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GLOBAL CULTURE AND SPORT SERIES

Motorsport and Fascism

Living Dangerously
Paul Baxa
Global Culture and Sport Series

Series Editors
Stephen Wagg
Carnegie School Of Sport
Leeds Beckett University
Leeds, UK

David Andrews
Kinesiology
University of Maryland
Baltimore, MD, USA
Series Editors: Stephen Wagg, Leeds Beckett University, UK, and David
Andrews, University of Maryland, USA. The Global Culture and Sport
series aims to contribute to and advance the debate about sport and glo-
balization by engaging with various aspects of sport culture as a vehicle
for critically excavating the tensions between the global and the local,
transformation and tradition and sameness and difference. With studies
ranging from snowboarding bodies, the globalization of rugby and the
Olympics, to sport and migration, issues of racism and gender, and sport
in the Arab world, this series showcases the range of exciting, pioneering
research being developed in the field of sport sociology.

More information about this series at

https://link.springer.com/bookseries/15008
 Paul Baxa

Motorsport and
Fascism
Living Dangerously
Paul Baxa
Ave Maria University
Ave Maria, FL, USA

ISSN 2662-3404     ISSN 2662-3412 (electronic)

Global Culture and Sport Series
ISBN 978-3-030-97966-9    ISBN 978-3-030-97967-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97967-6

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
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To the memory of my father, Tino Baxa (1929–2019)
 Preface and Acknowledgments

The year 2022 marks the centenary of two events that are central to this
book: the inauguration of the Monza Autodrome near Milan and the
coming to power of Fascism. Although they were two separate events,
one sporting while the other political, both the autodrome and the Fascist
regime found important points of convergence. Motorsport, above all
other sports, came to express in the most comprehensive way the values
and ideology of Mussolini’s regime. While Fascism’s predilection for
motorsport has been recognized in general histories of sport under the
regime, no English-language monograph on the subject exists. Most
studies of sport under Fascism emphasize how the regime used sport for
propaganda purposes. This is true of motorsport, but the relationship
between Fascist ideology and racing goes much deeper. Events like the
Mille Miglia were genuine Fascist artifacts, designed to communicate the
Fascist Revolution via technology, speed, and Fascist heroism and martyr-
dom, in ways that could not be expressed by other sports.
This book is not a comprehensive overview of motorsport under
Fascism; rather, it is a cultural study of how motorsport became a vehicle
for Fascism’s project of anthropological revolution. Through motorsport,
the main strands of Fascist discourse came together to form a powerful
nexus between politics and sport. In the exploits of men such as Tazio
Nuvolari and Achille Varzi could be seen the inspiration of the decadent,
nationalist poet Gabriele D’Annunzio, the “First Duce,” and the
vii
viii Preface and Acknowledgments

modernist cult of speed celebrated by F.T. Marinetti and the Futurists.

The Fascist New Man was a race car driver, while the Mille Miglia trans-
formed half of Italy into a “landscape of speed.” Fascism, meanwhile,
helped save Grand Prix racing from a period of crisis in the 1920s through
events like the Italian and Tripoli Grand Prix races. In short, Italian Fascism
saved Grand Prix racing, and laid the basis for the future rise of Formula 1.
This book has been several years in the making and a great debt is owed
to many. I am especially grateful to my fellow members of the “Conspiracy”
led by Don Capps and Pat Yongue, whose vision and initiative have led
to the Michael Argetsinger Symposium, soon to celebrate its sixth annual
edition. Many of the ideas developed in this book began with presenta-
tions at the symposium. I wish to thank many of the other presenters at
the symposium over the years such as Daniel Simone, Mark Howell, Skip
McGoun, and Michael Stocz. I also wish to thank the staff at the
International Motor Racing Research Center at Watkins Glen, NY, espe-
cially Bill Green, Jenny Ambrose, and Josh Ashby. This project would not
have been possible without the Revs Institute in Naples, Florida. Many
thanks to Scott George, Mark Vargas, Nadia Taliceo, Lindsay Mancuso,
and Bryan Gable. I am indebted to valuable input from Enrico Landoni
and Simon Martin during my presentation at the British School in Rome
in 2019. Many thanks to Emanuela Sommaruga at the Museo Mille
Miglia in Brescia. Thanks are owed to Stephen Wagg, David Lawrence
Andrews, Sharla Plant, and Md Saif.
I owe a debt of gratitude to my colleagues at Ave Maria University,
Roger Nutt, Dan Davy, Michael Breidenbach, Mary Blanchard, and
Mike Sugrue. To Gabriel Martinez, Michael Dauphinais, and Tom
Scheck, I am grateful for your friendship and support. I am grateful to
Barry David and John Colman, who gave me the opportunity to present
my research on this book at faculty and student colloquia. This project
was also helped immensely by two grants from the Laurel Family Grant,
and for that I am grateful to Mrs Mary Laurel and the grant committee.
Finally, I wish to thank my editorial and research assistants, Brady
Beckerman, Olivia Althoff, Abigail Starcher, and Page Kuenstle. Last, but
not least, I am grateful to my family, including my brother, Bruno Baxa,
 Preface and Acknowledgments ix

who introduced me to motorsport many years ago, and to my son, John-­

Paul, who shares my love of motorsport. Most of all, I am grateful to my
wife, Patrizia, without whose love and patience none of this would
have been possible.

Ave Maria, FL, USA Paul Baxa

 Contents

1 Introduction  1
Summer of 1924: Triumph in Lyon, Tragedy in Rome    1
Fascism, Sport, and Motorsport    6
Why Motorsport?  11
The Fascist Sport par Excellence: Chapter Summaries   18
Living Dangerously  24

2 Speed & Death 27

Death on a Sunday Afternoon   27
“More Beautiful Than the Victory at Samothrace”: Futurism,
Decadentism, and Motorsport   41
The “Snarling Beast”: From FIAT to Alfa Romeo   47
The Race Car Driver as Hero and Martyr   54
Nuvolari or Varzi? The D’Annunzian or the Marinettian?   71
Conclusion  83

3 Autodromes 85
The New Autodrome   85
The Iron City   88
Machines in the Garden   90

xi
xii Contents

Italian Motorsport’s National Stadium   97

Grand Prix Racing’s Place of Rebirth  105
The Race for Millions  108

4 Fascist Rome: Motorsport Capital121

Gallenga Stuart’s Dream  121
The Reale Premio di Roma 130
The Monte Mario Circuit (1925)  132
The Valle Giulia Circuit (1926)  137
The Parioli Circuit (1927)  146
The Tre Fontane Circuit (1928–1930)  155
Autodromo del Littorio (1931–1932)  164
Conclusion: A Failed Vision  173

5 The Mille Miglia: Going Toward the People179

A New Beginning  179
A Return to Origins  190
The Anti-Giro  200
The Mille Miglia and the Cult of Speed  203
The Mille Miglia and the New Man  212
“The Era of the Mille Miglia is Over”: The 1938 Tragedy  217

6 The Invisible Race231

The Mille Miglia: A Romance  231
Mapping the Race: 1927, 1934, and 1938  241
A New Sense of Place  251
Three Heterotopic Sites: Piazza della Vittoria, Ponte Littorio,
and Piazzale Milvio  254
The Mille Miglia and Place Making  262
The “Lost Aura”: The 1940 Mille Miglia  268
Conclusion 272
 Contents xiii

7 Conclusion275
The “New” Mille Miglia  275
Grand Prix Racing and Authoritarianism: A Not So Secret
History 278
Return to Rome  285

Bibliography293

Index307
 About the Author

Paul Baxa is the author of Roads and Ruins: The Symbolic Landscape of
Fascist Rome. He is Associate Professor of History at Ave Maria University
in Florida. His research interests include Italian Fascism, motorsport his-
tory, and Italian-Canadian history.

xv
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Materassi’s wrecked Talbot in the Monza trench. (Private

Collection)29
Fig. 2.2 Ancients and moderns: Achille Varzi and the P2 Alfa Romeo,
1930 Targa Florio. (Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Achille_Varzi_in_his_Alfa_Romeo_
at_the_1930_Targa_Florio_(2).jpg)57
Fig. 2.3 The death of Antonio Ascari at Montlhéry, July 1925.
(Montlhéry, 26/7/25, Grand Prix ACF, accident [mortel]
d’Ascari: [photographie de presse] / [Agence Rol] by Agence
Rol. Agence photographique—1925—National Library of
France, France—No Copyright—Other Known Legal
Restrictions. https://www.europeana.eu/en/item/9200518/
ark__12148_btv1b53151636k)61
Fig. 2.4 A FIAT 514 passes the Masetti Memorial Plaque on the Passo
della Futa during the 1932 Mille Miglia. (Wikimedia
Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1932_
or_1931_Mille_Miglia_Muraglione_di_Futa_Fiat_514.jpg)65
Fig. 2.5 Giulio Masetti, gentleman racer. (Wikimedia Commons:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Giulio_Masetti_at_
the_1922_French_Grand_Prix_(4).jpg)67
Fig. 2.6 Masetti’s fatal accident. (Wikimedia Commons: https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Giulio_masetti_delage.jpg)70

xvii
xviii List of Figures

Fig. 2.7 Tazio Nuvolari wearing the turtle pin given to him by
Gabriele d’Annunzio. (Wikimedia Commons: https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/TazioNuvolari.jpg)76
Fig. 3.1 Mussolini arrives at the Monza Autodrome, 1923. (9/9/23,
Monza, Grand Prix d’Europe [course automobile], arrivée de
Mussolini: [photographie de presse]/[Agence Rol] by Agence
Rol. Agence photographique—1923—National Library of
France, France—No Copyright—Other Known Legal
Restrictions. https://www.europeana.eu/en/item/9200518/
ark__12148_btv1b531184684)93
Fig. 3.2 Racing cars on display at Monza’s City Hall, 1922. ([10-9-22,
Grand Prix d’Italie] les voiturettes gagnantes exposées à Milan
[piazza del Mercanti]: [photographie de presse]/[Agence Rol]
by Agence Rol. Agence photographique—1922—National
Library of France, France—No Copyright—Other Known
Legal Restrictions. https://www.europeana.eu/en/
item/9200518/ark__12148_btv1b53094267r)97
Fig. 4.1 Start of the 1926 Reale Premio di Roma in front of the Galleria
Nazionale. Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1926-­03-­28_GP_Roma_start_
Galleria_Nazionale.jpg139
Fig. 5.1 Clemente Biondetti’s thinly disguised Grand Prix Alfa Romeo
P3. Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:1936-­04-­05_Mille_Miglia_Alfa_P3_Biondetti_
Cerase.jpg219
Fig. 6.1 The classic “figure eight” layout of the Mille Miglia.
Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:1936-­04-­05_Mille_Miglia_percorso.jpg 240
Fig. 6.2 Piero Taruffi’s Maserati at Piazzale di Ponte Milvio checkpoint
in Rome, 1934 Mille Miglia. In the background is the Church
of the Great Mother of God, built in the 1930s. Wikimedia
Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:1934-­04-­08_Mille_Miglia_Maserati_4CS_
Taruffi%2BBertocchi.jpg260
 1
Introduction

 ummer of 1924: Triumph in Lyon,

S
Tragedy in Rome
On Sunday, August 3, 1924, the Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini
opened the second day of the Fascist Party’s inaugural leadership council
amid a general state of crisis for his government and his party. Nearly two
years after being appointed Prime Minister, and four months after win-
ning the general election, Mussolini’s government was at a crossroads.
The leader of the Independent Socialists, Giacomo Matteotti, had disap-
peared in June just days after making an accusatory speech in parliament
against Mussolini. Although Matteotti’s fate was still unknown, there was
little doubt that he had met his demise at the hands of Fascist Blackshirts.
Now there were calls for King Victor Emanuel III to remove Mussolini as
Prime Minister. To aggravate matters, Mussolini was facing a split within
the Fascist Party between so-called Intransigents, led by the violent ras
(local Fascist leader) of Cremona, Roberto Farinacci, and the Revisionists,
led by Giuseppe Bottai and Alfredo Rocco. The meeting of the leadership
council was called specifically to deal with this growing split. On the one
hand, the Intransigents wanted to keep Fascism both violent and

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 1

P. Baxa, Motorsport and Fascism, Global Culture and Sport Series,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97967-6_1
2 P. Baxa

mass-based, a permanent revolution aimed at purging Italian society of

all non-Fascist elements. The Revisionists, on the other hand, aimed at
“normalizing” Fascism and working toward building a party of techno-
crats whose goal was the modernization of Italy. This entailed winding
down Fascist violence and working with non-Fascist elements of society.
At 5 pm, Francesco Giunta, a member of the Intransigent faction, and
former Party Secretary, interrupted the meeting to make an announce-
ment. News had come in from Lyon, France, that Giuseppe Campari, at
the wheel of an Alfa Romeo, had won the Grand Prix de l’A.C.F, European
motorsport’s most prestigious race.1 Although a sporting event in France
had no direct connection to the dramatic events in Rome that summer, it
provided something for the divided Fascists to rally around, and it served
as a distraction for Italians in the midst of the Matteotti Crisis. It was also
the second major sporting triumph to come from France that year. In
July, Ottavio Bottecchia became the first Italian to win the Tour de
France, cycling’s most important event. This, along with the 13 medals
won by Italian athletes at the Olympic Games in Paris, made France the
stage of Italian sporting prestige in a year that was proving politically
disastrous for Mussolini’s regime.
The significance of the motorsport victory in Lyon could be seen the
next day on the front page of Italy’s leading national newspaper, the
Corriere della Sera. Coverage of these two events, the Fascist assembly and
the Alfa Romeo victory in France, dominated the front page of Monday’s
edition of the newspaper. In fact, they were given equal coverage at the
top of the page. The confluence of these events and their recognition by
the Milanese newspaper were rich in significance. It provided one of the
first examples of the growing importance of sport in the 1920s. Indeed,
in 1924 alone, 17 new sports magazines and newspapers went into circu-
lation.2 It was also a recognition of the prestige of the Grand Prix in Lyon.
First run in 1906, when the sport was in its infancy, the Grand Prix de
l’A.C.F. had become a battleground for nations eager to show who was
more advanced in automotive technology. In the heightened nationalism

1
Automobile Club de France. The race was more commonly known as the French Grand Prix.
2
In 1919, 24 sports magazines and newspapers circulated in Italy, up from only 10 in 1914. See
Paolo Facchinetti, La Stampa Sportiva in Italia (Bologna: Edizioni Alfa, 1966), 54.
 1 Introduction 3

of the World War I era, and with the close connections between automo-
tive progress and war technology, the race took on an even greater signifi-
cance.3 The 1924 race was particularly important in this context, as it was
run on the Lyon–Givors circuit as a tribute to the great race of 1914
when, just days before the outbreak of World War I, French and German
teams engaged in an epic struggle that foreshadowed the events that soon
engulfed Europe. The race was given added luster with the title of Grand
Prix of Europe.
The importance of the Italian victory at Lyon was not lost on the
Italian press. In describing the triumphant moment when Campari’s Alfa
Romeo crossed the finish line, the reporter for the Corriere della Sera
could hardly contain his emotions:

It is Campari! Evviva! Evviva! The emotions pent up during this last lap
overflows in shouts and applause. The Italians are moved and even the
disappointed Frenchmen join them in celebration. Campari and his
mechanic are embraced and kissed. The band plays the Marcia Reale (the
anthem of the Savoyard dynasty), the crowd listens with hats removed […]
there is general enthusiasm. The Italian winner greets the second-place
Frenchman and they embrace while the crowd continues to applaud.4

The Fascist Party’s newspaper, Il Popolo d’Italia, which did not report
on sporting events except for motor racing, ran an ad from the Pirelli tire
company that took up half a page.5 The ad claimed that the Grand Prix
was the “Olympics of Racing,” and that the triumphant Italian duo of
Alfa Romeo and Pirelli won against “formidable international” opposi-
tion.6 Meanwhile, the country’s most popular illustrated magazine,
L’Illustrazione Italiano, devoted its cover page to the victory. The issue’s
introductory article by Tartaglia recounted how the son of his building’s

3
The link between automobility and the role it played in preparing Europeans for war in 1914 has
been noted. See Kurt Möser, “The Dark Side of ‘Automobilism’, 1900-30: Violence, war and the
motor car,” The Journal of Transport History, vol. 24, no. 2 (2003): 238–258.
4
Arnaldo Fraccaroli, “Vetture e piloti italiani vittoriosi nel secondo Gran Premio d’Europa,”
Corriere della Sera, 4 agosto 1924, 1–2.
5
Felice Fabrizio, Sport e Fascismo. La politica sportive del regime (Firenze: Guaraldi Editore,
1976), 160.
6
Pirelli ad. Il Popolo d’Italia, 5 agosto 1924, 2.
4 P. Baxa

door attendant greeted him that Monday morning with the exciting news
of the Alfa Romeo victory in France, and that this had given him great
pleasure. Why should this young man going about his daily chores be so
happy about that news? For Tartaglia this was a defining moment:

It is not that the doorkeeper’s son knows Campari personally, nor that he
has any business connections with Nicola Romeo (the company’s President).
He is satisfied because Italy had won with an Italian driver in an Italian car.
The son of my doorkeeper is no different from the sons of other doorkeep-
ers, or merchants, or mechanics everywhere. He is a young man who only
reads the sports pages, his main passion is sport, with a preference for
motorsport. He is not as enthusiastic about cycling, even though one day
he may be able to afford a bicycle. An automobile, however, remains
beyond his wildest dreams but this is why he is more attracted to cars—his
eyes light up when he sees a new one!7

From the reaction of his doorkeeper’s son, Tartaglia came to realize the
emotional impact of international sporting events. The boy, like all
Italians, according to Tartaglia, was moved by a love of country that was
inflamed during events like these: “[The masses] want to participate in
the event or at the very least receive bulletins. They are not satisfied with
reading the summaries the next day in the newspaper. They want to know
the results immediately and await the telegrams that are posted on town
bulletin boards throughout the country.”8 Sporting heroes were now
more famous than government ministers, except for Mussolini himself,
and even movie stars, concluded Tartaglia. It seems that the Italians had
become the Ancient Greeks in their passion for sport. In a nod to the
Matteotti Crisis, Tartaglia noted that the public cares only for two things:
great sporting events and great crimes. Once the news of the race in Lyon
had been digested, the readers would return to the missing Matteotti and
to the rumors, conspiracies, and false leads that had proliferated in the
newspapers. Tartaglia finds relief from the tension caused by the Matteotti
disappearance in the sports pages, and especially in the news of the Italian

7
Tartaglia, “Il figlio del mio portiere,” L’Illustrazione Italiana, anno LI, n. 32 (10 agosto 1924): 154.
8
Tartaglia, 154.
 1 Introduction 5

triumph in Lyon: “Alfa Romeo…driven by Giuseppe Campari…one can

breathe again.”9
The Alfa Romeo triumph in Lyon appeared to transcend the stark
political divisions of that summer. Whether it was the liberal Corriere
della Sera, the Fascist Popolo d’Italia, or the non-political popular illus-
trated magazines like L’Illustrazione Italiana, the news from Lyon pro-
vided a needed distraction from the looming national crisis. Their
responses also revealed the multiple layers of meaning that sport in gen-
eral, and motorsport in particular, provided for Italians in the 1920s, as
well as the emotional investment they made in sports in the interwar
years.10 Reactions to the result demonstrated the importance of national-
ism, of industrial progress via the Pirelli ad, and of popular enthusiasm
especially among the lower classes. There was nothing necessarily Fascist
about these reactions. Tartaglia guessed that the son was not interested in
politics but, if pressed on the issue, would probably express Communist
sympathies. Still independent in 1924, the Corriere della Sera was critical
of Fascism and did not exalt the Alfa Romeo triumph as a victory for the
regime but rather as evidence of Italy’s industrial progress that started
long before Mussolini came to power.
The successes on the racetrack by the Alfa Romeo team coincided with
the establishment of the Fascist dictatorship. A few days after the success
at Lyon, Matteotti’s body was found in a shallow grave north of Rome.
Murdered by Fascist Blackshirts, Matteotti’s death made Mussolini’s
future uncertain. The following January, Mussolini took responsibility
for the murder in a famous speech in Parliament. This gained him the
trust of King Victor Emanuel III, who re-confirmed him as Prime
Minister. Mussolini used this as a launching pad to finally dismantle the
Liberal State and establish the one-party dictatorship that lasted until
1943. This was done with the help of the Intransigents in the Fascist
Party, whose side Mussolini took during the leadership conference of

9
Tartaglia, 154.
10
Daphné Bolz, “Sport and Fascism,” in Alan Bairner, John Kelly, and Jung Woo Lee, eds. Routledge
Handbook of Sport and Politics (London: Routledge, 2020), 55.
Another random document with
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time in the imagos of Pteronarcys (see p. 401). Although these
fossils are of such enormous antiquity, the tracheae can, M.
Brongniart says, be still perceived in these processes.

The Platypterides include also a considerable number of Insects of

large size, with four large equal wings, frequently spotted or
variegate. Some of these Insects were provided with expansions or
lobes on the sides of the prothorax (Fig. 213); these are looked on
as analogous to the expansions of meso- and meta-thorax, which
are supposed by some writers to have been the rudiments from
which wings were developed. These prothoracic wing-rudiments, if
such they be, are said to have a system of nervures similar to what
we find in true wings. The genus Lithomantis includes a Scotch
fossil, and has already been mentioned by us on p. 259.

Fig. 213.—Lithomantis carbonaria. Carboniferous strata of Commentry,

France. (After Brongniart.)

The third family of extinct carboniferous Neuroptera is the

Stenodictyopterides, in which Brongniart places the Dictyoneura of
Goldenberg, the North American Haplophlebium, and several genera
from Commentry. Some of them were very large Insects, with robust
bodies, and possessed wing-like expansions on the prothorax, and
lateral gill-like appendages on the sides of the abdomen.

It is worthy of note that though so large a number of carboniferous

Neuroptera have now been discovered, no larvae or immature forms
have been found.

We now pass to the consideration of the divisions of Neuroptera still

living.
 Fam. I. Mallophaga—Bird-Lice or Biting Lice.

Small Insects, wingless, with large head; thorax usually of two,

rarely of one or three segments; prothorax always distinct; hind
body consisting of eight to ten segments, in addition to the
posterior two thoracic segments which usually are but little or not
at all separated from it. The metamorphosis is very slight. The
creatures live on the skins of birds or mammals, finding
nourishment in the epidermal products.

The whole of the Insects of this family live a parasitic, or rather

epizoic, life. They all creep about those parts that are near to the
skin, the feathers of birds or the hair of mammals; they rarely come
quite to the surface, so that they are not detected on a superficial
examination. It is curious that under these circumstances they
should exhibit so great a variety of form and of anatomical
characters as they do.

Fig. 214.—Trinoton luridum. Lives on the common duck and various

species of Anas. (After Giebel.)

They are very depressed, that is, flat, Insects, with a large head,
which exhibits a great variety of shape; frequently it is provided in
front of the antennae with some peculiar tubercles called trabeculae,
which in some cases are mobile. The antennae are never large,
frequently very small; they consist of from three to five joints, and are
sometimes concealed in a cavity on the under side of the head.
 Fig. 215.—Under-surface of head of Lipeurus heterographus. (After
Grosse.) ol, Labium; md, mandible; mx, maxilla; ul, labium.

Fig. 216.—Under lip of Nirmus, A; and of Tetrophthalmus chilensis, B.

(After Grosse.) m, Mentum; g, ligula; pl, palp; pg, paraglossa; hy,
lingua.

The eyes are very rudimentary, and consist of only a small number
of isolated facets placed behind the antennae; sometimes they are
completely absent. The mouth parts are situated entirely on the
under-surface of the head and in a cavity. The upper lip is frequently
of remarkable form, as if it were a scraping instrument (ol, Fig. 215).
The mandibles are sharply toothed and apparently act as cutting
instruments. The maxillae have been described in the principal work
on the family[270] as possessing in some cases well-developed palpi.
According to Grosse[271] this is erroneous; the maxillae, he says, are
always destitute of palpi, and are of peculiar form, being each merely
a lobe of somewhat conical shape, furnished on one aspect with
hooks or setae. The under lip is peculiar, and apparently of very
different form in the two chief groups of Mallophaga. The large
mentum bears, in Liotheides (Fig. 216, B), on each side a four-
jointed palpus, the pair of palps being very widely separated; the
ligula is broad and undivided; on each side there is a paraglossa
bearing an oval process, and above this is a projection of the
hypopharynx. In Philopterides (Fig. 216, A) the palpi are absent, and
the parts of the lower lip are—with the exception of the paraglossae
—but little differentiated. The lingua (hypo-pharynx) in Mallophaga is
largely developed, and bears near the front a chitinous sclerite
corresponding with another placed in the epipharynx.

The prothorax in Mallophaga is a distinct division of the body even

when the meso- and meta-thorax appear to be part of the abdomen.
The mesothorax is frequently very small; it and the metathorax are
sometimes intimately connected. In other cases (Laemobothrium)
the metathorax appears to differ from the following abdominal
segment only by having the third pair of legs attached to it. In
Trinoton (Fig. 214) the three thoracic segments are well developed
and distinct. The abdominal segments visible, vary in number from
eight to ten; there is sometimes a difference according to sex, the
male having one segment taken into the interior in connexion with
the reproductive organs. The legs have short, broad coxae and small
tarsi of one or two joints; very rarely three joints are present; there
are either one or two claws; the legs with one claw being adapted for
clinging to or clutching hairs. The front pair of legs is used not for
locomotion so much as for grasping the food and bringing it within
the range of the mouth. No trace of wings has been detected in any
species.

Fig. 217.—Ganglia of nervous system of Lipeurus bacillus. (After

Giebel.) a, Cavity of head.

The nervous system has been examined by Giebel in Lipeurus

bacillus; there is a supra- and an infra-oesophageal ganglion, and
three thoracic, but no abdominal ganglia. The supra-oesophageal is
remarkably small, in fact not larger than the infra-oesophageal; it
consists evidently of two conjoined halves. The alimentary canal has
a slender, elongate oesophagus, dilated behind into a crop; this is
frequently received between two cornua formed by the anterior part
of the stomach, which, except for these, is simply tubular in form,
though somewhat narrower at the posterior extremity. In some forms
—Philopterides—the crop is of a very peculiar nature (Fig. 218),
forming an abrupt paunch separated from the stomach by the
posterior portion of the oesophagus. There are only four Malpighian
tubes; in some species the basal half of each tube is much dilated.
The two divisions of the intestine are short and are separated by the
intervention of a glandular girdle. Salivary glands exist; Giebel
figures what we may consider to be an enormous salivary reservoir
as existing in Menopon leucostomum.

The testes and ovaries are of a simple nature. The former consist of
two or three capsules, each having a terminal thread; the vasa
deferentia are tortuous and of variable length; they lead into the
anterior part of the ejaculatory duct, where also opens the elongate
duct proceeding from the bicapsular vesicula seminalis; these
structures have been figured by Grosse[272] as well as by Giebel.
The ovaries consist of three to five short egg-tubes on each side; the
two oviducts combine to form a short common duct with which there
is connected a receptaculum seminis.

Fig. 218.—Alimentary canal of Docophorus fuscicollis. (After Giebel.) a,

Oesophagus; b, paunch; a′, posterior division of oesophagus; c,
chylific ventricle or stomach; d, Malpighian tubes; e, small
intestine; f, glandular girdle; g, rectum.

The eggs of some Mallophaga have been figured by Melnikow;[273]

they possess at one extremity a cover with a multiple micropyle-
apparatus, and at the opposite pole are provided with seta-like
appendages. They are very like the eggs of the true lice, and are
said in some cases to be suspended by threads to the hairs or
feathers after the fashion of the eggs of Pediculi.

Little is known as to the development; the young are extremely like

the adult, and are thought to moult frequently; the duration of life is
quite unknown.

It has been stated by some writers that the mouth is truly of the
sucking kind, and that the Mallophaga feed on the blood of their
hosts. This is, however, erroneous; they eat the delicate portions of
the feathers of birds, and of mammals perhaps the young hair. Their
fertility is but small, and it is believed that in a state of nature they
are very rarely an annoyance to their hosts. The majority of the
known species live on birds; the forms that frequent mammals are
less varied and have been less studied; most of them have only one
claw to the feet (Fig. 220), while the greater portion of the avicolous
species have two claws.

Fig. 219.—Lipeurus ternatus, male; inhabits Sarcorhamphus papa.

(After Giebel.)

Fig. 220.—Trichodectes latus, male; inhabits the dog, Canis familiaris.

Most of the forms have the anterior legs small, and they are usually
drawn towards the mouth, owing, it is believed, to their being used
after the manner of hands to bring the food to the mouth; hence in
some of our figures (219, 220) the body looks as if it had only four
legs.

Very diverse statements have been made as to whether allied forms

of Mallophaga are found only on allied birds. It would appear that this
is the case only to a limited extent, as certain species are found on
quite a variety of birds; moreover, some birds harbour several
species of bird-lice, even five genera having been found, it is said,
on one species of bird. Docophorus icterodes has been recorded as
occurring on many kinds of ducks and geese; the swan, however,
harbours a distinct species, Docophorus cygni, and this is said to
have also been found on the bean-goose.

At least five species, belonging to three distinct genera, have been

found on the common fowl. The parasite most frequently met with on
this valuable creature is Menopon pallidum (Fig. 221), which is said
to have been figured by Redi two hundred years ago under the name
of Pulex capi. This species multiplies to a considerable extent; it is of
very active habits, and passes readily from one bird to another, so
that it is found on other species besides the domestic fowl. It is even
said that horses kept near hen-roosts have been seriously troubled
by Menopon pallidum, but it is suggested by Osborn that these
attacks may perhaps have been really due to itch-mites. There is,
however, no doubt that this species may infest poultry, especially if
sickly, to an enormous extent. The dust-baths in which poultry are so
fond of indulging are considered to be of great use in keeping down
the numbers of this Insect.
 Fig. 221.—Menopon pallidum; inhabits the common fowl, Gallus
domesticus. (After Piaget.)

A table of the birds and mammals on which Mallophaga have been

found, together with the names of the latter, has been given by
Giebel.[274] The classification of the group, so far as the principal
divisions are concerned, by no means accords with the kind of
animals that serve as hosts, for the only two genera peculiar to
quadrupeds (Trichodectes, Fig. 220; and Gyropus) belong to the two
chief divisions of Mallophaga. The genus Menopon includes
numerous species found on birds, and three or four others peculiar
to mammals.

Two very natural divisions, Philopterides and Liotheides, were

adopted by Giebel and Nitzsch, but unfortunately the chief character
they made use of for diagnosing the two groups—the presence or
absence of maxillary palpi—was illusory. Apparently the labial palps
will serve the purpose of distinguishing the two divisions, they being
present in the Liotheides and absent in the Philopterides. A table of
the characters of the avicolous genera of these two groups is given
by Grosse.[275]

The Liotheides are more active Insects, and leave their host after its
death to seek another. But the Philopterides do not do so, and die in
about three days after the death of their host. Possibly Mallophaga
may be transferred from one bird to another by means of the
parasitic two-winged flies that infest birds. The writer has
recorded[276] a case in which a specimen of one of these bird-flies
captured on the wing was found to have some Mallophaga attached
to it.

We should perhaps point out that these Mallophaga, though called

bird-lice, have nothing to do with the true lice which are so frequently
found with them, and that live by sucking the blood of their hosts. It
would in fact be better to drop the name of bird-lice altogether, and
call the Mallophaga biting lice. Trichodectes latus, according to this
method, would be known as the biting louse of the dog, the true or
sucking louse of which animal is Haematopinus piliferus, and
belongs to the anoplurous division of Hemiptera.

Fam. II. Embiidae.

Elongate feeble Insects; with small prothorax, elongate meso-

and meta-thorax, which may either bear wing or be without
them. In the former case these organs are not caducous, are
delicately membranous, and all of one consistence, with three or
four indefinite longitudinal nervures and a few cross-veinlets.
The development is incompletely known. The individuals do not
form organised societies.

Fig. 222.—Oligotoma michaeli. (After M‘Lachlan.)

The Embiidae are one of the smallest families of Insects; not more
than twenty species are known from all parts of the world, and it is
probable that only a few hundred actually exist. They are small and
feeble Insects of unattractive appearance, and shrivel so much after
death as to render it difficult to ascertain their characters. They
require a warm climate. Hence it is not a matter for surprise that little
should be known about them.
 Fig. 223.—Under-surface of Embia sp. Andalusia.

The simple antennae are formed of numerous joints, probably

varying in number from about fifteen to twenty-four. The mouth is
mandibulate. Chatin states[277] that the pieces homologous with
those of a maxilla can be detected in the mandible of Embia. The
labium is divided. The legs are inserted at the sides of the body, the
coxae are widely separated (Fig. 223), the hind pair being, however,
more approximate than the others. The abdomen is simple and
cylindrical, consisting of ten segments, the last of which bears a pair
of biarticulate cerci. In the male sex there is a slight asymmetry of
these cerci and of the terminal segment. The thorax is remarkable on
account of the equal development of the meso- and meta-thorax and
their elongation in comparison to the prothorax. When they bear
wings there is no modification or combination of the segments for the
purposes of flight, the condition of these parts being, even then, that
of wingless Insects; so that the Embiidae that have wings may be
described as apterous-like Insects provided with two pairs of
inefficient wings. The wings are inserted on a small space at the
front part of each of the segments to which they are attached. The
legs have three-jointed tarsi, and are destitute of a terminal
appendage between the claws.

Fig. 224.—Anterior wing of Oligotoma saundersii: A, the wing; B,

outline of the wing, showing nervures. (After Wood-Mason.) 1,
 Costal; 2, subcostal; 3, radial; 4, discoidal; 5, anal nervure.

The wings in Embiidae are very peculiar; they are extremely flimsy,
and the nervures are ill-developed; stripes of a darker brownish
colour alternate with pallid spaces. We figure the anterior wing of
Oligotoma saundersii, after Wood-Mason; but should remark that the
neuration is really less definite than is shown in these figures; the
lower one represents Wood-Mason's interpretation of the nervures.
He considers[278] that the brown bands "mark the original courses of
veins which have long since disappeared." A similar view is taken by
Redtenbacher,[279] but at present it rests on no positive evidence.

One of the most curious features of the external structure is the

complex condition of the thoracic sternal sclerites. These are shown
in Fig. 223, representing the under-surface of an Embia of uncertain
species recently brought by Mr. Bateson from Andalusia.

According to Grassi[280] there are ten pairs of stigmata, two thoracic

and eight abdominal; these are connected by longitudinal and
transverse tracheae into a single system. The ganglia of the ventral
chain are, one suboesophageal, three thoracic, and seven
abdominal; these are segmentally placed, except that there is no
ganglion in the fifth abdominal segment. There is a stomato-gastric
system but no "sympathetic." Salivary glands are present. The
stomodaeal portions of the alimentary canal are remarkably
capacious; the stomach is elongate and slender, without diverticula;
the Malpighian tubes are elongate and slender; they vary in number
with the age of the individual, attaining that of twenty in the adult.
The ovaries are arranged somewhat after the fashion of those of
Japyx, there being in each five short egg-tubes, opening at equal
intervals into a straight duct. The testes are remarkably large; each
one consists of five masses of lobules, and has a large vesicula
seminalis, into the posterior part of which there open the ducts of two
accessory glands. The large joint of the front tarsus includes glands
whose secretion escapes by orifices at the tips of certain setae
interspersed between the short spines that are placed on the sole.
Species of this genus occur in the Mediterranean region, but their
characters have not yet been examined. Our information as to these
is chiefly to be found in Grassi's work. The two species studied by
him were wingless. They live under stones, where they spin webs by
means of the front feet, whose first joint is, as we have said,
enlarged and contains glands; the Insect uses the webs as a means
of support in progression, acting on them by means of papillae and a
comb-like structure placed on the four posterior feet.

Grassi informs us that these Insects are not uncommon under

stones in Catania; they require moisture as well as warmth, but not
too much; sometimes there is only one individual found under a
stone, at others eight or ten. In the winter and spring their galleries
are found on the surface of the earth, but in the hot months of
summer they secure the requisite amount of moisture by sinking
their galleries to the depth of ten or fifteen centimetres. Their food
consists chiefly of vegetable matter. They may be reared with ease
in glass vessels. Other species of the family attain wings; the details
of the process are not well known. Oligotoma michaeli (Fig. 222) was
discovered in a hothouse in London among some orchid roots
brought from India, and was found in more than one stage of
development; the young greatly resemble the adult, except in the
absence of wings. A nymph-form is described by M‘Lachlan[281] as
possessing wings of intermediate length, and Hagen has suggested
that this supposed nymph is really an adult female with short wings.
If this latter view be correct, nothing is known as to the mode of
development of wings in the family. It is still uncertain whether
female Embiidae ever possess wings. Wood-Mason and Grassi have
shown that there are wingless females in some species, and we
know that there are winged males in others, but what the usual
relation of the sexes may be in this respect is quite uncertain. These
Insects have been detected in various parts of the world. In the
Sandwich Islands Oligotoma insularis was discovered by the Rev. T.
Blackburn in the wood and thatch forming the roofs of natives'
houses. A species has been found in Prussian amber, and Grassi
thinks that Embia solieri—one of the Mediterranean species—is not
to be distinguished with certainty from the Insect found in amber.
Embiidae still remains one of the most enigmatic of the families of
Insects. Although Grassi's recent observations are of great value
from an anatomical point of view, they rather add to, than diminish,
the difficulties we encounter in endeavouring to understand the lives
of these obscure creatures. That Embiidae form webs has long been
known, and it was thought by some that the webs, like those of
spiders, might be of assistance in procuring food. We may, however,
infer from Grassi's observations that this is not the case, but that the
silken tunnels or galleries—as he calls them—serve chiefly as a
means of locomotion and protection, the feet of the Insects being
highly modified in conformity with this mode of life. Grassi seems to
be of opinion that the galleries are also useful in preserving a proper
degree of humidity round the Insects. We have already alluded to the
mystery that surrounds the mode of growth of their wings. Nearly all
that is known as to the Embiidae is contained in Grassi's paper, or is
referred to in Hagen's monograph of the family.[282]

Considerable difference of opinion has prevailed as to the allies of

these obscure Insects. It would seem that they are most nearly allied
to Termitidae and Psocidae. Grassi, however, considers these
affinities only remote, and suggests that Embiidae should form a
separate Order, to be placed in a super-Order Orthoptera, which
would include our Aptera, the two families mentioned above,
Mallophaga, Embiidae, and the ordinary Orthoptera. Brauer places
the family in his Orthoptera genuina.

CHAPTER XVI

NEUROPTERA CONTINUED—TERMITIDAE, TERMITES OR WHITE ANTS

Fam. III. Termitidae—White Ants, Termites.

 Fig. 225.—Termes (Hodotermes) mossambicus. Winged adult. (After
Hagen.)

Each species is social, and consists of winged and wingless

individuals. The four wings are, in repose, laid flat on the back,
so that the upper one only is seen except just at the bases; they
are membranous and very elongate, so that they extend far
beyond the apex of the abdomen; the hind pair is remarkably
similar in size, form, and consistence to the front pair: near the
base of each wing there is a suture, or line of weakness, along
which the wings can be broken off, the stumps in that case
remaining as short horny flaps reposing on the back. Ligula
channelled but not divided into two parts. The wingless
individuals are very numerous, and have the head and thirteen
body segments distinct; the body is terminated by a pair of short
cerci. The metamorphosis is slight and gradual, and in some
individuals is dispensed with.

The term White Ants has been so long in use for the Termitidae that
it appears almost hopeless to replace it in popular use by another
word. It has, however, always given rise to a great deal of confusion
by leading people to suppose that white ants differ chiefly from
ordinary ants by their colour. This is a most erroneous idea. There
are scarcely any two divisions of Insects more different than the
white ants and the ordinary ants. The two groups have little in
common except that both have a social life, and that a very
interesting analogy exists between the forms of the workers and
soldiers of these two dissimilar Orders of Insects, giving rise to
numerous analogies of habits. The word Termites—pronounced as
two syllables—is a less objectionable name for these Insects than
white ants.

The integument in Termites is delicate, and the chitinous plates are

never very hard; frequently they are so slightly developed that the
creature appears to consist of a single membranous sac with
creases in it, the head alone being very distinct. The head is
exserted, frequently of large size, sometimes as large as all the rest
of the body together. Termites may be quite blind, or possess
facetted and simple eyes, the latter when present being two in
number and always accompanied by facetted eyes. The antennae
are simple, consisting of from nine to thirty-one joints, which differ
but little from one another; the number in each individual increases
as the development progresses. The parts of the mouth are large,
the ligula consists of one piece (Fig. 226, A), but often has the
appearance of being formed by two united pieces; on its extremity
are seated two pairs of lobes.

Fig. 226.—Termes bellicosus. Labium, A, maxilla, B, of winged adult;

lower face of each. (After Hagen.)

The head is articulated to the thorax by means of two very large

cervical sclerites on each side, placed at right angles to one another,
and visible on the under-surface. The prothorax is well developed
and distinct from the parts behind it. The pronotum, of variable form
and size, is very distinct in the perfect Insects; with it are connected
the largely developed pleura. The episternum is very peculiar,
consisting of an elongate chitinous slip on each side hanging
downwards, the two not quite meeting in the middle; they thus form
the margin of the very large anterior orifice, and are in contiguity with
the cervical sclerites; behind them are the very large epimera. The
prosternum appears to be usually entirely membranous; in some
cases the sclerite in it is small and delicate, and apparently differs
according to the species. The meso- and meta-thorax are sub-equal
in size; the mesosternum forms a peculiar, large, adpressed fold.
The metasternum is membranous, but is terminated behind by a
sclerite apparently of variable form. The hind body is voluminous,
simple in form, consisting of ten segments and bearing at the
extremity two short distant cerci of a variable number of joints. The
terminal ventral sclerites differ greatly in form according to the
species and sometimes according to the sex; there are sometimes, if
not always, present near the extremity two peculiar minute
biarticulate styles, called appendices anales. The coxae are all large,
free, and exserted; at the base of each is a transverse trochantin.
The femora are articulated with the trochanters, not with the coxae;
both femora and tibiae are slender, the tarsi small, four-jointed; the
terminal joint elongate.

Fig. 227.—Front tibia and tarsus of Calotermes rugosus larva, showing

auditory organ. × 90. (After F. Müller.)

It is now well established that Termites have a means of

communication by sounds. The individuals have a peculiar way of
jerking themselves, as has been frequently noticed by observers of
the Insects; these convulsive movements may possibly be
connected with the production of sound, which may perhaps be
evoked by contact between the back of the head and the pronotum;
the exact mode by which the sounds are produced is not, however,
known. The existence of an auditory organ in the front tibia has been
demonstrated by Fritz Müller,[283] and we reproduce (Fig. 227) one
of his figures. The structure seems to be in plan and position similar
to the ear of Locustidae, though much less perfect.
 Fig. 228.—Wings of Termites: A, Termes lucifugus; B, Hodotermes
brunneicornis; C, Culotermes nodulosus. (After Redtenbacher: B
and C diagrammatic.) III, V, VII, homologous areas and nervures
according to Redtenbacher. 1, Costal; 2, subcostal; 3, median; 4,
submedian nervures according to Hagen.

The wings of Termitidae are not like those of any other Insects; their
neuration is very simple, but nevertheless the wings of the different
forms exhibit great differences in the extent to which they are made
up of the various fields. This is shown in Fig. 228, where the
homologous nervures are numbered according to the systems of
both Hagen and Redtenbacher. The area, VII, that forms the larger
part of the wing in C, corresponds to the small portion at the base of
the wing in B. The most remarkable feature of the wing is, however,
its division into two parts by a suture or line of weakness near the
base, as shown in Fig. 225. The wings are used only for a single
flight, and are then shed by detachment at this suture; the small
basal portion of each of the four wings is horny and remains
attached to the Insect, serving as a protection to the dorsal surface
of the thorax.

The nature of the suture that enables the Termites to cast their wings
with such ease after swarming is not yet understood. There are no
true transverse veinlets or nervules in Termites. Redtenbacher
suggests[284] that the transverse division of the wing at its base, as
shown in Fig. 225, along which the separation of the wing occurs at
its falling off, may have arisen from a coalescence of the subcostal
vein with the eighth concave vein of such a wing as that of Blattidae.
The same authority also informs us that the only point of
resemblance between the wings of Termitidae and those of Psocidae
is that both have an unusually small number of concave veins.
The information that exists as to the internal anatomy of Termites is
imperfect, and refers, moreover, to different species; it would appear
that considerable diversity exists in many respects, but on this point
it would be premature to generalise. What we know as to the
respiratory system is chiefly due to F. Müller.[285] The number of
spiracles is ten; Hagen says three thoracic and seven abdominal,
Müller two thoracic and eight abdominal. In fertile queens there
usually exist only six abdominal stigmata. There is good reason for
supposing that the respiratory system undergoes much change
correlative with the development of the individual; it has been
suggested that the supply of tracheae to the sexual organs is
deficient where there is arrest of development of the latter.

The alimentary canal is only of moderate length. Salivary glands

exist, as also do salivary reservoirs; these latter are large, in some
species remarkably so. The oesophagus is slender, but abruptly
enlarged behind to form a large crop; a proventriculus is apparently
either present or absent; the chylific ventricle, or stomach, is slender
and simple. The Malpighian tubules are very long; their number is
probably from four to eight in the adult, and in the earlier stages less.
Behind the tubes the alimentary canal forms a large paunch, and
after this there is a small intestine and rectum. The paunch is a
peculiar structure, and probably of great importance in the economy
of Termites.

These creatures emit minute quantities of a secretion that is

corrosive, and can act on metal and even glass;[286] its nature and
source are not understood. Hagen describes peculiar structures in
the rectum to which he is inclined[287] to ascribe the origin of this
substance, but this is very uncertain.
 Fig. 229.—Head and alimentary canal of Termes lucifugus (nymph). a,
head; b, salivary glands; c, salivary receptacles; d, crop; e,
stomach; f, intestinal paunch; g, small, h, large intestine; i,
Malpighian tubes; k, extremity of body. (After Dufour.)

The brain is small; the infra-oesophageal ganglion is placed

immediately under the supra-oesophageal; there are three thoracic
and six abdominal ganglia. The nervous system apparently differs
but little in the various forms, or in the different stages of life, except
that in the fertile females the abdominal ganglia become so much
enlarged that they even exceed the brain in size.

The testes are unusually simple; each consists of eight capsules

opening into the vas deferens; the two vasa converge and are
continued as a short ejaculatory duct; at the point of convergence
there is a pair of curled vesiculae seminales.

The ovarian system is also simple; there is a variable number of

elongate egg-tubes, each of which opens separately into the oviduct;
the two ducts unite to form a short uterus, on which there is placed
first a spermatheca, and near the extremity a convolute tubular
sebific gland. The number of egg-tubes is subject to extraordinary
variation, according to the species, and according to the age of the
fertilised individual.

Social Life.—Termites live in communities that consist sometimes of

enormous numbers of individuals. The adult forms found in a
community are (1) workers; (2) soldiers; (3) winged males and
females; (4) some of these winged forms that have lost their wings.
Some species have no worker caste. The individuals of the third
category are only present for a few days and then leave the nest in
swarms. In addition to the adult individuals there are also present
various forms of young. The individuals that have lost their wings are
usually limited to a single pair, king and queen; there may be more
than one king and queen, but this is not usual. The king and queen
may be recognised by the stumps of their cast wings, which exist in
the form of small triangular pieces folded on the back of the thorax
(Fig. 235). The continuance of the community is effected entirely by
the royal pair; they are the centres of activity of the community,
which is thrown into disorder when anything happens to them.
Usually the pair are physically incapable of leaving the nest,
especially the queen, and frequently they are enclosed in a cell
which they cannot leave. In consequence of the disorganisation that
arises in the community in the absence of a royal pair, Termites keep
certain individuals in such a state of advancement that they can
rapidly be developed into royalties should occasion require it. These
reserve individuals are called complementary by Grassi; when they
become royalties they are usually immature as regards the condition
of the anterior parts of the body, and are then called by Grassi and
others neoteinic, as is more fully explained on p. 380.

Swarms.—As a result of the Termite economy large numbers of

superfluous individuals are frequently produced; these, in the winged
state, leave the community, forming swarms which are sometimes of
enormous extent, and are eagerly preyed on by a variety of animals
including even man. Hagen has given particulars[288] of a swarm of
T. flavipes in Massachusetts, where the Insects formed a dark cloud;
they were accompanied by no less than fifteen species of birds,
some of which so gorged themselves that they could not close their
beaks.

There is but little metamorphosis in Termitidae. Young Termites are

very soft; they have a thin skin, a disproportionately large head, and
are of a peculiar white colour as if filled with milk. This condition of
milkiness they retain, notwithstanding the changes of form that may