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 The Philosophy of Rhythm

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00_oso-9780199347773_FM.indd 2 16-Oct-19 18:14:53
 The Philosophy of Rhythm
Aesthetics, Music, Poetics
Edited by
P E T E R C H EY N E , A N DY HA M I LT O N , A N D
M A X PA D D I S O N

00_oso-9780199347773_FM.indd 3 16-Oct-19 18:14:53

 3
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2019

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
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above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-​in-​Publication Data

Names: Cheyne, Peter. | Hamilton, Andy, 1957– | Paddison, Max.
Title: The philosophy of rhythm : aesthetics, music, poetics / edited by
Peter Cheyne, Andy Hamilton, and Max Paddison.
Description: New York, NY : Oxford University Press, [2019] |
Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019004326 | ISBN 9780199347773 (cloth) |
ISBN 9780199347780 (pbk.) | ISBN 9780199347896 (oxford scholarship online)
Subjects: LCSH: Musical meter and rhythm. | Music—Philosophy and aesthetics. |
Musical perception. | Music—Psychological aspects.
Classification: LCC ML3850 .P55 2019 | DDC 781.2/24117—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019004326

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Paperback printed by Marquis, Canada
Hardback printed by Bridgeport National Bindery, Inc., United States of America

00_oso-9780199347773_FM.indd 4 16-Oct-19 18:14:53

 “This remarkable collection of essays brings together philosophical and empirical
approaches to the significance of rhythm across the arts. The approach is refresh-
ingly interdisciplinary. Anyone concerned with the place of rhythm and metric
structure in the arts, and—more generally—within the wider domain of human
practices will find this an extraordinarily helpful volume.”
—Robert Kraut, Professor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University

“Fascinating and mysterious, rhythm is at the heart of music, dance, poetry, soci-
ology, and neuroscience. This inspired volume engages, enlightens, and is the first
to explore rhythm across a broad range of philosophical, aesthetic, and percep-
tual domains. This book is required reading for anyone concerned with time and
rhythm in contemporary life.”
—Peter Nelson, University of Edinburgh

“This wonderful collection considers questions about rhythm from a wide variety
of angles, perspectives, and disciplines—among them analytic and continental phi-
losophy, musicology, art history, poetics, and neuroscience. Like the dialogue that
opens the book, The Philosophy of Rhythm supports no particular line of thought or
argument but enormously deepens our understanding of a topic so palpable and yet
so mysterious.”
—Christoph Cox, Hampshire College

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 Preface

This project began in the mists of time, as a collaboration between Andy Hamilton
and Will Montgomery. Will had to pull out and Max Paddison took his place—​but
Will remained as a contributor and his essay on rhythm in poetry is invaluable.
Max has worked on musical time since his contributions to the 2004 special edition
of Musicae Scientiae on spatialization and temporality in music, while Andy’s first
publication on rhythm was for Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society in 2011. Max’s
expertise in Continental philosophical traditions has been a necessary corrective
to Andy’s more analytic background, and they organized a workshop in Durham
in 2013, at which many contributions were presented. Besides his contributed
essay, Peter Cheyne has been involved in an editorial role from an early stage. He
reorganized the material, making it thematic rather than discipline-​centered, and
closely edited each chapter.
Acknowledgments are gratefully given to Laura Dearlove for diligently checking
the style of several chapters; Anthony Parton for advice on artwork permissions;
Suzanne Ryan, Jamie Kim, and Dorian Mueller at OUP for their work in helping
to bring the volume to press; the anonymous reader for careful criticisms; Brian
Marley for invaluable assistance in helping compile the index; and Durham
University and the British Society of Aesthetics for their support for the workshop.
Later-​stage work was supported by JSPS Kakenhi grant number 19K00143. Finally,
a sincere apology is due to the patient contributors. This volume has taken much
longer in preparation than was originally anticipated.

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 Illustrations

8.1. Sulzer’s Schlagfolge 127

8.2. Koch’s Schlagreihe 128
8.3. Koch’s Schlagreihe with resting points (Ruhepuncten) 129
8.4. Model of the drift from rhythm to punctuation 129
8.5. Koch’s schema of a sonata-​form exposition 133
8.6. Mozart, String Quartet in C major, K. 465, “Dissonance,” bars 23–​6 135
8.7. Mozart, bars 67–​97 136
8.8. Introduction, bars 1–​4 137
9.1. Michael Jackson, “Billie Jean,” cabasa, drums, bass guitar, and synthesizer,
timing c.00:20–​00:24 144
9.2. The double backbeat 146
11.1 Kanizsa triangle, organized array (left panel); disorganized array
(right panel) 172
11.2. Beat interpolation in the opening theme of Brahms’ Symphony No. 4 in
E-​minor, Op. 98 177
11.3. A “metrically malleable” melody notated in (a) 4/​4, and (b) 9/​8, showing
alternate listening construals 178
11.4. The “Standard Pattern” (or “Bell Pattern”) timeline found in many styles and
genres of African music. Upper system: construed as a three-​(or six-​) beat
pattern. Bottom system: construed as a four-​beat pattern 178
15.1. Keats, “Hymn to Pan,” first stanza (from Endymion, Book 1, lines 232–​46),
annotated. 236
15.2. The two sides of “projection” 242
15.3. One version, among many, of the nursery rhyme “Humpty Dumpty” as an
illustration of the determinacy of tetrameter (and also as an example of the
pattern long-​long-​short-​short-​long) 244
15.4. The first line said as strict iambic pentameter (five isochronous beats each
of the form “weak-​strong”) in obvious violation of the line’s complexity 245
15.5. The first line said as five more or less isochronous beats, but now allowing for
complexities of “weak” and “strong” 246

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 xiv List of Illustrations

15.6. The first line said as five “flexibly isochronous” beats whose flexibility or
variability is determined (or “controlled”) by higher levels of complexity 246
15.7. Beat-​to-​beat projections in which each new event is focally aware simply
of its immediate predecessor 249
15.8. A representation of projective complexity showing the resistance of a
five-​beat line to the determinacies of four, or rather two, beats (Attridge’s
“doubling”). NB: this diagram is not meant to represent the complexity
of most “pentameter” lines where a reduction to two is not an issue. (Indeed,
in some “pentameter” nine-​or ten-​syllable lines there are four beats,
but these situations are hardly “square.”) 250
18.1. Husserl’s structure of time-​consciousness 297
19.1. Sonia Delaunay, Rythme coleur n° 1076 (1939). Centre national des arts
plastiques. © Pracusa S.A./​Cnap/​Photograph: Yves Chenot 310
19.2. Dactyl illustration (Creative Commons) 313
19.3. Raphael, The Miraculous Draught of Fishes (1515–​16), bodycolour over
charcoal underdrawing, mounted on canvas, 320 x 390cm, Victoria and
Albert Museum. © The Royal Collection, HM The Queen/​Victoria and
Albert Museum, London 314
19.4. Nicholas Dorigny, The Miraculous Draught of Fishes (1719), etching and
engraving on paper, 51 x 65cm, Victoria and Albert Museum. © Victoria
and Albert Museum, London 316
19.5. Joseph-​Marie Vien, St. Denis Preaching in Gaul (1767), oil on canvas,
660 x 393cm, Église Saint-​Roche, Paris. © The Art Archive 322
19.6. Ten percent of all saccades of forty viewers (twenty art experts and twenty
non-​experts) beholding Vien’s painting for two minutes each. Adapted version
© Laboratory for Cognitive Research in Art History, University of Vienna 323
19.7. Visualization of frequent saccadic transitions between fixation clusters for
Vien’s St. Denis Preaching in Gaul (average of forty viewers, twenty art experts
and twenty non-​experts, whilst viewing for two minutes each). Adapted version
© Laboratory for Cognitive Research in Art History, University of Vienna 324
19.8. Visualization of frequent saccadic transitions between fixation clusters for
Doyen’s The Miracle of St. Anthony’s Fire (average of forty viewers, twenty art
experts and twenty non-​experts, whilst viewing for two minutes each).
Adapted version © Laboratory for Cognitive Research in Art History,
University of Vienna 325
21.1. Opening lines of John Milton’s Paradise Lost displayed as prose in David
Charles Bell and Alexander Melville Bell’s Standard Elocutionist (London,
1878), 426 352
21.2. Graphic record of various rhythmical sounds, from Edward Wheeler Scripture,
Elements of Experimental Phonetics (New York, 1902), 509 356

00_oso-9780199347773_FM.indd 14 16-Oct-19 18:14:54

 Abbreviations

bpm beats-​per-​minute
EDM electronic dance music
fMRI functional magnetic resonance imaging
HKB Haken–​Kelso–​Bunz [equation]
OED Oxford English Dictionary

00_oso-9780199347773_FM.indd 15 16-Oct-19 18:14:54

 Notes on Contributors

Aili Bresnahan is Associate Professor of Philosophy at the University of Dayton (USA). She
specializes in aesthetics, particularly in applied philosophy of dance, improvisation,
interpretation, and the philosophy of mind and motor cognition as it relates to the per-
forming arts. She is also the founder and moderator of Dance Philosophers, an inter-
disciplinary research and networking Google group. More information can be found
on her professional website: https://​www.artistsmatter.com. Contact:abresnahan1@
udayton.edu.
Peter Cheyne is Associate Professor at Shimane University, and Visiting Fellow in Philosophy
at Durham University. He is leading two international projects, one on the Aesthetics
of Perfection and Imperfection, the other on the Seventeenth-​to Nineteenth-​Century
Philosophy of the Life Sciences. Published in journals including Intellectual History
Review and the Journal of Philosophy of Life, and editor and co-​author of Coleridge
and Contemplation (OUP, 2017), he recently completed a monograph on Coleridge’s
Contemplative Philosophy (OUP, forthcoming 2020).
Martin Clayton is Professor in Ethnomusicology at Durham University. His publications
include Time in Indian Music (OUP, 2000) and Experience and Meaning in Music
Performance (OUP, 2013, co-​edited with Laura Leante and Byron Dueck). He is cur-
rently pursuing research on entrainment in musical performance within Durham’s
Music and Science Lab (https://​musicscience.net).
Víctor Durà-​Vilà is Lecturer at the University of Leeds. In aesthetics, he works on Humean
aesthetics, aesthetic experience, ethics and aesthetics, aesthetic cognitivism, as well
as on interdisciplinary projects in music and dance. Other research interests include
applied ethics (parental obligations; autonomy and paternalism) and philosophy of
physics. His work has been published in journals such as Analysis, Journal of Value
Inquiry, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, and British Journal of Aesthetics.
Jason Gaiger is Associate Professor of Contemporary Art History and Theory at the Ruskin
School of Art and a Fellow of St. Edmund Hall at the University of Oxford. His prin-
cipal research interests are in aesthetics and art theory from the mid-​seventeenth cen-
tury through to the present day; he also works on theories of depiction and visual
meaning, and on twentieth-​century and contemporary art practice and theory.
Ted Gracyk teaches philosophy at Minnesota State University Moorhead, and is co-​editor
of the Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. He is the author of several philosoph-
ical books on music, including Rhythm and Noise: An Aesthetics of Rock Music (Duke
University Press, 1996), Listening to Popular Music (University of Michigan Press,
2007), and On Music (Routledge, 2013). With Andrew Kania, he co-​edited The

00_oso-9780199347773_FM.indd 17 16-Oct-19 18:14:54

 xviii Notes on Contributors

Routledge Companion to Philosophy and Music (Routledge, 2011). Most recently, he

co-​authored Jazz and the Philosophy of Art (Routledge, 2018).
Garry L. Hagberg is James H. Ottaway Professor of Philosophy and Aesthetics at Bard
College. Author of numerous papers at the intersection of aesthetics and the philosophy
of language, his books include Art as Language: Wittgenstein, Meaning, and Aesthetic
Theory (Cornell University Press, 1995), and Describing Ourselves: Wittgenstein
and Autobiographical Consciousness (OUP, 2008). He is editor of Art and Ethical
Criticism (Wiley Blackwell, 2008); Fictional Characters, Real Problems (OUP, 2016);
and Wittgenstein on Aesthetic Understanding (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017). Editor
of the journal Philosophy and Literature, Hagberg is currently writing Living in
Words: Literature, Autobiographical Language, and the Composition of Selfhood.
Jason David Hall is Associate Professor of English at the University of Exeter. He has written
the books Seamus Heaney: Poet, Critic, Translator (Palgrave Macmillan, 2007),
Seamus Heaney’s Rhythmic Contract (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), and Nineteenth-​
Century Verse and Technology: Machines of Meter (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), and is
contributing author and editor of Meter Matters: Verse Cultures of the Long Nineteenth
Century (Ohio University Press, 2011) and Decadent Poetics: Literature and Form at
the British Fin de Siecle (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013, with co-​editor Alex Murray).
Andy Hamilton teaches Philosophy at Durham University, UK. He specializes in aesthetics,
philosophy of mind, political philosophy, and history of nineteenth-​and twentieth-​
century philosophy, especially Wittgenstein. His books are Aesthetics and Music
(Continuum, 2007), The Self in Question: Memory, the Body and Self-​Consciousness
(Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), and Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Wittgenstein
and On Certainty (Routledge, 2014). He also teaches aesthetics and history of jazz at
Durham, and published Lee Konitz: Conversations on the Improviser’s Art (University
of Michigan Press, 2007).
Christopher Hasty is Walter W. Naumburg Professor of Music at Harvard University where
he teaches music theory. His research interests center on questions of time and rhythm
understood from perspectives of process and event formation. Recent publications
include essays in Thought and Play in Musical Rhythm: Multidimensional Perspectives
on African, Asian, and EuroAmerican Musics (co-​edited with Richard Wolf and Steven
Blum, OUP, 2019) and an essay on “Time” in The Oxford Handbook of Western Music
and Philosophy (ed. McAuley, Nielsen, and Levinson, OUP, 2020).
John Holliday has a PhD in philosophy from the University of Maryland and is currently
Lecturer in the Philosophy Department at Stanford University, where he supports
Stanford’s initiative in Philosophy and Literature. His research centers on issues of
literary value and has appeared in the British Journal of Aesthetics and the Journal of
Aesthetics and Art Criticism.
Salomé Jacob holds a PhD on philosophy from the University of Durham. Her research
lies at the intersection between philosophy of perception, aesthetics, and phenome-
nology. She focuses on the nature of musical movement.
Jenny Judge is PhD candidate in philosophy at NYU. She also holds a PhD in musicology
from the University of Cambridge, as well as degrees from University College Cork

00_oso-9780199347773_FM.indd 18 16-Oct-19 18:14:54

 Notes on Contributors xix

and the Cork School of Music. Her research explores the resonances between mu-
sical experience and the philosophy of mind. Her doctoral dissertation defends and
elaborates the thesis that music represents attitudes. Judge is also an active musician.
Justin London is Andrew W. Mellon Professor of Music, Cognitive Science, and the
Humanities at Carleton College (USA). He received his PhD from the University of
Pennsylvania where he worked with Leonard Meyer. His research interests include
rhythm and timing in non-​Western music, beat perception, sensorimotor synchro-
nization and joint action, and musical aesthetics. He has served as President of the
Society for Music Theory (2007–​9) and President of the Society for Music Perception
and Cognition (2016–​18).
David Macarthur is Associate Professor at the University of Sydney. He has published
articles on liberal naturalism, pragmatism, metaphysical quietism, skepticism,
common sense, Wittgenstein’s philosophy of language, perception, and philosophy
of art—​especially concerning architecture, photography, and film. He has co-​edited
three collections of papers with Mario De Caro: Naturalism in Question (Harvard
University Press, 2004); Naturalism and Normativity (Columbia University Press,
2010); and Philosophy in an Age of Science (Harvard University Press, 2012); and re-
cently edited Hilary and Ruth-​Anna Putnam, Pragmatism as a Way of Life (Harvard
University Press, 2017).
Will Montgomery teaches contemporary poetry at Royal Holloway, University of London.
He is the author of The Poetry of Susan Howe (Palgrave, 2010); co-​edited (with Robert
Hampson) Frank O’Hara Now (Liverpool University Press, 2010); and co-​edited (with
Stephen Benson) Writing the Field Recording (Edinburgh University Press, 2018); and
has published numerous articles on contemporary and twentieth-​century poetry. His
monograph on short form in American poetry is forthcoming. He has a long-​standing
involvement in experimental music and field recording and has released several CDs.
Matthew Nudds is Professor of Philosophy and Chair of the Faculty of Social Sciences at the
University of Warwick. His work is principally in the philosophy of perception and he
has a particular interest in the non-​visual senses and auditory perception.
Max Paddison is Emeritus Professor of Music Aesthetics at the University of Durham. He
works in critical theory, philosophy, contemporary music, and popular music. His
publications include Adorno’s Aesthetics of Music (CUP, 1993), Adorno, Modernism
and Mass Culture (Kahn & Averill, 1996), and Contemporary Music: Theoretical and
Philosophical Perspectives (co-​edited with Irène Deliège, Ashgate, 2010). He has re-
cently contributed essays to The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Theory (Palgrave
Macmillan, 2017), The Routledge Companion to the Frankfurt School (Routledge, 2018),
and The Oxford Handbook of Western Music and Philosophy (forthcoming 2019).
Deniz Peters is Professor for Artistic Research in Music at the University of Music and
Performing Arts Graz, Austria, where he also directs the Doctoral School for Artistic
Research. His research concerns philosophical questions, such as the concept of mu-
sical expression, listening modes, ensemble empathy, and the epistemic potential of
artistic research through music. His explorative pianistic practice is part of his re-
search method.

00_oso-9780199347773_FM.indd 19 16-Oct-19 18:14:54

 xx Notes on Contributors

Peter Simons is Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at Trinity College Dublin. He is the au-
thor of the monograph Parts (OUP, 2000) and some 300 essays on pure and applied
ontology, philosophy of language, logic and mathematics, the history of early analytic
philosophy and of Central European philosophy (mainly Austrian and Polish) in the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries. He is a member of the British, European, Irish,
and Polish Academies.
Michael Spitzer is Professor of Music at the University of Liverpool and Editorial Chair of the
Society for Music Analysis. He inaugurated the International Conferences on Music
and Emotion (Durham, 2009), and co-​organized the International Conference on the
Analysis of Popular Music (Liverpool, 2013). His publications explore interactions be-
tween music theory, philosophy, and psychology, and include Metaphor and Musical
Thought (Chicago University Press, 2004); Music as Philosophy (Indiana University
Press, 2006); A History of Emotion in Western Music (OUP, forthcoming 2020); and
The Musical Human (Bloomsbury, forthcoming 2021).
Roger Squires works in areas opened up by the mid-​twentieth-​century revolution in
philosophy of mind brought about by Wittgenstein and Ryle. Publications in-
clude: “Depicting,” Philosophy, 44 (1969); “Memory Unchained,” Philosophical Review,
77.2 (1969); “On One’s Mind,” Philosophical Quarterly, 20 (1970); “Silent Soliloquy,”
Understanding Wittgenstein, Royal Institute of Philosophy Lectures, 7 (1973); “The
Problem of Dreams,” Philosophy, 48 (1973); “Mental Arithmetic,” Ratio, 1 (1994).
Alison Stone is Professor of European Philosophy at Lancaster University. She is the au-
thor of Petrified Intelligence: Nature in Hegel’s Philosophy (University of Notre Dame
Press, 2004), Luce Irigaray and the Philosophy of Sexual Difference (CUP, 2006), An
Introduction to Feminist Philosophy (Polity, 2007), Feminism, Psychoanalysis and
Maternal Subjectivity (Routledge, 2011), and The Value of Popular Music (Palgrave
Macmillan, 2016). She edited the Edinburgh Critical History of Nineteenth-​Century
Philosophy (Edinburgh University Press, 2011) and co-​ edited the Routledge
Companion to Feminist Philosophy (Routledge, 2017).
Michael Tenzer is Professor of Music at the University of British Columbia. His books in-
clude Gamelan Gong Kebyar: The Art of Twentieth Century Balinese Music (Chicago
University Press, 2000) and the edited volumes Analytical Studies in World Music (OUP,
2006) and Analytical and Cross Cultural Studies in World Music (OUP, 2011, with co-​
editor John Roeder). His compositions are available on New World and Cantaloupe
Records. Recent articles include the cross-​cultural study of world “Polyphony” in the
Oxford Handbook of Critical Concepts in Music Theory (OUP, 2018).
Matthew Tugby is Associate Professor at Durham University. He has published on a
range of topics in contemporary metaphysics and co-​ edited Metaphysics and
Science (OUP, 2013).
Rebecca Wallbank is PhD candidate in the Philosophy Department at Uppsala University,
specializing in aesthetics and the philosophy of art. In addition to research on rhythm
and the philosophy of literature she also has strong interest in the philosophy of trust
and its relation to aesthetic testimony. She is Editorial Assistant to the British Journal
of Aesthetics.

00_oso-9780199347773_FM.indd 20 16-Oct-19 18:14:54

 Notes on Contributors xxi

Udo Will is Professor of cognitive ethnomusicology at The Ohio State University. He has
studied music, sociology, and neuroscience, holds a PhD in both musicology and neu-
robiology, and his research focuses on cognitive aspects of music performances in oral
cultures. He leads projects on physiological entrainment to music, on cultural effects
on cognitive processing of prosodic components in music and language in Asian and
African tone language cultures, and on cross-​cultural studies of rhythm perception,
movement and the concept of time.
Rachael Wiseman is Lecturer in Philosophy at University of Liverpool. She works on
Wittgenstein, early analytic philosophy, and philosophy of mind, action, and ethics,
and wrote the Routledge Guidebook to Anscombe’s Intention (Routledge, 2016).
Her articles have been published in the Journal of Philosophy, American Catholic
Philosophical Quarterly, and Philosophical Topics.

00_oso-9780199347773_FM.indd 21 16-Oct-19 18:14:55

 OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – REVISES, Tue Sep 03 2019, NEWGEN

Introduction
Philosophy of Rhythm

Peter Cheyne, Andy Hamilton, and Max Paddison

This volume brings together philosophical and empirical approaches to offer critical
perspectives on the philosophy of rhythm. The editors have not imposed theoretical
or interpretational prescriptions, except that contributors should examine concrete
manifestations of rhythm in the various arts and in human activity. Our aim is to
locate fruitful questions and stimulate lively discussion of them. Contributors offer
definitions and theories of rhythm in music and prosody that are often opposed,
referring to meter, pulse, stress, and accent as constituent elements of rhythm, or
at least as key concepts in understanding it; lines of dispute are examined from dif-
ferent perspectives throughout the book. As well as examining the case of music,
essays explore possibilities or hypotheses of rhythm in non-​musical and non-​
prosodic (non-​poetic) arts.
As the essays are generally contemporary in scope, Section 1 outlines some key
points in the history of rhythm in philosophy, not in the pretence of providing a
comprehensive survey in such a short space, but to offer some historical precedents
for the problems addressed. Section 2 discusses the extent of recent attention to
rhythm and the puzzling neglect of the field, especially in philosophy. Section 3
gives an outline of the chapters, describing the conceptual space of the book.

1. Historical Considerations

Recent neglect notwithstanding, philosophical traditions have long acknowledged

the importance of rhythm across the arts and in everyday life. However defined,
it is readily agreed that rhythm is fundamental to those arts that directly involve
duration and temporality: dance, music, drama, and recited poetry. These arts
were closely associated in classical Greece. They all include rhythm, the animating,
flowing factor it is the purpose of this book to explore, along with the associated
phenomena of movement, measure, pattern, and repetition.
Before Parmenides and Plato, Heraclitus ascribed to rhythm a universal sig-
nificance in holding that “everything flows [panta rhei].” This stream of thought

Peter Cheyne, Andy Hamilton, and Max Paddison, Dialogue on Rhythm In: The Philosophy of Rhythm. Edited by:
Peter Cheyne, Andy Hamilton, and Max Paddison. Oxford University Press (2019). © Oxford University Press.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780199347773.001.0001

/17_revised_proof/revises_i/files_to_typesetting/
01_oso-9780199347773_Part-1.indd 1 16-Oct-19 18:14:38
validation
 OUP UNCORRECTED PROOF – REVISES, Tue Sep 03 2019, NEWGEN

2 The Philosophy of Rhythm

continues in contemporary process philosophy, influencing thinkers, including

some in this book, who employ the concept of rhythm as flow. Less cosmic, more
socio-​cultural, Plato’s consideration of rhythm, in contrast, focuses primarily on
music and its effects on culture and mood. In the Republic, he has Socrates discuss
the various rhythms and regulations of meter as modeling different virtues (coura-
geous, self-​controlled, active, graceful) and vices (lamenting, drunken, idle, grace-
less), reprising the theme in his later dialogue, the Laws. It is also in the Laws—​in a
discussion of the ability to control and order one’s bodily movements and speech—​
that Plato has “the Athenian” give the definition by which: “Order within move-
ment is called ‘rhythm.’ ”1
A core motivation for this collection of essays is to explore rhythm across the
arts. Connections between the different arts are addressed in Aristotle’s Poetics via
three related concepts: mimēsis, metaphora, and poiēsis. Aristotle saw mimesis as
a dynamic, performative impulse to “mimic” actions, processes, emotions, and
gestures through different media and art forms. Mimesis, he said, “is natural to us,”
and in the opening pages of the Poetics he specifically refers to rhythm as a medium
for mimesis:

the medium of imitation [mimēsis] is rhythm, language, and melody, but these
may be employed either separately or in combination. For example, music for
pipe and lyre . . . uses melody and rhythm only, while dance uses rhythm by itself
and without melody (since dancers too imitate character, emotion and action by
means of rhythm expressed in movement).2

Clearly, Aristotle describes our capacity for an embodied mimesis that enables us to
move rhythmically in space and move together in time with others. His discussion
links music, poetry, and dance and anticipates the theory of entrainment discussed
in several contributions to this volume.
Another theme in this book is the contemporary debate between proponents of
the dynamic thesis, who hold that music literally moves, and those on the other
side, who conform to the thesis that movement in music is metaphorical. We return
to this debate in Section 2, but should note here the three categories of rhythm dis-
tinguished by Aristides Quintilianus in his Peri musikês:

The term ‘rhythm’ is used in three ways. It is applied to bodies that do not move, as
when we speak of a statue having ‘good rhythm’; to anything that moves, as when
we speak of someone walking with ‘good rhythm’; and it has a specific application
to sound . . . . [viz.] a systēma of durations [chronoi] put together in some kind of
order.3

1 Plato, Republic, Bk 3, 397a–​401a; Laws, Bk 7, 798d–​802e; Laws, Bk 2, 665a.

2 Aristotle, Poetics, 3–​4.
3 Aristides, On Music, Bk 1, Ch. 13.

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Introduction 3

For Aristides, then, rhythm applies to proportionality in static objects, physical

movement, and music. Distinguishing rhythm in things that move from rhythm in
music, it seems he stands on the movement-​as-​metaphor rather than the dynamic
side of the debate.
Philosophical theories of rhythm in the modern era include Rousseau in
the eighteenth century, with his entry on rhythm in Diderot and d’Alembert’s
Encyclopedia (1751), and his later Dictionary of Music (1768).4 In the Encylopedia
he states that:

Rhythm can be defined generally as the proportion that the parts of a measure,
parts of a movement, or even parts of a whole have with each other: in music it is
the difference in movement which results from speed or slowness, from respective
length or brevity of the notes.5

In 1802 (though published posthumously, another half-​century later), Schelling

proposed that art first “breaks through into the world of representation” via the
expression in music of “the primal rhythm of nature.”6 It is, he claimed, “through
rhythm” that humans “impose variety or diversity onto everything,” thereby finding
pleasure in “an entire unity within a particular multiplicity,” often transforming “an
essentially meaningless succession into a meaningful one.”7 Schelling thus argued
that with rhythm music transforms the atomic or disparate into the organic, its
basic units forming larger groups which in turn cohere in a variegated whole. In
its articulative capacity to transform experience, rhythm is, in Schelling’s view,
the dominant of the three powers in music—​rhythm, melody, and modulation.
Because articulating or “informing . . . unity into multiplicity” is for him the essence
of music, and since rhythm effects “this informing within music itself,” he concludes
that “Rhythm is the music within music.”
Nietzsche’s early lecture “Rhythmic Researches” (1870–​2) distinguished what
he saw as Greek mathematical rhythms from the fluid, living rhythms of the body,
anticipating his influential Apollonian–​ Dionysian distinction.8 Influenced by
Schopenhauer, who distinguished music as “entirely apart” from all other arts in
reaching further than mimetic representation and into a “serious and deeper sig-
nificance . . . referring to the innermost essence of the world and of our selves,”9
Nietzsche finds the primality of will in rhythm and dance. Thus this philosopher,
for whom “Without music life would be an error,”10 affirms the Dionysian necessity
of rhythm: one must dance to enter fully, bodily, into the life of the world. Thus too
he declared: “I would only believe in a god who knew how to dance.”11
4 Rousseau, Dictionnaire.
5 Rousseau, “Rhythme.”
6 Schelling, Philosophy of Art, 17.
7 Schelling, Philosophy of Art, 110–​11.
8 Elaine P. Miller, “Harnessing Dionysus.”
9 Schopenhauer, Will and Presentation, 306.
10 Nietzsche, Twilight of the Idols, 10 (“Epigrams and Arrows” §33).
11 Nietzsche, Thus Spake Zarathustra, 29.

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4 The Philosophy of Rhythm

Drawing from such nineteenth-​century sources, Bergson’s distinctly modernist

writings on time, duration, and continuity had a remarkable influence on music and
philosophy in France from the 1890s up to the 1930s. The phenomenologist Gaston
Bachelard’s The Dialectic Of Duration (1936; revised 1950), for example, arose from
a critique of Bergson’s concepts of duration and continuity. Against Bergson’s no-
tion of continuity, and indeed against the tradition that since the ancient Greek
philosophers has regarded musical rhythm and melody as “flow,” Bachelard argues
that “music’s action is discontinuous; it is our emotional resonance that gives it con-
tinuity.”12 Bachelard regards continuity and duration in music as an elaborate meta-
phor “reconstructed in reverse” by the experiencing subject.

2. Recent Times: Attention and Neglect

Given its importance in ancient and modern philosophy, the neglect of rhythm as
an area of inquiry in contemporary philosophical aesthetics is puzzling. This lack of
interest is not only from aesthetics, however. Poetics is also marked by a neglect of
rhythm; there is a corresponding lack of interest from prosody, the area of linguis-
tics concerned with patterns of stress and intonation. In the case of musicology, the
neglect has been relatively less evident but nevertheless noticeable, given that, in
contrast to popular music, rock music, and jazz, the dominant focus in the theory
and analysis of Western art music has tended to be on the parameter of pitch in rela-
tion to harmony, as opposed to rhythm as such.
Grosvenor Cooper and Leonard B. Meyer’s groundbreaking work on rhythmic
structure commented on the “moribund state” of its topic.13 Subsequently,
Christopher Hasty, in an ambitious work, analyzed the experience of music as an
irreducibly temporal phenomenon, as opposed to the spatialized representation
assumed by many theorists and by ordinary thinking.14 Philosophically influenced
by William James, phenomenologists such as Edmund Husserl, and process
thinkers such as Henri Bergson and A. N. Whitehead, Hasty argued that music
should be regarded as a process of becoming rather than a record of what has be-
come, rejecting the image of meter as an artifact of a system of representation—​that
is, of notation.
There has also been a neglect of the relationship of rhythm and larger-​scale form
and structure. Aspects of this relationship occur in the work of Heinrich Koch in
the eighteenth century, as Michael Spitzer has observed.15 In non-​Western music
theory and practice, however, notably that of North Indian classical music, rhythm
and its relation to extended improvisation has an ancient and long-​standing,

12 Bachelard, The Dialectic of Duration, 124.

13 Cooper and Meyer, Rhythmic Structure of Music.
14 Hasty, Meter as Rhythm.
15 Spitzer, Metaphor and Musical Thought, 69, further discussed at 243–​59.

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Introduction 5

fundamental significance, as has been emphasized by Martin Clayton’s work on the

relation of meter, duration, and structure in this tradition.16
In English-​language philosophy, John Dewey, Leonard B. Meyer, Roger Scruton,
Andy Hamilton, and Andrew Kania are among the small number of philosophers
to address rhythm to any great extent. This blind spot is particularly unfortunate
because rhythm is a phenomenon that is immediately evident to everyone, and is a
topic on which philosophical progress can be made without expert technical know-
ledge. The need for greater attention to rhythm provides a major motivation for this
volume, which sets out to rectify the oversight. We have sought to do this not only
through commissioning contributions from philosophical aesthetics, but also—​
albeit with a philosophical perspective—​from other disciplines like neuroscience,
psychology, musicology, ethnomusicology, poetics, literary studies, dance, and art
history. In taking an interdisciplinary approach, this volume facilitates lines of in-
quiry that investigate whether rhythm (and related concepts including meter and
duration) should be restricted to music, dance, and poetry, or, by contrast, should
be extended to non-​poetic literature and theatre, as well as painting and the visual
arts, and also architecture.
The attempt to apply the concept of rhythm across the arts raises problematic
philosophical issues, and the term “metaphor” is often employed rather loosely. It is,
in any case, hard to define. Might there remain in all the arts something—​perhaps
even some dimension, such as movement, the immediately spatial, or the immedi-
ately temporal—​that can only be discussed in metaphorical terms? This suggestion
raises a number of interesting further questions in relation to rhythm and has led to
much recent debate. Music is a time-​based art and has duration, but can we say that
music really moves, and if so, what does talk of “movement in musical space” mean?
The debate arises among those who hold movement in music to be metaphorical—​
such writers include Roger Scruton, who draws from Victor Zuckerkandl. Scruton
concludes that the sense of movement is, though vastly important, only metaphor-
ical in terms of the physical space in which bodies move, that is, the sounds of music
“are ordered in space only apparently, and not in fact.”17 Zuckerkandl’s position
involves the further sophistication that while, as he concludes, music transcends
physical and geometrical space, it does not transcend spatiality completely, for it
testifies to a space that remains in the absence of physical objects and geometry.18
What can be said today of rhythm in arts besides music? In the case of poetry—​
and indeed literature in general—​one can say that duration is involved, in that it
takes time to read it, but, as with music, what might be meant by movement in po-
etic or literary space? The visual arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture, which
literally occupy space, also endure through time, and take time to view and walk
around or within—​but are they generically different in terms of temporality from

16 Clayton, Time in Indian Music.

17 Scruton, Aesthetics of Music, 14.
18 Zuckerkandl, Sound and Symbol, 292.

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6 The Philosophy of Rhythm

artworks that take time to unfold in their entirety, such as performed music and
recited poetry? These questions are taken up in a number of essays in this volume.
Simply to say that we can discuss an “absent dimension” only metaphorically is
also to underestimate the importance of metaphor in its relation to mimesis and
poiesis (creative, artistic production), whether in our experience of the arts and of
nature (which has traditionally been the domain of aesthetics), in our attempts to
understand, explain, and interpret the arts (which is the domain of hermeneutics),
or in the making of art (which was traditionally the domain of poetics). As Aristotle
says: “A metaphor is the application of a [word] which properly applies to some-
thing else.”19 He refers to metaphor as a “transference” from one sphere to which it
belongs to another where it is not normally encountered.
Thus this collection aims to provide both an overview of an often neglected but
vital aspect of aesthetic experience, and an examination of formal affinities be-
tween historically interconnected fields of music, dance, poetry and literature,
and also the visual and spatial arts, addressing key concepts such as embodiment,
movement, entrainment, and performance. We have attempted to avoid an over-​
emphasis on music, and have sought also to stress structural parallels between dif-
ferent art forms and their aesthetics. An essential aim has been intelligibility across
disciplines. While the volume draws on a wide range of disciplines, contributors
were encouraged to present their ideas non-​technically as far as possible, and to
engage in cross-​disciplinary dialogue, in part through the insights of philosophical
aesthetics.

3. Outline of Chapters

Enhancing its interdisciplinary ambition, this book is organized not territorially,

into academic disciplines, but thematically, into aspects and questions concerning
rhythm. With this arrangement, the editors not only encourage connections be-
tween the disciplines and a closer exchange of perspectives, but also see a concep-
tual map of the philosophy of rhythm taking shape. The five thematic parts that
make up the volume arose naturally, as the project progressed, revealing a spread
of concerns among current scholars regarding rhythm, suggesting also the shape of
the conceptual space itself.
Part One, “Movement and Stasis,” addresses conceptual questions that in-
clude: Does rhythm necessarily involve movement, or is this a matter of metaphor
only? Is rhythm as a literal phenomenon restricted to human activities and actions,
or does it extend to natural and mechanical phenomena such as ocean waves and
the sound of a train on a track? How is rhythm experienced through the senses—​is
it recognized or projected?

19 Aristotle, Poetics, 34.

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Fig. 143.—Usnea barbata: s ascocarp. (Slightly magnified.)
 Fig. 144.—Cladonia pyxidata.

Sub-Class 2. Basidiomycetes.
This sub-class embraces the most highly developed Fungi, with
large “fruit-bodies,” which in ordinary language we shortly term
Funguses, Toadstools, or Mushrooms.
They have no sporangia, but reproduce only by means of
basidiospores, conidia, chlamydospores and oidia. The chief
characteristic of this sub-class is the basidium (Fig. 145), i.e. the
conidiophore, which has a distinctive form, and bears a definite
number (generally 4) of characteristically shaped conidia
(basidiospores, Fig. 145 c, d, e).
 Fig. 145.—Development of spores in Corticium.
The summit of each basidium is produced generally into four
conical points (sterigmata, Fig. 145 b), from each of which a
basidiospore is abstricted. The basidia may be classified into three
principal groups, each of which accompanies a distinctive
conidiophore: 1, the long, filamentous, transversely divided basidia,
with lateral sterigmata and spores, found in the Uredinaceæ (Figs.
146 D, 153), Auriculariaceæ (Fig. 160 B), and Pilacraceæ; 2, the
spherical, longitudinally divided basidia of the Tremellaceæ (Figs.
160 C d; 161 iii. iv.); and 3, the ovoid, or cylindrical, undivided
basidia of the Autobasidiomycetes (Figs. 145, 163, etc.); the two last
have apical sterigmata and spores.
The first two groups are the septate basidia (protobasidia), of the
Protobasidiomycetes; while the unseptate basidia (autobasidia) of the
Autobasidiomycetes are the third group. On the formation of the basidiospores, the
nucleus of the basidium divides into four nuclei, each of which is transferred to a
spore.
 In addition to the basidia, simple conidiophores are also found. In
the Protobasidiomycetes, the simple conidia are very generally found
as accessory methods of reproduction in conjunction with the
basidiospores; but less frequently in the Autobasidiomycetes, e.g.
among the Dacryomycetes, Tomentellaceæ, Heterobasidion
annosum.
The simple conidiophores vary in size, and in the number and shape of the
conidia; they, however, resemble the basidia, and are doubtless an early stage in
the development of the definitely formed basidia.
Finally, well-defined chlamydospores, formed in various ways,
appear in the Basidiomycetes as supplementary reproductive bodies
(compare p. 90). Among the Protobasidiomycetes, chlamydospores
are at present only found among the Uredinaceæ, but in various
forms; in the majority of families of the Autobasidiomycetes oidia
frequently occur (Fig. 162), but genuine chlamydospores seldom.
In the same species several of the known forms of reproduction
may be distinguished.
The mycelium is generally composed of white, branched strands,
consisting of numerous felted hyphæ; in some, sclerotia are found.—
The great majority are saprophytes; some (particularly all the
Uredinaceæ), are parasites.

Divisions of the Basidiomycetes.

Series 1. Protobasidiomycetes: partly gymnocarpic, partly angiocarpic.

„ 2. Autobasidiomycetes.
Family 1. Dacryomycetes: gymnocarpic.
„ 2. Hymenomycetes: partly gymnocarpic, partly
hemiangiocarpic.
„ 3. Phalloideæ: hemiangiocarpic.
„ 4. Gasteromycetes: angiocarpic.
Appended. Basidiolichenes: Lichen-forming basidiomycetes.

Series I. Protobasidiomycetes.
To this series belong the lowest of the Basidiomycetes. The
basidia appear in two principal forms (1 and 2 on page 144) and are
divided into four cells, either transversely or longitudinally, each
division forming a sterigma which abstricts a basidiospore. The first
three orders, Uredinaceæ, Auriculariaceæ, and Tremellaceæ have
gymnocarpic fruit-bodies, while those of the Pilacraceæ, on the
contrary, are angiocarpic.
Order 1. Uredinaceæ (Rusts). All the Rust-Fungi are parasites,
their mycelium living in the interior of the stems and leaves of their
hosts, causing red, brown, or black spots—hence their name—and
malformations, sometimes of considerable size.
The Rust-Fungi are gymnocarpic and destitute of a hymenium; for
these reasons they are regarded as the simplest order of the
Basidiomycetes. They are entirely parasitic, and their filamentous,
branched mycelium ramifies in the intercellular spaces of its host,
and often protrudes haustoria into the cells. The mycelium is
perennial should it enter a woody tissue; it may also hibernate in the
rhizomes of perennial herbs and permeate the shoots springing from
them, but in the majority of the Rust-Fungi the mycelium has a very
limited growth. The chief means of reproduction of the Rust-Fungi
are the chlamydospores, which in the more highly developed species
occur in three forms, namely, the teleuto-, æcidio-, and uredo-
spores. The spores, in the host, are formed immediately beneath its
epidermis, which is ruptured on the ripening of the spores, with the
production of “rust,” brown, red, or black spots. Those
chlamydospores which produce basidia are termed teleutospores.
The spore on germination produces a transversely divided basidium,
“promycelium,” on which basidiospores, “sporidia,” generally four in
number, are produced on lateral sterigmata. This basidio-
fructification is gymnocarpic; the basidia neither form a hymenium
nor a fruit-body (only Cronartium and Gymnosporangium have a
slight indication of a basidio-fructification).
Many Rust-Fungi, in addition to basidiospores, have small,
unicellular conidia, “spermatia,” which are borne in conidiocarps,
“spermogonia.”
The TELEUTOSPORES (Winter-spores) may be either unicellular or
multicellular; in the majority of cases they are enclosed in a hard
outer cell-wall, the exospore, which in some cases is very strongly
developed; they have also a long or short stalk, the remains of the
spore-bearing hypha. Each cell of the teleutospore has one germ-
pore (a thin portion of the wall, for the protrusion of the germ-tube; in
Phragmidium and Gymnosporangium there are, however, several
germ-pores). The colour of the teleutospores is generally much
darker than that of the uredospores, and it is by these that the
majority of the Rust-Fungi hibernate.
In Gymnosporangium, two kinds of teleutospores are found (distinguished by
their size and thickness of exospore). In many species of Puccinia, the form of the
teleutospores varies very much, so that in the same layer spores have been
observed with the characteristic form of other, allied genera.—The teleutospores of
Endophyllum resemble æcidiospores, since they are united in chains, whose cells
are easily separated, and are produced in the interior of a “peridium.” The
multicellular teleutospores of Coleosporium function as basidia, and from each cell
immediately produce basidiospores.—The teleutospores of Coleosporium and
Chrysomyxa, differ from other teleutospores in the absence of exospore and germ-
pore.
The æcidospores (Spring-spores) are produced in chains which
are generally enclosed in an envelope of hyphæ, the peridium; the
peridium enclosing the spores being termed the æcidium. The
æcidiospores are unicellular, and generally of an orange colour; they
are often separated by intermediate cells which wither and so assist
in the distribution of the spores. The exospore is made up of minute,
radially arranged rods. Generally germination proceeds immediately,
the æcidiospore producing a germ-tube, which developes into a
mycelium bearing either uredo- or teleutospores.
The æcidia of many Rust-Fungi were formerly considered as distinct genera.
The æcidia of Phragmidium, Triphragmium, and Melampsora, in which the
peridium is wanting, were in part considered as Cæoma. The æcidia with fimbriate
edge, or those of Gymnosporangium with longitudinal lattice-like splits, were
considered as “Rœstelia” (Lattice-Rust); large, sac-shaped æcidia on the Coniferæ
were known as Peridermium.
The UREDOSPORES (Summer-spores) are unicellular and arise
singly, seldom in chains (Coleosporium). Their colourless, warty
exospore bears, in the equatorial plane, 2–8 germ-pores. In the
majority, germination proceeds immediately, and a mycelium is
produced which at first gives rise to uredospores and afterwards to
teleutospores.
The uredospore-formations of Melampsorella and Cronartium are enclosed in
an envelope, and hence resemble æcidia.—Between the uredospores sterile,
unicellular hyphæ (paraphyses) may be found.
The spermogonia are spherical or pear-shaped conidiocarps,
generally embedded in the substratum, and are produced before the
æcidia, before or simultaneously with the uredospores, or before the
teleutospores. The conidia, as far as observations go, do not
generally germinate under ordinary conditions.
Among the Rust-Fungi some species are found which only form
basidiospores and teleutospores (Puccinia malvacearum,
Chrysomyxa abietis). Other species have in addition uredospores;
others spermogonia and uredospores; others spermogonia and
æcidia; others spermogonia, uredospores and æcidia. Those
species in which all the methods of reproduction are not developed
must not be considered as incomplete forms.
As a rule the mycelium, which is produced from the
basidiospores, developes æcidia; in the species, however, without
æcidia, it developes the uredo-form, and when the uredospores are
also absent, the teleutospore-form. It has been established in some
species of Puccinia and Uromyces that the formation of æcidia can
be suppressed, and it is not a necessary part of the cycle of
development of the species.
The majority of Rust-Fungi hibernate in the teleutospore-form. Many species
are able to hibernate in the uredospore-form (Coleosporium senecionis). Others
pass the winter in the æcidio-form, and develope æcidia on new hosts (Uromyces
pisi, on Euphorbia cyparissias; Phragmidium subcorticium, on Rosa; Æcidium
elatinum, on Abies alba). In Chrysomyxa abietis, the mycelium, developed from
the basidiospores, survives the winter.
Among the Rust-Fungi, with several forms of reproduction, there
are about sixty whose development can only be completed by an
alternation of hosts, that is, on one host only uredo-and
teleutospores are produced, while the further development of the
germinating basidiospores, and the formation of the æcidia and
spermogonia from its mycelium, can only take place on a second
quite distinct and definite host (heterœcious or metoxenous Fungi).
Those Fungi which have all their forms of reproduction on the same
host are termed autœcious or autoxenous. It is not, however, always
necessary that the heterœcious Rust-Fungi should regularly change
their hosts; for example, Puccinia graminis can hibernate in the
uredo-form on the wild Grasses, and in the spring can distribute itself
again in the same form.
As a consequence of the alternation of hosts the various forms of development
were considered as independent genera (Uredo, Æcidium, Rœstelia, Cæoma,
Peridermium), until De Bary and Oersted established, about the same time (1865),
the mutual connection of some forms, and paved the way for the right conception
of these Fungi.
Fig. 146.—Puccinia graminis.
 As an example of one of the most highly developed species,
Puccinia graminis, the “Rust of Wheat,” holds a prominent position.
Its uredospores and teleutospores are produced (Fig. 146) on
Grasses (on cereals, especially Wheat, Rye, Oats, and many wild
Grasses), while the æcidia and spermogonia are confined to the
Berberidaceæ. The teleutospores, developed on the Grasses,
hibernate on the dried portions of their host, and in the succeeding
year each of the two cells of the teleutospore may develop a
basidium with four basidiospores (Fig. 146 D, c). The basidiospores
are distributed by the wind, germinate quickly, and only proceed to
further development on Berberis or Mahonia. The germ-tube bores
through the epidermis of the Barberry-leaf, and forms a mycelium in
its interior, its presence being indicated by reddish-yellow spots on
the leaf. After 6–10 days the flask-shaped spermogonia appear (Fig.
147 B; C, a; conidia in Fig. 147 D) and a few days later the cup-
shaped æcidia (Fig. 147 A; C, c, d, e). The former are generally on
the upper, and the latter on the under side of the leaf. The orange-
coloured æcidiospores scatter like dust, and germinate only on
Grasses; the germination takes place in about two days when placed
on any green part of a Grass. The germ-tube enters the Grass-leaf
through a stoma; a mycelium is developed in the leaf, giving rise to a
small, oval, rust-coloured spot (Fig. 146 A); in about 6–9 days the
epidermis is ruptured over the red spot, and numerous reddish-
yellow uredospores, formed on the mycelium, are set free. The
uredospores (Fig. 146 B) are scattered by the wind, and can
germinate should they fall on the green portions of other Grasses:
they then emit 2–4 germ-tubes through the equatorially-placed germ-
pores. The germ-tubes enter a leaf through a stoma, a new
mycelium is then developed, and in about eight days a fresh
production of uredospores takes place, which germinate as before.
The uredospore-mycelium very soon produces, in addition, the
brown teleutospores, which give a brown colour to the rust-coloured
spots, the familiar uredospores on the cereals being quite
suppressed towards the close of the summer (Fig. 146 C, D). The
“Rust of Wheat” hibernates on some wild Grasses in the uredospore-
form.
 Fig. 147.—Æcidium berberidis. A Portion of lower surface of leaf of Barberry,
with cluster-cups (æcidia). B A small portion of leaf, with spermogonia, from
above. C Transverse section of leaf on the upper side, in the palisade parenchyma
are three spermogonia (a b); on the lower side an unripe æcidium (c d) and two
ripe æcidia (d, e, f); f chain of æcidiospores. D Hyphæ, forming conidia.
Genera. Puccinia (Fig. 146, 147) has bicellular teleutospores, each having a
germ-pore, and the æcidia when present have an indented peridium; some
species, as exceptions, have 1–3-celled teleutospores. Many species are
heterœcious, for example, P. graminis, described above; P. rubigo, which also
infests various Grasses, but whose æcidia appear on Anchusa; the masses of
teleutospores are small; they contain paraphyses, and are for a long time covered
by the epidermis. P. coronata, on Oats and Rye Grass; its æcidia on Rhamnus; the
teleutospores are surmounted by a crown—“coronate processes.” P. phragmitis,
on Reeds; æcidia on species of Rumex and Rheum. P. moliniæ, on Molinia
cœrulea; the æcidia on Orchids. P. poarum, on Meadow-Grass; æcidia on
Tussilago. Various Puccinias growing on species of Carex have their æcidia on
Urtica, Lysimachia, Cirsium, Pedicularis, etc.—Of those autœcious species,
which have all their generations on the same host, may be noted:—P. galii, P.
menthæ, P. violæ, P. epilobii, P. asparagi, which grow on the hosts from which they
have taken their specific names.—As representative of a group which have
spermogonia, uredo-and teleutospores on the same host, but on different
individuals, P. suaveolens, on the Field-Thistle, may be mentioned. The
spermogonia have a strong odour.—A peculiar group (Leptopuccinia) has only
teleutospores, which germinate immediately, and whilst still attached to their living
host. To this group belong P. arenariæ, on a number of Caryophyllaceæ; and P.
malvacearum, on various Malvaceæ, introduced in 1873 from South America to
Europe, where it soon proved very destructive to Hollyhocks.
Uromyces (Fig. 149) differs only from Puccinia in always having unicellular
teleutospores. Among this genus both heterœcious and autœcious species are
found. To the first group belong U. pisi, whose æcidia are found on Euphorbia
cyparissias, and U. dactylidis, whose æcidia appear on Ranunculus; to the second
group belong U. betæ, U. phaseoli, U. trifolii.
Triphragmium has teleutospores with three cells (one below and two above), on
Spiræa ulmaria.
Phragmidium (Fig. 150) has teleutospores consisting of a row of cells (3–10)
arranged in a straight line; the upper cell has one germ-pore and the others four
germ-pores placed equatorially. Both this and the preceding genus have large,
irregular æcidia without peridia, but often with bent, club-like paraphyses (150 b
and c); they are all autœcious, and are only found on the Rosaceæ.
 Fig. 148.—Gymnosporangium sabinæ. A small portion of the
epidermis of a Pear-leaf (a) pierced at b by the germinating
basidiospore (c).
 Fig. 149.—Uromyces genisteæ; a uredospore; b
teleutospore.
Endophyllum (see above, under teleutospores, p. 147) on species of
Sempervivum.
Gymnosporangium (Figs. 152, 154) has bicellular teleutospores collected in
large, gelatinous masses formed by the swelling of the long spore-stalks; in each
cell 2–4 germ-pores are found. Uredospores are wanting. All the species are
heterœcious; the teleutospores appear on Juniperus, the æcidia (Rœstelia) on the
Pomaceæ. G. sabinæ, on Juniperus sabina, J. virginiana, etc., has the æcidia
(“Rœstelia cancellata”) on Pyrus communis (Figs. 152, 148); G. juniperinum, on
Juniperus communis with “Rœstelia cornuta” (Fig. 154 a) on Sorbus aucuparia,
Aria nivea (S. aria) and Malus communis; G. clavariæforme on Juniperus
communis, the æcidium belonging to it (“Rœstelia lacerata”) on Cratægus
oxyacantha.
Melampsora has prismatic teleutospores placed parallel to each other and
forming a crustaceous layer; in many species they are divided longitudinally into
several cells (Fig. 151). The æcidia, without peridium, belonged to the old genus
Cæoma. M. caprearum, on Willows, has the æcidia (Cæoma euonymi) on
Euonymus. M. hartigii, on Osiers; the æcidium on Ribes. M. mixta, on Salix repens
and Orchids. M. pinitorqua, on leaves of the Aspen, æcidia on Pine branches (Pine
shoot fungus); M. populina on Populus monilifera and nigra; M. betulina (Fig. 153),
on Birch leaves; M. padi (Fig. 151), on leaves of Prunus padus, developes
teleutospores in the epidermal cells; M. lini is the cause of injury to the Flax; M.
agrimoniæ.
 Fig. 150.—Phragmidium gracile: a an uredospore; b and c
two paraphyses; d a young teleutospore; e a teleutospore
with a basidium and two basidiospores (s); f two series of
æcidiospores (Ph. rosæ).
Calyptospora gœppertiana; teleutospores on Vaccinium vitis idæa;
spermogonia and æcidia on Abies alba (Firneedle-Rust).
Coleosporium (Fig. 155) forms its uredospores in reddish-yellow chains; for the
teleutospores, see page 147. C. senecionis, on the Groundsel; its æcidium
(Peridermium wolffii) on Pine-leaves (Fig. 155 a). Other species on Sonchus,
Petasites, Campanula, Rhinanthaceæ.
Chrysomyxa (Fig. 156) has bright red, branched teleutospore-chains; each
spore developes a 4-celled basidium. C. ledi, on Ledum palustre; its æcidia on the
leaves of the Fir. C. abietis (Fig. 156), without uredo-and æcidiospores;
teleutospores on the leaves of the Fir. In the first summer, yellow bands are formed
on the leaves, and in the following spring the red cushions of spores.

Fig. 151.—Melampsora padi: a and b uredospores; c-f

teleutospores, seen from different sides.
 Fig. 152.—Pear-leaf, seen from the under
side, with “Rœstelia cancellata”: in different
ages (a youngest, d oldest).
 Fig. 153.—Melampsora betulina: a
uredospores; b three contiguous teleutospores,
one of which has developed a basidium with
three basidiospores. (× 400.)
 Fig. 154.—Gymnosporanginum juniperinum: a a small leaf with three
clusters of æcidia (nat. size); b three conidia; c two æcidiospores on one
of which are seen the germ-pores; d a portion of the wall of an æcidium; e,
f two teleutospores.
 Fig. 155.—Coleosporium senecionis: a Pine-leaves with æcidia
(Peridermium wolffii) nat. size; b an æcidiospore; c a germinating
æcidiospore; d a chain of uredospores; e a chain of teleutospores of which
the terminal one has germinated and produced a basidiospore (s).
Cronartium (Figs. 157, 159) has unicellular teleutospores united in numbers to
form erect threads or columns; the uredospores are enclosed in a “peridium”; C.
ribicola (Fig. 157), on leaves of Ribes (especially Black Currants); its æcidia
(Peridermium strobi, or P. klebahni) on the stems and branches of Pinus strobus
(Fig. 159), on which it causes great damage; C. asclepiadeum, on Vincetoxicum
officinale; its æcidia (Peridermium cornui) on the stems and branches of Pinus
silvestris.