja. Lord Shiva is depicted as the Lord of dance radiating universal power. It is
one of the temples where Shiva is represented as an anthropomorphic idol, rather than a
Lingam. The worship of Lord Shiva in the form of Lingam is associated with the five
elements water, fire, wind, earth and ether. Lord Shiva is worshiped in the form of Murthi
(idol) in Chidambaram and is considered as one of the Pancha Bootha Sthalas.The dance
stage of the temple is called as Chittrambalam and the holy tree is considered as the Thillai
(Exocoeria agallocha) tree. The holy water source of the temple is Sivagangai and the hymns
of the temple is Thevaram, sung by Sri Manickavachagar.

Popularity:
The Anandha Thandava posture of Lord Nataraja (Lord Shiva in the Cosmic Dance) is one
of the postures recognized all over the world. This celestial dance posture tells us how
Bharathanatiyam, an ancient form of Tamil Nadu dance, should be performed. The demon
under Lord Nataraja’s feet signifies that ignorance is under his feet. The Fire in his hands
signifies Him as the destroyer of all evil. His raised hand signifies that He is the savior of life.
The ring at His back indicates the cosmos. The drum in His hand signifies the birth of life. It
is believed that there is a secret message conveyed through the embossed figure near
the shrine of Shiva in Chidambaram temple. It is believed that both Lord Shiva and his
consort Parvathi are living here and they are not viewable to the naked eye. The Chidambara
Rahasyam (Secret of Chidambaram) is hidden behind the curtains present at the right side of
Lord Nataraja sanctum. Worship or darshan is possible only when the priests open the curtain
for pooja, acquiring Godliness. Behind the curtain, there are two golden leaves as from the
vilva maram (Aegle Marmelos tree), signifying the presence of Lord Shiva and his consort
Goddess Parvathi whose physical form is believed to be viewable by the priests. The real
meaning of the phrase Chidambara Rahasyam lies behind the curtain, which means that a
person could know the secret of himself only when he removes the curtain of “Maya”. It is
said that one can never reveal the secret until he removes the screen of Maya from one’s
mind, To Realise Onself. The Chidambara Rahasyam also tells us another truth that relates to
the period of Moses. It is said that according to the God’s commandments, Moses
constructed a Garba Graha but did not place any idol and covered it with a screen. This

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implies that God should need not only be worshiped with any idol as there is only one
religion on the earth.

https://techera99.blogspot.com/2016/11/chidambaram-temple-secret-center-of.html

Shiva's Karanas in the temples of Tamil Nadu: the Natya Shastra in stone

by Liesbeth Pankaja Bennink, and Kandhan Raja Deekshithar, Jayakumar Raja Deekshithar,
Sankar Raja Deekshithar

The origin of dance: Bharata's Natya Shastra

Karana means 'action' and in the context of dance it indicates a coordinated action of the
body, the hands and the feet [1]. 108 such karana or units of dance are named and defined in
the Natya Shastra, the most ancient text on the performing arts composed by Bharata Muni.
This text is dated to a period of around 2000 years ago, within a margin of 500 years and has
been the most influential in defining and shaping Indian performing arts

Fig. 1At the request of Indra, Brahma extracted the essence of the four Vedas and created the
fifth, the Natya Veda, or drama Veda. It is accessible to all. Its purpose is not only to
entertain, but to mirror the world, and to offer counsel, courage and comfort. Bharata Muni is
given the responsibility to produce the first play. After the first successful performance it was
presented before Shiva, the Cosmic Dancer, on Mount Kailasha. Shiva is deeply moved and
is reminded of his Sandhya Tandava, his dance at twilight. “Brahma and Bharata supplicate
Shiva for a knowledge of dancing. Thereupon the Lord of the Worlds bids Tandu initiate His
devotees into the secrets of the difficult art.” Tandu proceeds to teach Bharata the 108
karanas. These are combined into angaharas and into larger choreographies. After Tandu
initiates Bharata the art of dance is given to humanity through Bharata’s sons and the
apsarasas, the heavenly dancers.

Therefore according to the Natya Shastra all Indian dance has its origin from Shiva's tandava.
Tandava is a vigorous, masculine and divine dance. Shiva is pre-eminently a god whose
divinity expresses through dance. The Sandhya Tandava is his divine dance performed at
twilight on Mount Kailasha, his sacred abode. Witnessed by his consort and accompanied by
all devatas playing various instruments. Other tandava's performed by Shiva are Tripura, after
the destruction of the Three Cities, and of course the Ananda Tandava, the Dance of Bliss
performed in Chidambaram

Karanas and temples

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Fig. 2The art of dance in India has always been intertwined with sculpture, architecture, ritual
and doctrine. For this there is no better illustration than the karanas (figure 1). Not only do we
know these 108 dance movements from their description in the Natya Shastra, we also have
sculptural illustrations of them in ritually significant locations in temples in South India. Five
temples are well known for the depiction of the karanas in their sculptural program. They are
the Rajarajeshvara temple in Tanjore, the Nataraja temple in Chidambaram, the Sarangapani
temple in Kumbakonam, the Arunachaleshvara temple in Thiruvannamalai and the
Vriddhagirishvara temple in Vriddhachalam.

The oldest of these five examples is the Rajarajeshvara temple in Tanjore (figure 2). Built by
Rajaraja Chola around the year 1000 CE, this temple features an incomplete karana frieze
found in a circumambulatory passage around the grabhagriha. A four-armed Shiva is shown
dancing the first 81 karanas in a horizontally placed relief which is on one's right hand side as
the passage is followed in the clock-wise direction. The series has been left incomplete. The
place where it is found was never intended for public viewing.

Fig. 3In Chidambaram the passages through all four gopurams have been decorated with
complete representation of all 108 karanas (figure 3). We are sure of this because in the east
and west gopuram the panels are accompanied by the relevant verse from the Natya Shastra.
Here a female dancer accompanied by two musicians performs the movements. The east,
south and west gopuram have been dated to the 12th and 13th century, the north gopuram
somewhat later .The series are largely identical in all four gopuram's.

In the east gopuram of the Sarangapani temple in Kumbakonam a more or less complete
series is depicted as danced by a male dancer (figure 4). The panels are positioned in a
horizontal band around the outside of the gopuram. Here many of the panels are captioned
with inscriptions written in grantha script. Again this is the main reason it is sure the reliefs
are intended as representations of Bharata's karanas. In this temple Vishnu is the presiding
deity and it has been suggested these dance reliefs may have originally belonged to a Shiva
temple and for some reason moved here. Among the karanas we find a relief of Shiva
dancing the Urdhva Tandava and also goddess Kali dancing, possibly referring to the myth of
the dance-contest between them

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 Fig. 4

Fig. 5///Fig. 6
Two more temples are known to have the karanas from the Natya Shastra represented. In
Vriddhachalam (figure 5) and in Thiruvannamalai (figure 6). In both temples the karanas are
found in the gopuram passages. In the Vriddhagirishvara temple depictions of the karanas are
found in all four gopurams, but are incomplete. Only 101 karanas are represented and in a
strikingly unusual ordering. The construction date of the gopuram is not exactly known. On
the basis of architecture, sculptural style and costume a date in the 14th century is likely,
which would place this gopuram after the construction of the Chidambaram gopuram and
before the gopuram of Thiruvannamalai.

In Thiruvannamalai all the karanas are systematically arranged in the east gopuram passage.
Besides the 108, possibly copied from Chidambaram, there are many more dance movements
depicted, besides panels depicting deities, rishis and other mythological figures. Depictions
are found on 20 pilasters with 9 panels arranged vertically, making 180 panels in all, of which
108 constitute the karanas as defined in the Natya Shastra. This Raja Gopuram of the
Arunachaleshvara temple in Thiruvannamalai was constructed in the 16th century.

Karanas and the history of dance

The karanas have always fascinated me, as a dancer and as a historian. They were the reason
to visit Chidambaram, and to connect to Raja Deekshithar. My guru Smt. Rajamani taught me
about them and raised my curiosity and also academic interest. 108 Dance movements
described in an ancient text and depicted in sculpture constitute a unique source in the history
of dance. They seemed to be lost for the most part with only fragments included in some
choreographies. My first idea was to try and reconstruct them.

Several attempts at reconstruction have been undertaken. Dr. Padma Subrahmanyam's was an
early one. Raja Deekshithar and I did not pursue this direction of research because we came
to the conclusion early on in our research that reconstruction was impractical. The text and
the image, a frozen moment in a sequence of movement, allow for many different alternative

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interpretations. Every dancer will reconstruct them differently, based on training and insight.
This was also the ultimate conclusion of Dr. Alessandra Lopez y Royo [6].

Fig. 7///Fig. 8////Fig. 9

The subject never lost its fascination though. Many questions remain unanswered. Why, from
all the millions of movement combinations the human body is capable of, were these 108
were considered to be the constituents of Shiva's tandava, the divine dance? What is the
relationship between the karanas and the units of movement called adavus, which constitute
Bharata Natyam today? How did the various regional dance styles develop from this Marga,
or main tradition? What is the meaning of their placement within the temple complex? Why
were they included in these five temples? And what is the meaning of their inclusion in these
gopurams where in other gopurams (figures 8 and 9) we find only miscellaneous dance
figures or mythological scenes?

Thiruvadigai

Fig. 10When Raja Deekshithar and I visited the Veerateshvara temple in Thiruvadigai in
2005 we were on a field trip related to his research into the history of the sphinx in the Indian
traditions . The Deekshithar almost immediately discovered a relief of the sphinx-
purushamriga on one of the pillars in the vestibule of the gopuram. But he also realised the
passageway of this gopuram was decorated with 108 dance reliefs, reminiscent of the karanas
depicted in his own temple, the Shiva Nataraja temple of Chidambaram.

The gopuram is a pleasant but unimposing gateway with quality artwork in its inner passage
(figure 10). The architectural features and style indicate it was built in the Nayaka period in
the 15th or 16th century. This is among other things indicated by the base, the design of the
podikai or corbel and the style of the reliefs. This would make it a contemporary of the
Rajagopuram of Thiruvannamalai. It has a granite base with a superstructure of six levels of
tapering brick and lime work topped with a barrel roof and seven shikaras.

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 Fig. 11The walls of the passage way which offers access to the temple courtyard is decorated
with 108 panels of dancing figures (figure 11). They are organised in four groups of three
pilasters very similar to the organisation of the karanas in Chidambaram, Thiruvannamalai
and Vriddhachalam. Each pilaster has 9 panels. Each group covers one of the four wall
spaces in the passage. Besides the dance panels there are several other interesting reliefs on
these walls, and there are two decorated pillars in the vestibules.

On the right side upon entering, one relief depicts Shiva as Tripurantaka, Destroyer of the
Three Cities, the presiding deity of the temple (figure 12). Another relief below the first
depicts Shiva as Gajantaka, Destroyer of the Elephant Demon (figure13). Whereas the
Tripurantaka seems to be a sculpture from the Nayaka period, the Gajantaka could be much
older, based on the pose of the body and the representation of the elephant [8]. Opposite these
two reliefs we find a relief of Murugan on his peacock (figure 14). Crossing the threshold and
the vestibules towards the temple courtyard we find on the northern wall Shiva with Parvati
on the sacred bull Nandi (figure 15). On the Southern wall a king is standing with hands
folded in worship (figure 16).

Fig. 12/ig. 13/Fig. 14/Fig. 15/ Fig. 16

1.
Fig. 17
On one of the pillars in the vestibules which define the centre of the gopuram we find among
the sculpture a Nayaka period sphinx or purushamriga (figure 17).

A dancing figure in a temple gateway is not automatically a depiction of a defined karana

(figures 8 and 9). Of course every dance movement can be called a karana, a coordinated
action. But the karanas of Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra are specifically defined and ordered.

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 From the known examples it can be concluded there is a connection between the 108 karanas
and gopurams. Even a connection between gopurams and dance in general [9]. Many
gopurams include depictions of dance in their sculptural program. Only four of those are
known to be the series of defined movements as described by Bharata Muni. The question to
be answered here is whether the 108 dance reliefs in Thiruvadigai represent the karanas as
defined and ordered in the Natya Shastra.

The number of the reliefs, the way they are organized, and a handful of recognizable poses
led Raja Deekshithar to the hypothesis the 108 dance reliefs in the east gopuram of
Thiruvadigai could be Bharata's 108 karanas.

The karanas which can be readily identified are [10]

Karana 50: Lalata Tilaka: Thiruvadigai 91 (figure 18)

Karana 53 Chakramandala: Thiruvadigai 90 (figure 19)

Karana 52 Kuncita: Thiruvadigai 20 or 93 (figure 20)

Karana 57 Argala: Thiruvadigai 33 (figure 21)

Karana 107: Shakatashya: Thiruvadigai 27 or 29 (figure 22)

Karana 108: Gangavatarana: Thiruvadigai 27 or 29 (figure 23)


Fig. 18


Fig. 19

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 Fig. 20

Fig. 21

Fig. 22

Fig. 23
Some more karanas can be identified tentatively:
Talapushpaputa (1) or Talasamsphotita (69): Thiruvadigai 66 (figure 24)
Alata(18) or Urdhva Janu (25) Nagasarpita (106) (figure 25a) could be : Thiruvadigai 104,
106, 92 (figure 25b)

Bhujangatrasita (24), Bhujangancita (40) en Talasanghattita (93) (figure 26a) could be either
one of Thiruvadigai 35, 62, 99 (figure 26b).
Sannata (75) and Nitamba (85) could be Thiruvadigai 59 (figure 27)
Katibhranta (43) or Urudvritta (98) could be Thiruvadigai 18 or 88 (figure 28)

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 Fig. 24

Fig. 25a

Fig. 25b

Fig. 26a

Fig. 26b

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 Fig. 27

Fig. 28
Shiva's.Karanas?

Recognising many of the poses also found in the other karana series, together with the
number 108, and the location in the sculptural program gave us the anticipation this would be
another karana series. It would be a wonderful discovery because it would give us one more
window into the history of dance in the subcontinent. Further analysis raises question though.

From the sculptural style and the dress worn by the dancers these reliefs seem to be from the
later period and, like the rest of the gopuram, probably belong to the earlier phase of the
Nayaka period (1300-1600). It could be argued on the basis of the dance costumes these
reliefs are somewhat later then the panels in the East gopuram at Thiruvannamalai. The
dancers wear pyjamas covered with a pleated, skirt-like or apron-like, garment, but don't
seem to wear blouses, as came into usage later. In earlier panels we see dancers wear draped
lower garments worn in a fashion similar to a dhoti worn as 'katchai', draped between the legs
in a fashion creating a kind of trousers. The costumes worn by the dancers in
Thiruvannamalai closely resemble those worn in Chidambaram and Kumbakonam. Pleated
fan-shaped skirts are still part of today's dance costume.

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 Fig. 29/ Fig. 30/ Fig. 31/ fig. 32/ Fig. 33
The dancers occupying the lowest row of panels have been depicted with more ornamental
costumes, including some large head-dresses and ornaments (figure 29). Some of these also
hold some kind of implements or possibly weapons like knives or swords (figure 30). This is
reminiscent of costumes worn in traditional dance-dramas and ritual dances even today [11].
In only 10 of the panels does a musician accompany the dancer. In contrast, in Chidambaram
two musicians accompany the dancer in all the panels and in Thiruvannamalai at least one
musician is seen in most of the panels. A few panels do not seem to depict a dancer at all.
Two panels depict male drum players (figure 31), another male figure plays a kind of
tambourine-like drum or kanjira [12] (figure 32). One female figure holds a string instrument
(figure 33). Five female figures stand holding camaras or ritual fly whisks (figure 34). One
unusual panel centrally placed panel depicts two male figures dancing while holding one
another around the shoulders while at the same time holding a fly-whisk and other attributes
(figure 35). Two figures are seated on a kind of stool.

Fig. 34/ Fig. 35

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 Fig. 36/Fig. 37/ Fig. 38
Some of the characteristics of the karana series as known from the other five temples are
missing: movements where the dancer shows the back (karana 16, prsta svastika, figure 36) ;
where the dancer is jumping (karana 99, madaskhalita, figure 37); where the dancer is
depicted sitting on the floor (karana 55, aksipta, figure 38). There are few movements
depicted showing svastika or crossing positions of the feet.

Shiva's Tandava and Tripurantaka

It would have been agreeable if we could state with definite confidence these 108 reliefs of
dancers in the gopuram of Thiruvadigai represent the 108 karanas as enumerated in Bharata
Muni's Natya Shastra. There are several reasons to support the hypothesis they were indeed
intended as a defined series. The number 108, the identified karanas, the location. But these
are not conclusive against the counter arguments given above. Therefore we cannot offer a
final conclusion.

On the other hand there is one argument to support the idea these are indeed Bharata's
karanas. This argument lies with the deity to whom this temple is dedicated, Shiva as
Tripurantaka, the Destroyer of the Three Cities. The myth of Shiva's destruction of the Three
Cities is an early one. The earliest reference is found in the Yajur Veda [13]. In Tamil texts
known as Sangam literature Shiva is described as dancing after he destroyed the Three Cities.
This dance is referred to as Kotukotti and also as Pantarankam. His dance is witnessed by his
consort Uma who beats the rhythm

Fig. 39The connection between Shiva dancing and Tripurantaka Murti has not received much
attention. Bindu S. Shankar points to the importance of the Tripurantaka Siva in the
iconography of the Rajarajeshvara temple in Tanjore. In her dissertation she makes a
connection between the first appearance of the karanas in the sculptural program with the
significance of Tripurantaka in the doctrine of this temple.

This connection is also significant with respect to the Nataraja temple in Chidambaram. In an
oral tradition of this temple it is told that after the destruction of the Three Cities Shiva

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landed his chariot opposite the main sanctum. After getting down from the chariot he
ascended into the Sabha and commenced his dance. In the place where the chariot landed is
now the Edirambalam, the Opposite Hall, in the form of a stone chariot. Today this hall is
known as the Nritta Sabha. It is situated exactly opposite the Sabha where Shiva is dancing
the Ananda Tandava. From this Nataraja's dance in Chidambaram is also known as Shanti
Kuttu, or Dance of Peace .

Conclusions

Fig. 40The Veerateshvara temple dedicated to Shiva as Tripurantaka in Thiruvadigai was

build by the Pallava king Mahendravarman in the 6th century. It is a large pyramidal structure
similar to the Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram . The pyramid shape replicates the form
of Kailasha, the cosmic mountain . Also the Rajarajeshvara temple in Tanjore with its
pyramidal vimana is a representation of Kailasha, the Cosmic Mountain as Shiva's abode
[19]. The presence of the karanas in the circumambulatory passage around the vimana
underlines this identification and is a clear statement of the importance of this relationship to
the king Rajaraja and his architect. The presence of 32 murtis of Shiva as Tripurantaka in the
niches of the second elevation of the vimana is another statement pointing to the relationship
between Kailasha and Shiva's Tandava dance in the conquest of evil.

Fig. 41A relationship of Tripurantaka, Kailasha, Shiva as divine dancer and the presence of
the karanas is tentatively appearing. This relationship is pointed out by Bindu Shankar in her
dissertation . The discovery of 108 dance reliefs in a gopuram of a temple dedicated to Shiva
Tripurantaka corroborates this relationship. And at the same time this connection between
Dancing Shiva, Tripurantaka, Kailasha and karanas makes it very likely the 108 dance panels
in the gopuram in Thiruvadigai represent the 108 karanas as conveyed to humanity by
Bharata Muni.

There can be no doubt these 108 dance panels could represent the karanas as described and
defined by Bharata Muni in the Natya Shastra as practiced at the time of the Nayaka dynasty.
They thus represent a valuable document of a living and evolving dance tradition which the
sculptor shaped on the basis of dancers performing for him. It allows us a glimpse into the art
of dance in the 15th and 16th century. And offers insight into its evolution through this
unique sculptural resource.

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Liesbeth Pankaja Bennink, and Kandhan Raja Deekshithar, Jayakumar Raja Deekshithar,
Sankar Raja Deekshithar

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 Pic[1] Natarāja. By permission from Shri Raj Mutharasan, Scientist at National science
foundation (NSF) and Drexel University

Astronomical Association Of Natarāja’s Dance With

Apasmara And Agastya
The study will try to understand Apasmāra in the iconography of Natarāja and also if it
has any significant link with loss of memory of some astronomical event which was
confined to certain latitude. It will mainly touch different parts of graphical
representations of Natarāja.
A research paper by Rupa Bhaty,Indology | 12-09-2018

This paper deals with understanding human’s first interaction with time and its relationship
with Cosmic Consciousness or Awareness. Significance of stellar readings by early humans,
who got connect between the movements of Earth vs Celestial beings, is being studied and
elaborated. Indic scripture assigns Lord Śiva as kaal, i.e time, and Agastya-as a muni, who is
closely associated with Lord Śiva and is celebrated as one of the lead proponent of Shaivism.
The paper here will try to understand relationship between “Natarāja – Śiva’s one form and

375
Agastya-muni-the propagator of Shaivism” vs “Iconography of Natarāja in sky as Orion
constellation and its connection, if any, with Agastya as Canopus navigational star”. The
study will try to understand Apasmāra in the iconography of Natarāja and also if it has any
significant link with loss of memory of some astronomical event which was confined to
certain latitude. It will mainly touch different parts of graphical representations of Natarāja.
A computational astronomical study has been undertaken to understand different part of
iconography of Natarāja with Celestial star movements. Approach and emphasize has been
on the visibility and availability of Canopus in southern India in various epochs to
understand the significance of the latitude of Chidambaram where Natarāja dances to the
cosmic bliss.
Introduction
Music and Dance are a tradition and an alleyway to divinity. Not only it is a Hindu tradition
but it is a worldwide phenomenon from prehistoric times which could easily be sensed
through cave arts and observing remotest untouched tribes. The Hindu conception of two
main God’s attributed to Dancing via God Śiva as Natarāja within the Cosmos and Krishna in
his Rāsamanadal stresses the idea of a divine urge of spiritual eurhythmics which finds its
way from the display of dance in India. Every Hindu philosophy arrives from metaphysics
and many a times directly from sciences such as astrophysics and astronomy. Astral
evidences are braided in Indic scriptures in the form of puzzling philosophies of which many
are yet to be explored and revealed. The Hindu god Śiva is not only the Lord of Dance but
also the deity of creation, destruction, rebirth, dissolution, and salvation. Since He is creating
and destroying He is a metaphor for time. He is thus pulsating, and thus dancing the tune of
time in macro to microcosmic form.
While everyone is familiar with Natarāja –the dancing Shiva, this paper explains the specific
astronomy aspects of Natarāja metaphor.
#. What does Natarāja has to do with Orion, i.e. Mṛgaśīrṣa + Ardra Nakshatra,
#. Identification of Apasmāra as an impression of Agastya-Canopus. Apasmāra is a symbol of
loss of memory in regard to an astronomical event, i.e. rise of Agastya
#. Visibility of Agastya was never an issue in the Southern Indian Peninsula
In a nutshell;
1. Before going into astronomical details let us first understand the iconographies-characters
involved in the study undertaken.
1.1 Natarāja,
1.2 Apasmāra, and
1.3 Agastya as a Muni and Agastya as a Canopus Star
Apasmāra means forgetfulness and epilepsy. It represents Agastya when Agastya is not
visible from parts of India.
2.1 Natarāja in sky represents Orion (Indian Mṛgmandala= Ardra + Mṛgaśīrṣa)
2.2 Apasmāra represents western constellation Lepus-hare which is loss of memory of some
astronomical event which was confined to certain latitude.
3. Cosmic Natarāja has to do with identification of Agastya’s location. All of these have deep
connection to ancient Indian tradition of navigation. However, elaboration of that subject is
beyond the purview of this paper.

1.1 Natarāja
Let us see some of the important and most likely known characteristics of Natarāja
posture.
(1) He dances within a circular or cyclically closed arch of flames (Prabhāsmandal or
Prabhāvalli), which symbolically represent the cosmic fire that in Hindu cosmology creates
everything and consumes everything.

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(2) His legs are bent, which suggests an energetic dance with a posture of balance or
equilibrium corresponding to time.
(3) His long, matted tresses are shown to be loose and flying out in thin strands during the
dance, also touches the Prabhāsmandal, sometimes it is shown as flowing down on his back
especially in Chidambaram. Shilpashāstra bring in oral tradition to do as per Śruti.
(4) On the matted hair of right side is adorned with Gangā on the thin strand spread into a fan
behind his head personified as a goddess.
(5) And the other side on the matted lock is the Soma-Chandra.
(6) The upper right-hand holds a small drum shaped like an hourglass that is called a ḍamaru
in Sanskrit. A specific hand gesture (mudrā) called ḍamaru-hasta (Sanskrit for “surprising-
hand”) is used to hold the drum. It symbolizes rhythm and time.

(7) The upper left hand contains Agni or fire, which signifies fos of creation and destruction.
Agni is one of the five elements of equilibrium in a body.
(8) A cobra uncoils from his lower right forearm, while his palm shows the Abhaya mudrā.
Abhaya means not to fear, since destruction is the seed of new creation.
(9) The second left-hand points towards the raised foot which suggests the viewer to be active
and dance to the circumstances, or alternatively as a sign of upliftment and liberation;
liberation from dissolution.
(10) The face shows two eyes plus a slightly open third on the forehead, which symbolize the
triune in Shaivism.
(11) The dwarf, on the lotus pedestal on which Natarāja dances, is the demon
Apasmāra( Muyalaka, as it is known in Thamizh) Purusha who is the conjunction point of
two Makara adjacent on both sides and which symbolizes action and dance that leads to
victory over demonic evil or ignorance.
(12) The two Makara at the base creates an overall oval shape around the mūrti. Sometimes it
is seen on the summit of the Prabhāsmandal. Makara is a Sanskrit word which means ‘sea
dragon’ or ‘water-monster’, a porpoise or a Gangetic dolphin which is similar to Shishumāra
[2] of Indic scriptures. In a Hindu temple, the Makara often serves as the structural bookends
of a thoranam or archway around a deity. The arch emerges up from the jaws of one Makara,
rises to its peak, the Kīrtimukha (the ‘Face of Glory’), and descends into the gaping jaws of
another Makara, but they both never meet. Example of Makara anklet is given in a picture
below where two Makara (or any other animal head figure) never meets, but still complete a
circle at one point.

A pair of gold anklets North India with two Makara endings gaping into each other, antique,
late 18th cent (courtesy Pinterest; internet)

(13) Natarāja is also known as Koottan in Tamil which has phonetic resemblance with
navigational Kootu for Orion as spoken in Kerala. Mṛgaśīrṣa + Ardra Nakshatra makes Orion

377
constellation which is also known as Kālapurusha in Bengal; a reference point for all
navigational compass and calendars. In antiquity Kerala, Tamilnadu and parts of southern
India were under the domain of Pandya kings.
1.2 Apasmāra; A dwarf demon, and a sleep state.
Apasmāra; the dwarf demon, trodden underfoot lies facing to its proper right in all statues.
Apasmāra is facing right, but exceptionally noticed to the left also with a strange shift of leg
position of Natarāja. It is depicted as having an anchuli mudra or holding a snake. He is
defined as ignorance (known as Muyalaka in Thamizh), and is danced upon which
symbolizes Natarāja’s action. The dance leads to victory over demonic evil and ignorance.
See pic [3] below.

1.3 Agastya- Canopus.

As a Star; Agastya-Canopus moves fast above Dhruvamandala[4]. There are many scriptural
references to Agastya-Canopus being a star starting from Veda, Brāhmanas, Aranyaka[5],
Puranas[6], Śruti[7], smṛti, Epics[8], Poetries[9] and Surya-Siddhānta. 359

As a Muni; See pic[10] above; Agastya (Kumbhayoni)-born from a pitcher into which Mitra
and Varuṇa dropped their vīrya at the sight of the charms of Urvaśī: a brother of Vasiṣṭha.
[11] He had a residence at Malay-Mahāmalaya-(Pothigai)[12]; married the first born daughter
of King Malayadhvaja Pāṇḍya, and had a son Dṛḍhācyuta[13], also present at Rāma’s
abhiṣeka. [14] Dwarfed the Vindhyas roughly parallel to the Narmada River, made a home in
Laṅkā: seeing the universe troubled by Tāraka and other Asuras caused the ocean to dry up
by drinking the waters and brought relief to the Devas: performed tapas seated on Mount
Malaya with his wife Lopāmudrā: white in colour, with four hands, Akṣa mālā & Kamaṇḍalu,
narrated Ajāmila[15] a contemporary of Kṛṣṇa and Rāma; and a resident of Mt. Malaya.
Visited by Balarāma. Came to Syamantapañcaka to see Kṛṣṇa, Called on Parīkṣit practising
prāyopaveśa etc. Kamban has praised high of Agastya muni as a giver of Tamil grammar.
Agastya muni is associated with lord Śiva. Agastya muni was also a dwarf.

Apasmāra means forgetfulness and epilepsy. It represents Agastya when Agastya is not
visible from parts of India. Astronomical evidences, are philosophically braided in Indian
scriptures, alludes to ignorance and forgetfulness about the star Agastya. It represents a lost
memory of an astronomical event, moreover, which has been a neglected part in
understanding of Natarāja’s iconography.

Evidence of Natarāja mentioned as a “nartaka” in MBH

Rarest of the thought would ever come to our minds that Natarāja may relate to astronomical
phenomena which may be a hypogeal impression for the evolution of “Supreme Cosmic
Consciousness” philosophy. The excerpt on Śiva being a Dancer-“nartaka” comes from

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Śivasahastranāmastrotam from MBH[16] where Śiva is mentioned as a continuous Dancer
and who is ardent lover of dance and is continuously dancing. The thirteenth-century Shaiva
Siddhāntic text[17] describes Natarāja as sacchidānanda or “Being Consciousness and
Bliss”[18]; constantly in dancing state. From nartaka to Natarāja, it has been in the memories
of Indian coastal people which come to us through Sangam literature. A verse by
Manikavachakar goes, ‘He who creates, protects, and destroys the verdant world…’ Tamil
literature gives extract as Pray to Śiva, who owns the South. Pray to Him who is the God of
all countries.’[19]

The likely worship of Natarāja by the Pallava period at Chidambaram with an idea of cosmic
creation is suggested in Manikavāchakar’s Tiruvachakam which says , ‘Let us praise the
dancer (Kuttan) who in good Tillai’s hall dances with fire, who sports (vilaiyatu) creating,
destroying, this heaven and earth and all else.’ In essence, it represents the continuous cycle
of creation and destruction of time astronomically. Ardra Darshan celebrates this ecstatic
dance of Lord Śiva. On this day Lord Śiva becomes Natarāja with reddish fame aura around.

How Śiva as a Natarāja is a creator, protector and destroyer of time through his dance?
Shloka 59[20] says on Śiva being “nakshatra vigraha”/ analyser and “knower of gati”-speed
of nakshatras, “layaḥ”-He is the place of deluge thus a destroyer, prajāpati-
nakshatraadhipati / sire of all asterisms in sky, which indicates Śiva is the timekeeper of all
nakshatras, Vishvabāhuḥ- emanating his arms on all sides (as if to reach out other
nakshatras), vibhaagaḥ- He is the seperation, sarvagaḥ-He is the universal soul, amukhaḥ-He
who is having no mouth. In astronomical sense He is the point of ending and begining
without any celestial logitudinal difference.

There are two unique star clusters which are used as timekeepers and are common in all parts
of the world from all the ages. They are 1. Orion 2. Big Dipper. The Orion constellation has
served as a timekeeper for eons in every known civilization due to its prominent three waist
belt star- Alnilam, Almitak etc and has not changed for thousands of years. In Indic culture
the three belt stars are known as Mṛgaśīrṣa Nakshatra. He is also called kālayogī-the one who
knows the time/era/eon through yoking. He is the one who generates new loka-world, and He
is the only one in which the old world gets dissolved[21]. This evidently speaks of the same
point of celestial longitude from where new era starts dissolving the old one. Śiva as a creator
is also known from Vishnupurāna which states Raudra-sṛishti[22] nirmāna; at the begining
of kalpa Brahma thought of creating a son like ownself and while thinking alone a son of
bluish reddish color appeared in his lap.

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2.1 Natarāja in the sky representing western star cluster Orionis (Indian Mṛgamandal+
Ardra+Mṛgaśīrṣa)
Natarāja’s association with Archaeo-astronomy Let us look at Archaeo-astronomy pieces
of evidence related to Dance of Natarāja. But before that let’s understand what Archaeo-
astronomy is? It is a scientific discipline that combines mnemonics to know more about the
timeline of history, culture, science and technology of observational astronomy with ancient
evidence of astronomy references, metaphors and ancient civilizations.
2.1.1 Ardra/Arudra Dārisanam; A living culture and an astronomical evidence from
past.
The first eye-catching evidence is Arudra /Ardra darisanam festival of Tamilnadu which is a
ten day annual festival in December related to the moon being full in the lunar
asterism(nakshatra) Ardra (i.e, alpha Orionis), associated with wrathful aspect of Śiva. On
this day Śiva becomes Natarāja or Koothan. In Kerala, the festival is celebrated as the
birthday of Lord Śiva. Thiruvathira is the Ardra nakshatra or “star” as per the Malayalam
calendar of Lord Śiva. Indeed some astronomical event must have had happened in Ardra
nakshatra sometime in past due to which the festival of Arudra Darisanam continues till
date. One such is a speculated event of supernovae explosion which has been assumed by
many writers. My conjecture would show that it has been related to a new-year beginning on
vernal equinox day. We come across another verse in regard of yearly phenomena,-“tasmai

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te rudra saṃvatsareṇa namaskaromi“[23] This verse serves as a piece of evidence for year
beginning with Rudra (deity of Ardra Nakshatra) on the ecliptic node and this was happening
around 6000 BCE-5000BCE. Another piece of evidence comes from Shatapatha Brahmana
where it has been mentioned ‘with doubt’ whether or not, to kindle a fire under Mṛgaśirśa.
This conjecture gives evidence of shifting of vernal point from constellation Mṛgaśirśa and
reaffirms that once year beginning was happeing near Constellation Orion. This is also the
millennium of Mahabharata war, as established, based on study of 200 Plus astronomy
observations of MBH text by Shri Nilesh Oak. It thus makes sense as to
why śivasahastranāmstrotram is so revered in MBH texts.

The
other memory of wrathfulness of Śiva is of deluge in Pumpoohar near
Chidambaram. Enormous evidence exists from around the world for the significant and
sudden sea level rise during 6th millennium BCE. Further a question may arise, why Ardra
considered on the point of vernal equinox and why not on any other cardinal point? For this
again the same shloka from MBH comes to our rescue. Svarbhanu[24], i.e. the ecliptic node
as mentioned in MBH. This evidence again affirms samvatsar[25] phenomena and vernal
equinox happening in Ardra, from the very same verse which also says Śiva is
samvatsakaraH- the maker of the year.
In Malayalam Koothu is the name of Orion constellation used for N-W navigation while in
Tamil Kuttan-koothan becomes a name of Natarāja, connection giving pratyaksha-evidence
of Natarāja Orion. Once, the whole of South India was under Pandya kings. The evidence of
Pandya kings fighting in Bharata War is found in the MBH
texts. śivasahastranāmstrotram from MBH is abundant in pieces of astronomical evidence
which has been not been explored.
2.1.2 Prabhāsmandal of Natarāja; Orb of Flame and its connection to Mṛga-Mandala
encompassing different stars and star clusters in the vicinity
A comparative study of radiating rays around a human figure in Harappa seal (IVC) Rudra
and flame on Chola Bronze Natarāja. Harappa seal (IVC) Standing man who has been

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identified as Rudra[26] and the adjacent picture of Natarāja, both with orb of flame, affirms
pan Indic nature of Śiva. Harappa IVC Rudra is being depicted with radiating arrows/rays
upon Prabhāsmandal around the Rudra iconography which is similar to flame marks on the
orb of Natarāja statues from southern part of India. This brings evidence on geographical
northern, north-western and southern regional connection from primitive times. It is evident
that Sindhu-Sarasvati civilization also had an impact of Śiva as Linga which is known to us
as one of the significant archaeological find from Harappa and Kalibanga.

“Prabhāsmandala ”, circle
of flames means a circle emanating rays, bhas- “bhāsyati means to make visible”. It is the
inkling towards astronomy too which points towards “mṛg-mandala”. While
mṛg gamanārthaka from mrij dhātu-verbroot means “to chase”. Therefore, mṛg-mandala
stars/constellations, the easiest star cluster percieved via human eyes from prehistoric times,
were used to help chase different stars nearby in vicinity like Procyon, Sirius-mṛgavyādha in
south and Aurigae in north, Castor Pollux, Plaiedas, Vela, Canopus in their respective
directions.

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Nataraja-Koothan overlay on navigational Orion Koothu, chases all the stars around
The MBH says “Amongst the Rudras[27] He is the Sire Rudra and amongst the most
effulgent Gods He is the prabhā-best illumination”, this connect with prabhā-mandala-orb of
flame. It also says “He is the one who achieves or “aims at( different) nakshatras/
asterisms”[28]. Thus, it make sense to equate Prabhāsmandal with astronomical Mṛga-
mandala. In the iconography of Natarāja Prabhāsmandal, orb or the circle of flame does help
chase other stars in vicinity.
The three parallel horizontal lines drawn using ash/bhasma/vibhuti on the forehead
of Śiva devotees with the help of Mṛga-śīrṣa mudra is known as the Tripundra. The thumb
and little finger are raised. It springs from Gauri, who used the Mṛgaśīrṣa hand mudra to
draw three lines on her forehead when practicing tapas for the sake of Śiva. A mnemonic way
to remember Mṛgaśīrṣa three stars from Orion belt. Points above elaborated, discussed and
tested concludes Natarāja in the sky as an Astronomical Case.
2.1.3. Why is Harappan IVC seal -Rudra Orion?

The three emanating lines

from the crown of IVC seal , Next pic depics ‘Tripundra mark sparingly used by shavites on
their forehead and adjacent right pic depicts Mṛgaśīrṣa mudra’
2.2 Apasmāra gets overlay upon western constellation Lepus-hare

From the
above Pic it is found that Apasmāra gets superimposed upon a separate constellation called
‘Lepus’, which is shown trampelled by Śiva-Natarāja, and which rises before Agastya-
Canopus during the rising and setting of Orion in the sky. Lepus is also braided in with
Hunter constellation from greek iconography similar to Apasmāra braided with Natarāja
iconography. This is interesting to note that Lepus constellation of western astronomy
alludes Hare iconography which has a connection with moon[29] and Amarkosha says Indu-
Saśi-Soma-are names of Mṛgaśīrṣa nakshatra and this has noteworthy resemblance with the

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 meaning of Apasmāra from Ayurveda texts [moon-Luna-lunatic (unpredictable), epilepsy i.e.
forgetfulness or ignorance, recollection or consciousness]. It indicates ignorance about the
rise of Canopus which is still present in the sky but unseen at some horizon at some point of
time.

Apasmara with anchuli/drinking mudra is an impression of Agastya indicating loss of

memory of it’s rise from certain latitude at certain epoch in astronomical sense. Agastya
drinking ocean is an indication to unnravel stars at horizon in relative sense.
3. Cosmic Natarāja has to do with identification of Agastya’s location. All of these have deep
connection to ancient Indian tradition of navigation and mobilization. In nutshell, after
evaluating the empirical evidence and by testing them, it was found that the latitude of
Chidambaram30 was the threshold from where Agastya became invisible while navigating
due north away from this latitude when Canopus was at its highest declination, very near to
the south celestial pole being a pole star[31]. This astronomical event happened during
11000BCE- 13000BCE. Below Chidambaram latitudes Canopus was always visible. This is
tested via computational simulation. However, elaboration of that subject is beyond the
purview of this paper.
Conclusion
The paper has comprehensively dealt with each element of Natarāja’s Iconography. It has
elaborated and discussed over the inferences drawn, empirically tested and evidences are
concluded in regard of understanding of each element of Natarāja’s Iconography. The enigma
of Apasmāra is determined via objectively testing of the theory in terms of explanation,
prediction and testing with the context of background knowledge. The representation of
Apasmāra as an impression of Agastya is proven with loss of memory of an astronomical
event which was confined to certain latitude.
Bibliography
1. Coomaraswamy, Ananda K., The Dance of Śiva, 1912
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meenakshi_Amman_Temple (retrieved 14-05-2012)

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3. On visibility of Agastya-Canopus in India. By K Chandra Hari
4. Folklore and Astronomy; Agastya- a sage and a star by K D Abhyankar
5. Professor Southworth, an Emeritus Professor of South Asian Linguists, University
ofPennsylvania in his article published in Rice (2011) 4:142-148 notes the deep connectivity
of theDravidian languages.*
6. When did Mahabharata war happen; Mystery of Arundhati. By Nilesh Oak
References
[1] Pic source; Permission has been granted to publish these photographs from Shri Raj
Mutharasan, Scientist at National science foundation (NSF) and Drexel University
[2] Found in Brahmānd Purāna and Vishnu Purāna as one of the northern
constellations. archives.org, Gita press)
[3] Published by permission from Shri Raj Mutharasan, Scientist at the US National science
foundation (NSF) and Drexel University, USA.
[4] Br. II. 21..
[5] Taittirīya- ĀraNyaka 1.11.2), viśvāmitro jamadagnirbhāradvājo’tha gautamaH|
atrirvasishthaḥ kaśyapa ityete saptarishayaḥ ||
[6] Bhā. VI. 18. 5, 28. 32; Br. IV. 5. 38 M. 61. 21-31; 201. 29; 202. 1., Vāyu pu. 48. 23,
[7] saptānām rishīnām agastyāshTamānām yadapatyam tadgotramityācakShate || (Āśvalāyana
Śrauta Sūtra; PariśiSTa)
[8] MBH
[9] Raghuvansham XVI.44, in regard of ‘Agastya- chinhād’
[10] Pic source https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agastya
[11] Bhā. VI. 18. 5; Br. IV. 5. 38 M. 61. 21-31; 201. 29; 202. 1.
[12] Vāyu pu. 48. 23
[13] Bhā. IV. 28. 32
[14] 2(a) Vishnu. IV 4. 99.
[15] Bhā., VI. 3. 35; M. 61. 17; 36-41; Br. III. 56. 53.
[16] BahubhutaH bahudharaH swarbhaanuH mitogatiH
[17] Text- Kunchitangrim Bhaje by Umapati of Chidambaram
[18] (Smith 1998: 21).
[19] ‘Thennadudaiya S’ivanae PoRRi, Ennattavarkkum IRaiva PoRRi’
[20] न”#$व&हम)तगु-णबु01 धल-योऽगम:।8 जाप)त$व-<वबाहु$व-भाग: सव-गोऽमुख:॥५९॥
MBH śivasahastranāmstrotram Anushāsana parva 6th Khanda, 17th adhyāya
[21] यतो लोकाः स E भविG त न भविG त यतः पुनः॥२९॥ MBH
śivasahastranāmstrotram Anushāsana parva 6th Khanda, 17th adhyāya*
[22] from Vishnupurāna 8th adhyāya क I पादावाK मन L तुI यं सुतं 8N यायत L तत:।
8ादुरासीठाभोर R के
कुमारो नीललोT हत:॥२॥
[23]-“त L मै ते VW संव K सरेण नम L करोX म”, तै$Y र Z यकृ\ण यजुव]द संT हता –
taittirīyakṛṣṇa Yajurveda saṃhitā5।5।7।3-4
[24] Swarbhānu; name of Rahu, also a name of Shiva,. Rahu is an astronomical mate of
ArdraNakshatra
[25] संव K सरकरः॥३९॥ śivasahastranāmstrotram Anushāsana parva 6th Khanda,
17th adhyāya
[26] By Indologist Dr. Rekha Rao
[27] _Wाणम$प यो VW: 8 भा 8 भवताम$प॥२८॥ śivasahastranāmstrotram, MBH
[28] न”#साधकः॥३७॥ śivasahastranāmstrotram, MBH
[29] Ridpath, Ian; Tirion, Wil (2001), Stars and Planets Guide, Princeton University Press,
ISBN 0-691-08913-2
[30] Chitt +ambaram; ambaram in Sanskrit means sky, horizon, compass.

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[31] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pole_star

XI
Millennium Temple of Tanjore
Also featuring Other Living CHOLA Temples
The founder of the Chola Empire was Vijayalaya, who was first feudatory of the Pallavas
of Kanchi. He captured Tanjore in 850 A.D. He established a temple of goddess
Nishumbhasudini (Durga) there.
Aditya I succeeded Vijayalaya. Aditya helped his overlord the Pallava king Aparajita
against the Pandyas but soon defeated him and annexed the whole of the Pallava
kingdom.
By the end of the ninth century, the Cholas had defeated the Pallavas completely and
weakened the Pandyas capturing the Tamil country (Tondamandala) and including it
under their domination He then became a sovereign ruler. The Rashtrakuta king, Krishna
II gave his daughter in marriage to Aditya.
This is map of 12 century Chola empire. You can see the names of the provinces. These were
the core Chola territories for a significant period of their rule.

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The greatest rulers in India.
Two thousand years back they built a dam (Kallanai) to control the floods in Cauvery and
constructed an irrigation system. The dam is still the oldest earthen dam in the world.
They were the first to conduct elections in the world - The candidate had to be educated,
self-sufficient and done charity work - the votes were marked on palm leaves and
dropped into pots for individual contestents (Kudam).
They were the first to build a naval force and go on a conquest across the Indian Ocean.
They conquered Burma, Malaya, Singapore, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Indonesia…… but
appointed natives to rule the country and returned.
They were one of the three Tamil kingdoms to carry on trade across the seas with Rome,
Egypt.
If you have not learnt about Cholas, you know nothing about Indian History. May be you
know north-Indian history. Chola dynasty is one of the golden period in south india as
particularly south east india as they ruled from 300 BC to 1279 AD.
Agricultural wealth :The old Tamil prover says "Chola Nadu Chorudaithu" which means "
Chola's country has massive agricultural wealth".
Law and Justice : As the Law and Justice was most honest judgements in the world on not
only on that time alone even for ever. As the old history says the story of "Ellalan (a)
Manuneethi Cholan" - one of the emperor of chola's family killed his own son to establish the
justice as his son killed a cub on his chariot while going to hunt.
Architecture: Raja Raja Chola I- One of the emperor of Chola's family built " Brihadeeswarar
Temple in Tanjore which is recognized as one of the world heritage center by UNESCO.
387
There are so many marvels held on those period. Then they were the strongest rulers on south
india along with Chera dynasty and Pandyan dynasty. significance of the Chola
Empires are:
 Longest ruling dynasty in the world
 Cholas only spreaded saivam (now Hindu religion) and temple culture
till Indonesia, Malaysia, Combodia, Vietnam and countries they ruled.
 The oldest functioning in the world is kallanaai dam was built by Karikaala
Cholan in Trichy city kallanaai

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👆 This is that kallanaai dam
 Sill now there a place named chola pass and chola mountain range in
Nepal ,China border which is named after this Karikaala Cholan who
extended his dainasty still there.

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Chola pass 👆

Chola mountain Range 👆.

 They are best in temple construction the second largest Temple and largest
temple gopuram in the world was built by dharma Varma
Cholan raganathasamy temple in Sri Rangam

390
The best temple in the world is Peru udayar temple (pregadeeshwara temple) built
by Raja Raja Cholan

👆 Peru udayar temple (pregadeeshwara temple)

 One of the largest dainasty in the world and largest dainasty in India

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👆 Chola territory .
If any kingdom accept the defeat before the war or during the War they will give
the kingdom to them itself and collect the tax and power was fully on cholas.

The next destination is Gangaikonda Cholapuram, situated 45 kms to the southwest of

Chidambaram, in the Udayarpalayam taluk of Ariyalur district, Tamil Nadu. The nearest
railway station is at Kumbakonam and Ariyalur. But, the simplest way to reach Cholapuram
is by road, with the help of state transport and private buses. You need to travel
via Kaattumannarkudi or kovil, which is 27 kms from Chidambaram. From there, local buses
and auto rickshaws are available at reasonable rates, to cover the final 17 kms. Locally,
Gangaikonda Cholapuram is known as Jayakondam (please, remember this). So, lets know
more about the Cholapuram temple …..
Cholas had become the greatest power in South India by 10th century CE. They had reached
the borders of the Rashtrakuta kingdom in the north. Rows of temples were built on both the
banks of the river Cauvery to mark their growing power. Cholas greatly made use of art to
proclaim their power, used temples to make unequivocal statements about their political
hegemony. The Great Chola King, Rajaraja I, crowned in 985, carved out an overseas empire
by establishing a second capital at Pollonaruva in Sri Lanka. The Brihadeeswara (Big temple
of Thanjavur), built by him (995 – 1010) at his capital Thanjavur, though he did not live to
see it completed is a product of this success. Temple inscriptions make clear the triumphal
nature of the edifice.

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Just a couple of years after Rajaraja I built the Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur, his proud
son Rajendra I (1012 – 1044 AD) became the Chola ruler. Rajendra ruled jointly alongside
his father, until the latter’s death in 1016 AD. Having served as a general under his father,
Rajendra was an accomplished warrior who led many successful military expeditions. He had
his army march northwards, all the way to the Ganga, to bring home pots of holy water from
the river. Defeating enemy armies along the way, his men returned victorious, earning
Rajendra the title ‘Gangaikondachola’, meaning ‘the Chola who conquered the Ganges’.
He established a new capital city called Gangaikondacholapuram (also called
Gangaikondacholeshwaram) about 70 km from Thanjavur, and had a royal temple by the
same name built in it. The temple is commonly called the Brihadisvara Temple now (the one
we are going to explore). Rajendra also built a lake in the town called Cholagangam to mark
his victorious expedition. It was fed by the Cauvery river, and some water from the holy
river, Ganga was poured into it as well. Today, people call it Ponneri lake.

Front view of the Glorious east facing Brihadisvara Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple is the pinnacle of the achievements of Rajendra I, the
mighty Chola King, who established his new capital here with the magnificent city and
temple dedicated to Lord Siva. The temple is massive and richly carved with sculptures. The
architecture has complex carvings on the hard granite stones unlike the customary simple
style of the Cholas. The sculptures that adorn the walls and ceilings of Gangaikonda
Cholapuram are exquisite.The temple is famed for its bronze sculptures, artwork on its walls,
the depiction of Nandi and the scale of its tower. As well as its notability for having been
built by Rajendra I, the temple is also noteworthy for its numerous inscriptions, although
none of them are his.

Brihadishvara Temple, called Rajarajesvaram (lit. 'Lord of Rajaraja') by its builder, and
known locally as Thanjai Periya Kovil ("Thanjavur Big Temple") and Peruvudaiyar Kovil,
is a Shaivite Hindu temple built in a Chola architectural style located on the south bank of

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the Cauvery river in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India. It is one of the largest Hindu temples and
an exemplar of Tamil architecture. It is also called Dakshina Meru ("Meru of the South).
Built by Chola emperor Rajaraja I between 1003 and 1010 CE, the temple is a part of
the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the "Great Living Chola Temples", along with
the hola-era Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple and Airavatesvara temple, which are about 70
kilometres (43 mi) and 40 kilometres (25 mi) to its northeast respectively. The Peruvudaiyar
Temple is located in the city of Thanjavur, about 350 kilometres (220 mi) southwest
of Chennai. The city is connected daily to other major cities by the network of Indian
Railways, Tamil Nadu bus services and the National Highways 67, 45C, 226 and 226 Extn.
The nearest airport with regular services is Tiruchirappalli International Airport (IATA:
TRZ), about 55 kilometres (34 mi) away.
The city and the temple though inland, are at the start of the Kaveri River delta, thus with
access to the Bay of Bengal and through it to the Indian Ocean. Along with the temples, the
Tamil people completed the first major irrigation network in the 11th century for agriculture,
for movement of goods and to control the water flow through the urban center.

The original monuments of this 11th-century temple were built around a moat. It
included gopura, the main temple, its massive tower, inscriptions, frescoes, and sculptures
predominantly related to Shaivism, but also of Vaishnavism and Shaktism. The temple was
damaged in its history and some artwork is now missing. Additional mandapam and
monuments were added in the centuries that followed. The temple now stands amidst fortified
walls that were added after the 16th century.
Built using granite, the vimana tower above the shrine is one of the tallest in South India.
[6]
The temple has a massive colonnaded prakara (corridor) and one of the largest
Shiva lingas in India. It is also famed for the quality of its sculpture, as well as being the
location that commissioned the brass Nataraja, Shiva as the lord of dance, in the 11th century.
The complex includes shrines for Nandi, Parvati, Murugan, Vinayagar,
Sabhapati, Dakshinamurti, Chandikeshwar, Varahi, Thiyagarajar of Thiruvarur and others.
The temple is one of the most visited tourist attractions in Tamil Nadu.
Rajaraja Chola, who commissioned the temple, called it Rajarajeshvaram (Rajarājeśvaram),
literally "the temple of the god of Rajaraja".A later inscription in the Brihannayaki shrine
calls the temple's deity Periya Udaiya Nayanar, which appears to be the source of the modern
names Brihadisvara and Peruvudaiyar Kovil.
Brihadishwara (: Bṛihádīśvara) is a Sanskrit composite word composed of Brihat which
means "big, great, lofty, vast", and Ishvara means "lord, Shiva, supreme being,
supreme atman (soul)". The name means the "great lord, big Shiva" temple.

Statue of Chola emperor Rajaraja I who built the temple over 1003-1010 CE
A spectrum of Hindu temple styles continued to develop from the fifth to the ninth century
over the Chalukya era rule as evidenced in Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal, and then with

394
the Pallava era as witnessed at Mamallapuram and other monuments. Thereafter, between
850 and 1280, Cholas emerged as the dominant dynasty. The early Chola period saw a
greater emphasis on securing their geopolitical boundaries and less emphasis on architecture.
In the tenth century, within the Chola empire emerged features such as the
multifaceted columns with projecting square capitals. This, states George Michell, signaled
the start of the new Chola style. This South Indian style is most fully realized both in scale
and detail in the Brihadeshwara temple built between 1003 and 1010 by the Chola
king Rajaraja I.
Additions, renovations and repairs
The main temple along with its gopurams is from the early 11th century. The temple also saw
additions, renovations, and repairs over the next 1,000 years. The raids and wars, particularly
between Muslim Sultans who controlled Madurai and Hindu kings who controlled Thanjavur
caused damage. These were repaired by Hindu dynasties that regained control. In some cases,
the rulers attempted to renovate the temple with faded paintings, by ordering new murals on
top of the older ones. In other cases, they sponsored the addition of shrines. The significant
shrines of Kartikeya (Murugan), Parvati (Amman) and Nandi are from the 16th and 17th-
century Nayaka era. Similarly the Dakshinamurti shrine was built later. It was well
maintained by Marathas of Tanjore.

Architecture
The Peruvudaiyar temple's plan and development utilizes
the axial and symmetrical geometry rules. It is classified as Perunkoil (also called
Madakkoil), a big temple built on a higher platform of a natural or man-made mounds. The
temple complex is a rectangle that is almost two stacked squares, covering 240.79 metres
(790.0 ft) east to west, and 121.92 metres (400.0 ft) north to south. In this space are five main
sections: the sanctum with the towering superstructure (sri vimana), the Nandi hall in front
(Nandi-mandapam) and in between these the main community hall (mukhamandapam), the
great gathering hall (mahamandapam) and the pavilion that connects the great hall with the
sanctum (Antrala).The temple complex integrates a large pillared and covered veranda
(prakara) in its spacious courtyard, with a perimeter of about 450 metres (1,480 ft) for
circumambulation. Outside this pillared veranda there are two walls of enclosure, the outer
one being defensive and added in 1777 by the French colonial forces with gun-holes with the
temple serving as an arsenal. They made the outer wall high, isolating the temple complex
area. On its east end is the original main gopuram or gateway that is barrel vaulted. It is less
than half the size of the main temple's vimana. Additional structures were added to the
original temple after the 11th century, such as a mandapa in its northeast corner and
additional gopurams (gateways) on its perimeters to allow people to enter and leave from
multiple locations. Some of the shrines and structures were added during the Pandya,
Nayaka, Vijayanagara and Maratha era, before the colonial era started, and these builders
respected the original plans and symmetry rules. Inside the original temple courtyard, along
with the main sanctum and Nandi-mandapam are two major shrines, one for Kartikeya and
for Parvati. The complex has additional smaller shrines.
The Peruvudaiyar temple continued the Hindu temple traditions of South India by adopting
architectural and decorative elements, but its scale significantly exceeded the temples
constructed before the 11th century. The Chola era architects and artisans innovated the
expertise to scale up and build, particularly with heavy stone and to accomplish the 63.4
metres (208 ft) high towering vimana.

395
Nandi mandapam and the entrance gopurams, northeast view from courtyard Another view of
the entrance.
The temple faces east, and once had a water moat around it. This has been filled up. The
fortified wall now runs around this moat. The two walls have ornate gateways called the
gopurams. These are made from stone and display entablature. The main gateways are on the
east side. The first one is called the Keralantakan tiruvasal, which means the "sacred gate of
the Keralantakan". The word Keralantakan was the surname of king Rajaraja who built it.
About a 100 metres (330 ft) ahead is the inner courtyard gopuram called the Rajarajan
tiruvasal. This is more decorated than the Keralantakan tiruvasal, such as with
its adhishthanam relief work narrating scenes from the Puranas and other Hindu texts. The
inner eastern gopuram leads to a vast courtyard, in which the shrines are all signed to east–
west and north-west cardinal directions. The complex can be entered either on one axis
through a five-story gopuram or with a second access directly to the huge main quadrangle
through a smaller free-standing gopuram. The gopuram of the main entrance is 30 m high,
smaller than the vimana.[13]The main temple-related monuments and the great tower is in the
middle of this courtyard.[32] Around the main temple that is dedicated to Shiva, are smaller
shrines, most of which are aligned axially. These are dedicated to his consort Parvati, his
sons Murugan and Ganesha, Nandi, Varahi, Karuvur deva (the guru of Rajaraja Chola),
Chandeshvara and Nataraja. The Nandi mandapam has a monolithic seated bull facing the
sanctum. In between them are stairs leading to a columned porch and community gathering
hall, then an inner mandapa connecting to the pradakshina patha, or circumambulation path.
The Nandi (bull) facing the mukh-mandapam weighs about 25 tonnes.[36] It is made of a
single stone and is about 2 m in height, 6 m in length and 2.5 m in width. The image of Nandi
is a monolithic one and is one of the largest in the country.[
Preservation & Restoration
As a world heritage monument, the temple and the premises comes under the Archaeological
Survey of India (ASI) which falls under the Ministry of Culture of the Government of India,
to ensure safety, preservation and restoration. The surrounding facilities have been upgraded
to create an ambience worthy of the grandeur of this ancient marvel with lighting, signage
and facilities for devotees and visitors. The lighting of the monument is designed to enhance
the natural color of the stone along with the sculptural forms adorning all corners of the
temple. The restoration has been undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India that
commissioned Sheila Sri Prakash Indian architect and designer to lead the design

396
Brihadeeswara Temple Gopuram at Night
Sanctum and the Sri-vimana

The sanctum is at the center of the western square. It is surrounded by massive walls that are
divided into levels by sharply cut sculptures and pilasters providing deep bays and recesses.
Each side of the sanctuary has a bay with iconography. The interior of the sanctum
sanctorum hosts an image of the primary deity, Shiva, in the form of a huge stone linga. It is
called Karuvarai, a Tamil word that means "womb chamber". This space is called garbha
griha in other parts of India. Only priests are allowed to enter this inner-most chamber.
In the Tamizhan style, the sanctum takes the form of a miniature vimana. It has the inner wall
together with the outer wall creating a path around the sanctum for circumambulation
(pradakshina). The entrance is highly decorated. The inside chamber is the sanctum
sanctorum, which houses the brihad linga..The main Vimana (Shikhara) is a massive 16
storeys tower of which 13 are tapering squares. It dominates the main quadrangle. It sits
above a 30.18 metres (99.0 ft) sided square . The tower is elaborately articulated with Pila
ster, piers(a raised structure), and attached columns which are placed rhythmically covering
every surface of the vimana.

Deities and Natya Sastra dance mudras

The bronze Nataraja design of Thanjavur found in many museums was commissioned for this
temple's sanctum/ The sikhara, a cupolic dome (25 tons), is octagonal and rests on a single

397
block of granite, weighing 80 tons// One of the 81 dance positions carved on the outer wall of
the upper storey corridor wall.
The temple is dedicated to Shiva in the form of a huge linga, his abstract aniconic
representation. It is 8.7 m (29 ft) high, occupying two storeys of the sanctum. [6][12] It is one of
the largest monolithic linga sculptures in India.
Sculptures on the maha-mandapam walls
North side South side
Bhairava (Shiva) Ganesha
Mahishasuramardini
Vishnu
(Durga)
Saraswati Gajalakshmi

The Shaivism temple celebrates all major Hindu traditions by including the primary deities of
the Vaishnavism and Shaktism tradition in the great mandapa of the main temple. The
distribution of the deities is generally symmetric, except for the east entrance side which
provide for the door and walkway. In addition to the main deities, each side provides
for dvarapalas (guardians), and various other sculptures. The vestibule has three stone
sculptures that is intricately carved, and mural paintings. [43] The ground floor level sanctum
walls have the following sculptures:

 East wall: Lingodbhava, standing Shiva, Pashupata-murti,

plus two dvarapalas flanking the pathway from ardha-
mandapam
 South wall: Bhikshatana, Virabhadra,
Dakshinamurti, Kalantaka, Nataraja[note 3] plus two dvarapalas
 West wall: Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu), Lingodbhava,
Chandrashekhara without prabhavali, Chandrashekhara
with prabhavali, plus two dvarapalas
 North wall: Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati),
Gangadhara without Parvati, Pashupata-murti, Shiva-
alingana-murti, plus two dvarapalas

On the second floor, Shiva's Tripurantaka form in different postures is depicted

corresponding to these sculptures. Above these floors, the sri-vimana towers above
in thirteen storeys (talas). Above these storeys is a single square block of granite
weight 80 tons, and 7.77 metres (25.5 ft) side. On top of this block, at its corners are
Nandi pairs each about 1.98 metres (6 ft 6 in) by 1.68 metres (5 ft 6 in) in dimension.
Above the center of this granite block rises the griva, the sikhara and the finial (stupi)
of Tamil Hindu temple architecture. This stupi is 3.81 metres (12.5 ft) in height, and
was originally covered with gold (no longer). The sikhara at the top is cupola-shaped
and weighs 25 tons.[43][44] Each storey of this tower is decorated with kutas and salas.
The shrinking squares tower architecture of this temple differs from the tower at the
Chola temple at Gangaikondasolisvaram, because this is straight in contrast to the
latter which is curvilinear. The temple's sri-vimana magnitude has made it a towering
landmark for the city.[43] The upper storey corridor wall of the aditala is carved with 81
of the 108 dance karanas – postures of Natya Sastra. This text is the basis of
the Bharathanatyam, the classical dance of Tamil Nadu. The 27

398
unrepresented karanas are blank blocks of stone, and it is unclear why these were
not carved. The 81 postures carved suggest the significance of this classical Indian
dance form by early 11th century.[12]
The garbhagriha is square and sits on a plinth. This is moulded and 0.5 metres (1 ft
8 in) thick. It consists of upapitham and adhishthanam, respectively 140 cm and
360 cm thick.[12]
Mandapa
The two mandapa, namely maha-mandapa and mukha-mandapa, are square plan
structures axially aligned between the sanctum and the Nandi mandapa. The maha-
mandapa has six pillars on each side.[45] This too has artwork. The Vitankar and
Rajaraja I bronze are here, but these were added much later. The maha-mandapa is
flanked by two giant stone dvarapalas. It is linked to the mukha-mandapa by stairs.
The entrance of the mukha-mandapa also has dvarapalas. With the mandapa are
eight small shrines for dikpalas, or guardian deities of each direction such
as Agni, Indra, Varuna, Kubera and others. These were installed during the rule of
Chola king Rajendra I.[45]
Inscriptions indicate that this area also had other iconography from major Hindu
traditions during the Chola era, but these are now missing. The original eight shrines
included those for Surya (the sun god), Saptamatrikas (seven mothers), Ganesha,
Murugan, Jyeshtha, Chandra (the moon god), Chandeshvara and Bhairava.
[45]
Similarly, in the western wall cella was a massive granite Ganesha built during
Rajaraja I era, but who is now found in the tiruch-churru-maligai (southern veranda).
Of the Shaktism tradition's seven mothers, only Varahi survives in a broken form.
Her remnants are now found in a small modern era brick "Varahi shrine" in the
southern side of the courtyard. The original version of the others along with their
original Chola shrines are missing.[45]
Murals

399
A mural of Rajaraja I and his guru.

Nayaka era ceiling mural in the Nandi shrine.

The temple has an underneath layer of Chola frescoes on the sanctum walls along
the circumambulatory pathway. These frescoes which cover floor to ceiling, were
discovered in 1931 by S. K. Govindasami of the Annamalai University. [46] The painters
used natural pigments and infused it into the wet limestone layer as it was setting in.
The Chola frescoes were largely of Shaivism themes. These were restored in the
2000s.[47] The total Chola fresco area is about 670 square metres (7,200 sq ft), of
which about 112 square metres (1,210 sq ft) had been uncovered as of 2010 in a
method that preserves both paintings, a technique developed by Archaeological
Survey of India.[46] The frescoes narrate Hindu mythology.[46][48] According to
Balasubrahmanyam, most frescoes are related to Shiva, but the 11th century Chola
frescoes also show Vishnu, Durga and others, as well as scenes of Chola royalty,
courtly and common life.[48]

Murals in the ceiling of Nandi mandapa, Brihadeeswara temple

The later constructions, additions and modifications to the temple curtailed the
amount of natural light inside the temple. The frescoes were thus photographed in a
limited way and interpreted. According to Sriraman, a complete imaging with better
photographic equipment suggests that these historic interpretations were incorrect.
[46]
For example, a fresco that was previously interpreted as Dakshinamurti Shiva is

400
actually a secular scene of a royal guru meditating under a banyan tree. On the tree
are shown peacocks, birds, monkeys, squirrels and owls, plus a cobra. The animals
and birds are shown as worried of the cobra, the one's closer to the snake are shown
to be more worried.[46] Other parts of the panel similarly show a court listening to a
saint. Other show women in different dresses in different dance mudra.[46]
Some of the paintings in the sanctum sanctorum and the walls in the passage had
been damaged because of the soot that had deposited on them once upon a time.
Owing to the continuous exposure to smoke and soot from the lamps and burning of
camphor in the sanctum sanctorum over a period of centuries certain parts of the
Chola paintings on the circumambulatory passage walls had been badly damaged.
[47]
The Archaeological Survey of India, for the first time in the world, used its unique
de-stucco process to restore 16 Nayak paintings, which were superimposed on
1000-year-old Chola frescoes.[47] These 400-year-old paintings have been mounted
on fibre glass boards, displayed at a separate pavilion.[47]
Inscriptions

Tamil Inscriptions in Thanjavur Brahadeeshwara Temple written 1000 years ago

The temple walls have numerous inscriptions in Tamil and Grantha scripts. Many of
these begin with customary Sanskrit and Tamil language historical introduction to the
king who authorized it, and predominant number of them discuss gifts to the temple
or temple personnel, in some cases residents of the city. [49][50] The temple complex has
sixty four inscriptions of Rajaraja Chola I, twenty nine inscriptions of Rajendra Chola
I, one each of Vikrama Chola, Kulottunga I and Rajamahendra (Rajendra II), three of
a probable Pandyan king, two of Nayaka rulers namely, Achyutappa Nayaka and
Mallapa Nayaka.[51]

401
 6. ஸ்வஸ்திஸ்ரீ் திருமகள் போல பெருநில

7. பெருநிலச் செல்வியுந் தனக்கேயுரிமை

8. கேயுரிமை பூண்டமை மனக்கொளக்

9. காந்தளூர்ச் சாலைக் களமறூத்தருளி வேங்கை

10. உடையார் ஸ்ரீராஜராஜ சோழன்

Excerpts of Rajaraja's inscription from Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur (first line in every image)
The Brihadishwara Temple has Tamil and Sanskrit inscriptions from the 11th century.
Temple personnel
An inscription on the north wall of enclosure, dated 1011 CE, gives a detailed
accounts of people employed and supported by the temple. The inscription gives
their wages, roles and names. It includes over 600 names including those of priests,
lamp lighters, washermen, tailors, jewelers, potters, carpenters, sacred parasol
bearers, dance gurus, dancing girls, singers, male and female musicians,
superintendents of performance artists, accountants among others. Their wages was
in parcels of land, so their temple employment was likely part-time.[52][50]
The temple employed devadasis who were dancers and singers of devotional
hymns. Among its numerous inscriptions are frequent gifts that state, "to provide for
worship, for food to assembly of sannyasis (monks or ascetics) and for repairs".
According to George Michell, the Thanjavur temple was a major charity institution in
its history. It provides free meal for pilgrims, devotees and wayfarers on a daily
basis. On the days of Hindu festivals, these meals were elaborate and
when brahmins were particularly invited and fed.[52][50]
Millennium commemoration

402
1,000-year-old Thanjavur Brihadeeshwara Temple - view at sunrise.

Dancers gathered at Brihadishwara Temple to commemorate it.

Built in the year 1010 CE by Chola emperor Rajaraja I in Thanjavur, the temple is
popularly known as the Big Temple. It turned 1000 years old in September 2010. To
celebrate the 1000th year of the grand structure, the state government and the town
held many cultural events. It was to recall the 275th day of his 25th regal year (1010
CE) when Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE) handed over a gold-plated kalasam (copper pot
or finial) for the final consecration to crown the vimana, the 59.82-metre tall tower
above the sanctum.[53][54][55]
Bharathanatyam Yajna
To mark the occasion, the state government organised a Bharathanatyam Yajna,
classical dance show under noted dancer Padma Subramaniam. It was jointly
organised by the Association of Bharatanatyam Artistes of India (ABHAI) and the
Brhan Natyanjali Trust, Thanjavur. To mark the 1000th anniversary of the building,
1000 dancers from New Delhi, Mumbai, Pune, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Singapore, Malaysia and the US danced in concert to
the recorded 11 verses of divine music Thiruvisaippa (ninth volume of Thirumurai)
composed by Karuvur deva (the guru of Rajaraja ). The small town turned into a
cultural hub for two days beginning 26 September 2010 as street performers and
dancers performed throughout the town.[56][57]
Commemorative stamps and coins
On 26 September 2010 (Big Temple's fifth day of millennium celebrations), as a
recognition of Big Temple's contribution to the country's cultural, architectural,

403
epigraphical history, a special ₹ 5 postage stamp featuring the 216-feet tall
giant Raja Gopuram was released by India Post.
The Reserve Bank of India commemorated the event by releasing a ₹ 5 coin with the
model of temple embossed on it.[58][59] A Raja, Cabinet Minister of Communications
and Information Technology released the esteemed Brihadeeswarar temple special
stamp, the first of which was received by G K Vasan, Cabinet Minister of Shipping.
Mumbai Mint issued Rs 1000 Commemorative Coin with the same picture as on the
Rs 5 coin. It was the first 1000 Rupees coin to be released in the Republic of India
coinage. This coin was a Non Circulative Legal Tender (NCLT).[60]
On 1 April 1954, the Reserve Bank of India released a ₹ 1000 currency note
featuring a panoramic view of the Brihadeeswar temple marking its cultural heritage
and significance. In 1975, the then government led by Prime Minister Indira
Gandhi demonetised all ₹ 1,000 currency notes in an effort to curtail black money.
These notes are now popular among collectors.[61]
In 2010, the then Tamil Nadu chief minister, M Karunanidhi renamed Semmai Rice,
a type of high productivity paddy variant, as Raja Rajan-1000 to mark the millennial
year of the constructor of the temple, Rajaraja Chola].[62]
Reception
The temple "testifies the brilliant achievements of the Chola in architecture,
sculpture, painting and bronze casting."[63] The temple finds mention in many of the
contemporary works of the period like Muvar Ula and Kalingathuparani. According to
Chatterjee, the Dravidian architecture attained its supreme form of expression in the
temple and it successor, the Brihadeeswarar Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
[64]
The temple has been declared as a heritage monument by the Government of
India and administered by the Archaeological Survey of India as a protected
monument. The temple is one of the most visited tourist attractions in Tamil Nadu.[14]
The temple was declared as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO, along with the
Brihadeeswara Temple at Gangaikondacholapuram and Airavatesvara
temple at Darasuram that are referred as the Great Living Chola Temples.[9] These
three temples have similarities, but each has unique design and sculptural elements.
[65]
All of the three temples were built by the Cholas between the 10th and 12th
centuries CE and they have continued to be supported and used by Hindus. The
temples are classified as "Great Living" as the temples are active in cultural,
pilgrimage and worship practises in modern times.[66]
Cultural events

404
Temple festival procession, 2015
The Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur is the site of annual dance festivals around
February, around the Mahashivratri. Major classical Indian dance form artists, as well
as regional teams, perform their repertoire at this Brahan Natyanjali festival over 10
days.[67]
Car festival
The Temple car was rolled out on its trial run from opposite to Sri Ramar temple on
20 April 2015 witnessed by a large number of people. [68] Nine days later, the maiden
procession of the temple car was held. This was the first such procession in this
temple held in the past hundred years, according to news reports.[69]
Novels
Kalki Krishnamurthy, a renowned Tamil novelist, has written a historical novel
named Ponniyin Selvan, based on the life of Rajaraja.[70] Balakumaran, another Tamil
author has written a novel named Udaiyar themed on the life of Rajaraja I and the
construction of the temple.[71]
The temple is currently administered and managed by Babaji Bhonsle, the head of
the Thanjavur Maratha royal family. He serves as the hereditary trustee of the palace
Devasthanam which continues to manage 88 Chola temples including the
Brihadeeswara temple. Tamil groups have been unsuccessfully petitioning the Tamil
Nadu government to revoke these rights as he is not of Chola or Tamil lineage.
According to one of the protesters, who also happens to be the coordinator of the Big
Temple Rights Retrieval Committee, Babaji Bhonsle is also not the legal heir of the
Maratha kings of Thanjavur.[72]
The temple features many sculptures, reliefs and murals

405
 Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India


An elephant relief on the Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur

Shiva with a begging bowl as a saddhu (monk, Bhikshatana)

406
 Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati) symbolizing that the male
and female principles are inseparable.[74]

Ganesha is depicted both in the main temple and a separate shrine.


Separate Ganesha shrine with temple corridor in the back.

Subrahmanyar shrine in the north part of the courtyard. Also called

Murugan, Kartikeya or Skanda.


Chandeshvara shrine. On right is the wall of main temple, in back
the eastern gopuram. Chandeshvara is a meditating yogi and
Nayanmar Bhakti movement saint.

 Narasimha avatar of Vishnu killing the demon who persecutes

people for their religious beliefs.

 Lakshmi statue, a Vaishnava sculpture reverentially displayed.

407


Gaja-lakshmi mural, another Vaishnavism themed artwork.


Vishnu sculpture at the Shaivism temple.

 A yoga and meditation relief; the temple portrays numerous secular

and saint scenes.

Krishna playing prank on gopikas by hiding on the tree, with their

clothes.


Nandi shrine

Sculpture

408

Vimana outer wall detail

Reliefs adorning the stairs


Relief detail

Relief detail

Entrance

409


Vimana view

Left profile view

The view at night

Early hours at Tanjore Periya Koil

A yoga and meditation relief

410
 

Tamil inscriptions at Brihadisvara Temple

See also
Portals:
 Asia
 India
 Hinduism
 Architecture
 Penneswaraar Temple
 Thanjavur Chariot festival
 Raja Raja Chola I
 Chola Dynasty
 List of largest monoliths
 Great Living Chola Temples
 Thanjavur Temples
Notes
1. ^ Douglas Barrett in his 1975 publication on Chola architecture
states that a new style emerged between 866 and 940 CE starting
with Vijayalaya, the first Chola ruler. According to Barrett, the
Chola style did not develop out of the Pallava tradition.
[26]
According to Gary J. Schwindler, Barrett's work supplies
opinions that are "opportunities for endless conjecture and
debate".[27]
2. ^ Thanjavur was a target of both Muslim and Hindu neighbouring
kingdoms, both near and far. The Madurai Sultanate was
established in the 14th century, after the disastrous invasions and
plunder of South India by Ala ud-Din Khalji's armies of Delhi
Sultanate led by Malik Kafur.[28] Later Adil Shahi Sultanate, Qutb
Shahis, Randaula Khan and others from east and west coasts of
South India raided it, and some occupied it for a few years.[11]
3. ^ In Tamil literature, the lord of dance form of Shiva, is referred to
as Adavallan or Kuttaperumanadigal. This bronze style Nataraja
from the Chola era is much celebrated and studied, including
those of later texts such as Unmaivilakkam and Citampara
Mummani Kovia describing its significance. Nataraja in Indian art
dates to earlier pre-Chola centuries.[42]
References
1. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Thanjavur, Encyclopaedia Britannica
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Michell 1988, pp. 145–148
3. ^ Rajaraja the Great: A Garland of Tributes. Department of
Museums, Government Museum. 1984.
4. ^ India Perspectives. PTI for the Ministry of External Affairs. 1995.
5. ^ Rao, Raghunadha (1989). Indian Heritage and Culture. Sterling
Publishers. p. 32. ISBN 9788120709300.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b c d "The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)".

411
7. ^ Keay, John (2000). India, a History. New York, United States:
Harper Collins Publishers. pp. xix. ISBN 0-00-638784-5.
8. ^ K. V. Raman. Temple Art, Icons And Culture Of India And
South-East Asia. Sharada Publishing House, 2006. p. 136.
9. ^ Jump up to:a b c d "Great Living Chola Temples". UNESCO World
Heritage Centre. 2004. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
10. ^ S.R. Balasubrahmanyam 1975, pp. 1–21.
11. ^ Jump up to:a b c d George Michell (2008), Architecture and Art of
Southern India, Cambridge University Press, pages 16-21, 89-91
12. ^ Jump up to:a b c d S.R. Balasubrahmanyam 1975, pp. 20–21.
13. ^ Jump up to:a b c S.R. Balasubrahmanyam 1975, pp. 16–29.
14. ^ Jump up to:a b Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam (ed.). India
through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 185.
15. ^ D. Raphael (1996). Temples of Tamil Nadu, Works of Art.
Ratnamala. p. 9. ISBN 978-955-9440-00-0.
16. ^ S. R. Balasubrahmanyam (1975). Middle Chola Temples:
Rajaraja I to Kulottunga I, A.D. 985-1070. Thomson. p. 87.
17. ^ Brihat, Monier Monier Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary,
Oxford University Press, page 735
18. ^ Monier Williams, Sanskrit-English dictionary, Iṡvará, Oxford
University Press, page 171
19. ^ James Lochtefeld, "Ishvara", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of
Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 0-8239-2287-1,
page 306
20. ^ "Brihadeeswara Temple". Brihadeeswara Temple. Retrieved 24
February 2022.
21. ^ "NH wise Details of NH in respect of Stretches entrusted to
NHAI" (PDF). Ministry of Road Transport &
Highways, Government of India. National Highways Authority of
India. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 February 2009.
Retrieved 17 December 2011.
22. ^ "Thanjavur bus routes". Municipality of Thanjavur. Archived
from the original on 17 June 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2012.
23. ^ Ē. Kē Cēṣāttiri (2008). Sri Brihadisvara: The Great Temple of
Thānjavūr. Nile. p. 5.
24. ^ Marshall M. Bouton (2014). Agrarian Radicalism in South India.
Princeton University Press. pp. 72–78. ISBN 978-1-4008-5784-5.
25. ^ S.R. Balasubrahmanyam 1975, pp. 1–2.
26. ^ Douglas E. Barrett (1974). Early Cola Architecture and
Sculpture; 866-1014 A.D. Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-10507-6.
27. ^ Schwindler, Gary J. (1977). "Review: Early Cola Architecture
and Sculpture". The Journal of Asian Studies. Cambridge
University Press. 36 (4):
705. doi:10.2307/2054437. JSTOR 2054437. S2CID 163896079.
28. ^ George Michell (2008), Architecture and Art of Southern India,
Cambridge University Press, pages 9-13, 16-21
29. ^ Jump up to:a b S.R. Balasubrahmanyam 1975, pp. 25–26.
30. ^ Jump up to:a b Thapar 2004, pp.43, 52–53
31. ^ Reddy, G.Venkatramana (2010). Alayam - The Hindu temple -
An epitome of Hindu Culture. Mylapore, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna
Math. p. 31. ISBN 978-81-7823-542-4.
32. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f S.R. Balasubrahmanyam 1975, pp. 16–19.
33. ^ Winand M. Callewaert (1995). Gods and Temples in South
India. Manohar. pp. 150–151. ISBN 978-81-7304-107-5.
34. ^ Jump up to:a b Tanjavur: Brhadisvara temple, The monument and
the living tradition Archived 30 March 2016 at the Wayback
Machine, Kapila Vatsyayan and R Nagaswamy et al, Indira Gandhi
National Centre for the Arts, Government of India (2012), page 7
35. ^ Branfoot, Crispin (2008). "Imperial Frontiers: Building Sacred
Space in Sixteenth-Century South India". The Art Bulletin. 90 (2):
185. doi:10.1080/00043079.2008.10786389. JSTOR 20619601.
S2CID 154135978.

412
36. ^ S.R. Balasubrahmanyam 1975, p. 22, Quote: "It is 3.65 m high,
5.94 m long and 2.59 m broad, estimated to weigh 25 tons.".
37. ^ Jump up to:a b V., Meena (1974). Temples in South
India (1st ed.). Kanniyakumari: Harikumar Arts. pp. 23–24.
38. ^ "Architecture is Ultimately about People". Architecture
Construction & Engineering Update Magazine. 18 February 2015.
39. ^ Jump up to:a b S.R. Balasubrahmanyam 1975, pp. 17–19.
40. ^ "Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent – Glossary".
Retrieved 24 January 2007.
41. ^ Ching 2007, pp. 338–339
42. ^ Jump up to:a b Padma Kaimal (1999), Shiva Nataraja: Shifting
Meanings of an Icon, The Art Bulletin, Vol. 81, No. 3, pages 394-
395, Figure 3 on page 392
43. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e S.R. Balasubrahmanyam 1975, pp. 18–21.
44. ^ "Great Living Chola Temples". Archaeological Survey of India.
45. ^ Jump up to:a b c d S.R. Balasubrahmanyam 1975, pp. 22–25.
46. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f PS Sriraman (2010), Digital photo
documentation of murals at Brihadisvara Temple, Tanjavur: a tool
for art historians in Space, Time, Place (Editors: Stefano Campana
et al), pages 167-172
47. ^ Jump up to:a b c d "ASI restores 400-year-old paintings". The
Hindu. Chennai, India. 28 February 2010. Archived from the
original on 17 November 2004. Retrieved 22 June 2010.; Another
report about Chola frescoes[dead link]
48. ^ Jump up to:a b S.R. Balasubrahmanyam 1975, pp. 29–36.
49. ^ S.R. Balasubrahmanyam 1975, pp. 15, 25, 53 with footnotes.
50. ^ Jump up to:a b c PV Jagadisa Ayyar (1993), South Indian Shrines,
Asian Educational Services, ISBN 81-206-0151-3, pages 411-423
51. ^ C. Sivaramamurti. The Great Chola Temples: Thanjavur,
Gangaikondacholapuram, Darasuram. Archaeological Survey of
India, 2007 - Architecture, Chola - 96 pages. p. 26.
52. ^ Jump up to:a b Michell 1988, pp. 59–60.
53. ^ BBC News augue (25 September 2010). "India's Big Temple
marks 1,000th birthday". Retrieved 25 September 2010.
54. ^ PS. R. Balasubrahmanyam (1971), Orient Longman
Publications, Early Chola temples:Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, 907–
985 A.D
55. ^ Ananthacharya Indological Research Institute (1984), Rāja
Rāja, the great:seminar proceedings
56. ^ Rediff News. "India's Biggest Temple turns 1000-years".
Retrieved 20 August 2010.
57. ^ Subramanian, T. S. (1 August 2010). "A grand dance spectacle
at the Thanjavur Big Temple". The Hindu. Chennai, India.
Archived from the original on 4 August 2010. Retrieved 20
August 2010.
58. ^ Deccan Herald (26 September 2010). "Stamp, coin release
mark 1,000 years of Big Temple". Retrieved 26 September 2010.
59. ^ "Release of a special postal stamp and a five- rupee coin". The
Hindu. Chennai, India. 27 September 2010. Archived from the
original on 29 September 2010. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
60. ^ "Release of Commemorative Coin" (PDF). 3 July 2012. Archived
from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2013. Retrieved 24
April 2013.
61. ^ Express Buzz, The Indian Express (26 September 2010). "INR
1000 note of 1954 popular in Tanjavur". Retrieved 27
September 2010.
62. ^ MSN News (26 September 2010). "Semmai Paddy as "Raja
Rajan-1000"". Retrieved 27 September 2010.[permanent dead link]
63. ^ "Great Living Chola Temples". UNESCO. Retrieved 21
January 2008.
64. ^ Roma Chatterjee, ed. (2016). India Art and Architecture in
ancient and medieval periods. New Delhi: Publications Division,
Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.
p. 32. ISBN 978-81-230-2080-8.

413
 65. ^ Ayyar, P.V. Jagadisa (1993). South Indian Shrines. New Delhi:
Asian Educational Services. p. 316. ISBN 81-206-0151-3.
66. ^ Srinivasan, Pankaja (4 June 2012). "Inside the Chola
Temple". The Hindu. Coimbatore. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
67. ^ Brahan Natyanjali, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
68. ^ Trial run of Big Temple car, Rolls; out after 100 years; maiden
run on April 29, The Hindu, 21 April 2015
69. ^ Big temple chariot festival held after 100 years, The Hindu, 30
April 2015
70. ^ A., Srivathsan (19 October 2011). "Age hardly withers charm of
Ponniyin Selvan". The Hindu. Chennai. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
71. ^ "Special Coin to Remember Rajendra Chola". Express News
Service. Chennai: The New Indian Express. 4 February 2014.
Retrieved 9 May 2015.
72. ^ "Tamil groups want Maratha hold over Thanjavur Big Temple to
go". Retrieved 12 May 2018.
73. ^ C. Sivaramamurti (1977). L'Art en Inde. H. N. Abrams. pp. 287–
288, 427. ISBN 978-0-8109-0630-3.
74. ^ "Ardhanārīśvara". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2011. Retrieved 27
December 2017.
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Cave Temple Period. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0705-1.
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81406-41-0.
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226-53230-5
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External links

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 Dakshina Meru: The Brihadeswara Temple,
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 Photos on art-and-archaeology web site
 Unesco Great Living Chola Temples

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415
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417
 Thanjavur or Chola Empire(Tamil: [t̪ aɲdʑaːʋuːɾ]), also Tanjore, is a city in the Indian state of
Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is the 11th biggest city in Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is an important
center of South Indian religion, art, and architecture. Most of the Great Living Chola
Temples, which are UNESCO World Heritage Monuments, are located in and around
Thanjavur. The foremost among these, the Brihadeeswara Temple, is located in the centre
of the city. Thanjavur is also home to Tanjore painting, a painting style unique to the region.

History of Brihadisvara temple, Cholapuram

The Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple is smaller yet more refined than the Thanjavur Big
temple. Because of its delicate appearance and gentle curve, this temple is often called the
feminine version of the one in Thanjavur. The temple was constructed in 1035 AD by
Rajendra Chola I. Some experts believe that the temple was built during 1020, during the
6th regnal year, but inscriptions indicate the 20th regnal year, which is 1035 AD. Rajendra
wanted to emulate the temple built by his father after his victory in a campaign across India
that Chola era texts state covered Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Bengal. After his
victory, he demanded that the defeated kingdoms send pots of Ganges River water and pour
them into the temple’s well. The well was originally called Cholagangam as it was filled with
water from Ganges.
Gangaikonda Cholapuram remained the Chola capital for the next 250 years. Rajendra I built
the entire capital with several temples using plans and infrastructure recommended in Tamil
Vastu and Agama Sastra texts. These included a Dharma Sasta, Vishnu and other temples.
However, these structures were destroyed in the late 13th and 14th centuries except this
temple. The other Chola landmarks, clearly shown by soil covered mounds and excavated
broken pillar stumps and brick walls, are found over a large area nearby. The earliest

418
inscription that mentions this city by name is dated 1029, while the earliest reference to
Rajendra I’s expedition towards the Ganges river in the north is dated 1023. The first gift to
the newly built Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple is dated 1035. Rajendra I, must have
involved the same craftsmen used by his father and transferred them from
Thanjavur. Archaeological excavations have revealed fort walls and palace remains a few
kilometers from this temple. It is believed that Kulothunga Chola I, Rajendra’s successor,
built fortifications around the city.
The reasons for the city’s destruction are unclear. The Pandyas who defeated the Cholas
during the later part of 13th-century “may have razed the city to ground” to avenge their
previous defeats. However, it is unclear why other temples were destroyed and this temple
was spared, as well as why there are around twenty inscriptions from later Cholas, Pandyas
and Vijayanagar Empires indicating various gifts and grants to this temple if they previously
razed this place. An alternative theory links the destruction to the raids, plunder and wars,
particularly with the invasion of the capital city and the territories, that were earlier a part of
the Chola and Madurai Empires, by the armies of the Delhi Sultanate led by the army
commander Malik Kafur in 1311, followed by Khusrau Khan in 1314, and Muhammad bin
Tughlaq in 1327. The period that followed saw many wars from the Delhi Sultanate and they
carved out new states such as the nearby Madurai Sultanate (1335–1378). The Vijayanagara
Empire defeated the Madurai Sultanate in 1378 and this temple, along with other Chola era
temples, then returned to the control of South Indian kings who repaired and restored many of
them. The temple was added to the list of Great Living Chola Temples in the year 2004.
According to available evidences, the last Chola, King Rajendra Chola III’s rule did not end
due to defeats in war. There are signs of some devastation that hint at some major catastrophe
that happened around Gangaikondacholapuram which brought to an end the Chola rule. The
temple, unfortunately, was looted several times. It was also used as a garrison and fortified
cantonment by the Pandyas and later on by the British as well.
Floor Plan of Brihadisvara temple, Cholapuram

419
Though the temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram follows the plan of the great temple of
Thanjavur in most details it has an individuality of its own. From the remains it may be seen
that it had only one enclosure wall and a gopuram while the Thanjavur temple has two
gopurams and enclosures. The prakara follows the Thanjavur lay-out in that it had a two
storeyed cloister running all around. Only a part of this has survived in the north. The stones
from the other portions were utilized to build the Lower Anaicut across the
Kollidam, during British rule in 18th century. The pillars of cut stone are severely plain
throughout as in Thanjavur.
Second session of Day 2 – Exploring the Great Living Brihadisvara temple, Gangaikondam
Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple of Lord Shiva is really grand and is regarded as the
reproduction of Brihadeeswara temple built by Rajaraja Chola, father of Rajendra Chola I. It
surpasses the Thanjavur Big temple sculpture as, by the time it was built, Chola sculptors and
artisans had perfected the art of temple architecture. It is a tribute to the magnificent
architects and artisans.
As one steps in, the great Sri Vimana (superstructure) arrests the visitor’s sight. The Vimana
with its recessed corners and upward movement presents a striking contrast to the straight-
sided pyramidal tower of Thanjavur but with octagon shape of Dravidian architecture. As it
rises to a height of 182 feet (55 m) and is 9m shorter than the Thanjavur tower (as a mark of
respect to his father’s masterpiece) with larger plinth, it is often described as the feminine
counterpart of the Thanjavur temple.

(Welcome Scene) Front view of Brihadisvara temple, Cholapuram – The temple is approached
through the eastern entrance from the road. The entrance is called the
“Mahaduvar” leads to the inner court. This Temple is renowned for having a
four-meter-high Lingam, one of the biggest Sivalingam in South India. Interestingly,
to provide a private worship area for the royal family, the sanctum is
encircled with two walls.

420
Mahaduvar – Entrance tower in east, has only basement portion: the superstructure is
completely fallen down. The stones from this ruined gopuram were used for the construction
of the lower Anaicut dam across the nearby Kollidam river. On
plan, the whole edifice forms a rectangle approximately 60 feet by 33 feet. Large dvarapalas
with 7 ft height, were placed on the outer facade.
A Flag post or Dvaja Sthamba is placed in front of the temple, near the eastern entrance….

421
Flag Post or Dvaja Sthamba of Brihadisvara temple – Having a height of 40 ft and is plated with brass,
recently. Look at the design works ! they are similar to the art works of modern day flag posts, seen in many
other south indian temples.

In this Flag mast, there are four images sculpted in the cardinal directions. The images are, Siva-Parvathi
facing east, Nandi facing west, Lord Karthikeya facing north and Lord Ganesha facing south.
In front of the flag mast, one can see a “Couchant Bull” facing west, towards the main
sanctum

422
Nandi Statue (Couchant Bull) – The loyal mount of Lord Siva, constructed using bricks and lime, placed in front
of the Mahamandapa, which leads to the main sanctum.
original one was monolithic. A Bali pitha is found on east of Nandi.

A mythical monster face, found below the neck, on the torso of Nandi statue. Looks like a Chinese art work …. isn’t it
? Can this be identified as an example of ancient cultural exchanges ? Just look at his face…. How calm and how
proud he is ! Guarding his Lord without any inhibition….
The building to the north of Nandi, called Alankara mandapa, and now housing the executive
office of the temple was in all probability constructed in the 19th century. On the northeast
corner of the temple complex, you can see a circular well adorned with a lion structure at the
entrance…. “Simhakeni”

423
“Singhamukha Kinaru” (Lion-faced well) – The lion-faced entrance to the well has a flight of steps
leading to the water level. An inscription on the sculpture (in the bottom part of left side) in the 19th CE
characters records that it was constructed by Zamindar of Udiyarpalaiyam.

Huge Circular well situated to the right side of Lion-faced well. After his victory (Ganges
conquest), Rajendra Chola demanded that the defeated kingdoms send pots of Ganges River water and
pour them into this temple well.

Viewing the Great Sri Vimana from the Lion’s perspective….

424
The superb architecture of the temple boasts of a 9 storey Vimanam that extends to the height
of 185 feet. Not less than 54.86m in height, the temple structure follows the style of
Thanjavur big temple. Whole temple is thrived with rich and intricate carvings that are
exclusive to Chola style of artistry. Known to comprise a little northern style, the structure
embraces intricate carvings in the Vimanam. The colossal shrine also addresses several
significant bronzes of the Chola age.

Incredible piece of architecture, isn’t it ? Archeological Survey of India has renovated the Srivimana and painted it
beautifully
after the chemical cleaning. The sight of the Srivimana from this second entrance is magnificent and beautiful.
The structural difference of this Srivimana with that of Rajaraja-I’s Brihadeeswara temple at Thanjavur is that; this
Srivimana is of feminine structure and the Thanjavur Srivimana as masculine in nature. The main difference, that is
obvious, is this Srivimana has 8 sided (Octagonal) in structure and Thanjavur Srivimana has 4 sided (Quadragonal) in
structure.

425
Top view of the Sri Vimana -The neck is provided with four niches in the cardinal directions
and bulls at the corners. The niches are topped by arch-like embellishment
called kirtimukhas. The globular element on the top called Sikhara is according to tradition,
made of one stone weighing many stones. But, in fact, it is made of many pieces of cut stones
dressed for the purpose, as may be seen from the portion where the plaster has fallen
down. The final, stupi is a metal vase (Kalasa) with a lotus-bud design at the top. It is gilded
with gold and is said to carry an inscription named after Nallakka-tola-udayar, a Poligar of
Udayarpalaiyam. It is not known whether the stupi is the original one and probably gilded by
the Poligar or is a new one gifted by him.
The main temple consists of a sanctum tower called Sri Vimana or Sri Koil, a big rectangular
mandapa called the mahamandapa with an intervening vestibule called mukhamandapa. The
front entrance to the great mandapa is approached by steps from north and south. As the
flooring of the mandapa is on a high elevation, the steps rise to a considerable height forming
a high platform in the front. It is said that there is a subterranean passage with steps under this
platform. Some claim that this passage leads to the royal palace, while others assert that it
leads to the river Kollidam. Yet a third tradition says that it leads to an underground treasury
wherein invaluable properties belonging to the temple are preserved. None in the living
memory has set foot on this passage for fear of darkness, poisonous gas and wasps. It is not
unlikely that the empty underground space below the great mandapa and the space between
the steps were utilized as store houses.

Inner view of the elongated Mahamandapa – Photography is banned inside of it.

So let me explain the inside of this structure, The Mahamandapa. If the original
mahamandapa had been preserved, it would have retained the grandeur of its conception and
beauty. But as it is, only the portion up to the main base is original. The side walls, the pillars
and the ceilings have been reconstructed; probably in the 18th century AD. Obviously the
superstructure should have crumbled due to neglect and vegetation. However a part of the
original has survived up to the ceiling at the western end. From the surviving portion it may
be seen, the roof (prastara) of the mahamandapa was in level with the prastara of the ground
floor (adi bhumi) of the main Vimana. Like the walls of the main Vimana, a horizontal
cornice divides the outer walls of the mahamandapa into two parts. They carry a series of
niches both in the upper and lower courses.

426
A scene at the southwest corner of the Mahamandapa – Sculptures of King Rajendra Chola
I and his consort Queen Tribhuvanamadevi, decorated with crystal ornaments. (This space is
closed with metal grills due to security reasons)
As mentioned earlier, the adibhumi of the main Vimana has two floors inside the sandhara
passage (the intervening passage), the intervening cornice forming the intermediate floor
level. The mahamandapa should have been a two storeyed pavilion, quite fitting with the
mahaprasada of the temple. In view of the tall dvarapalas guarding the entrance to the
mukhamandapa, the central passage should have had only the upper ceiling without the
intermediate flooring. Thus the central passage was flanked by two storeyed structures,
resembling the storeyed cloister of the enclosure. It would have presented a most spectacular
sight when the deities were taken out in procession through the mahamandapa.
As it stands today the inner side of the mandapa has a central passage, leading from the front
to the sanctum flanked by two raised platforms and a passage running around. Two massive
dvarapalas are noticed at the western and guarding the entrance to the mukhamandapa. A few
sculptures and bronzes receiving regular worship are on the northern platform. The north
eastern corner houses an interesting solar altar, now worshipped as Navagraha (nine planets).
Moving on to The Main Sanctum of Gangaikondam Brihadisvara temple…..

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The sanctum enshrining the main deity is encased by an inner wall. Between the inner wall
and the outer, there is an intervening passage-called sandhara running all around. The two
walls are joined at the top by a series of corbelling. They are provided to support the massive
super-structure. No painting is noticed in the inner passage. The inner sanctum houses a
very big Siva Linga, rising to a height of thirteen feet. It is said to be one of the biggest Siva
Linga enshrined in a sanctum in any South Indian temple. The entrance to the sanctum
is guarded by massive doorkeepers, dvarapalas. The mandapa immediately preceding the
sanctum is approached by steps leading to it from the north and the south sides and also from
the great mandapa in the east. The entrances are guarded by big dvarapalas (15 ft high) of
astonishing beauty….

Remarkable view of Two Dvaraplas (15 ft high), guarding the northern entrance to the
Ardhamandapa, preceding the main sanctum. They are showing the ‘ Thatva concept ‘ of
Hinduism. Tiger emblem of Chola dynasty is shown between their legs.

Similar view of Two Dvaraplas (15 ft high), guarding the northern entrance to the
Ardhamandapa, preceding the main sanctum. They are showing the ‘ Thatva concept ‘ of
Hinduism.

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The mandapa is supported by massive plain and square pillars. The eastern walls flanking the
opening to the great mandapa carry groups of small sculptures illustrating Shaivite themes.
The following are the themes thus represented;

(On top) The episode of Ravana travelling in his chariot; shaking the Kailasa Mountain; Siva
seated with Uma, pressing the mountain with his toe; Ravana’s anguish under the weight of
the mountain and finally Siva bestowing boons on Ravana, are depicted in three panels. (On
the middle) The second episode on the same wall depicts Vishnu, worshipping Siva with
1008 lotus flowers; finding one short he plucks his own eye and offers it as a flower; Siva
bestows grace on Vishnu.

The panels closer to the entrance depict the marriage of Siva with Uma. Uma, the daughter of
Himavan, desirous of marrying Siva, undertakes austerities and worships Siva; Siva, after
testing her steadfastness as a beautiful youth, marries her; the celestials witness the marriage;
Brahma, the creator offers oblation to the sacrificial fire and Vishnu gives Uma in marriage to
Siva.

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The east wall close to the entrance on the northern side depicts the Kiratarjuna
scene; Arjuna the Pandava hero performs austerities to obtain a Pasupata weapon; Siva as a
hunter accompanied by Uma as a huntress, tests Arjuna’s devotion; picks up a quarrel with
Arjuna over a kill; Arjuna not knowing the personality behind the hunter, enters into a duel
with him and is ultimately vanquished; Siva manifesting himself bestows the weapon.

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At the extreme north of the same side are portrayed two episodes, one representing Siva
quelling the pride of God of death, in order to protect his devotee, Markhandeya and the other
representing Saint Chandikeswara a great devotee of Siva, cutting off the leg of his father,
who disturbed his faith and Siva bestowing grace on both father and son.
Though these group sculptures are carefully selected, they are imperfectly finished and lack
the beauty and elegance of the sculptures of the main tower.
Coming to the outside from the main sanctum through northern entrance of the
Ardhamandapa, you can see, one of the famous scenes sculpted in this Brihadisvara temple
complex (near the Dvarapala on the left side wall)….

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Majestically seated Lord Siva’s lower right hand garlands the head of Chandesvara, while the
left upper hand holding the end of a flower garland tying it round the head of Chandesvara:
upper right hand holds axe (Parasu), while the lower left hand not visible might be holding
deer. Chandesvara is piously seated in worshipping (anjali) posture with folded hands.
Bhuthaganas are seen behind the God. Devi is seen seated near the God. It is suggested that
the King Rajendra himself has carved his own image (his coronation scene) and shown his
benevolence to Lord Siva. The art historians regards this sculpture as the masterpiece of this
period.

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Facing towards Chandeshanugrahamurthi, on the west wall, is the figure of Saraswathi, the
Goddess of Knowledge. She is seen seated on a lotus throne with four arms; holding a rossary
of beads and an amrita kalasa in the upper arms and a palm leaf and Chinmudra pose in the
lower ones; behind her is shown a prabha, aureole.
Lets explore the northern side of Brihadisvara temple complex…….

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Splendid view of the Northern entrance to the Ardhamandapa, preceding the main
sanctum. Two 15 ft Dvarapalas, Chandeshanugrahamurthi and Goddess Saraswathi are the
interesting visuals in here.

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South facing Chandikesvara Temple (near the northern entrance) – The little temple to the
north-east of the central shrine enshrining Chandikesvara, the steward of Siva . It is an all
stone temple built on a raised basement, with a storeyed
superstructure. The sanctum is approached by side steps. Inside the sanctum is an image of
Chandikesvara, coeval with the temple. The outer walls of this sanctum have niches on all the
three sides, carrying sculptures of Chandikesvara. He is the principal subsidiary deity in
Siva temples and till about 13th century AD. All transactions relating to the temple were
made in his name. Hence a separate shrine is provided for him in the temple complex.

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Superstructure of Chandikesvara temple with a Lotus bud shaped circular Shikhara and A
stupi or final (Kalasa) made out of brass at the top. Presence of Kirthimukhas and Nandi at
four cardinal directions.

East facing Mahishasuramardhini Shrine – To the west of the lion-well is a shrine dedicated
to the Goddess, Mahishasuramardhini. The shrine is a later structure (probably built in 14 -
15th Century) and did not form part of the original layout. It consists of a sanctum preceded
by a mandapa. The Goddess installed in the sanctum is similar to a Durga found at Virareddi
street, in the same village and is in all likelihood, Chalukyan in origin.

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‘Brihanayaki Amman Temple’ (Northern Kailasa) – To the north of the main temple is a
small shrine now housing the Goddess, Brihannayaki, the consort of Lord Gangaikonda
Cholesvara. The temple resembles the southern kailasa in every aspect and is called Uttara
Kailasa. It has a sanctum, preceded by a front mandapa, provided with side-steps. In front of
this is a bigger mandapa (mahamandapa), which is well preserved, unlike its southern
counterpart. The Vanni tree seen on the bottom left is the Thalavirutcham or Sthala
Vriksha of this temple.
Two gatekeepers flank the entrance. In front of the gatekeepers, in the mahamandapa, are
images of Saraswati in the north and Gajalakshmi in the south. One of the Dvarapalas is
shown here…..

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North side of Brihanayaki Amman temple – The niches on the sanctum and the front
mandapa carry Ganesha, Nataraja, Bhikshatana, Subrahmanya, Dakshinamurthi,
Lingodhbhava, Brahma, Bhairava, Ardhanari, Durga, and Gauriprasada are noticed in order,
from the south.
A lion pendent ear ring is seen on the right ear while a roll or pendent is seen in the left ear. A
parasol above and a fly whisk on the either side are shown. The breast is shown on the left
emphasizing the feminine aspect. The left side wears a sari extending up to the knee. Right
part wears the tiger skin. Both masculine firmness and feminine tenderness visualized in the
same face which is the salient of this sculpture.

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A sculpture of Bearded Brahma – Four armed standing three headed (the fourth head at the
back not being visible) and bearded figure of Brahma standing erect position; holding sruk
and sruva (sacrificial ladles and spoons for pouring oblations of ghee) in the upper right arm
and a rosary of beads in the lower right; a bunch of dharbha grass in the upper left and lower
left is placed on His thigh.
It is significant that the mahamandapa of this Amman temple has steps to it, only on the side.
In ancient times, steps were always provided on the sides and not in front of the sanctum. The
beautiful image of Goddess now enshrined in the sanctum of this temple should be a later
installation. Originally the temple should have enshrined a Siva Linga, like the southern
Kailasa. Though separate shrines of Goddesses came to be built in the main temples only
from the reign of Rajendra I, no Devi-shrine was built originally in this temple, the present
one being clearly a later institution.
Back to the details about Great Sri Vimana of Brihadisvara….
According to architectural treatises, basements (upa-pithas) are introduced in temples to
increase the height of the main tower; to add to structural stability and to make the temple
tower majestic.That these purposes are magnificently fulfilled by the basement of
Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple, may be noticed even by a casual visitor not conversant
with architectural principles. Besides the purposes mentioned above, the basement also
provides, a space to walk around the tower. In this temple, the basement is ornamented with
sculptures of lions and leogriffs with lifted paws.
The main base adhishtana is decorated with well defined courses, consisting of the lotus
moulding adaspadma, and the kumuda moulding, topped by a frieze of leogriffs and riders.
This constitutes the main base, the top of which forms the flooring level of the inner sanctum.
That portion of the structure rising above the main base up-to the roof cornice is called ‘the
wall’ (bhitti or kal). It is the principal element that encases the main sanctum and carries on it
a number of niches housing various deities. The wall in this temple is divided into two
horizontal courses by an intervening cornice. Lower and upper courses have an equal number
of niches, on all the three sides except the front

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North side of the Sri Vimana, Brihadisvara temple – On the vertical axis the wall surfaces are
well defined by intervening recesses forming a rectangle in the centre and squares at the
corners. Each is made up of a central niche housing a deity, flanked by a group
of small sculptures which in turn are flanked by pilasters simulating pillars. Thus each niche
housing a deity appears as a miniature shrine. The recessed walls in the lower courses carry a
vase and pilaster ornamentation, while on the upper courses, there are small niches housing
deities. Thus these are five principal deities in the lower course and nine deities in the upper
course on each side.
The sculptures in the lower courses, of the Sri Vimana depict various aspects of Siva and also
the subsidiary deities who include Ganesha, Vishnu, Subrahmanya, Durga, Brahma, and
Bhairava, supplemented by Lakshmi, Saraswati, and Durga in the niches of the great
mandapa. The sculptures were made separately and fitted into the niches. They are flanked by
a group of small sculptures, carved in situ, illustrating the theme the niche sculpture seeks to
represent. The sculptures on the upper courses represent, besides some aspects of Siva, the
guardian deities of the eight quarters.
Lets examine the sculptures on the lower courses (north side of Sri Vimana)…..

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“Kalandhaka” (at the northwest corner) – Four armed Siva shown in such a way destroying
Kala, God of death, right leg placed on Kala and with the left pressing him down. The upper
right arm holds parasu is about to strike, while the lower right holds the trident, the upper left
holds a deer (antelope) and the lower left points to Kala. Surya and Chandra are shown at the
top and devotees in one side. Another side shown Markhandeya, devotee of Lord
Siva worshipping Linga and the God of death, Yama dragging him forcibly with a rope.

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“Durga” (next to Kalandhaka) – The Goddess is standing with eight arms holding discus,
arrow, sword and abhaya in right arms and conch, bow, shield in the left arms respectively
and the one hand is on her thigh. A buffalo head is shown below (Shape shifting
demon, Mahisha) and lion stands behind her.

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“Brahma” (at the center above Komugham) – Four armed standing three headed (the fourth
head at the back not being visible) and bearded figure of Brahma standing erect position;
holding sruk and sruva (sacrificial ladles and spoons for pouring oblations of ghee) in the
upper right arm and a rosary of beads in the lower right; a bunch of dharbha grass in the
upper left and a kamandala in lower left; goddess Saraswathi on the right side holds a bunch
of palm leaves in her left arm, in the left goddess Savithri is present. In the side walls Surya,
Chandra, devas and sages are present.

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“Bhairava” (next to Brahma) – standing with eight arms in naked position wearing garland of
skulls, round eyes, protruded teeth, hair show like a flame, holding trident, parasu, sword and
noose in his right arm; fire, kapala, khatwanga and bell in his left arm and a coil of snake
shown around his thighs.

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“Kamantaka” (at the northeast corner, next to Bhairava) – Seated figure of Lord Siva with
four arms; right upper arm holds a rossary while the lower arm pointing down. The left upper
arm holds a chouri and the lower is placed on thigh. In the right side wall a sage is shown in
penance attitude; two devotees are shown below him. On the left side at the top, Manmatha,
the God of love is shown aiming an arrow at Siva. Two devotees are shown in the
middle; Manmatha and Rathi are seen below the devotees.
The interesting thing is that, one can see ancient inscriptions (Grantha script) imprinted on
the basement part below these sculptures. Together, they called ‘ Chola Prasasthi ‘.
Prasasthi is a poetic way of expressing the extol of the king and his various heroic activities.
Prasasthi’s start with auspicious saying such as Swasthi Sri etc., they give historical details,
name of the king, his title, name of his queen, the regnal year and later on about donations,
land details etc.
Time to move on to the Western side of Great Sri Vimana of Brihadisvara….
This basement of Srivimana is 100 feet by 100 feet and the foundation is square in structure
and raises 20 feet above the ground level. The courtyard in 566 ft in the length and 318 ft
width and has a transept at the west in line with the main sanctum.

Western side of the Srivimana of Brihadisvara temple – Compared to the Thanjavur Temple,
which has straight contours, this temple has a curvilinear contour, slightly concave towards
the top. It has divided in to eight zones. The roof cornice consists mainly of three parts: (a)
the frieze of dwarfs at the bottom, (b) the cornice forming the outer edge of the ceiling roof
proper and, (c) the frieze of leogriffs (a mythical creature) on the top. The cornice
is decorated with plain spade-like ornamentation topped by the head of a leogriffs. A row of
miniature shrines runs around the tower like a garland, and is called a hara. It consists of
square pavilions at the corners, rectangular pavilions in the middle, with nest
(nida) ornamentation in between.
Above this rises the main tower, consisting of nine stories including the ground floor. The
upper stories of the main tower carry the same type of ornamentation, consisting of square
and oblong pavilions except a change; the central wagon-shaped pavilion is flanked by square
ones instead of “the nests”, the whole being projected forward than the rest. Now, look at the
different sculptures shown in the lower course niches of West side (Sri Vimana)….

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“Gangadhara” (at the southwest corner) – Four armed standing figure of Siva, embracing and
pacifying Parvathi standing side by his side. The upper right arm of Siva receives the falling
river Ganga from his matted lock; the lower right moves gently around Parvathi. The upper
left arm holds usual attributes of Siva, the deer: the lower left is placed on the thigh. The right
arm of the Devi is placed on jer thigh while left is bent. Three rows of miniature sculptures
are noticed on the side walls. Surya is shown on the top of the wall right of Siva; Devas are in
the middle and two devotees at the bottom. In the left wall Chandra seen at the top, devotees
in the middle and Bhagiratha doing penance in the lower part.

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“Lingodhbhava” (next to Gangadhara) – Four armed standing figure of Lingodhbhava
coming out from the shaft of fire. The upper right arm holds axe and the lower is in the
abhaya pose; the left upper holds deer and lower is placed on the thigh. The leg below the
ankle is hidden, a garland of flowers is shown around the Linga portion at the top. Vishnu as
a boar is shown at the bottom in an outline. Brahma as swanOne last shot of this is not represented
in the top.

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“Mahavishnu” (at the centre of west side) – Standing figure of Vishnu with four arms; the
upper two arms hold discus in the right and conch in the left respectively, the lower right arm
is in the abhaya pose while the left rests on the thigh. Sri devi with two arms present in
the right side while on the left Bhu devi is present also with two arms. Surya and Chandra on
either side of the top side walls, devas in the middle and sages at the bottom are seen.

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“Subrahmanya” (next to Mahavishnu) – The Subrahmanya figure is seen in the west wall
standing with four arms carrying Sakti and Vajra in the upper arms while the lower right is in
abhaya pose and the left in thigh. A Chennavira (the chest belt worn by the heroes) is shown
across his chest and the prominent garland of Kanni flower are shown below the crown.

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“Vishnuanugrahamurthi” (at the northwest corner) – Siva and Parvathi represented in the
seated position on a pedestal. Siva is shown with four arms carrying Parasu (axe), antelope in
the upper right and the left arms respectively, while the left arm is placed on his thigh; the
right holding Chakra.

“Ganesha Shrine” situated at the southwest corner of Brihadisvara – To the south-west of the
main temple, is a small shrine dedicated to Ganesha. It has a sanctum preceded by a
mandapa. The structure could be assigned to the 13th century on stylistic grounds.
It is from the southwest corner that, one gets an infamous view of the Great Srivimana of
Gangaikondam Brihadisvara temple…….

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Sri-vimana at Gangaikonda has nine storeys (talas) including those at the lower levels, in
contrast to the thirteen storeys at Thanjavur. Each storey has a square-circle-oblong artwork.
The upper levels repeat the lower level design in a rhythmic shrinking pattern. The symmetry
principles are dutifully embedded in, but the rate of shrinking is not linear with height. The
lower storeys shrink faster than the upper storeys. This gives the vimana an uncommon
parabolic form. Ganesha shrine is at the left corner and Southern Kailasa at the right corner.
Coming to the Southern side of Sri Vimana of Brihadisvara…..

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Southern side of the Sri Vimana, Brihadisvara temple – Sculptures on the upper courses
represent, besides some aspects of Siva, the guardian deities of the eight quarters. While on
the lower course of the vertical wall, one can see images of Nataraja, Harihara (Half Siva,
Half Vishnu), Ardhanareeshvara and Narthana Ganesha.

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“Narthana Ganesha’ (on the southeast corner of south side) – Lord Ganesha in a dancing pose
with four arms.

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“Nataraja (at the southwest corner of south side) and Harihara (next to Nataraja)” – Four
armed dancing Siva, holding drum in the upper right arm and showing Abhaya pose
bestowing palm on the lower right. The upper left arm carries fire and the lower left is
throwing across the body in gajahasta. The matted hair locks are depicted flying on either
side. On the right side of the matted hair river Ganga is shown. By the left side of the leg is
shown dancing Kali, carrying drum, sword, trident, abhaya, dandhasta in her hands. A three
legged figure, probably representing Bhringi is seen on the right. Below the feet is shown the
women saint Karaikkal ammayar. She is holding a musical instrument called as Kinkini.
Three Ganas are also shown playing symbols and drum. On the west side wall is

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shown Surya on top. Subrahmanya seated on peacock is flying; Ganapati moves on his rat.
Further down is four armed Nandikesvara playing drum. Chandra is shown on the top of the
side wall to east. Two armed Goddess Parvathi is leaning on a bull looking Majestically;
she holds lotus in her right arm. Harihara is the combined form of Lord Siva and Lord
Vishnu. A trident is shown in upper right arm and a discus is shown in upper left arm.
You can see two other interesting images on side walls of the southern entrance leading to the
ardhamandapa of main sanctum (near the 15 ft Dvarapalas on south side)……

“Kankaladhara” (at the west side wall of southern entrance ) – Lord Siva is standing in a
tribhanga pose with six arms, the upper right arm holds a snake, the middle feeds the deer
(antelope) and the lower one playing on udukkai or damaru, which is broken. The upper left
arm holds a trident across the back with a chowri hanging; the middle one is placed on the
head of a dwarf (Bhutha gana) standing by the side and the bottom holding the damaru is
broken. Pair of sandals adorn his feet.

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Kankaladhara – On the wall to the right of Siva, Surya on top; Bhutaganas in the middle and
wives of sages at the bottom are shown. While on the left side wall, Chandra on top, ganas in
the middle and wives of sages at the bottom are present. Makara thorana decorations above
this niche carries a bas relief of Uma Maheshvara in the centre.

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‘Lakshmi Devi” (at the east side wall of southern entrance) – Goddess Lakshmi seated on a
lotus throne with two arms. Devi holds lotus flowers in her arms; above her are shown two
elephants pouring water from pots held in their trunks (Gajalakshmi).
The shrine, south of the main Vimana and called the Southern Kailasa has a sanctum
preceded by a mandapa which in turn is fronted by flights of steps from south and north of
which the basement alone remains.

“Southern Kailasa or Dakshina Kailasa” – The outer walls of the sanctum and the front
mandapa carry niches, housing images. The niches of the sanctum carry Dakshinamurthi in
the south and Lingodhbhava in the west, while the niche on the north is empty. The niches on
the front mandapa carry; in the south, Ganesha, Nataraja, Bhikshatana, and Subrahmanya and
in the north, Gauriprasada, Durga, Ardhanari and Bhairava. The
inner sanctum of the shrine is now in ruins.
A little to the north-east of this temple is a granite basement, probably the ruin of a mandapa.
It is now called the Alankara mandapa. To the west of this is a well, probably coeval with the
temple.

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Completely ruined Alankar Mandapa in front of the Southern Kailasa.
And here come the final moments of a memorable day of my life….

South side of the Great Living Brihadisvara temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram – How
spectacular, it is! Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) administers the temple as a protected
heritage monument. UNESCO declared it a World Heritage Site in 2004, along with
the Brihadeeswara temple at Thanjavur and Airavatesvara temple at Darasuram. These are
referred to collectively as the Great Living Chola Temples.

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Viewing Sunsets are always special. But with a spectacular marvel like Brihadisvara in the
scene, it gets incredibly awesome and i can’t even express that feeling in just words. Its
something you have to experience with your naked eyes, once in your life time.

1000 years old marvel and It has to be something special ! The Great Brihadisvara Temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
The symmetry, geometry and symbolism of these temple architectures simply leaves you
spell bound. Visualizing the stories of more than 10 centuries, oh! that’s something you can’t
just imagine. looking at these marvels, one must appreciate the brilliance of Chola artisans.
How skillful, they were! And can say, in every block of stone, there is a story inside and the
task of the sculptor is to discover it. Another memorable day of discovering creations,
enlightenment by the divine and touching the depths of eternal happiness.

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