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About the Author
Vinay Kumar (VKR) graduated from IIT Delhi
in Mechanical Engineering.
Presently, he is Director of VKR Classes,
Kota, Rajasthan.
Third Edition
Vinay Kumar
B.Tech., IIT Delhi
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Differential Calculus for JEE Main & Advanced, 3/e
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PREFACE
T his book is meant for students who aspire to join the Indian Institute of Technologies (IITs) and various other engi-
neering institutes through the JEE Main and Advanced examinations. The content has been devised to cover the syllabi
of JEE and other engineering entrance examinations on the topic Differential Calculus. The book will serve as a text book
as well as practice problem book for these competitive examinations.
As a tutor with more than eighteen years of teaching this topic in the coaching institutes of Kota, I have realised
the need for a comprehensive textbook in this subject.
I am grateful to McGraw-Hill Education for providing me an opportunity to translate my years of teaching experience
into a comprehensive textbook on this subject.
This book will help to develop a deep understanding of Differential Calculus through graphs and problem solving.
The detailed table of contents will enable teachers and students to easily access their topics of interest.
Each chapter is divided into several segments. Each segment contains theory with illustrative examples. It is followed
by Concept Problems and Practice Problems, which will help students assess the basic concepts. At the end of the theory
portion, a collection of Target Problems have been given to develop mastery over the chapter.
The problems for JEE Advanced have been clearly indicated in each chapter.
The collection of objective type questions will help in a thorough revision of the chapter. The Review Exercises
contain problems of a moderate level while the Target Exercises will assess the students’ ability to solve tougher problems.
For teachers, this book could be quite helpful as it provides numerous problems graded by difficulty level which can be
given to students as assignments.
I am thankful to all teachers who have motivated me and have given their valuable recommendations. I thank my
family for their whole-hearted support in writing this book. I specially thank Mr. Devendra Kumar and Mr. S. Suman for
their co-operation in bringing this book.
Suggestions for improvement are always welcomed and shall be gratefully acknowledged.
Vinay Kumar
CONTENT
About the Author ii
Preface v
CHAPTER 1 LIMITS 1.1 – 1.178

1.1 Introduction 1.1
1.2 Concept of Infinity 1.7
1.3 Theorems on Limits 1.11
1.4 One-sided limits 1.14
1.5 Determinate and Indeterminate Forms 1.20
1.6 Factorisation and Cancellation of Common Factors 1.23
1.7 Rationalization 1.27
1.8 Limit Using Expansion Series of Functions 1.29
1.9 Standard Limits 1.33
1.10 Algebra of Limits 1.45
1.11 Limits when x → ∞ 1.48
1.12 Asymptotes 1.56
1.13 Limit of a Sequence 1.61
1.14 Limits of Forms (0 x ∞) and (∞ – ∞) 1.65
1.15 Limits of Forms 0 and ∞
0 0
1.71
∞
1.16 Limits of Form 1 1.73
1.17 Sandwich Theorem / Squeeze Play Theorem 1.77
1.18 L’ Hospital’s Rule 1.82
1.19 Geometrical Limits 1.96
1.20 Miscellaneous Limits 1.99
Target Problems for JEE Advanced 1.104

Things to Remember 1.114

Objective Exercises 1.116

Review Exercises for JEE Advanced 1.126

Target Exercises for JEE Advanced 1.127

Previous Year’s Questions (JEE Advanced) 1.129

Previous Year’s Questions (JEE Main Papers) 1.131

Answers 1.133

Hints & Solutions 1.140

viii | Content
CHAPTER 2 CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS 2.1 – 2.98

2.1 Definition of Continuity 2.1
2.2 Continuity in an Interval 2.10
2.3 Classification of Discontinuity 2.20
2.4 Algebra of Continuous Functions 2.27
2.5 Properties of Functions Continuous on a Closed Interval 2.33
2.6 Intermediate Value Theorem (I.V.T.) 2.37







Answers 2.70


CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIABILITY 3.1 – 3.116
3.2 Differentiability 3.6
3.3 Reasons of Non-differentiability 3.11
3.4 Relation between Continuity and Differentiability 3.13
3.5 Derivability at Endpoints 3.19
3.6 Differentiability over an interval 3.20
3.7 Alternative limit form of the Derivative 3.26
3.8 Derivatives of Higher Order 3.33
3.9 Algebra of Differentiable Functions 3.36
3.10 Functional Equations 3.40







Answers 3.74


CHAPTER 4 METHODS OF DIFFERENTIATION 4.1 – 4.120
4.2 Derivative using First Principles (ab initio) Method 4.1
Content | ix
4.3 Derivative of Standard Functions 4.3

4.4 Rules of Differentiation 4.4
4.5 The Chain Rule 4.9
4.6 Logarithmic Differentiation 4.15
4.7 Derivative of Inverse Functions 4.19
4.8 Parametric Differentiation 4.24
4.9 Differentiation of Implicit Functions 4.25
4.10 Differentiation by Trigonometric Substitution 4.33
4.11 Derivatives of Higher Order 4.37
4.12 Successive Differentiation 4.46
4.13 Derivative of a Determinant 4.48
4.14 Properties of Derivative 4.51
4.15 L’Hospital’s Rule 4.56







Answers 4.80


CHAPTER 5 TANGENT AND NORMAL 5.1 – 5.94
5.2 Rate Measurement 5.1
5.3 Approximation 5.7
5.4 Error 5.9
5.5 Tangent and Normal 5.11
5.6 Tangent to Parametric curves 5.20
5.7 Angle of Intersection 5.26
5.8 Common Tangents 5.30
5.9 Length of Tangent 5.35






Answers 5.55


x | Content
CHAPTER 6 MONOTONICITY 6.1 – 6.100

6.1 Definitions 6.1
6.2 Monotonicity over an Interval 6.4
6.3 Critical Point 6.15
6.4 Intervals of Monotonicity 6.17
6.5 Monotonicity in Parametric Functions 6.24
6.6 Algebra of Monotonous Functions 6.24
6.7 Proving Inequalities 6.27
6.8 Concavity and Point of Inflection 6.35







Answers 6.64


CHAPTER 7 MAXIMA AND MINIMA 7.1 – 7.200
7.2 Concept of Local Maxima and Local Minima 7.1
7.3 Fermat Theorem 7.4
7.4 The First Derivative Test 7.7
7.5 The First Derivative Procedure for Sketching the Graph of a Continuous Function 7.15
7.6 Second Derivative Test 7.18
7.7 Higher Order Derivative Test 7.23
7.8 Extrema of Parametric Functions 7.25
7.9 Operations on Functions having points of Extrema 7.26
7.10 Global Maximum and Minimum 7.28
7.11 Boundedness 7.40
7.12 Algebra of Global Extrema 7.42
7.13 Miscellaneous Methods 7.44
7.14 Optimisation Problems 7.49
7.15 Asymptotes 7.70
7.16 Points of Inflection 7.75
7.17 Curve Sketching 7.77
7.18 Isolation of Roots 7.85
7.19 Rolle’s Theorem 7.89
Content | xi
7.20 Deductions of Rolle’s Theorem 7.95

7.21 Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem 7.98
7.22 Corollaries of LMVT 7.104
7.23 Related Inequalities 7.106
7.24 Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem 7.112







Answers 7.144


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1
CHAPTER
Limits
We denote neighbourhoods by N(a), N1(a), N2(a), etc.

1.1 Introduction
Since a neighbourhood N(a) is an open interval symmetric
Let us introduce the notion of limit of a function which plays about a, it consists of all real x satisfying a – δ < x < a + δ for
an important role in mathematical analysis and the study some δ > 0. The positive number δ is called the radius of the
of calculus. The concept of limit of a function is one of the neighbourhood.
fundamental ideas that distinguishes calculus from algebra
We designate N(a) by N(a, δ) if we wish to specify its radius.
and trigonometry. The inequalities a – δ < x < a + δ are equivalent to –δ < x – a
We use limits to describe the way a function f varies. Some < δ, and to |x – a| < δ. Thus, N(a, δ) consists of all points x
functions vary continuously i.e. small changes in x produce whose distance from a is less than δ.
only small changes in f(x). Other functions can have values
that jump or vary erratically. Meaning of x → a
Sometimes we face with problems whose solutions involve the The symbol x → a is called as 'x tends to a' or 'x approaches a'.
use of limits. According to a formula of geometry, the area of It implies that x takes values closer and closer to 'a' but not 'a'.
a circle of radius r is πr2. How is such a formula derived? The
usual way is to inscribe regular polygons in the circle, find
the areas of these polygons, and then determine the “limiting
value” of these areas as the number of sides of the polygons Sometimes we need to consider values of x approaching 'a'
increase without bound. Thus, even such seemingly simple from only one side of 'a'.
formula as that for the area of a circle depends on the concept If x approaches 'a' from the left of 'a' then we use the symbol:
of limit for its derivation. x → a– or x → a – 0.
We also use limits to define tangent to graphs of functions. Similarly, if x approaches 'a' from the right of 'a' then we use
This geometrical application leads to the important concept of the symbol : x → a+ or x → a + 0.
derivative of a function, which quantifies the way a function's
value changes.
The need for evaluating the limit of a function arises in science
and engineering when we come across situations where a Limit of a Function
function (denoting a physical quantity) is not defined at x = a, Let us consider a function y = f(x) of a continuous variable x.
however the value of the function as x takes values very very Suppose that the independent variable x approaches a number
close to ‘a’ symbolize a useful physical quantity, for example 'a'. This means that x is made to assume values which become
instantaneous velocity, acceleration etc. arbitrarily close to 'a' but are not equal to 'a'. To describe such a
situation we say that x tends to 'a' or x approaches 'a' and write
Neighbourhood of a Point x → a. If there is a number  such that as x approaches 'a',
Any open interval containing a point a as its midpoint is called either from the right or from the left, f(x) approaches , then
a neighbourhood of a.  is called the limit of f(x) as x approaches 'a'.
1.2 Differential Calculus for JEE Main and Advanced
Informal Definition of Limit differing by little from zero. It is not a statement about the value
Let f(x) be defined on an open interval about 'a', except possibly of f(x) when x = 0. When we make the statements we assert
at 'a' itself. If f(x) gets arbitrarily close to  for all x sufficiently that, when x is nearly equal to zero, f(x) is nearly equal to . We
close to 'a', we say that f approaches the limit  as x approaches assert nothing about what happens when x actually equal to 0.
'a', and we write
lim f ( x ) . Caution
x a
(the abbreviation "lim" means "limit")

A wrong statement about limits :
It is evident that if a function has a limit for x → a, this limit is The number  is the limit of f(x) as x approaches a if f(x) gets
unique, since the values of the function corresponding to the closer to  as x approaches a.
values of x approaching 'a' must become arbitrarily close to Consider f(x) = x + [x] +1 at x = 0.
a constant and hence cannot be simultaneously close to more As x approaches 0, the function f(x) gets closer to
than one constant number. 1/2, from both sides but 1/2 is not the limit because f(x) does
An alternative notation for lim f ( x )  is f(x) →  as x → a not get arbitrarily close to 1/2. For example the function cannot
x a
attain 0.4995 or 0.5002 by using x sufficiently close to 0.
which is usually read as "f(x) approaches  as x approaches a".
Suppose we are asked to sketch the graph of the function f
Study Tip x3 − 1
given by f(x) = , x ≠ 1.
x −1
1. A number  is said to be a limiting value only if it is finite
and real, otherwise we say that the limit does not exist or For all values other than x = 1, we can use standard curve-
dne (for brevity). sketching techniques. However, at x = 1, it is not clear what
to do. To get an idea of the behaviour of the graph of f near
2. Note that 'a' need not be in the domain of f.
x = 1, we can use two sets of x-values – one set that approaches
Even if 'a' happens to be in the domain of f, the 1 from the left and one set that approaches 1 from the right, as
value f(a) plays no role in determining whether shown in table.
lim f ( x ) . It is only the behaviour of f(x) for x
x a
near a that concerns us.
3. We also note that the three statements,
lim f(x) = , lim (f(x) – ) = 0, lim | f(x) –  | = 0, are all
x →a x →a x →a
equivalent.
x
Let us consider the function f(x) = .
x
This function is equal to 1 for all values of x except x = 0.
It is not equal to 1 when x = 0; it is in fact not defined at x = 0. When we plot these points, it appears that the graph of f is a
parabola that has a hole at point (1, 3), as shown in the figure.
For when we say that f(x) is defined for x = 0 we mean that we
Although x cannot equal 1, we can move sufficiently close to
can calculate its value for x = 0 by putting x = 0 in the formula
1, and as a result f(x) moves arbitrarily close to 3.
which defines f(x). In this case we cannot. When we put x = 0
in f(x) we get 0/0, which is meaningless. Using limit notation, we write lim f(x) = 3.
x→1
x
Thus f(x) = is a function which differs from y = 1 solely in It is read as "the limit of f(x) as x approaches 1 is 3."
x
that it is not defined for x = 0.
x
We have lim
x→0
= 1, since x/x is equal to 1 so long as x differs
x
from zero, however small the difference may be.
On the other hand there is of course nothing to prevent the
limit of f(x) as x tends to zero from being equal to f(0), the
value of f(x) for x = 0.
Thus if f(x) = x, then f(0) = 0 and lim
x →0
f ( x ) = 0.
Note: That the statement lim f ( x ) =  is a statement

x →0
about the values of f(x) when x has any value distinct from but
Limits 1.3
x 2 − 3x + 2 x3 − 1 ( x 2 + x + 1)( x − 1) x2 + x + 1
Example 1: Evaluate lim = = .
x→2 x−2 x2 −1 ( x + 1)( x − 1) x +1
Solution: Consider the function f defined by So the behaviour of (x3–1)/(x2–1) for x near 1, but not equal to
x 2 3x 2 x2 + x + 1
f(x) = ,x≠2 1, is the same as the behaviour of .
x +1
x2
The domain of f is the set of all real numbers except 2, which x3 − 1 x2 + x + 1 .
lim = lim
has been excluded because substitution of x = 2 in the expression x →1 x 2 −1 x →1 x +1
0
for f(x) yields the undefined term .
0 Now, as x approaches 1, x2 + x + 1 approaches 3 and x + 1
On the other hand, x 2 – 3x + 2 = (x – 1) (x – 2) and
( x − 1)( x − 2) x2 + x + 1 3
f(x) = = x – 1, provided x ≠ 2
approaches 2. Thus, lim = , from which it
x−2
x →1 x +1 2
....(1) x3 − 1 3
The graph of the function y = x – 1 is a straight line L; so the follows that lim = .
x →1 x 2 − 1 2
graph of f(x) is the line L with a hole at the point (2, 1).
We can also express this as follows:
x3 − 1 3
As x → 1, 2 → .
x −1 2
Example 3: Find the limit of the function
x + 1 , x < 0
f (x) =  as x→ 0.
2 − x , x ≥ 0
Solution: Using the graph of y = f(x), we see that the
function approaches 1 as x approaches 0 from the left of 0. Also
the function approaches 2 as x approaches 0 from the right of 0.
Although the function f is not defined at x = 2, we know its

behaviour from values of x near 2. The graph makes it clear
that if x is close to 2, then f(x) is close to 1. In fact, the values of
f(x) can be brought arbitrarily close to 1 by taking x sufficiently
close to 2.
x 2 − 3x + 2
We express this fact by writing lim = 1, which
x→2 x−2
Since the function does not approach the same level from both
x 2 3x 2
means that the limit of is 1 as x approaches 2. sides of x = 0, lim f ( x ) does not exist.
x2 x →0
x3 −1
Example 2: Let f(x) = 2
x −1
. How does f(x) behave
Formal Definition of Limit
when x is near 1 but is not 1 itself ? The conceptual problems in trying to give an exact meaning
Solution: There are two influences acting on the fraction to the expression lim f(x) = b revolve around phrases such as
x →a
(x3 – 1)/(x2 – 1) when x is near 1. On the one hand, the numerator “arbitrarily close,” “sufficiently near,” and “arbitrarily small.”
x3 –1 approaches 0; thus there is an influence pushing the After all, there is a no such thing in any absolute sense as a small
fraction towards 0. On the other hand the denominator x2 –1 positive real number. The number 0.000001 is small in most
also approaches 0; division by a small number tends to make a contexts, but in comparison with 0.000000000001 it is huge.
fraction large. How do these two opposing influences balance However, we can assert that one number is smaller than another.
out?
Moreover, the actual closeness of one number x to another number
We rewrite the quotient (x3 – 1)/(x2 – 1) as follows: When x ≠ 1, a is just the distance between them : it is |x – a|. One way to say that
we have a function f takes on values arbitrarily close to a number  is to
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state that, for any small positive real number ε, there are numbers In Figure 2 the vertical band shown is not narrow enough
x such that | f(x) –  | < ε. We are stating that no matter what to meet the challenge of the horizontal band shown. But the
positive number ε is selected, 10–7, or 10–17, or 10–127, there are vertical band shown in Figure 3 is sufficiently narrow.
numbers x so that the distance between f(x) and  is smaller
than ε.
ε − δ definition
Let f be a function defined on an open interval containing a
except possibly at a and let  be a real number. The statement
lim f(x) =  means that for each ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such
x →a
that if 0 < |x – a| < δ, then |f(x) – | < ε.
The inequality 0 < |x – a | that appears in the definition is just
a fancy way of saying “x is not a.” The inequality |x – a | < δ
asserts that x is within a distance δ of a. The two inequalities Figure 1
may be combined as the single statement 0 < |x – a| < δ,
which describes the open interval (a–δ, a + δ) from which a
is deleted.
Here we wish to say that f(x) is arbitrarily close to  whenever x
is sufficiently close, but not equal to a. What does “sufficiently
close” mean? “ The answer is this : If an arbitrary ε > 0 is
chosen with which to measure the distance between f(x) and ,
then it must be the case that there is a number δ > 0 such that
whenever x is in the domain of f and within a distance δ of
a, but not equal to a then the distance between f(x) and  is
less than ε. Figure 2
This is illustrated on the graph of the function y = f(x) as shown
in the figure. Since from the inequality |x – a| < δ there follows
the inequality |f(x) – l| < ε, this means that for all points x that
are not more distant from the point a than δ, the points M of
the graph of the function y = f(x) lie within a band of width 2ε
bounded by the lines y = –ε and y =  + ε.
Figure 3
Example 4: Prove that lim (3x + 1) = 7.

x→2
Solution: Let an arbitrary ε > 0 be given. For the
inequality |(3x + 1) – 7| < ε to be fulfilled it is necessary to
have the following inequalities fulfilled :
First ε > 0 is chosen arbitrarily. There must then exist a number ε ε ε
|3x – 6| < ε, |x – 2| < , – <x–2<
δ > 0 such that whenever x lies in the interval (a – δ, a + δ), 3 3 3
and x ≠ a then the point (x, f(x)) lies in the shaded rectangle. Thus, given any ε, for all values of x satisfying the
In other words, ε is the challenge. The response is δ. Usually, ε
inequality |x – 2| < = δ, the value of the function 3x + 1 will
the smaller ε is, the smaller δ will have to be. The geometric 3
significance of the definition is shown in the Figure 1. The differ from 7 by less than ε. And this means that 7 is the limit
narrow horizontal band of width 2ε is again the challenge. of the function as x → 2.
The response is a sufficiently narrow vertical band, of width
Example 5: Examine the limit of the function
2δ, such that the part of the graph within that vertical band
(except perhaps at x = a) also lies in the challenging horizontal x2 −1
y= as x tends to 1.
band of width 2ε. x −1
Limits 1.5
Solution: The function is defined for every value of x Example 6: Consider the function
x2 −1
other than 1 and y = = x + 1, when x≠1.  x 2 + 1,
 x≥0
x −1 g(x) =  lim g(x) ≠ 1.
. Prove that x→0
Firstly consider the behaviour of the values of y for values of 
 − ( x 2
+ 1), x < 0
x greater than 1. Clearly, y is greater than 2 when x is greater
Solution To do this, we must establish the negation of
than 1.
the limit condition. There is an ε > 0 such that, for any δ > 0,
If, x, while remaining greater than 1 takes up values whose there is a number x in the domain of a g such that 0 < |x| < δ
difference from 1 constantly diminishes, then y, while and |g(x) – 1| ≥ ε. There are many possible choices for ε. To be
remaining greater than 2, takes up values whose difference 1
from 2 constantly diminishes also. specific, take ε = . We must now show that for every positive
2
In fact, difference between y and 2 can be made as small as we number δ, there is a nonzero number x in the open interval
like by taking x sufficiently near 1. (–δ, δ), such that the distance between g(x) and 1 is greater
1 δ
For instance, consider the number .001. Then than or equal to . See figure. Take x = – . This number is
2 2
|y – 2| = y – 2 = x + 1 – 2 < .001 ⇔ x < 1.001.
nonzero, lies in (–δ, δ), and furthermore
Thus, for every value of x which is greater than 1 and less than
1.001, the absolute value of the difference between y and 2 is
 δ δ2
g(x) = g  −  = – – 1 < – 1.
less than the number .001 which we had arbitrarily selected.  2 4
Instead of the particular number .001, we now consider any 1
Hence |g(x) – 1| > 2 ≥ .
small positive number ε. Then 2
y – 2 = x – 1 < ε ⇔ x < 1 + ε.
Thus, there exists an interval (1, 1 + ε), such that the value of
y, for any value of x in this interval, differs from 2 numerically,
by a number which is smaller than the positive number ε,
selected arbitrarily.
Thus, the limit of y as x approaches 1 from the right is 2 and
we have lim y = 2.
x→1+
We now consider the behaviour of the values of y for values of
x less than 1. When x is less than 1, y is less than 2.
If, x, while remaining less than 1, takes up values whose
difference from 1 constantly diminishes, then y, while
remaining less than 2, takes up values whose difference from
2 constantly diminishes also. Notice in the definition that the hypothesis 0 < | x – a | simply
Let now, ε be any arbitrarily assigned positive number, however means x ≠ a. This condition releases the point of approach
small. We then have, a from the responsibility of having any image at all; and
even if there is an image f(a) the condition | f(a) –  | < ∈
|y – 2| = 2 – y = 2 – (x + 1) = 1 – x < ε is allowed to fail. Briefly, the idea of limit discounts what
so that for every value of x less than 1 but > 1 – ε, the happens precisely at a, but is vitally concerned with images of
absolute value of the difference between y and 2 is less than the "neighbours" of a.
the number ε. There is no practical need of applying ∈−δ definition
Thus, the limit of y, as x approaches 1, from the left is 2 and everywhere since it involves lengthy and complicated
lim y = 2.
we write x→ calculations. We shall later on derive some simple rules for
1 −
finding limits.
Combining the conclusions arrived at in the last two cases, we
see that corresponding to any arbitrarily assigned positive Example 7: Let the function f be defined as follows:
number ε, there exists an interval (1 – ε, 1 + ε) around 1, such  1
f   = 1 for every nonzero integer n,
that for every value of x in this interval, other than 1 where  n
the function is not defined, y differs from 2 numerically by a f(x) = x for every other real number x. Prove that
number which is less than ε, i.e., we have | y – 2 | < ε for lim f(x) does not exist.
any x, other than 1, such that |x – 1| < ε. x→0
Solution: The graph of f is the line y = x, with the There can, therefore, exist no number which differs from sin
exception that when x = 1/n, n a nonzero integer, y = 1. It is 1/x by a number less than an arbitrarily assigned positive
shown in the figure. number for values of x near 0. Hence lim (sin 1/x) does
x→0
Since f(0) = 0 and f(x) is close to 0 when x is close to 0, x ≠ not exist.
 2 1
1/n, we might suspect that lim f(x) = 0.  x sin , x ≠ 0
x→0 Example 9: f(x) =  x as x→ 0.

1 , x=0
Solution: The function oscillates between the graphs
of y = –x2 and y = x2. As x approaches closer and closer to
zero from either side, the two functions approach 0, and hence
f(x) → 0 as x→ 0.
Example 10: Find the limit of the function
x , x ∈Q
f (x) =  as x→ 2 and x→ 4.
 4 − x , x ∉Q
Solution: We draw the rough sketch of y = f(x).
However, this is not correct. For if we take the neighbourhood

N = (–1/2, 1/2) of 0, there is no deleted neighbourhood D = (-δ, 0)
∪ (0, δ) of 0 such that f(x) is in N for every x in D.
We can always find a positive integer n such that 1/n < δ and for
this number f(1/n) is not in N since f(1/n) = 1. In a similar way,
we can show that lim f(x) is not equal to any other number.
x→0 If x approaches 2 by taking rational values, then the function
Therefore, this limit does not exist. f(x) approaches 2 using y = x. And if x approaches 2 by taking
Example 8: Prove that lim (sin 1/x) does not exist. irrational values, then the function f(x) also approaches 2 using
x→0
y = 4 – x. Hence, the limit of f(x) as x→ 2 is 2.
Solution: The graph of y = sin 1/x is drawn below.
lim f ( x ) = 2
x →2
However, if x approaches 4 by taking rational values, then the

function f(x) approaches 4 using y = x. And if x approaches 4
by taking irrational values, then the function f(x) approaches 0
using y = 4 – x. Since the function does not approach the same
level, the limit lim f ( x ) does not exist.
x →4
There are many such interesting functions that have unusual
The function oscillates between –1 and 1 more and more limit behaviour. An often cited one is the Dirichlet function
rapidly as x approaches closer and closer to zero from either side.
0, if x is rational
If we take any interval containing 0, however small it may be, f(x) = 
then for an infinite number of points of this interval the function 1, if x is irrational.
assumes the values 1 and –1. This function has no limit at any real number.
Practice Problems A

1. For the function graphed here, find the following limits:
Limits 1.7
(i) lim f(x) (ii) lim f(x) x if x is rational

x→2 x→1 5. Let f(x) = 
2. For the function graphed here, find the following limits: − x if x is not rational
(a) Does limx→1 f(x) exist ?
(b) Does limx→ f(x) exist ?
(c) Does limx→0 f(x) exist ?
(d) For which numbers a does limx→af(x) exist?
 x 2 if x is an irrational number
6. Let f(x) =  .
1 if x is an rational number
(i) lim f(x) (ii) lim f(x) (iii) lim f(x)
x→−2 x→0 x→−1
Prove that f(x) has a limit at the points x = 1 and
3. If lim f(x) = 5 must f be defined at x = 1 ? x = –1 and does not have a limit at other points.
x→1
If it is, must f(1) = 5 ? Can we conclude anything about 7. Find lim cot −1 x 2 .
the values of f at x = 1 ? Explain. x→0
4. If f(1) = 5, must lim f(x) exist ? If it does, then must lim sin 2 x
x→1 x→1 8. Find lim .
x→0 cos x
f(x) = 5? Can we conclude anything about lim f(x)?
x→1 9. Find lim cos π/x.
x→0
the corresponding values yn of the function become arbitrarily

1.2 Concept of Infinity close to the number .
Suppose that n assumes successively the values 1, 2, 3,.... Then Let us consider a function of an integral argument. Usually
as n gets larger and larger and there is no limit to the extent such an argument is denoted by the letter n and the values of
of its increase. However, large a number we may think of, a the function by some other letter supplied with a subscript
time will come when n has become larger than this number. indicating the value of the integral argument. For instance, if
It is convenient to have a short phrase to express this unending y = f(n) is a function of the integral argument n we write yn =
growth of n and we shall say that n tends to infinity, or n → ∞, f(n). Given such a function, we say that the values
When we say that n ‘tends to ∞’ we mean simply that n is y1 = f(1), y2 = f(2), .... , yn = f(n), .....,
supposed to assume a series of values which increase beyond assumed by the function form a sequence.
all limit.
If there is a sequence y1, y2, y3, ...., this assigns, to every natural
There is no real number ‘infinity’. This implies that the equation
n = ∞ is meaningless. A number n cannot be equal to ∞, because number n, a value yn = f(n). For instance, the terms of the
‘equal to ∞’ means nothing. So far in fact the symbol ∞ means
1 1 1
nothing at all except in the one phrase ‘tends to ∞’, the meaning geometric progression , , .... are the subsequent values
2 4 8
of which we have explained above. Later on we shall learn how
1
to attach a meaning to other phrases involving the symbol ∞, of the function f(n) = .
but we bear in mind 2n
We now discuss the question ‘what properties has f(n) for
(i) that ∞, by itself means nothing, although phrases
sufficiently large values of n ?’ i.e. ‘how does f(n) behaves as
containing it sometimes mean something,
n tends to ∞ ?’
(ii) that in every case in which a phrase containing the symbol
It may occur that, as n increases, the values yn = f(n) become
∞ means something it will do so simply because we have
arbitrarily close to a number . Then we say that the number  is
previously attached a meaning to this particular phrase by
the limit of the function f(n) of the integral argument n or that the
means of a special definition.
sequence y1, y2, .... , yn, .... has the limit , as n → ∞, and write
Limit of a Sequence lim f (n )  or lim y n 
n n
Definition A number  is said to be the limit of the function
y = f(n) of the integral argument n or the limit of the sequence Consider the function 1/n for large values of n. Instead of
y1, y2, ...., yn, if for all sufficiently large integral values of n saying ‘1/n is small for large values of n’ we say ‘1/n tends
to 0 as n tends to ∞ . Similarly we say that ‘1– (1/n) tends to Note: The limit  may itself be one of the actual values
1 as n tends to ∞’. of f(n). Thus if f(n) = 0 for all values of n, it is obvious that
We shall say that ‘the limit of 1/n as n tends to ∞ is 0’, a lim f (n ) = 0.
n →∞
1
statement which we express as lim 0 . On the other hand the limit itself need not (and in general will
n n
not) be the value of the function for any value of n. This is
We shall also sometimes write ‘1/n → 0 as n → ∞’ which may sufficiently obvious in the case f(n) = 1/n. The limit is zero;
be read ‘1/n tends to 0 as n tends to ∞’. but the function is never equal to zero for any value of n.
In the same way we shall write A limit is not a value of the function. It is something quite
 1 distinct from these values.
lim 1 −  = 1 or , 1 – (1/n) → 1 as n → ∞. For the function f(n) = 1 the limit is equal to all the values of
n →∞  n
f(n).
Now let us consider f(n) = n2. Then ‘n2 is large when n is large’. For f(n) = 1+ (1/n), it is not equal to any value of f(n). For f(n)
And it is natural in this case to say that ‘n2 tends to ∞ as n tends = (sin 12 nπ)/n, (whose limits as n tends to ∞ is easily seen to be
to ∞’, and we write n2 → ∞. 0, since sin 12 nπ is never numerically greater than 1), the limit
Finally consider the function f(n) = – n2. In this case f(n) is is equal to the value which f(n) assumes for all even values of
large, but negative, when n is large and we say that ‘– n2 tends n, but the values assumed for odd values of n are all different
to – ∞ as n tends to ∞’ and write – n2 → − ∞ . from the limit and from one another.
Definition The function f(n) is said to tend to the limit  Definition The function f(n) is said to tend to ∞ (positive
as n tends to ∞ , if, however small be the positive number ε, infinity) with n if, when any number M, however large, is
f(n) differs from  by less than ε for sufficiently large values assigned, we can determine N so that f(n) > M when n ≥ N;
of n; that is to say if, however small be the positive number that is to say if, however large M may be, f(n) > M for sufficient
ε, we can determine a number N(ε) corresponding to ε, such large values of n.
that f(n) differs from  by less than ε for all values of n greater Another form of statement is, if we can make f(n) as large as
than or equal to N(ε). we please by sufficiently increasing n.
The definition may be stated more shortly as follows : if, given A function may be always numerically very large when n is
any positive number, ε, however small, we can find N(ε) so very large without tending either to ∞ or to –∞. A sufficient
that | f(n) –  | < ε when n ≥ N(ε), then we say that f(n) tends illustration of this is given by f(n) = (–1)nn.
to the limit  as n tends to ∞ , and write Example 1: Find lim sin nθπ, if θ is rational.
n→∞
lim f (n ) =  Solution: Let f(n) = sin nθπ and θ = p/q, where p and q
n →∞
are positive integers. Let n = aq + b, here a is the quotient and
The definition of a limit may be illustrated geometrically b the remainder when n is divided by q.
as follows. The graph of f(n) consists of a number of points Then sin(npπ/q) = (–)ap sin(bpπ/q).
corresponding to the values n = 1, 2, 3.... Suppose, for example, p even. Then, as n increases from 0 to
Draw the line y = , and the parallel lines y =  – ε, y =  + ε q – 1, f(n) takes the values
at distance ε from it. Assume that for each positive ε , a number
N can be found, depending on ε , such that the part of the graph pπ 2pπ (q −1)pπ
0, sin , sin ......., sin
to the right of n = N lies within the band. Then we say that ‘as q q q
x approaches ∞, f(n) approaches ’ and write
When n increases from q to 2q–1 these values are repeated and
lim f (n ) =  so also as n goes from 2q to 3q – 1, 3q to 4q–1, and so on. Thus
n →∞
the values of f(n) form a cyclic repetition of a finite series of
different values. It is evident that when this is the case f(n) cannot
tend to a limit, nor to ∞ , nor to –∞, as n tends to infinity. The
limit does not exist.
Oscillating Functions
When f(n) does not tend to a limit, nor to ∞ , nor to –∞, as n tends
to ∞, we say that f(n) oscillates as n tends to ∞.
The simplest example of an oscillatory function is given by f(n)
= (–1)n , which is equal to 1 when n is even and to –1 when n
is odd. In this case the values recur cyclically.
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Differential Calculus for JEE Main and

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CHAPTER 1 LIMITS 1.1 – 1.178

CHAPTER 2 CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS 2.1 – 2.98

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4.3 Derivative of Standard Functions 4.3

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We denote neighbourhoods by N(a), N1(a), N2(a), etc.

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