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PALGRAVE SERIES IN ASIA AND PACIFIC STUDIES

Travel Writings on Asia

Curiosity, Identities, and Knowledge
Across the East, c. 1200 to the Present

Edited by
Christian Mueller · Matteo Salonia
 Palgrave Series in Asia and Pacific Studies

Honorary Editor
May Tan-Mullins, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo,
China

Series Editor
Filippo Gilardi, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo,
China

Editorial Board
Melissa Shani Brown, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
Adam Knee, LASALLE College of the Arts, Singapore, Singapore
Gianluigi Negro, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
Andrea Střelcová, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science,
Berlin, Germany
The Asia and Pacific regions, with a population of nearly three billion
people, are of critical importance to global observers, academics, and
citizenry due to their rising influence in the global political economy
as well as traditional and nontraditional security issues. Any changes to
the domestic and regional political, social, economic, and environmental
systems will inevitably have great impacts on global security and gover-
nance structures. At the same time, Asia and the Pacific have also emerged
as a globally influential, trend-setting force in a range of cultural arenas.
The remit of this book series is broadly defined, in terms of topics and
academic disciplines. We invite research monographs on a wide range
of topics focused on Asia and the Pacific. In addition, the series is also
interested in manuscripts pertaining to pedagogies and research methods,
for both undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Published by Palgrave
Macmillan, in collaboration with the Institute of Asia and Pacific Studies,
UNNC.
NOW INDEXED ON SCOPUS!

More information about this series at

https://link.springer.com/bookseries/14665
 Christian Mueller · Matteo Salonia
Editors

Travel Writings
on Asia
Curiosity, Identities, and Knowledge Across the
East, c. 1200 to the Present
Editors
Christian Mueller Matteo Salonia
University of Nottingham Ningbo University of Nottingham Ningbo
China China
Ningbo, China Ningbo, China

ISSN 2662-7922 ISSN 2662-7930 (electronic)

Palgrave Series in Asia and Pacific Studies
ISBN 978-981-19-0123-2 ISBN 978-981-19-0124-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0124-9

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2022. This book is an open access
publication.
Open Access This book is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
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We dedicate this volume to our families.
 Acknowledgements

The editors would like to record their gratitude to the individuals and
institutions whose support made it possible to put this volume together
and who contributed to the completion of the final manuscript. We
received financial assistance from the School of International Studies at
the University of Nottingham Ningbo China. We are very grateful for
the numerous intellectual stimulations, comments, and discussions from
and with colleagues at the University of Nottingham Ningbo China, the
University of Nottingham, Ningbo University, the Institute for Histor-
ical Research London, and the Rothermere American Institute at the
University of Oxford, among many others.
One great source of inspiration and reflection over the last years has
been our students at the University of Nottingham Ningbo China. In
many modules on Western and Global History and on the historical
encounters between Europe and Asia, our students never cease to surprise
us through their inquisitive curiosity. This book is also for them and
for future generations of students who embrace the curiosity to explore,
encounter, and dare to know.
We would like to express our gratitude to the institutional support
and assistance received through the School of International Studies at the
University of Nottingham Ningbo China by the Centre for Advanced
International Studies, the Research Cluster for Global, Imperial and
Transnational History, and the Global Institute for Silk Road Studies. We

vii
viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

would also like to thank the reviewers commissioned by Palgrave Springer

for their helpful comments on earlier drafts of this volume.
 Contents

1 Introduction: Curiosity, Identities, and Knowledge

in Travel Writings on Asia 1
Christian Mueller and Matteo Salonia
2 The Production of Knowledge and Preservation
of Self-identity: William of Rubruck and Ibn Battuta
in Contact with Mongols 29
Claire Taylor
3 Travelling Across Late Mediaeval Eurasia: Travel,
Curiosity and Knowledge in the Mongol Period 59
Joseph Benjamin Askew
4 Asian Ceremonies and Christian Chivalry
in Pigafetta’s ‘The First Voyage Around the World’ 83
Matteo Salonia
5 Bowing to a New Emperor: Three Different
Missionary Perspectives on the Qing Dynasty 111
Georg Schindler
6 Travels in a Haunted House. Rational Curiosities
and Overlapping Dichotomies in Duncan McPherson
MD’s Account of the ‘Chinese Expedition’
of 1840–1842 145
Ruairidh J. Brown

ix
x CONTENTS

7 German Dreams of Empire in the Far East: The

German Expeditions to the East and Ferdinand von
Richthofen’s Encounters with Asia, 1850–1880 175
Christian Mueller
8 In Search of Textual Treasures: The Ōtani Expeditions
and Tibet 211
Stephen W. Kohl and Ronald S. Green
9 Reconstructing a Spatial Knowledge in Northeast
Asia: Rehe Through the Eyes of the Japanese Army
in the Early 1930s 239
Nagatomi Hirayama
10 The Challenge of Curiosity During the Cold
War: Representations of Asia Between Politics
and Consumerism and the Reflections of Goffredo
Parise in the 1960s 261
Matteo Salonia and Christian Mueller
11 Mobility and the Middle Kingdom 291
K. Cohen Tan
 Notes on Contributors

Dr. Joseph Benjamin Askew is Lecturer/Assistant Professor in Chinese

History at the University of Nottingham Ningbo China. He teaches
Global History with a special focus on China from ancient to contem-
porary times. Joseph has studied the relations between China, Britain,
America, and India over the issue of Tibet from 1911 to 1959 for his
Ph.D. Since then, he has researched widely on China and its foreign rela-
tions as well as domestic Chinese issues and Central Asian questions since
the Han dynasty and published on different aspects of East and Central
Asian history.
Dr. Ruairidh J. Brown is Assistant Professor and Head of Polit-
ical Science and International Relations at Forward College where he
currently teaches International Political Theory and International Rela-
tions at the institution’s Lisbon Campus. Before joining Forward in 2021,
Ruairidh taught International Studies at the University of Nottingham
Ningbo China. A political philosopher by trade, he received his Ph.D.
in Political Thought from the University of St Andrews in 2017. His
philosophical interests lie in areas of existential hermeneutics, political
obligation, and theories of friendship.
Prof. Ronald S. Green is Professor of Asian Religions at Coastal Carolina
University in Conway, South Carolina, USA. He is the author of Shintō
in the History and Culture of Japan (Association for Asian Studies),
Gyonen’s Transmission of the Buddha Dharma in Three Countries (Brill),

xi
xii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

and Buddhism Goes to the Movies (Routledge). He is co-editor of The

ASIANetwork Exchange, A Journal for Asian Studies in the Liberal Arts.
Dr. Nagatomi Hirayama is Assistant professor of modern Chinese
history at the University of Nottingham Ningbo China. He is an intel-
lectual and political historian studying in particular modern Chinese
mass-party politics and Sino-Japanese relations. His book, entitled The
Making and Unmaking of the Chinese Radical Right, 1918–1951, is
forthcoming from Cambridge University Press. His other publications
previously appeared in Twentieth-Century China, Historical Research,
Frontiers of History in China, and Asian Studies Review.
Dr. Stephen W. Kohl is Associate Professor Emeritus at the University
of Oregon. He has published numerous translations of modern Japanese
literature including works by Yoshimura Akira, Oba Minako, and Tachi-
hara Masaaki. Other research has focused on Japanese castaway narratives
and a study of Matsuo Basho’s Narrow Road to the Deep North. He has
served as Chair of the Department of East Asian Languages and Liter-
atures at the University of Oregon and as Director of Oregon’s Japan
Study Center at Waseda University.
Dr. Christian Mueller is Associate Professor for Modern European and
International History at the University of Nottingham Ningbo China.
He teaches European as well as global, imperial, and transnational history
in the modern era with a focus on European imperialism and subaltern
responses to European Empires in Asia and Africa. Christian works on
the history of internationalism, imperialism, and humanitarianism since
the 1840s and is particularly interested in the rise of modern interna-
tionalism, the early history of the Red Cross from a global perspective,
European empires and humanitarianism in East Asia, and comparative
imperial history under the League of Nations. He has published widely
on topics of political, social, and cultural history in the long nineteenth
century. Christian is an elected Fellow of the Royal Historical Society, Co-
Director of the Centre for Advanced International Studies, and Director
of the Global Institute for Silk Road Studies at UNNC.
Dr. Matteo Salonia is Assistant Professor in European and International
History at the University of Nottingham Ningbo China. He teaches
Western civilization, intellectual history, economic history, and Euro-
pean and global history from late antiquity to the modern era. Matteo
has published research on a wide range of chronologies and themes,
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xiii

from medieval Christendom to the early modern Iberian world, from the
economic and constitutional history of Italian city-states to monasticism
and Church history. He is particularly interested in the history of travel
writing, imperial peripheries, and the Catholic origins of self-criticism and
anti-imperial discourses. He is an elected Fellow of the Royal Historical
Society.
Georg Schindler is a Ph.D. student at the Ningbo campus of the Univer-
sity of Nottingham where he also completed his M.A. in International
Relations and World History. His main interests are the development and
change of stereotypical perceptions of East Asia between the thirteenth
and early eighteenth century in relation to European perceptions. His
Master’s thesis on the religious ‘other’ in East Asia as it is described in
European travel reports from the late medieval and early modern period
was awarded the Tomlinson Tri-campus award for the best thesis on Asia
in 2019.
Dr. K. Cohen Tan is Vice Provost for Teaching and Learning at Univer-
sity of Nottingham Ningbo China (UNNC) and Associate Dean in the
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences. With a background in liter-
ature and philosophy, he completed his Ph.D. in Critical Theory at
the University of Nottingham (UK), theorising a comparative approach
to French Deconstruction and Indian Buddhist philosophy. His other
research interests include the impact of technology on digital nomadism,
media, and cultural studies. Dr. Tan is Senior Fellow of the Higher Educa-
tion Academy (SFHEA) and Fellow of the Royal Society for Arts (FRSA).
He has also been interviewed by global media outlets such as the BBC,
Le Soir, Agence France Presse, and Vice magazine on youth/online culture
in China as well as serving on external consultancies and contributing to
local policy via Blue Book publication.
Dr. Claire Taylor is an Associate Professor in History at the University of
Nottingham’s Nottingham campus. She is best known for her work since
1999 on the social and religious history of medieval southern France in
the high middle ages, on which she has published two monographs—
Heresy in medieval France: dualism in Aquitaine and the Agenais, 1000
-1249 (2005) and Heresy, crusade and inquisition in medieval Quercy
(2011), to numerous articles, and a co-edited sourcebook, The Cathars
and the Albigensian Crusade (2013). Her interest in where ‘difference’
originated in the medieval world more widely led to the creation of
xiv NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

modules the University of Nottingham on encounters with the ‘unknown

East’ by medieval Christians, Jews, and Muslims, with a particular focus
on travellers’ accounts of Mongols and the nature and impact of these
interactions on all parties.
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Curiosity, Identities,

and Knowledge in Travel Writings on Asia

Christian Mueller and Matteo Salonia

1 Travellers and Their Literary Reflections

In his late reflections on travel writings as part of the discovery and
measurement of the earth, the famous nineteenth-century scientific
explorer and global traveller Alexander von Humboldt addressed the
fundamental premise that human movements irrespective of their inten-
tions lead to forms of discovery.

The greatest of all mistakes that can be found in the geography of Ptolemy
[in the opinion on the extension of Asia to the East], has led humankind
to the greatest discoveries in relation to new parts of the earth. […] Every-
thing that triggers movement, whatever the moving force may be: mistakes,

C. Mueller (B) · M. Salonia

School of International Studies, University of Nottingham Ningbo, Ningbo,
China
e-mail: Christian.mueller@nottingham.edu.cn
M. Salonia
e-mail: Matteo.salonia@nottingham.edu.cn

© The Author(s) 2022 1

C. Mueller and M. Salonia (eds.), Travel Writings on Asia,
Palgrave Series in Asia and Pacific Studies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0124-9_1
2 C. MUELLER AND M. SALONIA

unfounded speculations, instinctive divinations, deductions based on facts,

will lead to the broadening of the horizon of ideas and to new ways of
intelligent inquiries.1

Alexander von Humboldt starts his “Critical Inquiries” in 1852 with

the observation that the miscalculation of one authority has triggered
many forms of human action in exploring the planet. It is for him the
act of travelling that generates knowledge and ultimately drives forward
human intellectual progress, even if the travellers themselves might be
misguided. Human triggers and reasons for travelling can be numerous,
but Humboldt also indicated that the mental mapping of the world might
provoke individual difficulties in reconciling preconceived constructions
of space with the encountered human geography. This process of curiosity
and its individual and collective processing in configuring, reflecting, and
readjusting knowledge and identities about Asia is the topic of this book.
The most prominent European example for the individual difficulty
to readjust his curiosity and preconceptions of Asia with his experi-
enced encounter could arguably be Christopher Columbus.2 As early
as 1470, Columbus claimed his plans for the westward voyage and his
curiosity on “well founded scientific reasons” in establishing the distance
between the Canary Islands off the North African coast and Asia (or
rather Chipangu = Japan) at an optimistic 2.760 miles instead of the
actual 12.000 miles.3 When he finally reached the Caribbean in search for
Chipangu and Cathay, nothing matched his spatially preconceived knowl-
edge. Columbus elaborated in a letter to Luis de Santangel, Chancellor
of the Exchequer of the Kingdom of Aragon upon his return in March
1493 the meandering travels through the Caribbean islands. “I followed
its coast to the westward and found it so large that I thought it must be
the mainland, - the province of Cathay; and, as I found neither towns nor
villages on the sea coast […], I kept on the same route, thinking that I
could not fail to light upon some large cities and towns.”4 The absence of

1 Humboldt (1852, 34). The addition in the quote appeared in Humboldt’s footnote.
2 Navarrete (1853, 80–82). See already Humboldt (1852, 35–38).
3 Columbus (1969, 13). See also Parry (1981, 222–223).
4 Columbus (1870, 2).
 1 INTRODUCTION: CURIOSITY, IDENTITIES, AND KNOWLEDGE … 3

towns and in fact everything that China and Japan stood for in the Euro-
pean imaginary finally made Columbus partly readjust his mental image
of the encountered space.
Travelling appears in the vast literature as the paradigmatic form of
human experience. Semantically and conceptually, travel and experience
are linked in Germanic languages while most other European languages
connect travel to a laborious ordeal and connect acquired liberal educa-
tion semantically to a widely travelled person.5 Travels require a huge
effort to mentally and cognitively appropriate a different world while the
travellers remain rooted in the cultural, mental and social framework of
their original background.6 It is this specific combination of experience,
generation of meanings, and the continuous articulation of space that
make travel reports a unique source for the specific ways of thinking and
interpretations of individual travellers. The results of this articulation, the
travel reports, open windows to understand the human social and mental
structures that conceptualise knowledge about space in different times.7
This volume focuses on different actors from across the globe who trav-
elled to, within, and through a geographical space that we may broadly
consider as Asia. In reflecting upon their experiences and encounters in
travelling this space in its diversity, the travel writers try to locate these
within their diverse worldviews and preconceived knowledge. Even when
discussing accounts penned by European travellers, the contributions to
the volume trace some of these individual and collective attempts through
the analytical lens of curiosity as a human capacity and a mode of observa-
tion that led to the creation of a plurality of Asias before and against the
scholarly assumption of a coherent dominating othering of “the Orient.”

5 Bauerkämper et al. (2004, 9–14), Gebhardt (1986, 97–99), Fernández-Armesto

(2006, 1–2).
6 Kennedy (2014, 5–7), Robinson (2014, 21–22), Tuan (1974, 30, 37).
7 See e.g. Harbsmeier (1982), Parry (1981), Duncan and Gregory (1999), Hulme
and Youngs (2002), Osterhammel (2013, 139–142), Das and Youngs (2019), Youngs
and Pettinger (2020). For Asia see in particular Strassberg (1994), Tuan (1974, 30–38),
Hostetler (2001), Hargett (2018).
4 C. MUELLER AND M. SALONIA

2 “In Space We Read time”8 ---Historiographical

Locations of Travel Writings on Asia
In recent years, the historiography on travel writings and on the re-
discovery of space as an analytical category has taken off to the extent
that the fields of history, ethnography, anthropology, and cultural studies
articulated emphatically a “spatial turn.”9 The introduction reviews the
different conceptual and analytical approaches to travel writing and travel
and locates the volume in the literature by offering an analytical concept
that has been largely neglected—the aspect of human curiosity.10 Since
the 1970s, scholarship has asked for a stronger conceptualisation of travel
as a form of cultural practice.11 In the last decades, different authors
have proposed an interdisciplinary programme that would embrace the
practice, the programmatic intentions, the literary representation, and the
repercussions as the four themes for research.12 It is striking that the field
has seen a considerable amount of publications around these themes, yet
mostly with a focus on Europe and the Americas, Eastern Europe, Russia,
and the Middle East. Asia and East Asia in particular as a historical meso-
region has not been the subject of prominent studies of travel writing on a
larger scale or as part of a polycentric or integrative perspective on human
travellers and their reflections on travel experiences and practices.13

8 Friedrich Ratzel (1904, 28). See Schlögel (2016, 3–7), Osterhammel (2013,
86–87).
9 Osterhammel (1998), Schlögel (2005), Döring and Thielmann (2008). See the new
publications in Bavaj et al. (2022), esp. Bavaj (2022, 1–5, 9–17).
10 On curiosity see: Blumberg (1983, 229–444), Parry (1981, 42–47) Gebhardt (1986,
97–113), Stagl (1995, 1–12), Ball (2013, 2, 16, 98), Osterhammel (2013, 27–29; 2018,
x), Pennock (2019, 1–31), Gustafsson Chorell (2021, 242–248).
11 Maczak and Teuteberg (1982), Bauerkämper et al. (2004).
12 See e.g. Bauerkämper et al. (2004, 9–31).
13 Tuan (1974), Hostetler (2001), and Hargett (2018) address the relative lack of
research on travel, knowledge, ethnocentrism, and power in Asia (China in particular)
but also do not attempt to connect this insight with a more inclusive reflection on
travel writings as a source of space and identity construction in encountering non-Asian
actors. Wang (2014) has provided an insightful perspective on China’s anthropological
and cosmological views of East and West, stressing how the concept of Orientalism in the
tradition of Said diminishes China’s rich intellectual history and denies its own agency
and “world-scapes” (Wang 2014, 7–17).
 1 INTRODUCTION: CURIOSITY, IDENTITIES, AND KNOWLEDGE … 5

This is surprising for at least two reasons. Firstly, a strict historicisation

and contextualisation of travels and travel practices allows us to integrate
mechanisms of actions and biographical specificities of travellers in their
specific historical circumstances. Asia as a spatial and perceived cultural
meso-region offers a vast field for individual and collective perceptions
and creations of space. The production of knowledge through the act
of travel as a form of intellectual self-recognition (“Erkenntnis”) and the
relationship of experience and text between semantics and social history
with a clear regional focus on Asia offers the potential to understand the
dialogic nature between the far and the near, the known and the yet
unknown, and the self and the other.14 These intellectual and existen-
tial processes are not confined to a mere “Western” or imperial act of
travelling as generating power through knowing an Orientalised “Asia”
in the later nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.15 Europeans trav-
elled with different mental capacities and ideological agendas, and they
apply different modes of observation that do not necessarily add up in
a coherent ideology to conquer. So did Chinese, Japanese, and other
people.16 Tuan and Wang have shown that Europeans were not the only
expansionist powers who used “othering” and “imperial gazes” to inscribe
ethnocentric ethnographies into Asian spaces.17 At times, inscribing polit-
ical or expansionist programmes through specific forms of travel was one
of the outcomes of a guided curiosity to know and exercise influence.
Many social groups and individuals in Asia also travelled and conceptu-
alised their own mental maps and cultural geographies of Asia, yet with
different coordinates of generating meaning.18 However, the cultural and
social formation of Asia from multiple actors inside and outside of Asia
and its diverse historical, topographic, and cultural representations have
been relatively under-researched.

14 Blumberg (1983, 235–236), Gebhardt (1986, 97–102), Wang (2014, 12), Oster-
hammel (2018, x).
15 Osterhammel (2013, 400–405; 2018, x), Hostetler (2001, xvii), Reinhard (2015,
4–8).
16 See Tuan (1974, 37), Strassberg (1994, passim), Hostetler (2001, xvii, 21), Wang
(2014, 12–16 and passim), Hargett (2018, 13).
17 Tuan (1974, 36–38), Wang (2014, 13–17).
18 Tuan (1974, 30–37), Rubiés (2002, 243, 250–251), Wang (2014, 1–17, 179–211,
and passim).
6 C. MUELLER AND M. SALONIA

Secondly, Asia in its more ideological form of the “Orient” has been at
the forefront of theoretical and conceptual discussions on travel writing
since the 1970s. Empirical studies take still for granted the stimulating yet
overly schematic and simplistic assumptions of Edward Said. In following
Foucault’s concept of knowledge as power, Said assumes rather than
evidences the unity of an imperial ideology that all encounters between
West and East entail, with the sole intention to dominate and rule the
East.19 “From travelers’ tales […] colonies were created and ethnographic
perspectives secured.”20 Said suggests that travel writings in particular
create colonial power and discourse which are possessed entirely by the
coloniser. Ambiguities, nuances, and in fact other forms of inquiry or
knowledge that are not primarily understood in the form of discur-
sive power are completely absent from the ideological conceptualisation
of “Orientalism.” Other postcolonial theorists have held Said respon-
sible for a historical and theoretical oversimplification in his quest for
an assumed single “intentionality and unidirectionality” of all colonial
power.21 Interestingly, although equally adhering to a relatively unhistor-
ical and ideological assumption of unified colonial power, Homi Bhabha
has argued strongly for a much more diverse and open approach in
studying especially prejudice as an ambivalent form of “appropriating”
the East in colonial discourse.22 However, many historical and literary
studies on travel writings seem to focus on the “imperial gaze” under
Said’s paradigm of unified ideological accusation rather than on Bhabha’s
ambiguity as a heuristic tool when analysing Western and Asian travel
writers. The volume seeks to fill the gap left by the fact that singularised
narratives of imperialistic conquest have dominated the scholarly land-
scape where the recognition of a multiplicity of voices and nuances within
those voices who entered the region of Asia cannot be subsumed under an
ideological effort of postcolonial homogenization. On the contrary, the

19 Said (1978, passim), Said (1994, xviii-xix, 58), Bhabha (1983, 24–27).
20 Said (1978, 58–9, 117 (Quote)), Said (1994, 58–59). Few sources in the nineteenth
century are so explicit and audacious as Sven Hedin in his Autobiography published in
1925: “When I reached home, in the spring of 1891, I felt like the conqueror of an
immense territory; for I had traversed Caucasia, Mesopotamia, Persia, Russian Turkestan,
and Bokhara, and had penetrated into Chinese Turkestan. I therefore felt confident that
I could strike a fresh blow, and conquer all Asia, from west to east.” Hedin (2003, 80).
21 Bhabha (1983, 25).
22 Bhabha (1983, 24–26).
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Kaswini 43.
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Kepler 58.
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Kircher, Ath. 55.
Klein, J. Ph. 73, 74.
Koelliker, A. von 121, 122, 134, 139.
Konrad von Megenberg 46, 47.
Kowalewski, A. von 141, 147.
Ktesias 17.

Lacaze-Duthiers, A. de 97, 98.

Lacepède 85, 88, 94.
Lactantius 41.
Lamarck, J. M. de 85–87, 89, 101, 135.
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Leay, Mc. 116.
Leeuwenhoeck 63, 64, 65, 72.
Lemnius, Strabo 37.
Leonardo da Vinci 47.
Lesson 148.
Lesueur 148.
Leuckart, R. 113.
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Lichtenstein 149.
Linck, J. H. 71.
Linné, C. von 25, 29, 73–77, 83, 84, 89, 91, 92, 94, 104,
115, 123, 127, 143.
Lister, M. 70, 82
Longolinus 48.
Lorenzini 61.
Lovén, So. 150.
Lucretius, T. C. 34, 35.
Lyell 130, 131, 134.

Magdeleine de St. Agy 92.

Magendie 79.
Maillet, de 73.
Malebranche 65, 71.
Malpighi, M. 63, 64, 71, 72.
Malthus 130.
Marcellus 38.
Marcgrav 55.
Marco Polo 46.
Marsigli 70, 71.
Martius, von 149.
Massaria 48.
Maupertuis 72.
Mayer, F. J. R. 120.
Mayow 61.
Meckel, F. 89, 109, 126.
Merian, S. 70.
Mertrud 91.
Messerschmidt 77.
Meyer, J. B. 152.
Michael Scotus 44.
Michovius 54.
Mill, St. 131.
Milne-Edwards, Alphonse 97.
Milne-Edwards, Henri 97, 98, 99, 100.
Mivart, G. J. 127, 128.
Möbius, K. 143.
Mondino 40, 46.
Monro, Alexander I. 79.
Monro, Alexander II. 79.
Monro, Alexander III. 125.
Moquin-Taudon 100.
Mose 13.
Müller, Fr. 138, 141.
Müller, Johannes 79, 111, 114, 115, 117, 146, 149, 153.
Müller, P. 150.
Murray 150.
Murs, des 97.

Nägeli, C. von 139.

Napoleon I. 82, 88, 93.
Natterer 149.
Needham, G. 65, 72.
Nemesius von Emesa 41.
Oken, L. 72, 105–107, 120, 126.
Olaf der Große 54.
Oppel 119.
Oppian 38, 48, 50.
Ovid 38.
Oviedo 35.
Owen, R. 80, 118, 124, 125, 126, 127.

Pallas 77, 78.

Panceri 101.
Pander, Chr. H. 110, 111.
Pecquet 59.
Péron 148.
Perrault, Cl. 60, 61.
Peters, Ed. 149.
Petiver 70.
Philippi, R. A. 114.
Philolaos 16.
Physiologus 42.
Piso 55.
Plate, L. 138.
Plato 19, 20, 23, 24, 25, 132.
Plinius d. Ä. 15, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 47, 48, 49, 50.
Poli 101.
Pöppig 149.
Preyer, W. 142.
Pythagoras 16.
Quatrefages, A. de 97, 98.
Quoy 148.

Raffles 149.
Rathke, M. 110, 117.
Ray, John 67–70, 73, 75, 76, 82.
Réaumur 70, 71.
Redi 61, 65.
Reil 108.
Reinwardt 149.
Remak, R. 120, 121.
Rengger 149.
Robinet 73.
Rondelet 50.
Roux, W. 138.
Rudolphi, K. A. 109, 110, 111, 113, 116, 147.
Ruino 54.
Rüppell 149.
Rütimeyer, L. 116, 117.
Ruysch 64.

Saliceto 46.
Salviani 50, 51.
Sarasin, M. 70.
Sardanapal 11.
Sars, M. 149, 150.
Savigny 97, 99.
Scaliger 48.
Schelling, W. 105.
Schleiden 120, 121.
Schmidt, O. 118, 152.
Schneider, J. G. 152.
Schomburgk 149.
Schultze, Max 120.
Schulze, F. E. 121.
Schwann 120, 121.
Scilla 63.
Seba 70.
Semper, K. 118.
Serres, A. 100.
Severino, Marc. Aurel. 17, 57, 58.
Shaw 70.
Siebold, C. Th. von 113, 122, 146.
Siebold, Phil. von 149.
Sloane 70.
Smith, A. 149.
Soleiman, Abu 43.
Souleyet 148.
Spallanzani 72.
Spencer, H. 131.
Spighelius 57.
Spix 149, 151.
Stahl 103.
Stannius, H. 113, 123.
Steenstrup 146.
Steller 77.
Stelluti 60.
Steno, N. 60, 61, 63.
Stilling 121.
Straßer 121.
Swammerdam, J. 63, 64, 72.

Telesius 57.
Temminck 149.
Tertullian 41.
Theophrast 20, 32.
Thomas von Aquino 42.
Thomas von Cantimpré 45.
Thompson, Wyv. 114, 150.
Tiedemann 108.
Tournefort 70.
Trembley 71.
Treviranus (Gebrüder) 108.
Tyson 62.

Uterverius 53.

Valenciennes 97, 147.

Valentin 121.
Valentini, B. 63, 79.
Vallisneri 70, 72.
Varignano 46.
Varolius 56.
Vesal 40, 49, 57.
Vicq d’Azyr 80.
Vincent de Beauvais 45.
Vogt, K. 113, 114, 116, 138, 149.
Voigt 116.
Vries, H. de 139.

Wagner, M. 138, 139.

Waldeyer 121.
Wallace, A. R. 128, 130, 131.
Weismann, A. 138.
Wied-Neuwied, Prinz von 149.
Wigand, A. 139.
Wilbrand 116.
Wilhelm von Moerbecke 45.
Wilkes 149.
Willis, Th. 62.
Willughby 67, 82.
Wilson, A. 142.
Wimmer 152.
Winslöw 90.
Wolff, C. Fr. 71, 84, 102, 103.
Woodward, J. 63.
Wotton 51.
Wu-Wang 10.
Yung, E. 114.

Zacharias 151.
Zimmermann, E. A. W. 103.
Zittel, K. A. von 119.
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